p2-p3 Ss 2024 Reading Student's

BOĞAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

P2 & P3 SUMMER SCHOOL
2024
READING PROGRAM
STUDENT’S BOOKLET
WEEKS 1-6
BU SFL P2&P3 SUMMER SCHOOL 2024
READING PROGRAM
2
READING PROGRAM
P2 & P3 SUMMER SCHOOL 2024
WEEK 1
Reading Material
How K-Pop Became a Global Phenomenon R1
Economics, Needs, Wants & Scarcity R1
Constructing the Consumer R2
Why Trump Got Elected? R2
Vocabulary Revision Material
Vocabulary Lists 1-2-3 & Exercises
3
READING PROGRAM
4
READING PROGRAM
HOW K-POP BECAME A GLOBAL PHENOMENON1

BTS “Mic Drop” @ goo.gl/52JYcM
Big Bang “Fantastic Baby” @ goo.gl/k8APg4
Red Velvet “Red Flavor” @ goo.gl/ZYrxrd
2NE1 “Fire” @ goo.gl/kDYRHQ
1. What does K-pop stand for? How familiar are you with K-pop?
2. In what ways is K-pop different from Turkish pop?
3. Why do you think K-pop is so popular around the world?
1 They call it Hallyu, the Korean wave: the idea that South Korean pop culture has grown
in prominence to become a major driver of global culture, seen in everything from Korean
dramas on Netflix to Korean skincare regimens dominating the cosmetics industry to delicious
Korean tacos on your favorite local menu. At the heart of Hallyu is the ever-growing popularity
of K-pop - short, of course, for Korean pop music.
2 Hallyu has been building for two decades, but K-pop in particular has become
increasingly visible to global audiences in the past five to ten years. South Korean artists have
hit the Billboard Hot 100 chart at least eight times, and thus the export of K-pop has rapidly
increased South Korea’s music industry to an impressive five-billion-dollar industry. K-pop
has become a truly global phenomenon thanks to its distinctive blend of addictive melodies
and synchronized choreography. An endless parade of attractive South Korean performers
spend years in exhausting studio systems learning to sing and dance in synchronized perfection.
3 The band Big Bang’s “Fantastic Baby” was one of the first K-pop hits to make inroads
in American culture and was featured on the hit TV series, Glee’s K-pop episode along with
Psy’s “Gangnam Style.” BTS became an uncontested US phenomenon in 2017, with two songs
hitting the Billboard Hot 100, and a huge performance at the American Music Awards. It seems
that the all-boy group has gone as far as a South Korean band can go in terms of making inroads
into American culture as they recently appeared on the cover of American Billboard magazine.
4 As a whole, these songs and performers show us that K-pop stars can excel at
everything from singing to comedy to rap to dance to social commentary. Their fun, singable
melodies make it clear that the South Korean music industry has perfected the pop production
machine. When Red Velvet sings “Bet you wanna dance like this” in their single “Red
Flavor,” they are sending a clear message to the world about South Korea, and none of this is
accidental. K-pop has become the international face of South Korea, and it represents a country
that is fully integrated into the global culture. More than any other international music industry,
K-pop has been strategically designed to worm its way into your brain and to elevate South
Korea and its culture onto the world stage. But how did this happen?
The History of K-pop
5 K-pop as we know it would not exist without democracy and television — specifically,
South Korea’s reformation of its democratic government in 1987. Prior to the establishment of
the nation’s Sixth Republic, there were only two broadcast networks in the country. Networks
introduced the public to musical stars primarily through weekend music talent shows. Radio
1
Source: https://www.vox.com/culture/2018/2/16/16915672/what-is-kpop-history-explained,
https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/K-pop-purveyors-build-bands-with-multinational-flair2,
and https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/05/the-k-pop-plastic-surgery-obsession/276215/
5
READING PROGRAM
existed but, like the TV networks, was under tight state control. Therefore, independent music
production did not really exist, and rock music was controversial and subject to banning.
However, the country’s radio broadcasting expanded rapidly after 1987, and South Koreans
became regularly exposed to more varieties of music from outside the country, including
contemporary American music. TV was still the country’s dominant, centralized form of
media, though. In fact, as of 1992, national TV networks had penetrated above 99% of South
Korean homes, and viewership was highest on the weekends when the talent shows took place.
6 K-pop is unusual as a genre because it has a definitive start date, thanks to a band called
Seo Taiji and Boys. On April 11, 1992, they performed their single “Nan Arayo (I Know)” on
a talent show. Not only did the Boys not win the talent show, but the judges gave the band
the lowest score of the evening. But immediately after the song debuted, “I Know” went on to
top South Korea’s singles charts for a record-smashing 17 weeks. The song stayed for more
than 15 years as the longest No. 1 streak in the country’s history. “I Know” represented the
first time that modern American-style pop music was blended with South Korean culture. Their
song’s success should be credited to the fact that Seo Taiji and Boys challenged norms around
musical styles, song topics, and fashion. They sang about teen angst and the social pressure to
succeed within an exhausting education system, and insisted on creating their own music and
writing their own songs outside of the manufactured network environment.
7 By the time Seo Taiji and Boys officially disbanded in 1996, they had changed South
Korea’s musical and performance landscape. They paved the way for other artists to be even
more experimental and break even more boundaries, and for music studios to quickly step in
and take over, forming an entire new studio system. Between 1995 and 1998, three powerhouse
music studios appeared: SM Entertainment in 1995; JYP Entertainment in 1997; and YG
Entertainment in 1998, created by one of the members of Seo Taiji and Boys.
8 Together, these studios began deliberately cultivating what would become known as
idol groups. The first idol group in South Korea appeared on the scene in 1996, when SM
founder created a group called H.O.T. by assembling five singers and dancers who represented
what he believed teens wanted from a modern pop group. H.O.T. shared traits with today’s idol
groups: a combination of singing, dancing, and rapping, and contrasting personalities united
through music. In 1999, the band was chosen to perform in a major concert with Michael
Jackson, in part because of their potential to become international pop stars. This is a clear
indication that even in the ’90s, the industry was aware of K-pop’s potential for global success.
9 In the 2010s, South Korean entertainment companies started seeking innovative ways
to raise their global profile. The very popular girl’s group Black Pink, for example, comprises
of two South Koreans, a Thai and an Australian of Korean heritage, and has seen huge success.
Exo, meanwhile, arguably one of the biggest male K-Pop successes going right now, are
multilingual and were formed with the intention of performing in Mandarin and Japanese, as
well as South Korean. The common strategy that brought these groups stardom is the
recruitment of foreign talent. Based on how much fame these groups have achieved, it is clear
that K-pop will be on fire for the foreseeable future.
What makes a K-pop performer?
10 Through highly competitive auditions starting around ages 10 to 12, music studios
induct talented children into the K-pop regimen2. The children attend special schools where
they take specialized singing and dancing lessons, and generally spend hours in daily
rehearsals. Once an idol group has been trained to perfection, the studios generate pop songs
2
regimen: a set of rules about food and/or exercise that someone follows, especially to improve their health
6
READING PROGRAM
for them, market them, put them on TV, send them on tour, and determine when they’ll next
make their “comeback”—a term that usually signals a band’s latest album release, generally
accompanied by huge fanfare, special TV appearances, and a totally new thematic concept.
11 Because of the control they exert over their artists, South Korean music studios are
directly responsible for shaping the global image of K-pop as a genre. But the industry
is notoriously exploitative, and studio life is exhausting to the point that it can easily cross over
to abusive. Performers are regularly signed to long-term contracts widely known as slave
contracts when they are still children, which closely dictate their private behavior, dating life,
and public conduct. The studios are also a breeding ground for predatory behavior and
harassment from studio executives. In recent years, increasing public attention to these
problems has given rise to change. In 2017, multiple studios agreed to a significant contract
reform. Still, as the recent suicide of singer Kim Jong-hyun revealed, the pressures of studio
culture are rarely made public and can take a serious toll on the mental health of those who
grow up within the system.
12 Cosmetic surgery is also a large part of creating the K-pop image. Many of the K-pop
idols even act as spokespeople for surgical companies. In a video on the Cinderella Clinic
website, singer G.Na says, “This clinic is where Dr. Jong Phil is. As you are aware he gives a
really kind consultation. Come and become more beautiful.” Interestingly enough, the idols do
not admit to having gotten a surgery, but it is so common among them that numerous websites
exist dedicated to analyzing who got what where. Before the K-pop boom, Korean youth
already were being brought up on a diet of cosmetic surgery, so the idea of an operation to
resemble their favorite starlet is socially acceptable. As James Turnbull, a writer and lecturer
in Korea on feminism and pop culture, noted, the idea is that you like the appearance of the
‘idols’ and you should try and look like them. For this reason, K-pop is a package that is not
confined to the music.
13 Despite all this, the secluded life of a K-pop star is strongly desired by thousands of
South Korean teens and preteens. In addition to frequent studio auditions in South Korea and
New York, a wave of new TV audition shows have sprung up in the past few years. Often
called idol shows or survival shows, these audition shows are comparable to American
Idol and X-Factor. These TV-sponsored idol shows, however, have caused pushback from the
music studios which claim that these shows are producing immature talent. When a K-pop
artist becomes successful on one of these TV shows, however, they may hire their own
managers or marketing team and forego representation from big studio companies. Therefore,
the big companies’ true concern is about losing profits. Today, there are numerous talent shows,
along with many more variety shows and well-known chart TV countdown shows which factor
into how successful—and therefore bankable—a K-pop idol or idol group is seen to be.
14 You might expect that in the face of all this external pressure, K-pop groups would be
largely dysfunctional messes. Instead, modern-day K-pop appears to be a seamless, gorgeous,
well-oiled machine—complete with a few obvious contradictions that make it all the more
fascinating.
Modern K-pop is a bundle of colorful contradictions
15 Though government censorship of South Korean music has relaxed over time, it still
exists, as so does industry self-censorship in response to a range of controversial topics. South
Korean social mores stigmatize everything from sexual references to references to drugs and
alcohol. Addressing any of these subjects can cause a song to be arbitrarily banned from radio
play and broadcast. LGBTQ+ identity is also regarded as a taboo topic, generally only
7
READING PROGRAM
addressed as subtext, and lyrics are usually modified so that they are charming and innocent,
bordering on adolescent.
16 In spite of all these limitations, K-pop has grown over time in its nuance and
sophistication thanks to artists and studios who have often either risked censorship or relied on
visual cues and subtext to fill in the gaps. Case in point: the 2000 hit “Adult Ceremony” from
singer and actor Park Ji-yoon, marked the first time a K-pop hit successfully injected adult
sexuality into fairly harmless lyrics. This represented a notable challenge to existing depictions
of femininity in South Korean pop culture. Additionally, even though a number of K-pop
stars openly support LGBTQ+ rights and homoeroticism is aggressively marketed in its videos
for their popularity, the industry still remains homophobic in principle. But progress is
happening here too: South Korea’s first openly gay idol just appeared on the scene in early
2018. His name is Holland, and his first single debuted to a respectable 6.5 million views.
17 The women of K-pop are typically depicted as traditional versions of femininity. This
usually manifests in one of several themes. The first is the adorable, shy schoolgirls who sing
about innocent love. The next is the knowing, empowered women who need an “oppa” (a
strong older male figure) to fulfill their fantasies. Lastly, the knowing, empowered women
who reject male validation even as the studio tailors the group’s members for adult male
consumption. An idol group’s image often changes from one album to the next, undergoing a
total visual and tonal overhaul to introduce a new concept. However, there are a few girl groups
like 2NE1 and f(x) that have been marketed as breaking away from this gender-centric mode
of performance; they’re packaged as rebels regardless of what their album is about even while
they operate within the studio culture.
18 Male performance groups are generally permitted a broader range of topics than K-
pop’s women: BTS notably sings about serious issues like teen social pressures, while many
other boy bands feature a wide range of narrative concepts. But male entertainers get held to
arguably even more exacting physical and technical standards than their female counterparts,
with precision choreography.
19 This gradual evolution suggests that part of the reason K-pop has been able to make
international inroads in recent years is that it has been able to push against rigid South Korean
norms, through the use of modern themes and sophisticated subtexts, without sacrificing the
incredibly polished packaging that makes it so innately compelling. That would seem to be a
formula for continued global success—especially now that South Korea and its culture has the
world’s attention. Hallyu may grow or quiet down, but the K-pop production machine goes
ever on. And from here, the future looks fantastic.
8
READING PROGRAM
Read the text and answer the questions in the spaces provided. For multiple choice
questions, write the letter of the correct answer in the blank provided for each question.
1. Which two of the following are NOT mentioned in paragraphs 1 to 4?
A. The variety of music genres within K-pop

B. What image of South Korea the genre of K-pop portrays
C. What the international fame of K-pop can be attributed to
D. Specific Billboard Hot 100 rankings for BTS
E. What has been central to the expansion of Hallyu
F. The recognition of K-pop groups as a significant force in American culture
__________ and __________

2. Which of the following can be concluded from paragraph 5?
A. Television networks in South Korea faced heightened competition from emerging digital
media platforms in the early 1990s.
B. Independent music production in South Korea that thrived prior to democratic reforms
of 1987 continued to develop until 1992.
C. The level of government influence on media outlets remained unchanged following the
foundation of the Sixth Republic until 1992.
D. South Koreans did not have access to a wide array of music genres until 1987 due to
the government’s strict media regulations.
__________
3. Even though Seo Taiji and Boys came in last place on a talent show, their single became a
major hit because they ______________________________________________of culture
and society.
4. What did H.O.T. prove by appearing on stage with Michael Jackson?
__________________________________________________________________________.
5. What was the new way implemented that made Black Pink and Exo extremely famous in the
world?
__________________________________________________________________________.
9
READING PROGRAM
6. K-pop kids are forced into accepting extended agreements about what they are allowed to
do in their personal life as well as how they should act within society, which is why these
agreements are often called ____________________________________________________.
7. It is strange that some K-pop stars appear in advertisements for cosmetic surgery because
they never__________________________________________________________________.
8. What insincere reason do big studio companies give for being against idol shows?
__________________________________________________________________________.
9. How does paragraph 16 relate to paragraph 15?

A. It elaborates on the history of government control of topics that can be covered in K-
pop music.
B. It outlines the progress of LGBTQ+ representation in K-pop, which differs from the
forbidden subjects in paragraph 15.
C. It provides examples of K-pop artists going against the societal norms mentioned in
paragraph 15.
D. It justifies the need to censor the socially unacceptable subjects in South Korean pop
music.
__________
10. What can be said about female K-pop singers?

A. All female K-pop singers conform to the same traditional portrayals of femininity.
B. Their image and themes in songs remain static throughout their career.
C. None of them have ever challenged gender-centric performance studio expectations.
D. However strong some may act, their image is customized to appeal to adult male
consumers.
__________
11. What is the tone of the writer in paragraph 19?

A. scornful
B. humorous
C. optimistic
D. critical
__________
10
READING PROGRAM
ECONOMICS, NEEDS, WANTS AND SCARCITY

Adapted from Ernest Raiklin & Bulent Uyar, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa, USA
1 Economics is “the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable
commodities and distribute them among different groups” (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 1989).
Therefore, “scarcity” is the cornerstone of economics as a discipline. What is more, the
economics profession is rather particular in distinguishing absolute from relative scarcity, and
quick in emphasizing that it is relative scarcity which defines economics. Most of the current
economic theory is derived from the law of relative scarcity.
2 In order to understand scarcity, first, we must be able to distinguish between the concepts
of “needs” and “wants.” An understanding of the evolution of the cross-cultural and historical
differences between needs and wants is important, as such an understanding provides added
insight into the concepts of relative scarcity and opportunity cost, which constitute the basis of
modern economic theory. Both needs and wants belong to the realm of personal consumption,
which is the ultimate goal of the productive and distributive efforts of all economic systems,
capitalist or otherwise. Both needs and wants might be characterized as desires of individuals
to satisfy their quest for acquiring goods and services. The desire itself stems from two sources:
one is biological and the other socio-cultural. Having the same origins, neither concept can be
understood without the other.
Needs
3 Needs are the desires which take the form of a “must” urgency in acquiring goods and
services in order to achieve satisfaction. Needs are a basic organic part of wants. The biological
roots of the urgency lie in the biological origin of the species. To exist and to function
physically, sexually and mentally, humans as biological organisms require a certain amount of
food, medicine, clothing and shelter. At the risk of oversimplification, it can be stated that these
correspond to the first two “needs” in Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs.
4 The urge to satisfy these requirements is independent of the socio-cultural dimensions of
human existence. Whether a member of an ancient tribal society or of the contemporary
capitalistic society; whether currently a resident of Russia or of the United States; whether an
inhabitant of the China of several millennia ago or of our day – the ability to satisfy these four
types of need has been prerequisite for man’s survival throughout the ages and all over the
globe. These needs have been discussed in detail by anthropologists and also economists in the
context of human evolution as well as the lifestyles of the surviving, so-called, primitive, native
tribal societies.
The Socio-Cultural Component of Needs
5 The satisfaction of the biological urges of human beings can happen only under certain
circumstances. Human beings are not just biological creatures. They are also social and cultural
beings; they and their urges are defined and confined by the conditions of a specific country,
with a specific social and cultural structure, during a specific period of time.
6 Three factors are included in this statement. First, different forms of society which exist at
different times in the same country have different quantities, qualities and types of needs
required for the satisfaction of biological needs. One classic example is the change in housing
conditions (and all the accompaniments implied by the term “housing conditions”) as the
United States evolved from an agricultural society to industrial capitalism in the early
nineteenth century and, then to modern technological capitalism in the twentieth century. The
emergence, for example, of electricity, running water and assorted appliances as necessities in
11
READING PROGRAM
the twentieth century, replacing things like lamps, candles and wells typifies that evolutionary
process.
7 The second factor that might bring about different types of need is the cultural differences
between contemporary societies, which are at the same level of socio-economic development.
While some such differences may be gradually disappearing with globalization, still others
continue to play significant roles in various countries. Consider some modern societies of
democratic, mixed capitalism: the role of rice and sea products in the Japanese diet and of meat
and potatoes in the American; of living in structures of Swedish styles and materials as
compared to those of France – these and many others are examples of cultural diversity in the
needs of people which might be exhibited in otherwise economically identical countries during
any given period in time.
8 The third factor is that, at a given point in time, different quantities and varieties of need
might result from the developmental differences between countries which have the same form
of capitalism and are of relatively similar culture. For instance, Great Britain and the United
States have a common cultural heritage. Yet, the four types of needs are available in different
varieties, exhibit differences in quality, and are consumed in different amounts in these
countries.
9 The socio-cultural factors reveal that necessities are not determined as bare necessities;
they are not minimum amounts of what is needed for the simple maintenance of biological life.
They are defined not in absolute terms but rather in relative terms. At any given time, what is
considered to be a necessity in one country might well be regarded as a luxury (above what is
required by the “necessity”) in another country or sub-subsistence (below what is required by
the “necessity”) in yet another country. Thus, an automobile is a necessity in the United States
but a luxury item in Russia. In addition, as time progresses, what was a luxury might well
become a necessity in the same country. It is the productive capacity of a society that creates
the socially and culturally defined and accepted amounts and types of necessities required to
satisfy needs. In societies where there is a class division by wealth and income, in order to
become necessities, the goods and services have to be “filtered” down the social classes, from
the affluent few to the masses. The evolution of the pattern of automobile ownership in the
United States offers an example. At the beginning of the twentieth century, private cars were
afforded only by a few very wealthy people in the United States. By the 1920s, the upper-
middle class was also able to afford it. Finally, since the middle of the century, the private
automobile has become an indispensable part of life in the United States. The automobile has
been transformed from a luxury into a necessity, through the trickle-down process.
10 Thus the levels and the types of necessities in class societies continuously change over
time and differ across countries. With such changes and differences, there is also a change in
the way people define themselves and their place. The ultimate gauge of self-esteem becomes
how much of what types of goods and services people have in relation to others, not the absolute
amount of goods they have, but what goods they “ought” to have. Some “need theorists” would
say the process traps people at the level of Maslow’s lesser-needs, and prevents them from ever
attaining the highest stage of self-actualization.
Wants
11 Wants include needs but go beyond them; wants are needs plus some residual desires that
do not correspond to needs. Heibroner (1962) asserts that “Consumer demand is no longer
driven to essentials but hesitates before a whole range of possible luxuries and semi-luxuries.”
Hence, at any period of time, wants are the longings of the population to fulfill the desire for
12
READING PROGRAM
necessities which are affordable by the vast majority of the people, and also for the “residual”
which is affordable only by some.
12 Historically, in economies where tradition and birth right defined each person’s place in
the social order once and forever, the quest of the majority was the satisfaction of needs.
Slaveholding and feudal societies were self-sufficient economies, with a rather undeveloped
social division of labor; such economies produced almost exclusively for the consumption of
the master (the slave owner or the feudal lord) and the subjects (the actual producers). These
were relatively undeveloped and slow progressing societies wherein the gap between needs
and wants was as stable as it was visible.
13 The industrial revolution and the emergence of capitalism brought about an enormous
increase in production. The capacity to produce for exchange and, thereby consume what one
did not or could not produce, gave impetus to monetization. Acquisition of money, as the
medium of exchange, became the immediate goal of economic activity; this helped remove the
restraints which the self-sufficient, pre-capitalist socio-economic systems had imposed on the
transformation of luxuries and semi-luxuries into necessities. On the one hand, the ability of
the capitalist economy to produce increasing amounts of existing (“old”) goods and services
shortened the time during which luxuries and semi-luxuries were transformed into needs,
resulting in a narrower gap between wants and needs. On the other hand, its ability to produce
a variety of “new” goods and services lengthened the time during which luxuries and semi-
luxuries were transformed into necessities, widening the gap between wants and needs.
14 In either case, in answering the desire for more and better, the pace of technological
change has been most sensitive to the human tendency to convince oneself of the
indispensability of most of what is produced. This has rendered the difference between wants
and needs increasingly ambiguous. In a sense, then, such ambiguity is a feature, a correlate, of
a dynamic socio-economic paradigm. In the process, the gap between what the different classes
in the society are able to afford and enjoy is perceived and presented increasingly as unmet
“needs”. As stated by Galbraith (1984), this is when “one man’s consumption becomes his
neighbour’s wish”, generating a demonstration effect. Such unmet needs result in “toil,
aggressiveness, misery, and injustice” (Fitzgerald, 1977). It is at this stage that the concept of
scarcity, so fundamental to economic theory, emerges.
Scarcity
15 The relentless pursuit of satisfaction of wants, beyond mere satisfaction of needs, implies
a growing “wish list” of goods and services. The list is defined increasingly “by law,
convention, fashion or advertising rather than the requirements of health, morality or
livelihood” (Coombs, 1990). Thus, the “residual” desires are created more and more by forces
outside the individual. In this regard, in modern capitalistic economies, production depends on
the creation of demand by producers and that demand proceeds from the emulative tendencies
of a culture. Businesses no longer merely fill the wants of consumers. They themselves help to
create them. Coombs observes the importance of advertising in transforming luxuries and semi-
luxuries into necessities in order “to stimulate the scale and profitability of commercial
enterprises”. Finally, Galbraith (1984) states that “the process by which wants are satisfied is
also the process by which wants are created. The more wants that are satisfied, the more new
ones are born.”
16 These points highlight both the psychological aspect of the concept of relative scarcity
and also the paradox which that concept has come to embody as a result of the evolution of the
modern capitalistic economies. The paradox is that scarcity becomes an increasingly important
and urgent problem together with the increase in the pace of technological change, the
13
READING PROGRAM
efficiency of production, and the wealth of the society. The more advanced a society is, and
the more and better it is able to produce, the more wants that society has. Therefore, the richer
a society becomes, the scarcer are the resources which are needed to produce the goods and
services for the satisfaction of wants. Scarcity as a psychological experience and goal becomes
more pronounced as we grow wealthier. Therefore, scarcity is a relative concept. It is relative
to our wants within the framework of a class society, and its significance is heightened in a
capitalistic class society. At any point in time, only the wants of a few are satisfied while the
majority are perpetually wanting.
17 The foregoing discussion does not at all preclude absolute scarcity which manifests itself
during times of social disturbance, economic crisis, revolution, war, or as a result of natural
disasters; this is when the system fails to produce adequate amounts of items needed for
survival. The experiences of Russia and the east European countries since the end of the 1980s,
for instance, fall in this category.
Opportunity cost
18 At any stage of economic development, the availability of a ready-made pool of goods is
a prerequisite for the emergence of the distinction between needs and wants. The paradox of
scarcity recognizes that in a dynamic, capitalistic, class society, the majority will forever aspire
to what a relatively few already have at any point in time. This leads us to what is perhaps the
most fundamental concept in economics – the concept of “opportunity cost”. Opportunity cost
can only arise in a world where the resources available to meet wants are limited so that all
wants cannot be satisfied. The concept implies that the society has to sacrifice something in
exchange for more of something else. This concept becomes relevant only under the conditions
of “scarcity of abundance” which are inherent in a capitalistic class society.
19 If Marx’s hypothesis were to ever materialize, class distinctions would disappear. In a
classless society, wants and needs would become identical. There would be no paradoxical
scarcity of abundance because there would be no classes and, therefore, no “residuary” of
luxuries and semi-luxuries to create the divergence between “needs” and “wants” within the
available pool of goods. As a result, while choices would still have to be made, they would be
reduced instead to a set of necessities and would entail no absolute sacrifices. The concept of
opportunity cost based on absolute sacrifices would cease to be relevant.
20 On this point, it is worth invoking Keynes (1932): “This means that the economic problem
is not - if we look into the future - the permanent problem of the human race”. It will disappear
with the disappearance of the concepts of scarcity and opportunity cost in the framework of the
wants-needs dichotomy, contrived and perpetuated in the context of a class society.
14
READING PROGRAM
1. What is the meaning of “cornerstone” as used in paragraph 1?
A. a supplementary factor
B. a significant theory
C. a secondary definition
D. an essential concept
__________
2. Which one of the following is NOT true based on the information in paragraph 2?
A. Due to the shared biological and socio-cultural foundations of wants and needs, either
concept requires an understanding of the other.
B. The efforts of all economic systems except capitalism serve to the ultimate objective of
being part of the personal consumption domain.
C. Needs and wants are the wishes of individuals seeking the attainment of products and
services shaped by their preferences.
D. Understanding the distinction between the concepts of “needs” and “wants” is significant
to better perceive the elements forming the basis of current economic theory.
__________
3. What are the four kinds of needs that have been the subject of discussion by scientists
studying the evolution of human beings?
A. ___________________________________________________
B. ___________________________________________________
C. ___________________________________________________
D. ___________________________________________________
4. What is the main idea of paragraph 4?
A. The issue of humans’ survival needs has not received enough attention in the studies of
anthropologists and economists.
B. The ability to satisfy basic needs is more critical in contemporary capitalistic societies
than in ancient tribal societies.
C. Survival throughout different societies and eras has depended on the ability to fulfil
fundamental requirements.
D. Man’s desire to meet the essential needs is substantially influenced by both societal and
cultural factors.
__________
15
READING PROGRAM
5. Read paragraphs 6 to 8 and match the following factors affecting the satisfaction of man’s
biological urges with the different types of requirements they may result in. Write your answers
in the spaces provided.
Factors: Resulting needs:
1. changing forms of society within the same a. Dietary needs of societies in different
country across different periods _________ parts of the world
2. dissimilarities in development between two b. Facility replacements in residences

countries with the same economic system and a across different periods
shared cultural background __________
3. cultural diversity of modern countries of c. Varied consumption and quality of

identical socio-economic levels __________ needs
6. Below is an example of how needs evolve:
In Ankara, TV sets were a luxury owned by very few people in the 1950s. However, they
became a necessity affordable by the majority in the 1990s, and have been mostly considered
as sub-subsistence since the 2010s.
Other than its productive capacity, what existed in society that enabled this development?
_______________________________________________________________________
7. In a class society, what does the continuous evolution of necessities transform?
_________________________________________________________________________
8. What types of societies had gradually growing economies where the difference between
needs and wants remained both constant and apparent? (Write one.)
_______________________________________________
9. The capitalist economy was able to ____________________________________________,

which caused the gap between wants and needs to increase.
10. Fill in the blanks below with the words more and/or less/fewer.
The paradox of the concept of relative scarcity means that the _______________________
wealth a society has, the _________________________ wants that society develops, and the
________________________ are the resources to produce these wants. As a result,
________________________ people feel that their wants are not satisfied.
16
READING PROGRAM
11. Which one of the following CANNOT be inferred from paragraphs 18-20?
A. Marx’s hypothesis implies that with the removal of class divisions, wants and needs
would naturally converge, ending the paradox of scarcity.
B. In a classless society, where wants and needs align, there is a reduction in choices to
necessities with no definite sacrifices, affecting the applicability of opportunity cost.
C. In a capitalistic class society, if the conditions of “scarcity of abundance” were
eliminated, then the concept of opportunity cost would become relevant.
D. The economic problem, according to Keynes, is a temporary challenge for the human
race, expected to vanish with the removal of scarcity and opportunity cost.
__________
17
READING PROGRAM
CONSTRUCTING THE CONSUMER

1 The culture of capitalism is devoted to encouraging the production and sale of
commodities. For capitalists, the culture encourages the accumulation of profit; for laborers,
it encourages the accumulation of wages; for consumers, it encourages the accumulation of
goods. There is nothing natural about this behavior. People are not naturally driven to
accumulate wealth. There are plenty of societies in which such accumulation is discouraged.
People are not driven to work; in fact, contrary to popular notions, members of capitalist
culture work far more than, say, people who live by gathering and hunting (see, e.g., Shor
1993). How did we end up here? How does the culture of capitalism encourage the
accumulation of profit, wages, and commodities? How does it, in effect, encourage perpetual
growth and what amounts to perpetual change?
Remaking Consumption
2 The consumer did not, of course, appear full blown in the United States of the early
twentieth century. Even in the eighteenth century, merchants in Great Britain, France, and
elsewhere were concerned that more goods were being produced than could be sold. But
merchants generally paid little attention to how goods were marketed or presented, assuming
that when people needed their products, they would buy them. It was this attitude in the
United States of a century ago that was to undergo a profound change.
3 The change did not occur naturally. In fact, the culture of nineteenth-century
America emphasized not unlimited consumption but moderation and self-denial. People,
workers in particular, were expected to be frugal and save their money; spending,
particularly on luxuries, was seen as “wasteful.” People purchased only necessities—basic
foodstuffs, clothing, household utensils, and appliances—or shared basic items when they
could. If we look at a typical inventory of the possessions of an American family of 1870–
1880, we find a pattern very different from that of today. In 1870, 53 percent of the
population lived and worked on farms and produced much of what they consumed. One
Vermont farm wife recorded making 421 pies, 152 cakes, 2,140 doughnuts, and 1,038
loaves of bread in one year (Sutherland 1989:71). Household items were relatively simple
— a dinner table, wooden chairs, beds, perhaps a carpet or rug. There were few appliances
to aid housework — cookstoves, eggbeaters, apple peelers, pea shellers, and coffee mills,
but most other housework required muscle; even hand-cranked washing machines were not
available until the late 1870s. Although only the poorest or most isolated families did not
buy some ready-made clothing, most of the items people wore were made at home and were
largely functional. Furthermore, because the vast majority of American families lived on
farms, most of the family capital was invested in farming tools and implements. Of course,
Americans did not yet have electricity, the automobile had yet to be invented, and the money
supply was far more limited than it is today. Nevertheless, to transform buying habits,
luxuries had to be transformed into necessities.
Marketing and Advertising
4 First, there was a major transformation of the meaning of goods and how they were
presented and displayed. For most of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, retailers paid
little attention to how goods were displayed. The first department store—Bon Marché—
opened in Paris in 1852, allowing people to wander through the store with no expectations
that they make a purchase. The displays of commodities helped define bourgeois culture,
18
READING PROGRAM
converting the culture, values, attitudes, and aspirations of the bourgeoisie into goods, thus
shaping and transforming them. (Miller 1994)
5 But Bon Marché was an exception. In stores in the United States, most products were
displayed in bulk, and little care was taken to arrange them in any special way. Even the few
large department stores of the mid-nineteenth century paid little attention to display. It was
not until the 1890s and the emergence of the department store in the United States as a major
retail establishment that retailers began to pay attention to how products were presented to
the public.
6 The department store evolved into a place to display goods as objects in themselves.
When Marshall Field’s opened in Chicago in 1902, six string orchestras filled the various
floors with music. Later, elaborate theatrical productions were put on in the stores, artworks
were displayed, and some of the most creative minds in America designed displays that were
intended to present goods in ways that inspired people to buy them. The department store
became a cultural primer telling people how they should dress, furnish their homes, and
spend their leisure time (Leach 1993).
7 Advertising was another revolutionary development that influenced the creation of

the consumer. The goal of advertisers was to aggressively shape consumer desires and create
value in commodities by imbuing them with the power to transform the consumer into a
more desirable person. In 1880, only $30 million was invested in advertising in the United
States; by 1910, new businesses, such as oil, food, electricity, and rubber, were spending
$600 million, or 4 percent of the national income, on advertising. By 1998, the amount spent
globally on advertising reached $437 billion, a figure that rivals the $778 billion spent on
weapons. Today, advertising plays such a ubiquitous part in our lives that we scarcely notice
it, even when it is engraved on our clothing.
8 Another boon to merchandising was the idea of fashion: the stirring up of anxiety
and restlessness over the possession of things that were not “new” or “up-to-date.” Fashion
pressured people to buy not out of need but for style—from a desire to conform to what
others defined as “fashionable.” It is hardly surprising then that the garment industry in
America led the way in the creation of fashion; its growth in the early 1900s was two or three
times as great as any other industry. By 1915, it ranked only behind steel and oil in the United
States. New fashion magazines—Vogue, Cosmopolitan, and The Delineator— set fashion
standards and defined what the socially conscious woman should wear, often using royalty,
the wealthy, and celebrities as models. The fashion show was introduced in the United States
by Ehrich Brothers in New York City in 1903; by 1915, it was an event in virtually every
U.S. city and town. Relying on this popularity, the first modeling agency was founded in
New York in 1923.
9 Another addition to the marketing strategy was service, which included not only
consumer credit (charge accounts and installment buying) but also a workforce to fawn over
customers. Customers became guests. William Leach suggested that service may have been
one of the most important features of the new consumer society. It helped, he said, mask the
inequality, poverty, and labor conflicts that were very much a part of the United States at
this point in its history. If one wanted to understand how consumer society developed, Leach
said, one could look at the rise of service. As economic inequality rose in America, and as
labor conflict increased, Americans associated service with the “promise of America.”
19
READING PROGRAM
Service conveyed to people the idea that everything was all right, that they had nothing to
worry about, and that security and service awaited them.
The Transformation of Institution
10 The second way in which American buying habits were changed was through a
transformation of the major institutions of American society, each redefining its function to
include the promotion of consumption. Educational and cultural institutions, governmental
agencies, financial institutions, and even the family itself changed their meaning and
function to promote the consumption of commodities.
11 Before 1900, the contributions of universities to the capitalist economy largely dealt
with how to “make” things, that is, with the production of commodities. Virtually no
attention was paid to selling or keeping track of what was sold. In the twentieth century,
however, that began to change. Schools, such as the Pratt Institute and the New York School
of Fine and Applied Arts (now Parsons School of Design), developed and began to prepare
students to work in the emerging sales and design industries and in the large department
stores. In 1919, New York University’s School of Retailing opened; in the mid-1920s,
Harvard and Stanford established graduate business schools as did such schools as
Northwestern, Michigan, California, and Wisconsin soon after. Today, there are virtually no
two-year or four-year colleges that do not offer some sort of business curriculum in the USA.
12 It may not be an exaggeration to say that the government did more to create the
consumer than did any other institution. The main goal of Department of Commerce was to
help encourage the consumption of commodities. For example, between 1926 and 1928 the
department initiated the Census of Distribution (or “Census of Consumption,” as it was
sometimes called) to be carried out every ten years. (It was unique at that time; Britain and
other countries did not initiate government-sponsored consumer research until the 1950s). It
detailed where the consumers were and what quantities of goods they would consume; it
pointed out areas where goods were “overdeveloped” and which goods were best carried by
which stores. The Commerce Department endorsed retail and cooperative advertising and
advised merchants on service devices, fashion, style, and display methods of all kinds. The
agency advised retail establishments on the best ways to deliver goods to consumers,
redevelop streets, build parking lots and underground transportation systems to attract
consumers, use colored lights, and display merchandise in “tempting ways.” The goal was
to break down “all barriers between the consumers and commodities” (Leach 1993:366).
The Commerce Department all promoted maximum consumption. Thus, the government
responded, as much as did educational institutions, to the need to promote the consumption
of commodities.
13 Another step in creating a consumer economy was to give the worker more buying
power. The advantage of this from an economic perspective is not easy to see. From the
point of view of an industrialist or an employer, the ideal situation would be to pay as low a
wage as possible to keep production costs down and increase profits. However, each
producer of goods would prefer other producers to pay high wages, which would allow the
other producers’ workers to buy more products. The ideas that higher wages would serve as
an incentive for laborers to work harder or that higher wages might allow the worker to
become a consumer, occurred relatively late to factory owners and investors. The working
class, they assumed, would work only as hard as they needed to get their basic subsistence,
and to pay them more would only result in their working less. And when an occasional
20
READING PROGRAM
economic boom gave workers the spending power to consume at a higher level, the middle
and upper classes would condemn them for their lack of thrift.
14 The economic power derived from turning workers into consumers was realized
almost by accident. As industry attempted to increase efficiency, it developed new methods.
Henry Ford introduced the assembly line, one of the apparently great innovations to the
manufacturing of automobiles. Workers occupied positions on the line from which they did
not move and from which they would perform a single task. It was a process that required
almost no training and that “the most stupid man could learn within two days,” as Ford said.
In essence, each worker had to repeat the same motion every ten seconds in a nine-hour
workday. Workers resisted this mind-numbing process. When Ford introduced his assembly
line, absenteeism increased and worker turnover was enormous. In 1913, Ford required
13,000 to 14,000 workers to operate his plant, and in that year 50,000 quit. But Ford solved
the problem: He raised wages from the industry standard of two to three dollars per day to
five dollars, and he reduced the working day to eight hours. Soon labor turnover fell to 5
percent, and waiting lines appeared at Ford hiring offices. Most importantly, production
costs fell reducing the price to consumers. With the low costs and the rise in wages, Ford
workers became consumers of Ford automobiles. As other manufacturers followed suit, the
automobile industry grew. By 1929, there were 23 million automobiles in the United States;
by 1950 there were more than 40 million. Today, including light trucks, there are 1.3 cars
for every individual.
15 In addition to the money coming from higher wages, buying power was increased by
the expansion of credit. Credit, of course, is essential for economic growth and consumerism
because it means that people, corporations, and governments can purchase goods and
services with only a promise to pay for them at some future date. Furthermore, whenever
credit is extended —whether it be by a store, a bank, a corporation, a person, or a
government—in effect, money has been created, and more buying power has been
introduced into the economy. Buying things on credit—that is, going into debt—has not
always been acceptable in the United States. It was highly frowned on in the nineteenth
century. It was not fully socially acceptable until the 1920s (Calder 1999), at which time it
promoted the boom in both automobile and home buying.
16 The increased ease of obtaining home mortgages was a key to the home building
boom of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, a boom that in turn fueled subsidiary industries—
appliances, home furnishings, and road construction. By 1960, 62 percent of all Americans
could claim to own their own home up from 44 percent in 1940. By 2002, U.S. homeowners
owed more than $6 trillion in mortgages. Home mortgages had the further function that they
disciplined the workforce by forcing it to work to make credit payments. At the same time,
homeowners gained a capital asset that served as a hedge against inflation, preventing their
money from losing value. Automobile loans also added to consumer debt and, similarly,
fueled subsidiary economic growth — malls, highways, vacation travel, and so on. Credit
cards gave holders a revolving line of credit with which to finance purchases. This approach
today is still commonly valid: lenders in the economy simply assume that the money will
exist when it comes time for people to repay their debts.
21
READING PROGRAM
Read the text carefully and answer the following questions.
1. Which of the following is more likely to represent the point of view of the merchants of
the 18 century? (Write A, B, C or D in the blank below.)
th
A) ‘The goods I try to sell exceed the demand of my potential customers, so I need to make
them believe that they need more of what I sell.’
B) ‘Although I have too many goods, I need not do anything extra to sell them because my
customers will buy them when they need to.’
C) ‘I do not need to promote my products because I believe that the sales will exceed the
amount of goods I have.’
D) ‘My products do not match the demand, so even if I sell them for more money, people
will buy them, anyway.’
__________
2. According to paragraph 3, which of the following would be considered as appropriate

(A) or inappropriate (I) in 19 -century America?
th
____ spending most of the family income on different furniture and household items
____ spending most of the family income on agricultural production
____ sewing overalls and pants; knitting jumpers, cardigans and socks for family members
____ sewing different dresses for the weekly dancing parties at the city hall
3. Read paragraphs 4-6 and fill in the blanks.
Department stores started to shape the culture with the ______________________________

of commodities/goods in such a way that it encouraged people to buy them starting from the
1890’s in the United States whereas it was much earlier in ____________________ in Bon
Marché, Paris.
4. Read paragraphs 7-9, choose the best ordering of the marketing strategies that helped
Mary decide to buy the hat. (Write A, B, or C in the blank.)
Mary, a 22-year-old girl, was working in a factory with a low income, not happy at all, feeling
unequal and less fortunate when she compared herself to rich people. One day, as she was
walking past a famous department store, she heard two people talking that this department
store accepted payments by installments. Seduced by the idea of not having to pay all at once
but a little each week or month, she walked in and saw an extravagant hat. She really did not
need a hat of that sort but she remembered seeing a very beautiful girl on a magazine with a
22
READING PROGRAM
glamorous hat like this one and thought that she would be as beautiful, if she wore a similar
one. Paying a little money each week, she bought the hat.
A) advertising / fashion / service
B) service / fashion / advertising
C) fashion / service / advertising
__________
5. What was the initial role of universities in capitalist culture before they became involved
in the sales of the products?
__________________________________________________________________________
6. The Department of Commerc ultimately worked to _____________________________ of

goods. To do this, for the first time in history, it even carried out research which elaborated
consumer locations, the _________________________ of goods that the consumers might
buy, and where to sell what. In addition, the department guided retail establishments on a
variety of issues such as attracting consumers’ attention by developing infrastructure and
guided _________________________ on issues such as developing their service devices.
7. When industrialists favored paying the workers as low a wage as possible, they assumed
that otherwise, they would work _______________________ because it was enough for
them to work only as hard to pay for __________________________.
8. a. What was the immediate result of Ford’s revolutionary idea of assembly line? (Write
one.)
___________________________________________________________________
b. What enabled Ford workers to afford Ford cars?
1. _______________________
2. _______________________
9. Other than protecting the money of homeowners against inflation, what did home
mortgages and home building boom result in?
a. ___________________________
b. ___________________________
Referrals:
them (par. 4): _______________________ them (par. 7): _______________________
23
READING PROGRAM
WHY TRUMP GOT ELECTED?
1 On November 8, 2016, Donald J. Trump was elected to the presidency of the United
States. Despite a lack of political experience, business financier Donald Trump became the
winner of an improbable victory in the US presidential elections. It is clear that despite a series
of controversies, his message resonated with a huge number of American voters in key states,
and revealed deep anti-establishment, anger and discontent.
2 Ben Domenech, a conservative television commentator, accurately identified the
driving force behind the enigmatic rise of Donald Trump for president when he recently said,
“Donald Trump, Bernie Sanders—they’re not the disease, and they are not the symptom of the
disease. They are the beta test of a cure from the perspective of people.” Domenech claimed
that Trump’s rise could be defined as chaos by the opponents but to the people who voted for
him, it looked more like democracy. This announcement should give us all pause, not because
it is so terrifyingly accurate but because the unspoken question raised by Domenech’s remarks
is that if Trump is the cure, then, what is the disease?
Stockholm Syndrome
3 There have been several attempts trying to answer this question. One explanation
proposed by both the ultra-left and mainstream conservatives is “Stockholm syndrome”. It is
the condition under which a captured victim develops a bond and sympathy for his or
her abusive captor. It is not found in the psychology bible “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorder”, and there is serious reservation among mental health professionals about
whether it actually exists.
4 People suffering from Stockholm syndrome come to identify with and even care for
their captors in a desperate, usually unconscious act of self-preservation. It occurs in the most
psychologically traumatic situations, often hostage situations or kidnappings, and the post-
traumatic effects usually do not end when the crisis does. In the most classic cases, victims
continue to defend and care about their captors even after they have escaped captivity.
Symptoms of Stockholm syndrome have also been identified in the slave/master relationship,
in assaulted-spouse cases and in members of destructive cults.
5 Many people have a pretty good idea of what Stockholm syndrome is based on the
origin of the term alone. In 1973, two men entered the Kreditbanken bank in Stockholm,
Sweden, intending to rob it. When police entered the bank, the robbers shot them, and a hostage
situation ensued. For six days, the robbers held four people at gunpoint, locked in a bank vault,
sometimes strapped with explosives and other times forced to put loops around their own necks.
When the police tried to rescue the hostages, the hostages fought them off, defending their
captors and blaming the police. One of the freed hostages set up a fund to cover the hostage-
takers’ legal defense fees. Thus "Stockholm syndrome" was born, and psychologists
everywhere had a name for this classic captor-prisoner phenomenon.
6 In order for Stockholm syndrome to occur in any given situation, at least four traits
must be present. In the most basic, generalized way, the Stockholm syndrome process as seen
in a kidnapping or hostage situation looks something like this:
24
READING PROGRAM
1. In a traumatic and extraordinarily stressful event, a woman finds herself held

captive by a man who is threatening to kill her if she disobeys him in any way. She may
be abused —physically, sexually and/or verbally — and having trouble thinking
straight. According to the captor, escape is not an option. She would end up dead and
her family members’ lives may also be endangered. Her only chance at survival is
obedience.
2. As time goes on, obedience alone may become less of a stable certainty — the
captor is under stress as well, and a change in the captor’s mood could mean harmful
consequences to his prisoner. Figuring out what might set off her captor's violence to
avoid those triggers becomes another survival strategy. In this way, she gets to know
her captor.
3. A minor act of kindness on the part of the captor, which can include simply not
killing the prisoner yet, positions the captor as the prisoner's savior, as “ultimately
good,” to quote young Anne Frank's famous characterization of the Nazis who
ultimately led to her death. In the traumatic, life-threatening circumstances in which the
prisoner finds herself, the slightest act of kindness — or the sudden absence of violence
— seems a sign of friendship in an otherwise hostile, terrifying world, and the prisoner
clings to it for dear life.
4. The captor slowly seems less threatening — more an instrument for survival and
protection than one of harm. The prisoner undergoes what some call an act of self-
delusion: In order to survive psychologically as well as physically — to lessen the
unimaginable stress of the situation — the prisoner comes to truly believe that the
captor is her friend, that he will not kill her; and that in fact, they can help each other
“get out of this mess.” The people on the outside trying to rescue her seem less like her
allies, rather they are going to hurt this person who is protecting her from harm. The
fact that this person is also the source of that potential harm gets buried in the process
of self-delusion.
7 Stockholm syndrome is often referred to in common culture as "brainwashing" or
“brainwashing the victim”. In essence, brainwashing is a severe form of social influence that
causes changes in someone's way of thinking without that person's consent and often against
his will. The “brainwasher” —the influencing agent—actively breaks down the target's identity
and replaces it with another set of behaviors, attitudes and beliefs that work in the target's
current environment. Brainwashing and the Stockholm syndrome are actually closely related
as they are both the effects of abnormal power relationships. In the case of publishing heiress
Patty Hearst, who was kidnapped in the early ‘70s by the political extremist group SLA
(Symbionese Liberation Army), experts have pointed to both Stockholm syndrome and
brainwashing as potential reasons for her subsequent actions.
8 After Patty was locked in a closet and severely abused for weeks on end, she joined the
SLA, changed her name, became engaged to one of its members and was caught robbing
a bank with the group. However, once the police arrested members of SLA and Patty was
returned to her family, she reversed her position. Instead of defending the group and holding
the police officers in contempt, she distanced herself from the SLA and condemned their
actions. It is possible that what Hearst experienced was in fact neither true brainwashing nor
25
READING PROGRAM
Stockholm syndrome, but instead was a series of conscious choices designed to ensure her
survival.
9 Ten-year-old Natascha Kampusch disappeared on her way to school in Austria in 1998.
In 2006, 18-year-old Natascha Kampusch reappeared in a Vienna garden after escaping from
her captor’s home while he was not paying attention. In a statement to the media read by her
psychiatrist, Kampusch had this to say about spending eight years in a locked cell beneath her
kidnapper's basement: “My youth was very different. But I was also spared a lot of things - I
did not start smoking or drinking and I did not hang out in bad company.” By most experts’
accounts, Kampusch was in a traumatized state and appeared to be suffering from Stockholm
syndrome.
10 There was a tendency for many people to link the Trump case to Stockholm syndrome.
The journalist Paul Bibeau at the DailyKos sees the support Trump has received from a
minority of conservative women as evidence they suffer from Stockholm syndrome. Otherwise,
why would women support a guy who sexually harasses women? Bibeau is not alone in
asserting that Republicans who support Trump have become sympathizers with their “captor.”
Many conservatives on Twitter have begun linking the syndrome with Trump supporters using
the hashtag #stockholmsyndrome, sometimes with a hilarious effect.
The Crisis Intervention Model

11 Some find the Stockholm syndrome too simplistic to describe the Trump phenomenon.
They believe that the crisis intervention model is a logical arch between the disease and how
millions of Americans have come to call Trump the cure. This is not a perfect explanation, nor
is it intended to be one. Crisis can be defined as one’s perception or experiencing of an event
or situation as an intolerable difficulty that exceeds the person’s current resources
and coping mechanisms. Crisis intervention provides help for individuals or groups during a
period of extreme distress. The intervention is temporary, active, and supportive. The crisis
intervention model, although useful, has its limitations. Most notably, the theory is applied to
individuals in crisis, and only through estimation do we use it to explain the behavior patterns
of the masses.
12 From his time spent with families immigrating to Israel after World War II, Gerald
Caplan gives us a working understanding of how people react during crisis. Caplan argues that
crisis occurs when there is an imbalance between trauma and available help. This imbalance
becomes distressing because it disrupts our natural desire for homeostasis3. If the imbalance
persists without any intervening relief or support, crisis can escalate to a tipping point.
According to Caplan, most people in crisis react following a pattern. They are first confronted
with a threat to their homeostatic state, and then they try to cope. Their distress increases as the
threat persists and their coping skills fail. As the problem continues and their efforts to change
or fix the problem fail to succeed, they begin to look for novel solutions. Finally, if all attempts
to allay the crisis have failed, they reach a breaking point, at which they suffer a major collapse
in functioning. This collapse can take several forms.
3
homeostasis: tendency to maintain internal stability
26
READING PROGRAM
13 If we take a core part of Trump’s manifesto from his presidential campaign—

immigration—and apply the crisis intervention model to explain how this issue caused a well
of panic among his supporters, the calculus might look something like this: The American
government allows thousands of illegal immigrants to pour across their borders. This is a
violation of the laws governing immigration, and this situation creates distress because the
country is no longer governed by the rule of law. Thus, a generalized feeling of powerlessness
arises. You could replace the Obama administration’s handling of any of Trump’s
key campaign positions and you would still arrive at the same conclusion: a corporate sense of
powerlessness and anger. This pattern of crisis reactivity might have been the key to why many
in America seem primed for Trump’s arrival.
14 Trump took advantage of the general sense that the leadership did little or nothing to
stop executive overreach, administrative witch hunts and criminal activity. Crisis theory would
explain the reaction of Trump’s supporters to the failing of the elected officials as an example
of trauma. Had there been any intervention of real leadership the past seven years, the mass
feelings of sadness and helplessness among his supporters might have been avoided. Many
Americans had this furious feeling that if they did not do something drastic, they were going
to be trapped. Unfortunately, when people feel trapped, desperate solutions become far more
reasonable. In the run-up to the 2017 US election, crisis made Trump the drastic and desperate
solution. In him the supporters saw a champion, a straight-talker, a savvy business man who
can get things done, someone who will stand up for American workers, and a guy who gets
things done, whatever it takes.
27
READING PROGRAM

1. According to Ben Domenech, the rise of Trump is similar to _______________________
for some while the people voting for Trump perceive it as ___________________________.
2. Stockholm syndrome can be described as a/an _______________ and

___________________ established by the captive for the captor.
3. People suffering from Stockholm syndrome seem to defend their captors even after being
safeguarded by their families. What is the likely motive behind this unintended attitude?
_________________________________________________________________________
Complete the summary below using the information given in paragraph 6. Use the words
given below. There are more words than you need.
escape triggers consequences

harm obedience self-delusion kindness violent
threatening
4. A captive abused and threatened by death believes that the only possibility to live is
(a)_________________. Understanding the factors that change the captor’s mood, the
captive develops a strategy to prevent (b) ________________ that may result in violence.
Getting to know the captor better, the captive might perceive the smallest (c)
__________________ —such as not killing the captive — as an evidence of friendship.
The prisoner comes to believe that the captor is not the source of (d)
________________________ but rather an ally. The others who are trying to rescue the
captive might harm the captor. This type of attitude on the part of the captive can be
explained by (e) _________________________.
5. Brainwashing and Stockholm syndrome are similar in that they both result from
_______________________________________________________________________.
28
READING PROGRAM
6. Considering Patty Hearst’s and Natascha Kampusch’s cases, which of the following
CANNOT be deduced? Write the letter of the correct option in the blank provided.
A. Patty’s joining to SLA and changing her name was involuntary.

B. Natascha’s justification of her imprisonment suggests that she was suffering some form
of trauma.
C. Patty’s being engaged in a bank robbery was a survival strategy.
D. Natasha’s perception of her youth is a sign of Stockholm syndrome.
_________
7. What human need is threatened by the continuous discomfort in the case of a crisis?
________________________________________________________________________
8. Conforming to the crisis intervention theory, the trauma that the American citizens
experienced were in the form of _____________________________ and
____________________________.
9. The absence of what made Trump the desperate solution for American people?
______________________________________________________________________
29
READING PROGRAM
VOCABULARY
Remember: These are “head words” for “word families”.

Many words can be transformed by adding suffixes and prefixes. You need to revise
all possible forms of the words.
1
capacity diverse evidence item
complex element evolve manipulate
consequences encounter furthermore neutral
contemporary environment generation source
contrast estimate global symbolize
decline eventually interact transform
2
affect conflict ethnicity range
apparent conform evaluation retain
aspect contact gender rigid
attitude distinction media significance
concept document persist style
confer dominance process vary
3
assistance cooperate maintain purchase
available domestic minority rely
consist function negative resource
consume isolation network structure
contribute labor nuclear transition
conversely locate promote trend
30
READING PROGRAM
Vocabulary Exercises
A. Fill in the blanks in the following text with the appropriate words from the box. Use
each word ONCE. There are more words than you need.
conflicts cooperate estimated evolved maintain range

consequences diverse evaluation function negative transformed
contributes domestic eventually locate processes transition
The term ‘Information Technology’ (IT in short) refers to the use of computers and
telecommunication equipment to store, use and transmit data. IT has wide use in the world of
business. In fact, the sudden growth of IT truly ________________1 business communication.
Companies moved from regular post to fax machines and then to email messaging in just a few
decades. The _________________ 2 from pen and paper to electronic equipment also changed
the way information is recorded, stored, and even presented in legal documents.
3
It is _________________ that businesses spend between 0.5-10 % of their income on
technology every year. There is a wide _________________ 4 of technology to help businesses
communicate more effectively. Businesses have to _________________ 5 the same level of IT
use as their competitors, since falling behind their competitors technologically can have serious
_________________ 6.
On the other hand, businesses that spend too much on technology may be wasting resources.
The cost of using IT must be reasonable compared to the benefits. The cost of using IT is
7
calculated by a careful _________________ of a variety of factors, such as hardware,
software, repair and upgrading costs.
IT _________________ 8 to a business in many ways. First of all, it helps companies to

attract potential business partners. Once a company manages to _________________ 9 another
company on the web, the two companies can get into contact and decide to
10
_________________ with each other. By developing their own websites, companies can
11 12
reach _________________ audiences, including both foreign and _________________
customers.
Another _________________ 13 of IT is to help businesses communicate more efficiently.

In a very short time, communication _________________ 14 from stamped envelopes to cyber
messages, which are tremendously faster. Many communication _________________ 15 which
used to take days or weeks to carry out can now be completed in a matter of minutes.
31
READING PROGRAM
B. Fill in the blanks in the following text with appropriate words from the box. Use
accompany concept consume declined interact retain

attitude conform contact dominant persist rigid
available consisted contrast evidence promotes symbolizes
16
The _________________ of fashion has gone beyond the world of clothes and
entered the world of communication devices. Owning the latest cell phone sends more than
one kind of signal to the general public. It _________________ 17 not only money but also
a cool _________________ 18. That is, a person who uses the latest models is like a leader
of fashion. This kind of person _________________ 19 the new, high-tech phones by using
them. In other words, he advertises the devices simply by using them.
20
The first cell phone services _________________ of phone calling, contact listing
and simple text messaging. The demand for phones with those basic features quickly
_________________ 21 as phones with more varied uses appeared in the market. As young
22
people are the _________________ group among all cell phone users, manufacturers
have to keep adding new features to phones. The manufacture of such phones does still
23
_________________ to this day. Unfortunately, companies that produce them cannot
24
_________________ customers for long. Remember, most of the people who
_________________ 25 high-tech products are young. They will prefer to buy phones from
other manufacturers that follow technological developments. This is important to them
because they are naturally interested in new developments. They also want to
_________________ 26 to the standards that are set by their peers. If their peers are using
touch-screen technology, they do not want to be pushing keys. In _________________ 27,
28
older customers look at the devices that are _________________ in the market and
choose a phone based on its price and performance. While young people want many
29
different options to _________________ socially with their peers, older people are
satisfied simply by being able to make regular phone calls.
Still, the popularity of the latest phone models in all levels of society provides enough
30
_________________ that more complicated phones will lead the way to the future.
Manufacturers need to consider these factors when making their future plans.
32
READING PROGRAM
WEEK 2
Reading Material
Is Astrology a Pseudoscience? R1
Genetically Modified Crops R1
Urban Sprawl R2
Conformity R2
33
READING PROGRAM
34
READING PROGRAM
IS ASTROLOGY A PSEUDOSCIENCE?
Pre-Reading
1. What is your horoscope? Which of the following traits
of your horoscope describe you well? Which ones do
not?
2. Do you know your ascendant sign?
3. Which sign of yours describes you better?
Defining the Characteristics of Star Signs
There are 12 signs in the zodiac, and each is represented by a person, animal or object.
Aries: March 20 - April 20 Taurus: April 21 -May 21

● Strong-willed and demanding in ● Strong with great stamina for physical and
work mental tasks
● High expectations of self and ● Can be stubborn and unwilling to give ground
situations
● Ambitious risk-taker ● Loves finer things in life. Materialistic.
● Passionate and often impatient ● Appreciates beauty
● Devoted and loyal to friends and ● Feelings buried deep
family
● Caring lovers ● May appear selfish at times, but are generous
with possessions and money
● Athletic, adventurous and bold
Gemini: May 22 - June 21 Cancer: June 22 - July 23

● Versatile, adaptable and easily ● Family and friends are at the top of the list of
bored most valuable possessions followed by home
● Quick-silver mind and wit ● Deep appreciation for family history and
exploring family trees
● Loves to chat and share knowledge ● Emotions are difficult to hide since Cancer
lives by his gut feelings and instinct
● Communicator of the zodiac ● Craves a stable home life in order to feel
secure, safe and comfortable
● Sociable and enjoys variety as well
as change
● Relies on mental analysis more
than gut feelings
35
READING PROGRAM
Leo: July 24 - August 23 Virgo: August 24 - September 23

● Likes to be in the spotlight ● Skilled and successful in career
● Drama is one of his best tools for ● Keeps emotions under control
getting what he wants
● Great judgment and makes a good ● Analytical and focused on task at
actor hand
● Very generous and loving ● Tend to be overly-critical in desire to
find perfection
● Good strong leaders ● Steady workers and attentive to
details
● Knows self-worth and exerts will
Libra: September 24 - October 22 Scorpio: October 23 - November 22

● Justice and equality are mainstays ● Enjoys big and bold lifestyle
● Surrounds himself with beauty and ● Entrepreneur with the ability to
art overcome massive obstacles
● Music feeds his soul ● Assesses situations before jumping in
● Good social skills ● Enjoys a lively heated debate
● Voices opinions only when provoked ● Make passionate often possessive
or passionate about a cause lovers
Sagittarius: November 23 - December 22 Capricorn: December 23 - January 20

● Philosopher and gatherer of information ● Practical problem-solver and excellent
organizer
● Bright sharp intellect and enjoys mental ● Plans life and each stage to create a
challenges blueprint he can follow
● High energy that keeps him constantly ● Closed-mouth when it comes to sharing,
moving so you’ll need to poke him to open up
● Like a cat with nine lives, Sagittarius is ● Makes a great companion and life-long
constantly reinventing himself friend
● Must be allowed to roam free and will
always return home
● Exciting, appreciative lover who enjoys
pleasing his mate
Aquarius: January 21 - February 18 Pisces: February 19 - March 20

● Unorthodox, unconventional, often ● Unassuming and deeply emotional
embraces a Bohemian lifestyle
● Eclectic collection of friends ● Selfless to a fault
● Humanitarian and will take up just ● Unlike Leo, Pisces is content to remain
causes in the shadows
● Very sociable, intelligent and quick to ● Illusion of naivety
make friends
● Enjoys art and a leisurely lifestyle ● Devoted lover and friend
36
READING PROGRAM
IS ASTROLOGY A PSEUDOSCIENCE?
Adapted from Paul R. Thagard University of Michigan-Dearborn
1 Most scholars in the fields of philosophy and history of science agree that astrology is
a pseudoscience, but there is little agreement on why it is a pseudoscience. Answers range from
matters of verifiability and falsifiability to questions of progress. Of course, there are
Feyerabendian anarchists and others who say that no division of science from pseudoscience
is possible. However, we shall propose a criterion for distinguishing disciplines as
pseudoscientific.
2 It is better to begin with a brief description of astrology. It would be most unfair to
evaluate astrology solely by reference to the daily horoscopes found in newspapers and popular
magazines. These horoscopes deal only with sun signs, whereas a full horoscope makes
reference to the “influences” of the moon and the planets, while also discussing the ascendant
sign and other matters.
3 Astrology divides the sky into twelve regions, represented by the familiar signs of the
Zodiac: Aquarius, Libra and so on. The sun sign represents the part of the sky occupied by the
sun at the time of birth. For example, anyone born between September 23 and October 22 is a
Libran. The ascendant sign, often assumed to be at least as important as the sun sign, represents
the part of the sky rising on the eastern horizon at the time of birth. As the pattern of the sky
changes every two hours, to determine the ascendant sign, accurate knowledge of the time and
place of birth is essential. The moon and the planets (of which there are five or eight depending
on whether Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are taken into account) are also located by means of
charts on one of the parts of the Zodiac. Each planet is said to exercise an influence in a special
sphere of human activity; for example, Mars governs drive, courage and daring, while Venus
governs love and artistic endeavor. The immense number of combinations of sun, ascendant,
moon and planetary influences allegedly determines human personality, behavior and fate.
4 Astrology is an ancient practice, and appears to have its origins in Chaldea, thousands
of years B.C. By 700 B.C., the Zodiac was established and a few centuries later the signs of
the Zodiac became very similar to current ones. The conquests of Alexander the Great brought
astrology to Greece, and the Romans were exposed in turn. Astrology was very popular during
the fall of the Republic, with many notables such as Julius Caesar having their horoscopes cast.
However, there was opposition from such men as Lucretius and Cicero. Astrology underwent
a gradual codification ending up in Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos, written in the second century A.D.
This work describes in great detail the powers of the sun, moon and planets, and their
significance in people’s lives. It is still recognized as a fundamental textbook of astrology.
Ptolemy took astrology as seriously as he took his famous work in geography and astronomy;
this is evident from the introduction to the Tetrabiblos, where he discusses two available means
of making predictions based on the heavens. The first, and admittedly more effective of these
concerns, is the relative movements of the sun, moon and planets. The secondary, but still
legitimate means of prediction, is the one in which we use the “natural character” of the aspects
of movement of heavenly bodies. Those concerns are used to “investigate the changes which
37
READING PROGRAM
they bring about in that which they surround”. Ptolemy argues that this method of prediction
is possible because of the manifest effects of the sun, moon and planets on the earth, for
example on weather and the tides.
5 The European Renaissance (extending from 1450 to 1650) is introduced for the rise of
modern science, but during this era, mysterious arts such as astrology and alchemy flourished
as well. Astrology was popular among both the educated elite and the general public. However,
it lost most of this popularity in the following eighteenth century, when it was attacked by such
figures of the Enlightenment as Swift and Voltaire. Only since the 1930s has astrology again
gained a huge audience: most people today know at least their sun signs, and a great many
believe that the stars and planets exercise an important influence on their lives.
6 In an attempt to reverse this trend, Bart Bok, Lawrence Jerome and Paul Kurtz drafted
a statement in 1975 discrediting astrology; the statement was signed by 192 leading scientists,
including 19 Nobel winners. The statement raises three main issues: astrology originated as
part of a magical world view, the planets are too distant for there to be any physical foundation
for astrology, and people believe it merely out of longing for comfort. None of these objections
is ground for condemning astrology as pseudoscience. According to Bok, to work on statistical
tests of astrological predictions is a waste of time unless it is demonstrated that astrology has
some sort of physical foundation. He uses the smallness of gravitational and radiative effects
of the stars and planets to suggest that there is no such foundation. He also discusses the
psychology of belief in astrology, which is the result of individuals’ desperation in seeking
solutions to their serious personal problems. As for Jerome, he devotes most of his article to
the origins of astrology in the magical principle of correspondences. He claims that astrology
is a system of magic rather than science, and that it fails “not because of any inherent
inaccuracies due to lack of exact knowledge concerning time of birth or conception, but rather
because its interpretations and predictions are grounded in the ancients’ magical world view”.
7 These objections themselves do not show that astrology is a pseudoscience. First,
origins are irrelevant to scientific status. The alchemical origins of chemistry and the occult
beginnings of medicine are as magical as those of astrology, and historians have detected
mystical influences in the work of many great scientists, including Newton and Einstein.
Hence, astrology cannot be condemned simply for the magical origins of its principles.
Similarly, the psychology of popular belief is also in itself irrelevant to the status of astrology:
people often believe even good theories for illegitimate reasons, and even if most people
believe astrology for personal, irrational reasons, good reasons may be available. Finally, the
lack of a physical foundation hardly marks a theory as unscientific. Hence the objections of
Bok, Jerome and Kurtz fail to mark astrology as pseudoscience.
8 Now we must consider the application of the criteria of verifiability and falsifiability to
astrology. Roughly, a theory is said to be verifiable if it is possible to deduce observation
statements from it. Then in principle, observations can be used to confirm or disconfirm the
theory. A theory is scientific only if it is verifiable. In science, the claims made are verifiable
or valid in principle by observations and then should be tested by experiments.
38
READING PROGRAM
9 In pseudoscience, there are extraordinary claims made for which incredibly insufficient
evidence is provided. - (A) - This is important for obvious reasons— if a theory is not based
upon evidence and cannot be empirically verified, there is no way to claim that it has any
connection with reality. - (B) - Carl Sagan coined the phrase “extraordinary claims require
extraordinary evidence”. What this means in practice is that if a claim is not very strange or
extraordinary when compared to what we already know about the world, then not a lot of
evidence is needed in order to accept the claim as likely to be accurate. - (C) - On the other
hand, when a claim very specifically contradicts things which we already know about the
world, then we would need quite a lot of evidence in order to accept it. - (D) - If those beliefs
are well-supported by experiments and observation, then the new and contradictory claim
qualifies as “extraordinary” and should only be accepted when the evidence for it outweighs
the evidence we currently possess against it.
10 Astrology is a perfect example of a field characterized by extraordinary claims. If

distant objects in space are able to influence the character and lives of human beings to the
degree alleged, then fundamental principles of physics, biology and chemistry which we
already take for granted cannot be accurate. This would be extraordinary. Therefore, quite a lot
of very high-quality evidence is required before the claims of astrology could possibly be
accepted. The lack of such evidence, even after millennia of research, indicates that the field is
not a science but rather a pseudoscience.
11 The pioneer in this area was Michel Gauquelin, who examined the careers and times of
birth of 25,000 Frenchmen. Astrology proposes that people born under certain signs or planets
are likely to adopt certain occupations: for example, the influence of the warlike planet Mars
tends to produce soldiers or athletes, while Venus has an artistic influence. Notably, in his
research, Gauquelin found no significant correlation between careers and either sun sign, moon
sign, or ascendant sign. However, he did find some statistically interesting correlations between
occupations of people and the position of certain planets at the time of their birth. For example,
just as astrology would suggest, there is a greater than chance association of athletes and Mars,
and a greater than chance association of scientists and Saturn, where the planet is rising or at
its zenith, i.e., its highest point, at the moment of the individual’s birth. These findings and
their interpretation are highly controversial, as are subsequent studies in a similar vein.
12 Because the predictions of astrologers are generally vague, a Popperian would assert
that the real problem with astrology is that it is not falsifiable: astrologers cannot make
predictions which if unfulfilled would lead them to abandon their theory. Hence because it is
unfalsifiable, astrology is unscientific. Scientific theories are falsifiable, and one of the
characteristics of pseudoscience is that pseudoscientific theories are not falsifiable, either in
principle or in fact. To be falsifiable means that there must exist some state of affairs which, if
it were true, would require that the theory is false. In other words, falsifiability is the inherent
possibility that it can be proven false. A statement is called falsifiable if it is possible to
conceive of an observation or an argument which negates the statement in question. In this
sense, falsify is synonymous with nullify, meaning to invalidate or “show to be false”.
Scientific experiments are designed to test for exactly such a state of affairs— if it occurs, then
39
READING PROGRAM
the theory is false. If it does not, then the possibility that the theory is true is made stronger.
Indeed, it is a mark of genuine science that practitioners seek out such falsifiable conditions
while pseudoscientists ignore or avoid them entirely. In astrology, there does not appear to be
any such state of affairs — that would mean that astrology is not falsifiable. In practice, we
find that astrologers will latch onto even the weakest sorts of evidence in order to support their
claims; however, their repeated failures to find evidence are never allowed as
evidence against their theories.
13 It is certainly true that individual scientists can also be found avoiding such data — it
is simply human nature to want a theory to be true and to avoid conflicting information.
However, the same cannot be said for entire fields in science. Even if one person avoids
unpleasant data, another researcher can make a name for herself by finding and publishing it
— this is why science is self-correcting. Unfortunately, we do not find it occurring in astrology
and because of that, astrologers cannot claim that astrology is consistent with reality.
40
READING PROGRAM
1. Which idea below is TRUE based on paragraphs 1 and 2?
A. The daily astrological predictions found in newspapers and popular magazines can be
considered comprehensive and accurate representations of astrology.
B. Feyerabendian anarchists assert that a clear distinction between science and
pseudoscience is always feasible.
C. Astrology is universally regarded as a valid discipline by the majority of philosophers and
historians of science.
D. There is limited unanimity regarding the reasons why astrology is labeled as a
pseudoscience.
__________
2. Why is it important to know the exact time and place of birth to detect one’s ascendant sign?
_________________________________________________________________________
3. According to paragraph 4, as a result of _________________________________, the

Romans encountered astrology.
4. What is the primary purpose of paragraph 4?
A. To examine Ptolemy’s astrological contributions

B. To understand astrology’s evident effects on Earth
C. To trace the historical roots of astrology
D. To highlight astrology’s influence in ancient Rome
__________
5. What was the common approach towards astrology during the seventeenth century?
A. Astrology experienced a decline in popularity during the seventeenth century,
especially among intellectuals influenced by Enlightenment figures.
B. Astrology thrived in the seventeenth century, gaining immense popularity and support
from influential figures such as Swift and Voltaire.
C. Astrology found widespread acceptance among both intellectuals and ordinary people
throughout the seventeenth century.
D. In this century, people had both positive and doubtful views about astrology, and
opinions differed among intellectuals and the public.
__________
41
READING PROGRAM

A. It explains how the claims by Bok, Jerome and Kurtz prove that astrology’s magical
origins are significant in determining its scientific standing.
B. It refutes the arguments in paragraph 6 by asserting that neither the magical origins of
astrology nor its lack of dependence on a physical foundation is enough to call it
pseudoscientific.
C. It justifies the ideas presented in paragraph 6, by referring to some important scientists
like Newton and Einstein.
D. It contradicts the conclusions of paragraph 6 by emphasizing that the lack of a physical
foundation is a crucial factor in determining whether a theory is scientific or
unscientific.
__________
7. In order for a theory to be valid, it should be confirmed by __________________ and

assessed by ______________________.
8. There is a missing sentence in paragraph 9, and the paragraph shows four letters (A, B, C,
D) where the missing sentence could be added. Read the paragraph and decide where the
following sentence fits in paragraph 9.
Why? Because if this claim is accurate, then a lot of other beliefs which we take for
granted cannot be accurate.
__________
9. Gaquelin’s study revealed significant interrelationship between individuals’____________

____________________ and ___________________________ of specific planets at the
time they were born.
10. According to paragraph 12, if a theory is falsifiable, it means that it _________________

A. is not scientific.
B. should be discarded.
C. can be negated by a theory.
D. cannot be nullified by experiments.
__________
11. What nature of science is neglected by astrologers, which makes astrology contradictory to
the facts?
_________________________________________________________________________
42
READING PROGRAM
GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

Pre-Reading
The following are the subject-specific words that you might not have encountered before.
Study the words and their definitions before you start reading.
Herbicide (n.): A chemical that is used to destroy plants, especially weeds i.e. wild plants that
you do not want to grow in your garden.
Pest (n.): An animal that causes damage to plants, food, etc.
Weed (n.): A valueless plant growing wild, especially one that grows on cultivated ground to
the exclusion or injury of the desired plant.
Tillage (n.): Cultivating the soil by plowing or harrowing.
Crop (n.) : A plant such as a grain, fruit, or vegetable that is grown in large
amounts by farmers.
Genome (n.) : The complete set of genetic material of a human, animal, plant, or other
living thing.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS
1 Biotechnology has granted us the ability to exchange genetic materials among all living
organisms. The use of DNA technology has the potential to allow the creation of an organism
which is desired and designed by humans. Genetically Modified Food (GMF) means any food
containing or derived from a genetically engineered organism. Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs) are made by inserting a gene from an external source such as viruses,
bacteria, animals or plants into usually unrelated species.
2 The majority of the biotech-crops available on the global market has been genetically
manipulated to exhibit one of these basic traits: resistance to insects or viruses, tolerance to
certain herbicides and nutritionally enhanced quality. At present, more than 148
million hectares of farmland are under cultivation for biotech crops throughout the world.
Social and Ethical Concerns
3 The emergence of agricultural biotechnology has created social and ethical

contradictions. The widespread debate exists as to how biotechnology can be used for planting
high quality, high yield crops while protecting eco-system and human health. One of the major
environmental risks associated with GM crops include their potential impact on non-target soil
microorganisms which play a fundamental role in crop residues degradation and in
biogeochemical cycles. For instance, transformed corn plants with genetic material from the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have been reported to represent a risk because most
43
READING PROGRAM
hybrids emit the Bt toxin in pollen which could be further deposited on other plants near such
corn fields affecting non-target organisms that consume these plants (Yu & Shepard, 1998).
Furthermore, it is thought that genetically modified plants could be harmful to the environment
by consuming soil microorganism. Those microorganisms are very important for soil fertility
and influence the micro-environments of other organisms (Giovannetti, Sbrana, & Turrini,
2005). Additionally, environmentalists believe that engineering of the genetic materials could
deeply transform the global ecosystem from all possible aspects. They are concerned about the
long-term consequences of GM agriculture on biodiversity as it may create unnaturally
designed weeds and pests which can potentially lead to disturbance in ecological balance and
serious hazards for beneficial insects.
4 On the other hand, it is excessively stated over the media and through their dependent
scientific publications that GM crops containing genes expressing herbicide tolerance and pest
resistance lead to reduction of broad-spectrum pesticides and herbicide use. Also, they profess
that GM crops help diminish greenhouse global emissions. This results from less fuel use and
additional soil carbon storage from reduced tillage with GM crops.
Health Risks Associated with GM Food Consumption
5 Genetically modified crops have the potential to eliminate hunger and starvation in
millions of people, especially in developing countries because large amounts of foods can be
produced thanks to the genetic modification. What makes it possible to produce such large
quantities is that genetically modified crops are more resistant to pests and drought. They are
also more nutritious in that they contain greater amounts of nutrients, such as proteins and
vitamins. However, there are concerns about the safety of GM crops.
6 Perhaps the number one health concern over GM technology is its capacity to create
new allergens in our food supply. Allergic reactions are typically brought on by proteins.
Nearly every transfer of genetic material from one host into a new one results in the creation
of novel proteins. Genetic engineering can increase the levels of a naturally occurring allergen
already present in a food or it can insert allergenic properties into a food that did not previously
contain them. It can also result in brand new allergens we have never known before.
7 The use of antibiotic resistance marker genes (ARMs) during the production of
genetically modified crops for food purposes has continued to be an issue of debate. The
antibiotic resistance genes that are used in the production of GM crops are usually derived from
micro-organisms. During the genetic modification process, a gene providing resistance to an
antibiotic can be inserted into GM plants as a marker, which is linked to the new gene with a
desirable trait leading to the production of antibiotic-resistant bacterial ancestry and resulting
in a widespread health problem impacting millions of individuals.
44
READING PROGRAM
8 Although agri-biotech companies do not accept the direct link between the GMFs
consumption and human health problems, there are some counter examples given by the
opponents. - (A) - For example, the foodborne diseases such as soya allergies have increased
over the past 10 years in the US and the UK and an epidemic of Morgellons disease 4 has
emerged in the US. There are also reports on hundreds of villagers and cotton handlers who
developed skin allergy in India. - (B) - Recent studies have revealed that Bt-corn displays an
allergenic protein which alters the overall immunological reactions in the body. - (C) - Rats
exposed to transgenic potatoes or soya have had abnormal young sperm; cows, goats, buffalo,
pigs and other livestock feeding on Bt-corn, GM cottonseed and certain biotech corn showed
complications including early deliveries, abortions, infertility and many deaths. - (D) -
However, this is still a controversial subject as studies conducted by a company producing the
biotech crops did not show any negative effects of GM crops on mice.
9 The aforementioned reports performed by independent GM researchers have led to a

concern about the risks of GMFs and the inherent risks associated with the genetic technology.
It is therefore essential that the safety and long-term effects of GM crops be examined before
their release into the food chain by all organizations responsible for producing GMFs. In order
to give the public the option of making an informed decision about the consumption of GMF,
adequate information on the safety tests of such products is required. Unfortunately, such data
are scarce due to a number of factors. For example, it is hard to compare the nutritional contents
of GM crops with their conventional counterparts as the composition of crops grown in
different areas might vary depending on the growth conditions and agronomic practices.
GM Food and Economic Issues
10 Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costly process, and of course agro-
biotechnological companies wish to ensure a profitable return on their investment. Thus, many
new plant genetic engineering technologies and GM plants have been patented, and patent
infringement is a big concern of agribusiness. Consumer advocates are equally worried that
patenting these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high that small farmers and
third world countries will not be able to afford those sterile seeds for GM crops, thus widening
the gap between the wealthy and the poor. Given the fact that sterile seeds do not germinate,
the farmers will have to be dependent on the few agrio-biotech companies with patent rights.
They will need to buy seeds every year and this would be financially disastrous for especially
the ones in third world countries who are traditionally in the habit of setting aside a portion of
their harvest to plant in the next growing season.
Labelling
11 The law for compulsory labelling of genetically modified food products has been
established in more than 40 countries. Labelling empowers the buyer. In order to choose
between products with or without genetically modified organisms, consumers need transparent,
controllable and straightforward labelling regulations. However, the extent and breadth of these
4
Morgellons disease is a condition in which people have the delusional belief that they are infested with disease-
causing agents described as things like insects, parasites, hairs or fibers, while in reality no such things are present.
45
READING PROGRAM
regulations are decided politically. A proper labelling represents the “GM” word, along with
additional information on changed characteristics and the external source of the inserted gene
(i.e. GM soya bean with gene from X source). A basic principle of labelling applies to most
food products: if genetically modified plants or microorganisms have been used in production,
this must be clearly indicated. However, under certain conditions, numerous products are
exempt from labelling obligations. These exemptions primarily concern additives and
processing aids, but also apply to meat, milk and eggs.
12 In Europe, GM content that is below the prescribed threshold remains unlabeled, as

long as it is due to an unintentional and technically unavoidable mixture. The threshold is 0.9
percent and only applies to GM content that has been authorized in the EU, and therefore is
considered safe. Negative labelling such as “GM free” is not suggested, because it might give
the wrong impression to the consumers. Surveys commissioned by different organizations have
shown that people not only in Europe but across the world are seeking for transparency and
consumer choice and believe that compulsory labelling scheme on GM ingredients is highly
required. However, the opponents of GMF labelling believe that such a tag resembles a skull
and cross bones on a food which makes consumers reluctant in using any bio-engineered
products. They are concerned that obligatory labelling leads to extra costs and also it holds
back the progress of agri-biotechnology.
Current Debates
13 The genetic modification of crops has been a controversial issue since the first
commercial production of GMF. The proponents of such technologies claim that bio-
engineering of food is absolutely safe and it is similar to what has been happening through
traditional agriculture. However, during the process of selective breeding in traditional
agriculture, when two parental plants are crossed to obtain a desirable trait, it is likely that other
unpleasant characteristics are transferred as well. Therefore, taking out the undesirable traits
requires trials and errors through several generations. In this context, modern biotechnology
has allowed us to go beyond natural physiological reproductive barriers in a manner that gene
transfer among evolutionarily divergent organisms is now possible and therefore, individual
genes expressing certain traits in animals or microorganisms can be precisely incorporated to
the plant genome.
14 GM advocates believe that conventional breeding can achieve similar results using
transferred gene but only within related species. However, GMF opponents explain that genetic
engineering bears no resemblance to natural breeding as it forcibly combines genes from
unrelated species together; species that were perfectly separated over billions of years of
evolution. They believe that the genetic engineering is not an alternative to traditional breeding
as natural crossing of plants contributes thousands of genes to the offspring through the elegant
dance of life.
15 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are one of the important factors in the current debate
on GMF. The GM crops are patented by agri-business companies, leading to monopolization
of global agricultural food and controlling distribution of the world food supply. Social activists
46
READING PROGRAM
believe that the hidden reason why biotech companies are eager to produce GM crops is
because they can be privatized, unlike ordinary crops which are the natural property of all
humanity. It is argued, for example, that to achieve this monopoly, the large agri-biotech
company, Monsanto, has taken over small seed companies in the past 10 years and has become
the biggest agri-biotech corporation in the world.
Conclusion
16 GM crops are alive; they can migrate and spread worldwide. In this regard, clear signals
should be sent to biotech companies to proceed with caution and avoid causing unintended
harm to human health and the environment. It is widely believed that it is the right of consumers
to demand mandatory labelling of GM food products, independent testing for safety and
environmental impacts, and liability for any damage associated with GM crops. We are aware
that many regulatory laws already exist for risk assessments which are performed on three
levels of impacts on agriculture (gene flow, biodiversity), food and food safety (allergenicity,
toxicity), and environment (including non-target organism); and at the same time, in recent
years Cartagena protocol has created laws and guidelines and has obliged countries and
companies to obey them for production, handling and consumption of GM materials.
47
READING PROGRAM
1. Which of the following CANNOT be considered as one of the reasons for the genetic
modification of crops?
A. To enhance the size of cultivated farmland

B. To improve dietary characteristics of foods
C. To help crops tolerate plant disease
D. To increase resistance to some chemicals
__________
2. According to paragraph 3, what are the possible effects of artificially created weeds and
pests on biodiversity in the long run?
a. _____________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________
3. That GM crops are __________________________________________________enables

the production of more food using genetic manipulation.
4. What makes the insertion of ARMs into GM crops a critical public health issue?
___________________________________________________________________________
Many scientific data indicate that animals fed by GM crops have been harmed or
even died.
__________
6. Why will third-world countries need to make yearly purchases of patented sterile seeds from
agrio-biotech companies?
___________________________________________________________________________
48
READING PROGRAM
7. What can be inferred from paragraphs 11 and 12?
A. Labelling laws for food products that have undergone genetic modification do not depend
on the nation or area, nor can there be exceptions to specific products.
B. Those who oppose mandatory labelling of GMF products are worried about the expenses
of the process rather than the openness that customers worldwide demand.
C. If there were regulations requiring the labelling of GMF products, then political decisions
would not have any effect on how these regulations can be implemented.
D. The use of “GM free” labels may provide clarity to consumers about the absence of
genetically engineered content, which is why it is encouraged in Europe.
__________
8. Supporters of GMFs advocate that biotechnology speeds up the process of eliminating

undesirable traits from the plant genome. In traditional agriculture, this process necessitates
_________________________________________________________________________

A. To explain the process of selective breeding in traditional agriculture.
B. To argue that genetic engineering is similar to natural breeding.
C. To highlight some positive sides of genetic engineering.
D. To illustrate why some people are against genetic engineering.
__________
10. What are the possible results of the GM crops being patented by big companies? (Write one).
_____________________________________________________________________
11. Which of the following pieces of information is NOT mentioned in the whole text?
A. Among the factors creating a change in the nutritional value of food are growing
conditions and agricultural methods employed.
B. Transferring genetic material from one organism to another often leads to the
development of new proteins, some of which may cause allergic reactions.
C. It is argued that GM crops not only decrease the need to use chemicals against pests
and weeds but also have higher concentrations of vitamins and nutrients.
D. Traditional breeding can yield comparable outcomes to those of genetic engineering

regardless of the extent of relation between the species.
__________
49
READING PROGRAM
URBAN SPRAWL
1 Changes in urban forms and development patterns are crucial to understanding the role
of cities as engines of growth. Urban sprawl5 is usually defined as the spreading of a city and
its suburbs over rural land at the fringe of an urban area. Proponents of urban sprawl argue that
living in suburban areas outside of major cities is a matter of personal choice and freedom. The
cost of a house with a yard in the suburbs is often less than the cost of a quality apartment in
the city. Hence, large families will no more squeeze into a smaller house. People with school-
age children find that smaller, less crowded schools with better-funded programs are preferable
to schools in the city. Law enforcement statistics show that the rate of serious crime in the
suburbs is less than that in the city. Additionally, they may present the various benefits of urban
sprawl, such as the short-term economic and employment boost caused by new construction.
2 Urban planners emphasize the qualitative aspects of sprawl such as the lack of
transportation options and pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods. Conservationists, on the other
hand, tend to focus on the actual amount of land that has been urbanized by sprawl. Urban
sprawl is one of the most important types of land use changes currently affecting Europe. It
increasingly creates major impacts on the environment (via emissions by transport and
ecosystem breakdown), on the social structure of an area (by separation, lifestyle changes, and
neglect of urban centers), and on the economy (via distributed production, and land prices). It
is therefore crucial to understand it better.
3 The analogy of a sandcastle may be used to understand urban sprawl better. Imagine
building a conical sandcastle with firm wet sand – it has a certain height, the sides slope at a
certain angle and it has a certain circumference6. Now imagine pouring on more water. The
structure becomes soaked and the sand does not attach together so well and slips downwards
and outwards. The height of the peak at the center of the cone is less, the angle of slope is
reduced and the circumference is enlarged. The volume of sand in the castle remains unchanged
but it has spread over a larger area: it has sprawled. Similarly, social, economic and
environmental pressures may cause a relative fall in demand for land and development in the
central city together with a dissolution of the social relations. Low density in city centers will
make cities more healthy places to live. On the other hand, those pressures may lead to a rise
in economic demands at the periphery. In the same vein, more land will be used for residential
areas which may result in deterioration of environment. Thus, urban sprawl may be considered
as the process by which this spreading occurs.
4 During the second half of the twentieth century, urban sprawl became a mass
phenomenon throughout the Western world. Although suburbanization took also place in
Europe during the postwar period, its dimensions were by far less expansive than in the United
States. In the 1950s, numerous European countries were concerned about reshaping their cities.
Besides, a lot of countries had been decimated by the war, and many large cities such as Berlin,
Vienna, Glasgow, and Birmingham were declining, or they even lost population. The postwar
5
sprawl: to be stretched or spread out in an unnatural or ungraceful manner.
6
circumference: the outer boundary, especially of a circular area; perimeter
50
READING PROGRAM
period in the United States, on the contrary, was characterized by economic prosperity and a
vast population growth. Within less than twenty years, the U.S. population increased by 50
million people from 150 million in 1950 to 200 million in 1968. In Europe, there was generally
less growth in urban areas and therefore less pressure to develop the countryside. Besides,
urban expansion was usually highly regulated. Planners and other government officials were
able to intervene in city development more actively than their U.S. counterparts. In Paris, for
example, large parts of suburban settlements consisted of high-density houses that were directly
built by governmental bodies or were at least highly financed. This procedure was not common
in the United States, where the private-market, and the single-family home was the norm.
5 Among the many reviewers of the literature on urban sprawl, Chin (2002) has identified
four types of definitions based upon urban form; land use; impacts and density. In terms of
urban form, urban sprawl is generally measured against an ideal type of “compact city”. Thus,
any deviation from this compact city in the form of suburban growth, ribbon development7,
leapfrogging8 and scattered development may all be regarded as urban sprawl. Definitions
based on land use tend to associate sprawl with the spatial separation of land uses, and with the
extensive mono-functional use of land for single-family residential development, freestanding
shopping malls and industrial or office parks. Ewing (1994) and others have devised alternative
methods of defining urban sprawl based upon its impacts. Under this approach “poor
accessibility among related land uses” such as residential areas and work place or “a lack of
functional open space” would be examples of the defining characteristics of urban sprawl.
Many definitions use the notion of low density to identify urban sprawl. Those definitions focus
on the decrease in demand for housing in city centers.
6 Urban sprawl is generally perceived to be undesirable relative to more compact and
higher density development, largely due to the lack of diversity that it encourages and the
economic resources that it consumes. Yet the debate is by no means clear. There is a distinct
although relatively narrow view which suggests that sprawl is no more or less than the efficient
operation of the land market. In this sense, it is the outcome of a competitive process.
7 Now that we have a general understanding of urban sprawl including the basis used to
define the term, we can continue with more generic issues and concentrate on the impacts of
it. The effects of this phenomenon can be examined under three broad categories: ecological,
economic and social. In terms of ecological impacts, the consumption of land and energy is
affected by sprawl, with a useful indicator being the amount of space consumed per capita. In
overall terms, in western countries, the amount of income per capita has more than doubled
during the last 50 years as cities have begun to sprawl. The increase in energy per capita,
particularly in terms of transportation, is directly affected by car ownership. Although vehicles
are becoming ever more fuel efficient, the number of persons using car transport is still
increasing. In contrast, pollution is increasing because of the growth in car use, despite better
7
ribbon development: involves extensive commercial development in a linear pattern, which contributes to
traffic congestion.
8
leapfrogging: occurs when developers choose to build on less expensive land farther away from the city.
51
READING PROGRAM
controls. The one factor that has to be filtered out in this discussion relates to the fact that as
incomes rise, populations use their wealth to consume goods that require energy use. This
masks the massive improvements that are taking place in the energy efficiency of the goods
being purchased. Density and pollution are intimately connected and the whole notion of
increasing densities and the space cramming that they force, has negative costs. There is no
consensus about such issues as it is not possible to assemble all the factors that give rise to the
costs and the benefits.
8 Economic costs and benefits are equally difficult to detach. Many of these are indirect
or secondary. Transport costs and loss of travel time must be weighed against congestion if
higher densities were to replace decentralised, low density development. The accessibility
provided by the car generate less obvious benefits such as the psychological convenience of
such access. This is not simply a matter of public versus private costs or long term versus short
term but of differential impacts on those affected. Other economic costs associated with the
loss of land in other uses are problematic. It is also difficult to track the economic performance
of sprawling auto-centric landscapes as these depend so much on the wider urban economy that
sustains them and which they, in turn, sustain. This issue of performance relates to the problem
of optimal town size. However the appearance of edge cities, specialized nodes in the suburbs
and wider metro region, are often taken as evidence that the costs of centralization, size and
density are used up by decentralization. Nevertheless, there are still important issues related to
investment in infrastructure which is abandoned when massive decentralization takes place.
The loss of such infrastructure is sometimes regarded as cost in itself.
9 The third impact involves the spatial segregation that takes place due to sprawl and the
lack of social cohesion that clearly characterizes remote single family suburbs. We have noted
the fact that sprawl tends to segregate communities according to their ethnicity as well as
dividing families according to age and life cycle. In general, social facilities are less well
developed in lower density suburbs but at the same time, the life styles of those who reside in
such communities tend to be more uniform and routine than those who are single or older.
These kinds of suburbs are often portrayed as soulless with no community or identity. In
metropolitan cities affected by dynamics of sub-urbanization and sprawl, space develops
according to clear patterns of social ecology but once again it is hard to unravel changes in life
style occasioned by these patterns from the broader trends at work in society-at-large.
10 To summarize, there is still confusion over the impacts of sprawl on the wider urban
economy. The loss of environmentally desirable locations is incontestable and suburbanization
is counter to diverse social interaction but overall there is no agreement on characteristics,
causes and effects. The benefits of sprawl are rarely taken into account and the debate is usually
emotive and often political.
52
READING PROGRAM

1. Which of the following is not likely to be an argument of supporters of urban sprawl?
A. New houses are built and the unemployment rate decreases.
B. Comfortable and spacious houses are affordable in rural areas.
C. The children attend less qualified schools with fewer numbers of students in the
suburbs.
D. The cases of theft and murder are rare and suburban places are safer than the city.
__________
2. According to the analogy of a sandcastle, mark the statements below as T (True) or F

(False).
A. The economic needs of the outer edges will decrease. ________
B. Environmental problems of the city centers will rise. ________
C. Social connections in cities will weaken. ________
D. Land requirements in urban areas will increase. ________
3. What outcomes of the war shaped urban sprawl in the United States?
_____________________________________ and
_____________________________________.
4. Match the following terms with the examples. One of the terms will not be used.
A. Urban form B. Land use C. Impacts D. Density
 Kurtköy area, far away from city centers, has its own center with the famous chain
stores and shopping areas. _______
 The people living in Kurtköy complain about the lack of public transportation
facilities and they have to drive to the city center most of the time. _____
 Thanks to new suburban areas like Kurtköy, housing problems in the city center has
decreased. _________
53
READING PROGRAM
5. Read paragraph 7 and complete the summary below with the appropriate words given
below. There are more words than you need.
efficient controls benefits growth

ownership energy per capita costs densities
income
During the last 50 years, the amount of (1)____________________ per person increased
dramatically in western countries. The high income levels lead people living in urban areas to
purchase more goods that consume more (2) ____________________ such as cars. Although
there are attempts to produce more fuel (3) ____________________ vehicles, pollution is
increasing due to the (4) ____________________ in car use. It is difficult to put together all
the aspects that create (5) ____________________ and (6) ____________________
because the idea of rising (7) ____________________ in compact cities has adverse effects
as well.
6. What are the economic costs of urban sprawl? Write two.

a. _________________________________
b. _________________________________
7. With respect to spatial segregation aspect of urban sprawl, people are separated based on
their _____________________, _____________________ and_____________________.
54
READING PROGRAM
CONFORMITY
Pre-reading Discussion:
- Please watch the short video titled “Asch Conformity Experiment”. Take notes while
watching and then share your notes with your friends.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyDDyT1lDhA or short URL: goo.gl/5utXOv.
- Read the following quotation and discuss the following questions.
“Conformity is one side of man, uniqueness the other.” Carl Jung, 1960.
- What do you think Jung meant? What are your ideas on this issue? In what instances could
conformity or uniqueness be a better or worse choice? Why?
CONFORMITY
1 Sociology textbooks contain chapters on deviance; psychology textbooks on conformity.

Sociologists are interested in, and puzzled by, those who rebel against, deviate from, or do not
conform to the rules and norms of society. They look at groups and societies as the unit of
analysis. Psychologists who have the individual (or at most the small group) as the unit of
analysis are equally puzzled by why people conform. Why do adolescents who fight not to
wear a school uniform in effect all dress the same? Why do we have “fashion victims” blindly
and expensively following the crowd? What real or imaginary social pressures cause people to
follow the behavior or lead of others?
2 There are two famous studies of conformity: one guessing in the dark; the other deciding
in a situation as plain as day. One study conducted 90 years ago by Muzafer Sherif required
students to sit in a totally darkened room watching only a single point of light. They were told
to say when it moved, where and by how much. In fact, the light was stationary. However, in
the room were confederates9 of the experimenter who claimed out loud that they saw it move.
What they found is that the students were influenced by the confederates, tending to agree with
their judgement. Eventually they would be convinced of the movement of the stationary light.
So in ambiguous and unclear situations people tend to follow the behavior of confident and
consistent peers. We look to others to enlighten us about what is going on.
3 The second study was run in 1952 by a psychologist called Solomon Asch. Students, in
groups of five, were asked to take part in a perceptual study. They were shown around 30 pairs
of cards: in each pair there was one “standard card” and one “comparison card”. The standard
card had one line and the comparison card three lines labelled A, B, C of clearly different
length. You simply had to say which of the three lines was the same length as the standard line.
It was obvious and clear. But what the experimental participant did not know was that all the
other four student volunteers in the group were confederates and he or she was always put at
the end to shout out his/her answer last after hearing what they had said. They shouted out their
answers: A, A, A, A… but A was not the (obviously) correct answer. What should the answer
9
Confederate – someone who is part of a conspiracy; accomplice; assistant; associate; helper.
55
READING PROGRAM
be? The wrong (conformist) answer A; the correct answer B; or the other wrong (anti-
conformist, incorrect) answer C? Around a third of the participants were swayed to conform to
the group. Some gave the right answer, but were clearly uncomfortable doing so. It was a major
demonstration of conformity.
4 Asch’s experiment was repeated many times over the years, varying different features to
see what effect they had on conformity. When task difficulty and ambiguity was the issue, it
was seen that the more difficult the task, or ambiguous the stimuli, the more subjects look at
others as sources of information, especially in opinions and abilities that have reference to
social reality. Likewise, conformity behavior varies considerably as a function of what type of
judgement people are asked to make: the more factual and clear the problem, the less the
conformity that results, and the more opinions or value-judgements are involved, the more the
conformity that results. As for source certainty, the more certain people are of the reliability
and correctness of the influence source (others making the decisions), the more likely they are
to conform to it.
5 Researchers have disagreed as to whether the relationship between group size and
conformity is linear (more is more powerful) or curvilinear (an optimal number of people works
and after that there is reduced influence), though there does appear to be an optimal conformity-
inducing group size. However, it is clear that the more unanimous10 the group judgement, the
more conformity is elicited; quite small amounts of deviation within the majority lead to a large
reduction in conformity responses. Group composition and attraction also has an influence.
Cohesive groups of high status, and prestigious males, tend to elicit most conformity: the more
attractive the group, the more a person is likely to be influenced by it. High-status people have
“idiosyncrasy credit” and can deviate, as do very low-status or rejected group members; people
of middle status usually conform most. People tend to conform more when asked to give their
judgement or to behave publicly rather than privately. Anonymity has a very powerful impact
on conformity. And a person will conform more to a group that has a past history of success
than to one that has consistently failed. Lastly, a convinced, coherent minority forming a
representative subgroup of individuals can greatly influence majority opinion. It is most
important that the minority is consistent in its position if it is to have any effect on the majority.
6 The fundamental question then is why do people conform? The short answer is that people
want to be right and they want to be liked. They respond to informational influence and
normative influence. People look to others for clues on how to behave. What is correct
etiquette? The less informed we believe ourselves to be and the more informed we believe
those around us to be, the more we follow the crowd. This seems a rational process. We also
conform because we like to “fit in”, to gain social acceptance. This is the very essence of social
pressure. We do so because of our need to belong. Most of us think of ourselves as members
of a social group. To be a member we need to follow the rules and norms. So social conformity
helps us maintain our self-perceived, indeed actual, group membership. So at different times
and in different places we respond to, or reject, group norms. Indeed we may even become
anti-conformist.
7 There are four main types of conformity, and the first is compliance. Compliance occurs
when an individual accepts influence because s/he hopes to achieve a favorable reaction from
another person or group. S/he adopts the induced behavior because s/he expects to gain specific
10
Unanimous – of one mind; in complete agreement; agreed.
56
READING PROGRAM
rewards or approval and avoid specific punishment or disapproval by conformity. In other

words, s/he conforms to the majority (publicly), in spite of not really agreeing with them
(privately). This is seen in Asch’s line experiment. Compliance stops when there is no group
pressure and is therefore a temporary behavior change.
8 Internalization occurs when an individual accepts influence because the content of the
induced behavior – the ideas and actions of which it is composed – is intrinsically rewarding.
S/he adopts the induced behavior because it is consistent with his/her value system.
Internalization always involves public and private conformity. A person publicly changes their
behavior to fit in with the group, while also agreeing with them privately. This is the deepest
level of conformity where the beliefs of the group become part of the individual’s own belief
system. This means the change in behavior is permanent. This is most likely to occur when the
majority have greater knowledge, and members of the minority have little knowledge to
challenge the majority position.
9 Identification occurs when an individual accepts influence because s/he wants to establish
or maintain a satisfying, self-defining relationship to another person or group. Individuals
conform to the expectations of a social role, for instance nurses, or police officers. It is similar
to compliance as there does not have to be a change in private opinion.
10 Ingratiation is when a person conforms to impress or gain favor/acceptance from other

people. It is similar to normative influence, but is motivated by the need for reward rather than
the threat of rejection, i.e., individual or group pressure does not enter the decision to conform.
11 Of course there are also personality predictors of conformity. People with low self-
confidence and more authoritarian attitudes conform more. Those who are more mature and
have higher ego strength conform less. There is also evidence of some cultural factors in
conformity. Cultures that tend to be more individualistic exert less pressure to conform than
collectivistic cultures because individuals are not inclined to be the same as everyone else but
rather value being independent and self-sufficient. In contrast, collectivistic cultures are more
likely to value the needs of the family and other social groups before their own and thus are
more likely to conform. Similarly, cultures which are homogenous with strong religious or
political ideology tend to be more collectivistic, therefore conformist.
12 Politicians, salespersons, teachers and others use various techniques to get others to
comply. One such technique is called foot-in-the-door. Ask for something very small or minor
(sign a petition, get change); then ask for something bigger – the thing you really want. It works
if the first request is just big enough to make people think about what they are doing and also
if they believe they have full “free will” to refuse. The idea is to get people to believe that they
are helpful, so they comply to the second, greater request.
13 In the door-in-the-face technique, you try a high demand request (“please give me 100 €”,
“could you lend me your car?”), but then on refusal you back down to a much smaller request.
This turned-down concessionary and conciliatory request triggers off reciprocity. To make it
work, the first request must be refused, the second request must be made by the same person,
and the target person must feel the pressure to reciprocate.
14 Another alternative technique is to make someone an offer but before they answer, to say
“that’s not all” and to increase the favorability of your proposition. Either you drop the price,
57
READING PROGRAM
increase the amount or throw in extras. This works by similar principles to those above. You
are helpful and liked, so they are too.
1. According to Sherif’s study, what type of people guide others in uncertain circumstances?
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Ali is placed in a group as part of a study on conformity. According to the results of Asch’s
experiment, in which situation is Ali less likely to conform? Write the letter of the correct
answer in the blank provided.
a. the task is complex

b. opinions are required
c. there is consensus among the group
d. answers will be kept secret
__________
Read paragraphs 7 - 10 on different types of conformity. Then read the examples below.
Which type of conformity do they exemplify? Write the letter of the correct answer in the space
provided.
a. compliance b. internalization c. identification d. ingratiation
3. __________ Elena starts work in a small law firm after graduating from university. She is
surprised to discover that most of her colleagues are vegetarians who believe that it is unethical
to kill animals for food and unhealthy to consume red meat. They also avoid alcohol and work
out regularly. After doing some research, Elena decides that their lifestyle is a wiser and
healthier choice and she is disturbed by the idea of red meat, so she becomes a vegetarian
herself. She also enrolls in a yoga class to keep fit.
4. ___________ Max moves to a new neighborhood because his father has been fired and is
facing financial difficulties. In his new school, he sees that the boys only wear torn jeans and
basketball shoes, and they all have really short hair. Max prefers his hair long, because he has
big ears he would like to conceal, but during the second week, he has his hair cut so that he can
fit in. He also stops wearing his usual expensive clothes and saves money to buy some
basketball shoes. He desperately hopes that his father can get another job soon so that they can
move back to their old neighborhood.
5. __________ İrem’s father is a retired army officer who gets up every morning at 6 to run 5
km and to exercise before he has his breakfast and opens up his shop. He lives an extremely
disciplined life and the whole family knows the time of what he will be doing each day to the
minute. Though he does not pressure any of his children to follow his example, İrem feels that
by emulating her father, she wins his love and respect, so she tries to stick to her own daily
schedule and to work out each day after school.
58
READING PROGRAM
6. Country X is governed according to theological law. Ideally, individuals are expected to be

god-fearing, virtuous and hard-working. They should be charitable towards the elderly and
poor, and earn their incomes from honest work.
Country Y is a socialist republic. Ideally, individuals are expected to be equal in their rights
and responsibilities, in the amount of work they do and the income they earn. They are expected
to be hard-working and loyal to the socialist ideology.
According to the text, which of the below is TRUE? Write the letter of the correct answer in
the blank.
a. Country X is more conformist than Country Y.
b. Country Y is more conformist than Country X.
c. Country X and Country Y are equally conformist.
d. Country X and Country Y are equally anti-conformist.
__________
7. Read the dialogue below.

Which technique is the daughter (D) using to convince her father (F)?
D: Father, there is a school trip to Çanakkale next weekend. We leave early Saturday
morning and come back Sunday afternoon. May I go please?
F: Come back Sunday afternoon? Does that mean you’re spending Saturday night away
from home?
D: Yes, we will be…
F: Enough, I do not need to hear more. Of course you cannot go.
D: Pleaseeee…
F: No way, this is nonsense.
D: Selin has asked a few people over to her house after school tomorrow for an early
dinner. May I at least go there please? I promise I won’t be late.
_____________________________________
59
READING PROGRAM
VOCABULARY
4
accompany design image revenue
acknowledge distribute impact strategies
appreciate dynamics issues underlying
attachment emphasis policy via
bond features primary visible
controversial fundamental principle whereby
5
acquire device insight occupational
adjustment dispose involve ongoing
appropriate factor mode reinforce
assume foundation modify selection
category illustration norm sole
constantly initiate obtain transfer
6
accuracy demonstrate instance perspective
achieve deny intensity prior
alter derive mental rejection
attribute dimension motivate stability
challenge emerge participants trigger
consistent expose perceive vision
60
READING PROGRAM
achieve emerged fundamental involved reinforce

acquire emphasis impact issue transfer
diversity exposed initiating principle transform
THE NEW FACE OF EDUCATION

The world is changing rapidly in all areas – the environment, the economy, technology
and education. However, it is quite important to consider the ____________________1 of the
changes on education. The ____________________2 purpose of the education system should
be enabling young people to develop the necessary skills required to prepare for the changing
world. That is why education in the 21st century is now witnessing significant changes.
Historically, in the learning process students were ____________________3 to
information that was provided by the teacher within the infrastructure of institutions such as
schools, university campuses and technical colleges. The ____________________4 of
education was that a learner had to be present where the teacher was in order to
____________________5 information and knowledge. The development of information and
communication technology (ICT) has transformed educational institutions into more versatile
ones. ICT was able to do this by ____________________6 online courses. Now there is great
____________________7 on providing freedom for the learner to explore sources of
information outside formal education institutions, even outside his country. Technological
networks have started to link schools and colleges, which has made the
____________________8 of knowledge much easier. These developments have totally
changed the concept of education. Those who were unable to attend an education institution
for a variety of reasons can now ____________________9 online degrees.
These developments have also changed the nature of doing research. Going to the
library to do research is no longer an important ____________________10. Today even
elementary school students carry out their research online. Schools not only teach their
students the new technologies, but they also assign them projects where they will have to utilize
them. For example, many schools require their students to be ____________________11 in
team projects conducted online with students from other schools. Such activities not only
____________________12 the technological skills of the students but encourages them to
become independent learners as well.
61
READING PROGRAM
B. Fill in the blanks in the following text with the appropriate words from the box. Use
adjusting attributes derive perceive prior

appropriate controversial dispose perspectives stability
assume consistent features primary underlying
ONLINE IDENTITIES
Identity formation through computers is an important component of today’s
communication technology. Identity formation through the Internet technologies involves how
we wish others to ____________________1 us. Creating online identities is seen as a/an
____________________2 issue with both opponents and proponents. Therefore, it would be
____________________3 to consider why people engage in such role playing on the Internet.
The ____________________4 reason for this behavior is that people have more control over
their online identities. To some degree in real life, we can control what others know about us
by making some choices in life, and yet certain ____________________5 of our identities are
predetermined for us. In face-to-face interactions, people infer qualities of our identities based
on our gender, race clothing, and other non-verbal characteristics. However, many
____________________6 of face-to-face interaction such as facial expression, eye contact or
body language are invisible online. Therefore, people’s behaviors do not have to be
____________________7 with their real identities. This gives them a feeling of comfort and
freedom because they can explore identities, gain new____________________8 and modes of
interaction that are not limited by their actual selves.
Another factor ____________________9 this behavior is that people

____________________10 pleasure from experimenting with a different self. Many of them
report that they blend their ____________________11 experiences and features with desired or
virtual ones. However, this has a disadvantage, particularly in the case of adolescents: they
might have problems ____________________12 to their real lives and actual selves because
the line between reality and virtuality may start to disappear.
62
READING PROGRAM
WEEK 3
Reading Material
Philosophers among the Savages R1
Imperialism, Crime and Criminology R1
An Interpersonal Theory of the Self R2
Exploratory Behavior R2
63
READING PROGRAM
64
READING PROGRAM
PHILOSOPHERS AMONG THE SAVAGES

adapted from Michael K. Green
Introduction
1 Philosophers, as human beings, are typically not free from the most deeply held
assumptions of their time. Since philosophers exercise their activity within a cultural context,
it is not surprising to find that they often share the prejudices of their time held by individuals
of their own culture against those outside that culture.
2 The aim of this article is to examine how conceptions of the outsider play an important
role in the development of philosophical positions. I will begin with some general reflections
on the concept of the savage. I will then show how this concept functions in the positions
developed by several prominent philosophers. I will end with some reflections on why the
concept of the savage plays such a central role in philosophical discourse.
The concept of the savage
3 The term “savage” is most likely derived from the Latin word “silva”, meaning woods
or forest. It came into the English language via Old French, presumably as a result of the
Norman Conquest. English has another word, “wild”, which is of Germanic origin and which
also serves much of the same function as savage does in the Romance languages.
4 Therefore, the concept originally referred to a place, a place where humans do not
belong because it is inhospitable and dangerous. Thus, deserts, mountains, oceans, jungles,
forests, and vast dry plains can all be savage or wild. These are typically harsh places where
human beings can survive with only great difficulty. Typically, a distinction is made between
a place that is inhabited and cultivated by people, and foreign lands. Indeed, the house can
serve as a symbol for the separation between these two worlds. The outside is the realm of
strife, disorder, or, more generally, chaos. On the other hand, the inside is the realm of order
and law.
5 The formlessness of the outside is basic to the concept of the savage and provides the
continuous thread of meaning that ties all of its different applications together. A savage place
is full of savage beings, the consummate form of which is the savage beast. Savage areas
contain dangerous and threatening animals, such as lions, boars, hounds, wolves, tigers,
sharks, sea-hawks, bulls, baboons, leopards, jackals, and elephants, or savage monsters, such
as a Chimera, Gorgon, Cyclops, Erınys, Sphinx, Centaur, Echeon, Devil, or any of the other
vicious monsters that were supposed to inhabit the world and wait to prey upon human beings.
Typically, savage animals are carnivorous and deadly. If not, then strong and violent. These
savage beasts and monsters came out of the forest or other savage regions, preyed upon those
who thought they were safe in their homelands, and then disappeared back into the forest to
attack again at any time.
The savage as a limiting concept
6 As savage places contrast with familiar ones, so savage beings contrast with the
humanized and cultured beings who share the same culture. Savagery represents the zero point
of humanized and cultured existence. It is here that the concept of the savage performs a
limiting function by marking off what is acceptable behavior for an individual with a certain
cultural identity from what is totally outside the realm of action for such individuals. Thus,
humans who act like savage beasts fall outside the limits of what constitutes acceptable
behavior.
65
READING PROGRAM
7 Thus, savages are typically thought to be more like beasts than human beings. As such,
they are subject to savage fîts of passion, such as fury, anger, temper, hatred, jealousy,
fearlessness, and joy. They are subject to savage urges, such as wild desire and sensuality.
They perform actions of savage brutality and cruelty. They experience a wild joy in shedding
human blood. They gloat over the death and wounds of the enemy. They are ungrateful, have
a forbidding heart, and know neither respect nor pity. The emotions, desires, and actions of
such individuals are uncurbed, unfettered, and uncontrolled. We are back to the formlessness
that is at the heart of the concept of a savage.
The savage in ancient philosophy
8 Greek conceptions of outsiders can be found throughout the Greek literary and
philosophical tradition. A literary example can be found in The Odyssey, in which Odysseus
states:
And we came to the land of the Cyclopes, a fierce, uncivilized people who never
lifted a hand to plant or plough but put their trust in Providence. All the crops they
require spring up unsown and untilled, wheat and barley and the vines whose
generous clusters give them wine when ripened for them by the timely rains. The
Cyclopes have no assemblies for the making of laws, nor any settled customs, but
live in hollow caverns in the mountain heights, where each man is lawgiver to his
children and his wives, and nobody cares a jot for his neighbors.
9 Aeschylus in Prometheus Unbound provides a similar view of “savages”. They are

speechless and senseless individuals who live in a dream-like stupor as infants do. They
burrow into hills like ants. They have no skills or arts and they have none of the benefits of
culture. For the Greeks, in order to be considered a Greek, one must practice agriculture, make
laws in an assembly, or be a member of a particular Greek city-state. All non-Greeks were
barbarians, and hence, outside the Greek social community. Indeed, the word ‘barbarous’ came
from the nonsensical sounds (‘bar, bar’) that the Greeks thought were made by the outsiders.
These individuals weren’t even considered fully human. They were natural slaves who could
be legitimately subdued by violence. Thus, as related by Thucydides, whole cities could be
destroyed by the Greeks and all their inhabitants slain because none of these non-Greeks was
a person, i.e. member of the Greek social community.
10 Now, let us turn to two Greek philosophers in whose thought the concept of the savage
as the complete negation of human social community plays a role. When Plato in the Republic
turns to showing that the life of a tyrant is worse than that of a virtuous person even if the
tyrant were able to subdue everyone and get everything that he/she wants, he makes use of a
distinction between bestiality and proper humanized and cultured conduct. In book IX, Plato
identifies the tyrant by distinguishing between “the rational and gentle, and dominant” part
and the “beastly and savage” part of the soul. This latter part of an individual prompts him/her
to incest, all sorts of bloody deeds, and “in a word, falls short of no extreme of folly and
shamelessness”. We see that Plato explicitly recognizes the concept as an ideal in which one
finds a complete realization of evil. Later, he draws upon this distinction to make an image of
the tyrant so that his/her inner nature can be examined. Here we see the formlessness of the
savage playing a central role. The unjust person, as an example of the perfectly unjust
individual, is one who subordinates the human aspect of his/her existence to the bestial ones.
66
READING PROGRAM
11 One finds a similar distinction in Aristotle. In his Politics, Aristotle states:

For man, when perfected is the best of animals, but, when separated from law and
justice, he is the worst of all; since armed injustice is the more dangerous, and he
is equipped at birth with arms, meant to be used by intelligence and virtue, which
he may use for the worst ends. Wherefore, if he have not virtue, he is the most
unholy and the most savage of animals, and the most full of lust and gluttony.
The savage in modern philosophy
12 The savage also plays a role in several of the philosophers of the modern age.
When Hobbes gives an example of a people in his State of nature in which “the life of
man [is] solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short”, he gives the example of the native
people of America:
For the savage people in many places of America, except the government of small
families, the concord whereof dependeth on naturall [sic.] lust, have no government
at all; and live at this day in that brutish manner, as I said before.
13 Locke’s Second Treatise can be seen as a justification for overcoming two types of
savage - those of the New World who let productive land lie idle and those of the Old World
(the Norman Lords) who took what they desired by force and lived like parasites off the
productive labor of others. In both Hobbes and Locke, savagism is something to be
overcome, and the concept of the savage functions to delimit the arena and types of
legitimate competition and conflict from those that place an individual outside all human
communities.
14 Among the Germans, the concept of a savage provides an important limiting function
in Immanuel Kant’s philosophy. According to him, “man can only become man by
education. He is merely what education makes of him” and “all the natural developments of
mankind must be developed little by little out of man himself through his own effort.”
According to Kant, culture progresses by slow degrees and represents humanity’s attempt to
make itself human and to rise above barbarism and the lawlessness of the savage. One
generation transmits via its culture its accomplishments, experience, and knowledge. The
next generation acts upon this repository of knowledge and experience. According to Kant,
it is possible for a human being’s animal impulses to turn him aside from humanity. Such
people suffer from what Kant calls barbarism – “the animal, so to speak, not having yet
developed its human nature.”
Philosophy and cultural identity
15 It remains for us to discuss why the concept of the savage plays such a recurring role
in philosophy. This requires us to examine the nature of cultural identity and the relation
between philosophy and cultural identity. By providing a set of settled pathways upon which
individuals can develop their own variations, a culture allows them to work together in order
to form a cultural identity. By giving the individuals a sense of a common past and of a
shared destiny, a cultural identity, in turn, unifies and integrates them.
16 To understand the process by which cultural identity is constituted and the importance
of philosophy in this process, we must begin by making a distinction between populations,
peoples, and nations. A group of individuals either have no significant cultural
commonalities (a population), or they have some such commonalities. If the latter, either
these commonalities are not consciously recognized as such (a people), or they are (a nation).
67
READING PROGRAM
Nations have conceptions of themselves and of how they differ from other nations. They
have relatively settled cultural identities.
17 Therefore, the process by which a self-conscious cultural identity is created begins
with a people who have a common culture. Then, through conflict with other decidedly
different cultural groups, these people become aware of their cultural similarity. Once self-
consciousness has arisen, as a third step, some political institutions by which the group can
govern itself and thus constitute itself as a nation-state are instituted. In this stage, if one
group forms its identity by conquering another, then the concept of the Civilisable Savage
might also play an important role in that culture.
18 When a cultural identity is constituted, the humanized and cultured relations among
individuals are bound by a web of normative rules that define that cultural identity. People
who share that identity are such and such type of people who do such and such things because
this is what they do as such and such individuals.
19 Thus, a cultural identity arises through the exercise of powers of self-determination
by a group which defines itself. Identity in the fullest sense is internally constituted by a
group, and thus, is an act of self-definition on the part of that group. In the constitution and
maintenance of cultural identity, the concept of a savage plays a central part in defining the
zero state of culture, i.e. the condition of having no culture at all.
Conclusion
20 What has been hidden by the tendency to see history as a unilinear process culminating
in a world system modeled upon European models is the extent to which history has been
driven by cultural factors. From this perspective, the most important aspect of the late
twentieth and early twenty-first centuries is the decline of monolithic world views and the
rise of cultural pluralism. Neither the Anglo-Saxon version of capitalism nor the Russian
version of communism has been able to create a unified world view or a single world culture
by melting all other cultural differences down and recasting them in its own image. Instead,
at this time in history, the movement is towards the constitution and/or reassertion of
suppressed or denied cultural identities.
21 The problem of the future is whether we are willing to strive for cultural understandings
and base our policies upon these, or whether we will continue to treat someone who is
different as if he/ she were less than a human being.
68
READING PROGRAM
1. According to the text, a place that was neither ____________________ nor

____________________ by people was initially considered savage.
2. Which of the below was NOT represented by the area outside the house?
A. chaos
B. strife
C. law
D. formlessness
__________
3. What is the limiting function of the concept of the savage for individuals of a given cultural
identity?
______________________________________________________________________
4. According to the Greek literary and philosophical tradition, what should a person do not
to be perceived as a savage? Write two.
______________________________________________________________________
5. According to Plato, who is a “tyrant”?
A. Someone who prioritizes reason and gentleness over bestial instincts.
B. Someone who embodies virtuous conduct and humane behavior.
C. Someone who embodies both rationality and savagery within the soul.
D. Someone who exemplifies extreme nonsense and vulgarity.
__________
6. According to Aristotle, the lack of _____________________can turn a man into an
animal.
7. Which sentence is TRUE about the savage in modern philosophy?

A. Kant underestimates the importance of education in cultivating humanity and
surpassing brutality.
B. Hobbes and Locke both see the concept of savage as a reference point to define what
is acceptable or not within the society.
C. Hobbes believes the harmony among native Americans is a good example of the well-
governed life of man.
D. Kant emphasizes the necessity of absolute government authority for humanity to
overcome cruelty.
__________
69
READING PROGRAM
8. How does a cultural identity unify individuals?

______________________________________________________________________
9. What are a group of individuals called when they have some cultural commonalities that
they are not aware of?
______________________________________________________________________
10. The second step in the creation of a self-conscious cultural identity is realized via
____________________ with other groups.
11. According to paragraph 18, which statement below does NOT apply to “normative
rules”?
A. They are prescriptive guidelines for the members of a group.
B. They are conventional regulations in a society.
C. They are standardized protocols for a people.
D. They are optional behaviors within a cultural context.
_________
12. What is the major role of the concept of the savage in the formation of cultural identity?
______________________________________________________________________
13. What can be inferred from paragraphs 20 and 21?

A. There may not be much need for greater cultural understanding and respect in
shaping future policies and interactions.
B. There is a trend towards cultural dominance and neglecting cultural identities in the
late 20th and early 21st centuries.
C. Historical interpretations have often overlooked the significant influence of cultural
factors in shaping societies
D. Marginalizing those who are culturally different will be the aim of capitalism and
communism in the future.
__________
70
READING PROGRAM
IMPERIALISM, CRIME AND CRIMINOLOGY11

Beginnings
1 Criminology is far from being a rocket science or brain surgery. It is simply the
scientific study of crime, criminals, criminal behaviour and corrections. So why is it that Third
World countries that offer courses in rocket science and brain surgery are shy of offering
undergraduate degrees in criminology? In this article I argue that the reason for this academic
indifference is due to the fact that criminology is a social science that served colonialism more
directly than many other social sciences. However, the critique that Anthropology, Sociology
and Political Science have been subjected to in this respect is yet to be extended to criminology.
2 The analysis of the theories and methods of criminology first began with Stan Cohen
in a paper originally presented at a conference on “Crime and Crime Control in Developing
Countries” in Nigeria, 1980. Cohen stated that “Criminologists have either ignored the Third
World completely or treated it in a most theoretically primitive fashion, and the general
literature on development and colonialism is remarkably silent about crime”. (Cohen, 1988).
He concluded that it is ironic that critics in the West are now identifying forms of social control
that are more traditional in the Third World as better alternatives to the repressive12 traditions
in the West.
3 Many African-American criminologists have taken up the colonial model that seeks to
apply the observations of Franz Fanon to an explanation of the over-representation of
minorities in the criminal justice system. Young and Turner (1985) offered a similar historical
approach to understanding crimes of the state and corruption in neo-colonial Zaire under
Mobutu. Pepinsky (1991) has argued that the geometry of violence cannot be explained without
bringing into consideration the violence of imperialist powers in foreign countries. Scraton
(1990) has called for this to be made an essential element of criminology courses. A few papers
are being published by Australian and New Zealand criminologists on the incredible injustice
done to the native populations as part of colonialism. However, no one has tried to examine the
extent to which criminology is essentially a colonial enterprise, or why this repressive
technology is monopolised by imperialist countries while the former colonised countries do
not seem to care.
History
4 The influence of the Holy Roman Empire on the evolution of European penal13 systems
is all too obvious. Many legal historians would emphasize the role of many Roman Emperors,
Emperor Napoleon and German legal scholars in laying the foundation of the Romano-
Germanic family of law that dominates continental Europe today. The pre-Enlightenment14
period, on the other hand, was the era of divine explanations for power and misconduct – Kings
ruled because they had the divine right to rule and people became deviant15 as a result of
demonic possession from which they had to be cured and purified if possible or with which
they must be destroyed in order to be saved in the hereafter. The judicial process was
characterised by public executions for serious offenders or sinners, ridicule and shame for
cheats, the centralisation of judicial authority in the hands of religious officials, public
11
Adapted from Biko Agozino, Cheyney University of Pennsylvania, USA.
12
repressive – acting to control, suppress or restrain.
13
penal – relating to punishment
14
The Enlightenment - A philosophical movement of the 18th century characterized by belief in the power of
human reason and by innovations in political, religious and educational doctrine.
15
deviant – differing from the norm or from the accepted standards of a society.
71
READING PROGRAM
administration of punishment in the community and, above all, the bias against pagan women
who were executed as witches (Pfohl, 1994). In this sense, the Enlightenment was a progressive
movement in social thought aimed at the liberation of individuals from despotic rule by
religious orthodoxy and political traditionalism in Europe. However, the execution of a single
innocent Frenchman counts for more in the conventional history of the invention of
criminology than the genocidal Trans Atlantic Slavery in which tens of millions of Africans
were destroyed or the genocide16 against Native Americans and aboriginal Australians by
European conquerors.
5 The conquest of new lands and the European slave-trade systematised the persecution
of people simply because they appeared different long before this experiment was extended to
the “witches” of Europe. It was at the height of the slave trade that classicism emerged to
challenge the unjust nature of punishment in medieval Europe but this was not extended to
enslaved Africans who were victimised even when they did no wrong. It was not until the
height of colonialism in Africa and Asia that Europe discovered that it could use the new
“science” of criminology for the control of the “other”.
Decolonising Criminological Orientalism
6 It is known that, unlike any location in Metropolitan Europe, the colonial locations were
regarded collectively by Orientalist scholarship as places characterised by lawlessness and
chaos, ruled by various despotic governments and troubled by a history of bribery and
corruption. This presentation served as an ideological justification of British rule in terms of
moral superiority and was also the forerunner of academic criminology. Even Karl Marx, in an
article published in the New York Daily Tribune of 25 June, 1853, “The British Rule in India”,
excused the crimes committed by the British on the basis that England was attempting social
revolution in India. Marx argued that, partly due to earlier conquests, there were feudal classes
in India that oppressed the masses before British colonialism emerged. He reasoned that the
struggle against colonialism in India would be part of the struggle against oriental despotism
in Hindustan (Marx and Engels, 1974).
7 The opposition of Africans to European rule and how they were suppressed by superior
force, not superior enlightenment, are documented by Rodney and Fanon (among others) with
emphasis on a minority class of Africans who wanted to maintain the unequal relationship
between Europe and Africa for their selfish goals. Even backward European countries like
Portugal felt morally superior to Africa and justified their rule in terms of the need to civilise
the dark continent through Enlightenment. Genocidists like King Leopold of Belgium allowed
the massacre17 of millions of Africans to enforce forced labour as a civilising process. Du Bois,
(one of the founding fathers of conflict criminology) in Black Reconstruction in America
(1992), noted how the leaders of America supported colonization in Africa as a way of getting
rid of free African Americans to make it easier to justify the enslavement of the rest in America.
Du Bois showed that scientists used the Social Darwinist ideology of the “Survival of the
Fittest” to prove that African Americans and white women, like Asians and Africans, were
unfit to have self-determination through universal suffrage18. This was justified by the fact that
European countries were bearing what Rudyard Kipling called the white man’s burden of
enlightening19 white women, native Americans, Aboriginals, Africans and Asians. Soon
enough, the same justifications used to rationalise imperialism were imported back to the
16
genocide – the deliberate and systematic extermination of a national, racial, political or cultural group.
17
massacre – slaughter, killing a large number.
18
suffrage – the right to vote.
19
to enlighten – to give intellectual or spiritual light to; instruct; impart knowledge to.
72
READING PROGRAM
metropole to justify the repressive control of the working classes, especially the equally
colonised Irish.
Counter Colonial Criminology
8 How imperialism used criminological knowledge and how imperialism can be seen as
a criminological project, imprisonment with or without walls, a widening of the net of captivity,
and how this close relationship between the two fields of knowledge and power, criminology
and imperialism, served both of them mutually should be examined in detail. The reasons why
conventional criminologists are mostly silent about the origin of their discipline at the height
of European colonialism should also be analyzed. It is our claim that the bond between
colonialism and criminology is part of the reason why few post-colonial territories today have
developed criminology as an institutionalised discipline. The objective is to develop Counter
Colonial Criminology – a theory of social control from the point of view of anti-imperialist
scholars who are familiar with the history of resistance to colonialist (including the colonial,
post-colonial, neo-colonial, internal-colonial, and re-colonial) law.
9 The discipline of criminology developed largely in the centers of colonialist power and
neo-colonial regimes have tended to be slow in developing the discipline of criminology. Given
the importance of (cultural) imperialism in the history of knowledge in all parts of the world
(Said 1993), one would need to explain why the field of criminology is dominated by scholars
in former colonial centers of authority. It is also necessary to clarify how such colonialist
domination of the field leads to theoretical underdevelopment by concealing the violent legacy
of colonialist criminology. One would also need to compare criminological theories and
methods according to whether they are pro-imperialist or anti-imperialist in orientation. This
has to be done in order to show what criminology has been missing by ignoring marginalised
voices of the other in its institutional development or what criminology could learn from anti
colonial struggles.
10 A few historians of law and a few criminologists have looked at the repressive
militaristic policing of the colonized. However, hardly any of them has demonstrated the results
of imperialist reasoning within criminological theories and explored the possibility of
punishing the crimes of slavery and colonialism. Outside the social sciences, the critique of
imperialism is better established in literature where Achebe, Nguri, and many others have
contributed to the canon of post-colonial literature. The irony is that modernization theorists
such as Clinard and Abbott come from countries with high crime rates with the assumption that
they could teach countries with lower crime rates how to solve the problem. Their solution is
usually in the form of adopting Western crime control models without any evidence that those
models have helped to reduce crime in their own countries. Clinard and Abbott even
recommended that Third World countries should adopt the apartheid20 pass law system as a
way to reduce urban crime by controlling the population. Apart from the fact that such pass
laws have since been recognized as part of the crimes against humanity called apartheid, there
is a lot of evidence that they did not reduce “crime” in South Africa as hundreds of black
women were arrested and jailed when they resisted such laws.
11 The Western crime control models are the types of criminology that Cohen is against
especially when exported to the Third World uncritically. It could be the case that one of the
reasons why Third World countries have neglected the development of criminology is due to
20
apartheid – any system or practice that separates people according to race, caste, etc. Practised in the
Republic of South Africa in the past.
73
READING PROGRAM
the lack of relevance of standard criminology to the reality of the Third World. Alternatives
that will contribute to the increased democratisation of civil society in the world are needed.
However, the main point is not that criminological knowledge would ever be enough to change
the dreadful conditions of the African masses, for example. What counts is what criminologists
can learn from the struggle of the masses and not necessarily what the masses can learn from
criminology. The question is less what criminology can do for the struggle and more what the
struggle can do for criminology. Many of the problems that challenge governance and social
justice in the post-colonial world have criminological roots and implications but there is no
joint effort towards finding solutions to such problems from criminological perspectives.
12 We, therefore, need to develop critical scholarship in criminology, especially in post-
colonial universities, to avoid the negative influence of the imperialist logic that sees
criminology only in terms of police training, security agency and prison administrations. The
silence on the link of criminology with colonialism has produced two effects: a) criminological
theory has been limited by imperialist reasoning and b) post-colonial countries have generally
avoided criminology as a colonialist pastime even while continuing to import imperialist
technology. Both these consequences of the failure of the criminological imagination when it
comes to colonialism need to be addressed in order to begin and further the decolonisation of
criminology for the good of all.
13 One immediate consequence of the decolonization model is that criminologists will no
longer focus exclusively on the punishment of individual offenders but will join the millions
of people around the world who are demanding reparations for the crimes of the African
holocaust otherwise known as the European Trans Atlantic Slavery, the genocide against native
Americans, Aboriginal Australians and the Maori in New Zealand, the crimes against humanity
known as Apartheid, the Arab slave trade, the stolen generations of Aboriginal children, and
the colonial massacres in Africa, Palestine, Asia and South America. Human rights crimes are
also criminological problems that should no longer be left out of fat volumes that pretend to be
comprehensive handbooks of criminology. Another consequence would be the establishment
of Third World schools of theoretical criminology that could teach the west one or two things
about crime. It is no longer acceptable for the imperialist countries who have the greatest crime
problems and who commit the greatest crimes to continue to pose as the standard bearers of
criminology from which the Third World should learn. Instead, western criminologists should
remain open to chances of learning from the experiences and struggles of others as well through
an exchange of knowledge, contrary to the modernist idea that technology must be transferred
from the west to the rest of us.
74
READING PROGRAM
1.According to criminologists such as Pepinsky and Scraton, ___________________________

in the colonies should be the main focus of the studies in criminology.
2. From which types of oppression did the Enlightenment aim to free individuals?
A. ____________________________________
B. ____________________________________
3. Which one of the below was NOT used for the persecution or control of others throughout
history?
A. Colonialism
B. Witch-hunts
C. Classicism
D. The slave-trade
E. Criminology
__________
4. Read the short passage from Marx’s article mentioned in paragraph 6. According to the
information in paragraph 6 and the passage below, how are Marx’s and the writer’s opinions
on colonialism similar?
England, it is true, in causing a social revolution in Hindostan, was actuated only by the vilest
interests, and was stupid in her manner of enforcing them. But that is not the question. The
question is, can mankind fulfil its destiny without a fundamental revolution in the social state
of Asia? If not, whatever may have been the crimes of England she was the unconscious tool
of history in bringing about that revolution.
A. They both accept that British imperialism was driven by self-interest and self-
serving motives.
B. The fact that oriental despotism in India had to be defeated is emphasized by
both writers.
C. British rule playing an unintentional role in bringing about a social change is
justified by both writers.
D. They agree that bribery and corruption made India vulnerable to exploitation by
a morally superior power.
________
75
READING PROGRAM
5. According to Du Bois, the practise of which right could be prevented through Social
Darwinist ideology?
________________________________________________________________________
6. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 8?

A. That traditional criminology’s origins are never openly discussed needs examining.
B. The link between criminology and imperialism shows how they are interdependent.
C. Imperialism makes use of criminological knowledge to keep restricting people.
D. Counter Colonial Criminology needs to be developed by scholars of colonialist law.
__________
7. What can be said about paragraph 9?

A. It provides an exhaustive examination of particular criminological hypotheses and
methodologies.
B. It primarily concentrates on data illustrating the results of colonialist control on
criminology.
C. It emphasizes the hegemony of scholars from former colonial hubs and the theoretical
underdevelopment.
D. It suggests precise remedies for addressing the raised issues concerning colonialist
control in criminology.
__________
8. According to the author, which academic discipline is far more successful in criticizing
imperialism than the social sciences?
_______________________________________________________________________
9. What is the main issue highlighted in paragraph 11 regarding the development of

criminology in the Third World?
A. Criminology is too focused on Third World countries and their related problems.
B. There is a lack of collaboration to address criminological issues in the Third World.
C. Third World countries are not interested in developing criminology for some reasons.
D. Western crime control models are perfectly suited for the issues in the Third World.
__________
76
READING PROGRAM
10. What does criminology need to go beyond in order to develop as a discipline, especially in
the Third World?
a. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________
c. _____________________________________
11. In the case of criminology, knowledge should be transferred not from ______________ to
________________________, but vice versa.
77
READING PROGRAM
AN INTERPERSONAL THEORY OF THE SELF

1 The individual is not passive, but is an active agent in maintaining a stable interpersonal
environment. The theory of the writers is that, while circumstances may put pressure on one to
change, one’s own active efforts tend to maintain stability of self and behavior. One’s concept
of oneself, one’s individual ways of perceiving other persons, and one’s learned behavior
patterns, are instrumental in this process.
Consider the following three elements:
1. An aspect of Jack’s self: he thinks he is smart.

2. Jack’s interpretation of his behavior relevant to that aspect: he thinks he behaves
intelligently.
3. Jack’s beliefs about how another person (Jane) behaves toward him and feels toward
him with regard to that aspect: he thinks that Jane thinks he’s smart.
The assumption is that a person attempts to maintain a state of congruency among these three
elements. There are three kinds of congruency: congruency by implication, congruency by
validation, and congruency by comparison. In congruency by implication, Jack may perceive
that Jane sees him as possessing a particular characteristic corresponding to an aspect of his
own self concept. He thinks he’s smart and perceives that Jane also thinks he’s smart. In
congruency by validation, the behavior of the other person calls for behavior that confirms a
concept of self. Jane asks him to help her with her homework so he gets a chance to
demonstrate, or exercise, his smartness. In congruency by comparison, the behavior or
attributes of, another person suggest by comparison that one possesses a particular self-
component. Jane praises and thanks Jack, and either is or seems to be a little less sharp than he
is. According to interpersonal congruency theory, people actively use techniques for
maintaining their interpersonal environment so as to maximize congruency. These techniques
use one or more of the three forms of congruency. In this way, pressures to change one’s self
concept or one’s behavior are avoided. These techniques, or mechanisms, include cognitive
restructuring, selective evaluation and selective interaction.
Cognitive Restructuring
2 The interpersonal environment enters into congruency only as it is seen by the individual.
In instances where the actual expectations of other persons are not congruent with the person’s
self concept or behavior, pressures for change which incongruence would create can be avoided
by not seeing the incongruent state. If you think you are intelligent, but someone points out that
you made a stupid mistake, you may avoid seeing this as incongruent by noting that you were
fatigued, or careless. It is sometimes possible simply to misperceive how others see oneself. If
you think you are witty, but others don’t laugh much at your jokes, you may avoid incongruence
by not noticing how they respond. One may also misinterpret one’s own behavior so as to
achieve maximum congruency between behavior and an aspect of one’s self concept. If you
think you are a pretty good skier, but actually ski down a particular slope rather sloppily, you
may simply evaluate your performance as better than it is. Finally, one may restructure the
situation to change the evaluation of one’s behavior. Studies have reported that the
correspondence between self and the way one thinks others see one is greater than the actual
correspondence between the self concept and the views really held by others. If you consider
78
READING PROGRAM
yourself generous, you are apt to believe that a friend considers you generous, even though he
or she really believes you are less generous than you think you are.
3 One experimental study illustrates some of the forms that restructuring can take. College
students were presented with fictitious but apparently valid ratings of a variety of their traits,
some of them unfavorable. They were led to believe that the ratings came from an authoritative
source, from a friend, or from a stranger. There were some shifts toward less favorable self-
evaluations after seeing these fictitious sheets (the subjects rated themselves both before and
after they saw the sheets). In addition, when asked to recall them, they distorted the evaluations
in a favorable direction. Given the opportunity, they also dissociated the devaluations from the
source by denying that they had actually been made by the other persons. By and large, their
reactions were more marked where the devaluation was the greatest and where the ratings were
perceived as coming from a friend rather than a stranger. This and other studies support the
general idea that individuals process information about the self in a manner that supports
congruency.
4 The avenues for achieving congruency in experimental situations are frequently limited
and blocked. In everyday situations, there is a wider variety of resolutions to the dilemma of
having behaved contrary to one’s self-conception. How an actor maximizes congruency will
depend on the characteristics of the actor, the act, and the victim, as well as on features of the
situation that allow the chance to misperceive. Characteristics of the actor include not only
personality traits but also constraints and possibilities inherent in the role expectations that
come into play in a given situation. For example, some people may claim no responsibility for
their behavior by saying they were drunk. Others may plead irrationality or illness and find
their claims more readily accepted. Men tend to be exempted from the former while women
the latter. In such ways, both men and women can maintain their usual views of self and
behavior.
Selective Evaluation
5 In the process of selective evaluation, an individual maximizes congruency or minimizes

incongruence by altering the evaluation of self, of behavior, or of the other person in a positive
or negative direction. Behaviors of people who are unimportant to an individual are not
considered incongruous even though they may be at variance with one’s self concept or one’s
behavior. Thus, persons may maximize congruency and maintain their usual self and behavior
by favorably evaluating those who behave congruently toward them and by devaluating people
who behave incongruently. Similarly, where one’s behavior toward another person is
incongruent with one’s self concept, one may minimize incongruence by devaluing the other
person (such as a victim to whom one has done harm). This devaluation may take many forms.
For example, one may believe the other deserved his or her fate that the other’s evaluation of
oneself is not significant, or one may minimize the harm by not taking or feeling the other’s
viewpoint.
Selective Interaction
6 Another important means by which one may maintain interpersonal congruency without
changing one’s self concept or behavior is through selectively interacting with certain persons
and not with others. One elects to interact with those with whom it is easiest to establish a
congruent state. People who think of themselves as smart will interact frequently with other
79
READING PROGRAM
people who respect their intelligence and allow them to use it. They will avoid those who are
much smarter than they are, or so much dumber that they cannot even use their smartness.
7 Studies indicate that strain arises when a role category is incompatible with a person’s
self concept. This suggests that one is likely to avoid entering such positions and to seek more
compatible role categories. This idea is supported by a study of teachers who have been in the
profession for different lengths of time. Experienced teachers had smaller discrepancies
between their self concepts and their perceptions of the teacher role than did inexperienced
teachers. This did not appear to result from change in self, or in perception of the teacher role,
but apparently resulted from the tendency of those with larger discrepancies between self and
role to become dissatisfied and to drop out of the teaching role. In this way they could avoid
pressures to change self to fit the role.
8 A longitudinal study of college roommates provides further support for selective

interaction. Views of self, reflected self, and actual views held by one’s roommate were
obtained in October of one year and in May of the following year. More initial and subsequent
congruency between self and reflected self was found for those roommates who stayed together
when given a choice. For the satisfied roommates, there was also more consensus between
one’s self-rating and the roommate’s actual rating. The possibility that these findings might be
due to a difference in similarity between satisfied and dissatisfied pairs of roommates was ruled
out by a statistical analysis.
9 Individuals may also reduce incongruence by selecting certain people as objects of

comparison. In an experiment, participants were given information leading them to believe
they were rated as quite hostile. Then they were allowed to compare themselves with one
person by looking at that person’s score. They had the option of choosing that person from one
of several groups known to be different in hostility. For the most part, they chose a person from
the most hostile group, thus making themselves appear less hostile by comparison.
80
READING PROGRAM
1. A lawyer thinks he is an expert in divorce cases. His friend Jane wants to get a divorce.
The lawyer expects Jane to ask him to represent her at court. In accordance with the
lawyer’s expectation she asks him to be her lawyer.
In this case, which kind of congruency would the lawyer apply to confirm his self-
conception?
____________________________________________________________________
2. In the experiment with college students, in which two situations did the students react
most strongly?
a. ___________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________
3. Which of the following examples are more acceptable according to people’s role
expectations? There might be more than one answer.
a. Tom was late for his meeting because he was hungover.

b. Marry was late for her meeting because she was hungover.
c. Tom claimed that he was absent from work because of his illness.
d. Mary claimed that she was absent from work because of her illness.
____________________
4. You think you are a kind, compassionate person, how can you maintain congruence
between your self-image and your behavior when you physically hurt somebody?
____________________________________________________________________
5. According to the text in the case of teachers, those who gave up teaching are those
who experienced strain because of the incompatibility between their
________________________________and __________________________________.
6. According to the text, if your classmates think you are a rather aggressive person, what
kind of a classmate are you likely to compare yourself with to maintain congruency?
_____________________________________________________________________
81
READING PROGRAM
AN INTERPERSONAL THEORY OF THE SELF - VOCABULARY STUDY
The words “congruent” and “congruency” occur repeatedly throughout the text. It’s
imperative that their meanings are known.
(in) congruency = congruence (noun): is the quality of similarity or correspondence

between two things.
(in) congruent = congruous (adj): in harmony, agreeing
These words are seen in the following combinations in the text:

NOUN FORM ADJ and ADV FORMS
to maintain a state of congruency to be congruent with

to enter into congruency to establish a congruent state
to achieve congruency
(in)congruence between to be incongruent with
to maximize congruency
to support congruency to behave congruently
to maintain interpersonal congruency
to minimize incongruency to behave incongruently
to reduce incongruence
to avoid incongruence
The other related word combinations that appear in the text are as follows:
-to be at variance with: in a condition of disagreement.
The politician’s actions are at variance with his promises.
these imply -to be incompatible (with): not being able to exist together
incongruence The government had been swinging between incompatible policies.
Bad eating habits are incompatible with good health.
- there is a discrepancy (between): lack of consistency; disagreement

There was a discrepancy between the two reports of the accident.
-there is a consensus: general agreement

There is still no general consensus on what our future policy should be.
- to be compatible (with): able to exist together; agreeing; in harmony;

He bought a printer which is not compatible with his computer.
-to correspond (to): 1. to agree, to be in harmony; 2. to be similar

these imply
1. The promise and the performance do not correspond.
congruence
2. The fins of a fish correspond to wings of a bird.
-correspondence (between): 1. agreement; harmony

2. resemblance; similarity
1. Your account of the accident has little correspondence with the story the
other driver told.
2. There is a correspondence of form in the skeletons of a lion and a tiger.
82
READING PROGRAM
A. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the correct form of one of the
phrases given in bold below.
a. contrary to: opposite, completely different

b. rule out: to decide against; exclude
c. apt to: likely to
d. call for: need; require
e. relevant (to): connected with the matter at hand
f. with regard to: concerning; related to
g. result from: to be a result of, follow as a consequence
1. The teacher wishes to speak to you __________________________ being late.

2. A careless person is __________________________ to make mistakes.
3 He did not ____________________________ the possibility of losing the match.
4. Sickness often __________________________ eating too much.
5. Restructuring the economy _________________________ considerable skill.
6. Unfortunately your comments are not ________________________
what we are discussing.
7. ____________________________ the predictions made by the economists, the rate of
inflation did not fall.
B. Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the given words.
(dis)associate, (dis)association / associated
1. Some psychologists ____________________ low educational achievement with

disadvantaged childhood.
2. Can the private and public lives of a politician ever be _____________________?
3. The ________________________ of these two concepts is not possible because they are
interrelated.
4. I think there is no ____________________ between their marital and financial problems.
5. I was warned by the doctor about the __________________ side effects of the new
treatment.
(mis) perceive / (mis) perception / perceptive / perceptible
1. Contrary to the others, he had a clear _______________________ of what was wrong with
the system.
2. Good musicians prefer a ________________________ audience.
3. The ship was barely _____________________ in the fog.
83
READING PROGRAM
4. From the very beginning, you have grossly ___________________ our situation and
criticized us unjustly.
5. Due to their ________________________ of the conditions, they were not able to take the
necessary precautions in time.
evaluate / devaluate = devalue / (d) evaluation
1. Scientific expertise has always been _______________________ by politicians.
2. The detective began his ____________________ of the evidence.
3. The expedition has now returned, and its members are beginning to _________________
the facts gathered in the field.
4. _________________________ of 18th century paintings is due to the change of taste.
valid /validity / validation / validate
1. The new discoveries made the _______________________ of the big-bang theory

questionable.
2. His objections to the plan on the basis of cost are ________________________ .
3. The scientist could not _______________________ his claims.
4. The steps taken in the ______________________ of his hypothesis were found

unscientific by many of his colleagues.
84
READING PROGRAM
EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOUR
1 Animals and humans like to explore their environment and seek out new and varied
stimulation. Studies which have been carried out since the 1950s suggest that this kind of
behaviour is activated by a curiosity drive that motivates organisms to investigate novel things
in their environment. One group of such studies involved the phenomenon called ‘alternation
behaviour.’ If you place a rat in a T-maze and allow it to select one of the two arms of the
maze, the probability of its selecting either of the two arms of the maze is 50%. If you then
remove that animal and immediately give it a second choice, you find that it tends to select the
arm of the maze it did not enter on the first trial. This tendency to choose the previously
unvisited alternative on the second trial has been referred to as ‘alternation behaviour.’
2 Murray Glanzer attributed ‘alternation behaviour’ to satiation. Satiation implies that the
organism has had enough, that the stimulus is no longer a source of motivation, and that the
organism has exhausted all the information of the stimulus. When we are talking about humans,
we tend to use the word bored. According to Glanzer, the animal became satiated for the
stimulus to which it had just been exposed (Glanzer, 1953). In his study, Glanzer demonstrated
that if you changed the colour of the walls of the arm of the maze that the animal had visited
on trial 1, the animal tended to repeat his response in the second trial to experience the new
colour as it was satiated for the colour in the first trial. This also showed that satiation is not
limited to responses. You could become satiated visually, auditorily, olfactorily and so forth.
3 Children in particular like to seek out new and varied stimulation. For instance, if a
child is presented with an object he has not previously encountered, and he is in a familiar and
secure environment, he will tend to approach the object, visually inspect it, and then begin to
interact with it by touching it, holding it, picking it up, tapping it, turning it over, and so on.
After the child has thoroughly investigated the object, his interactions with it begin to diminish.
When a person stops interacting with a novel object, we say that he or she has become satiated.
However, since children and adults often return to objects previously abandoned, it appears
that satiation dissipates with time. This is one of the important facts that need to be explained
by a theory of curiosity and exploratory behaviours. When people abandon an object, it is
usually because they have shifted their interest and attention to other objects, usually objects
that are new or ones they have not encountered for a while. Thus, humans have a tendency to
interact constantly with more and more of the environment.
4 Cognitive Component-The Concept of Complexity As the studies of the curiosity drive

continued, it became very apparent not only that organisms tend to explore things that are novel
or different, but that they are attracted to things that are complex. However, humans are not
simply attracted to the most complex things in their environment. Studies by Robert Earl (1957)
demonstrated the tendency of humans to respond to increasingly complex stimuli. Earl assumes
that organisms are motivated to experience optimal complexity. He suggests that an organism
becomes accustomed, or habituated, to a certain level of complexity (called an adaptation level)
and is motivated to explore stimuli that are slightly more complex than this adaptation level.
The theory predicts that individuals will always select slightly more complex stimuli (given
that they have had time to adapt to a given level of complexity), and that, over time, individuals
will come to prefer more and more complex stimulation.
85
READING PROGRAM
5 Berlyne’s Theory D.E. Berlyne’s theory of exploration is based on the assumption that
exploration and play are directed toward the processing of information. Through this
processing of information, the individual becomes knowledgeable about his environment.
Berlyne also suggested that the basic mechanism underlying exploratory and play behaviours
is level of arousal. His theory assumes that arousal comes from interacting with external
stimulation or by exercising internal processes, such as imagining, fantasizing, and thinking.
Berlyne identified those characteristics of stimulation that could produce arousal. The
characteristics of stimulation he associates with arousal are novelty, degree of change,
suddenness of change, surprisingness, conflict, complexity, and uncertainty. He theorized that,
upon encountering a new stimulus, the person compares the stimulus with some “standard”
stimulus represented in memory. In other words, he or she compares its essential features such
as its degree of complexity, novelty etc. with those of the standard. If the stimulus departs in
some way from other stimuli represented in memory, it should elicit arousal.
6 When a person encounters a new stimulus that departs in some way from the standard,
it is assumed that the discrepancy will elicit arousal. The greater the discrepancy is, the greater
the arousal. Berlyne proposed that humans prefer moderate levels of arousal. Since moderate
arousal is pleasurable, the person will, according to the theory, try to maintain contact with the
stimulus. Berlyne argued that either very simple stimulation or very complex stimulation
produces low affect, and that high complexity or novelty can even lead to negative affect. For
instance, a stimulus could be too complex for the individual, and, therefore, it will evoke too
much arousal and thus become aversive. Rather than explore such a stimulus, the theory
predicts, the individual would tend to terminate contact with the stimulus in order to avoid or
reduce displeasure. This is due to the fact that certain stimuli may exceed the individual’s
ability to abstract the information they contain. Therefore, until the individual has developed
the appropriate structures (presumably as a result of interacting with stimuli that can be
processed), there is no point in interacting with such stimuli. In short, it would be a waste of
the individual’s time.
7 In one experiment designed to determine the effects of level of arousal on exploratory

behaviour, Franken and Strain (1974) used a large multi-unit maze that permitted certain
sections to be changed from white to black, or from black to white, between the two daily trials.
If exploratory behavior is motivated by the tendency to seek out new stimulation, animals high
in that tendency should select and respond to the changed parts of the maze. To observe the
effects of different levels of arousal on this tendency, half of the animals (rats) were injected
with an arousal-producing drug between the two daily trials, and the other half were injected
with saline solution (salty distilled water). The results indicated that the animals injected with
saline solution entered somewhat more sections even when the sections were not changed, but,
when they were changed, the animals entered many more of them. The results for the animals
injected with the arousal-producing drug were almost opposite to those of the saline-injected
animals. When the sections were changed, the animals tended to avoid them. These results
clearly show that arousal does mediate the tendency to respond to new stimulation.
86
READING PROGRAM
8 Arousal and Esthetics It has been suggested that esthetics can, in part, be understood
within Berlyne’s conceptual framework. The work of Dorfman and Smith (1965) illustrates
how it can account for some esthetic preferences.
9 According to Berlyne’s theory, when a person is exposed to a stimulus, he or she is

likely to process the information it contains. As a result, his or her liking for that stimulus
should decrease. A simple stimulus contains less new information than a complex stimulus,
and, therefore, it should take less time to process all the information a simple stimulus contains.
It follows that interest in a simple stimulus should diminish more rapidly with repeated
exposures than interest in a complex stimulus. Berlyne has also suggested that although people
tend to avoid highly complex stimuli, when a person is repeatedly exposed to a highly complex
stimulus, he develops the structures necessary to process the information it contains. Drawing
on Berlyne’s theory, Smith and Dorfman (1975) carried out a study in which they measured
liking for visual stimuli as a function of complexity and number of exposures. Smith and
Dorfman predicted that interest in a highly complex stimulus might increase rather than
decrease with repeated exposures. This prediction was confirmed. A highly complex stimulus
elicited little interest from the participants when viewed for the first time. However, with each
additional exposure, subjects showed greater interest in highly complex stimuli. They also
found that a stimulus of medium complexity initially elicited very little interest or liking. With
repeated exposure, liking grew and then declined. Presumably, after 20 exposures the subjects
had processed the information in the medium-complexity stimulus but still had not exhausted
the information in the high-complexity stimulus; therefore, their interest in the stimulus
continued.
10 Extrinsic Rewards: The Enemy of Exploration In an article titled “Enemies of

Exploration: Self-Initiated versus Other-Initiated Learning,” John Condry (1977) concludes
that, in certain contexts, extrinsic rewards (rewards originating from the outside) undermine
not only performance but interest in the activity. Why do extrinsic rewards undermine
performance and interest? To answer this question, it is important to look briefly at some of
the research on this problem.
11 An obvious extrinsic reward is money. In a series of studies to examine whether money

would increase or decrease subsequent interest in a task, Edward L. Deci (1972) used a game
called SOMA. This game includes a number of locks that can be arranged into different
patterns. Participants in the study were divided into three groups and asked to play the game.
The first group was offered a social reward (praise) for every configuration they produced. The
second group received a monetary reward. In this group, half of the subjects were informed
about the monetary reward at the start. The others were not informed and received it
unexpectedly. The third group received nothing. In the middle of each of the three experimental
sessions, the experimenter left the room, and the subjects were viewed without their knowledge
to determine whether they continued to play the game. The degree of interest in the game during
these “free sessions” was used as a measure of intrinsic motivation. If the subjects continued
to play the game after the experimenter left the room, they were considered to be intrinsically
motivated. Deci found that those who were given verbal praise did not lose their interest in the
game and continued to play even after the experimenter left the room. The results for the second
group were interesting. The experimenters found that only those subjects who were informed
87
READING PROGRAM
of the reward at the start had less intrinsic motivation. It was not the receipt of the reward itself
that decreased intrinsic motivation. It appeared that the promise of a reward altered the
person’s approach to the task. For example, if a subject unexpectedly received a reward, it did
not affect his or her performance.
12 Sensation Seeking The work on exploratory behaviour has typically suggested that an
organism tends to avoid seeking new experiences when it involves risks because risks often
arouse fear, which, in turn, produces high levels of arousal and hinders exploratory behaviour.
It is interesting, therefore, that Zuckerman has been able to identify people who seek high
sensation and, therefore, are willing to take risks (experience fear) in order to explore.
Sensation seeking, according to Marvin Zuckerman (1979), “is a trait defined by the need for
varied, novel and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and
social risks for the sake of such experiences.”
13 Among Zuckerman’s findings on sensation-seeking are sex differences (men tend to be

higher in this trait than women), and the tendency for sensation seeking to diminish with age.
Yet, the most interesting of them is that high sensation seekers are attracted to restricted
environmental stimulation. This is not what anyone would expect. Normally we think that
people who prefer change and novelty would prefer more rather than less stimulation. The
reason the high sensation seekers said they enjoyed restricted environmental stimulation was
that it provided them with a new experience. Under restricted environmental stimulation,
becoming aware of bodily functions –the heart beating, the blood rushing through the arteries,
food being digested, and so forth- was easier. To the sensation seekers, this was novel
experience. Together with the idea that these people are willing to take risks in order to have
novel experiences, we have two of the basic keys to this personality type.
14 Numerous studies have been carried out to discover the origins of the sensation seeking
trait. It has been shown that sensation seeking is negatively correlated with monoamine oxidase
levels (Zuckerman, 1979). That is, the level of monoamine oxidase is low in high sensation
seekers and high in low sensation seekers. Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme that determines
the activation of the “reward centers” of the brain. Sensation seekers are hypothesized to use
such drugs as cocaine. One reason for this hypothesis is that the effects of these drugs may
depend on the activation of these reward centers. If your reward centers can be activated to a
high degree, then it should be possible for you to experience greater pleasure or greater reward
as the result of using drugs. In other words, it is suggested that high sensation seekers receive
more reward value when they use certain drugs, and are therefore more prone to use drugs in
the future. Conversely, low sensation seekers are thought to be experiencing low level of
reward value when they use those drugs and are therefore less likely to use drug in the future.
15 Studies related to monoamine oxidase in high and low sensation seekers urged
researchers to focus on the origins of the differences in the monoamine oxidase level. Drawing
on a number of twin studies, Zuckerman has argued that they are inherited. Frank Farley (1986)
has pointed out, however, that sensation seeking has also been linked to testosterone level.
Whatever the exact mechanism, he also endorses the hypothesis that sensation seeking is
inherited.
88
READING PROGRAM
Read the text carefully and answer the following questions in the spaces provided.
1. Lately, Annie has started to wear the blue necklace that she hasn’t used for a while. What
finding about satiation does the above example support?
_______________________________________________________________________
2. According to paragraphs 5 & 6, for a new stimulation to produce arousal, there should be
a difference between the new stimulation and __________________________________
and the size of this difference determines the amount of __________________________.
3. Consider the stimuli below in terms of complexity. According to Berlyne, which person is
likely to experience very high arousal and so end contact with the stimulus?
person--------------------------------------------------------stimulus
a) an art student a painting by Picasso

b) a farmer seeds turning into a plant
c) a 3-year-old child a car engine
4. What did Franken and Strain use in their experiment that led to a decreased exploratory
tendency in the rats?
_______________________________________________________________________
5. In Smith Dorfman’s research, when a stimulus was too difficult for a person, first s/he
showed __________________________________________ but then if there were
_________________________________________________ the stimulus received
____________________________________ from the person. In contrast to stimuli of
average difficulty, very difficult stimuli appealed to the person for a long time because
____________________________________________________________.
6. In Smith and Dorfman’s study, when there weren’t repeated exposures, a highly complex
stimulus received little interest, because the subjects lacked _______________________
___________________________________.
89
READING PROGRAM
Questions 7-10 are about Deci’s experiment. Choose the correct answers from A-G.
7. What did the researchers look at to understand subjects’ level of intrinsic motivation in
Deci’s experiment? ________
8. Which variable in the experiment did not cause a loss in intrinsic motivation? ________
9. What was the object of interest in the study? ________
10. What caused the subjects to lose interest in the game? ________
A. Locks
B. Being informed of the reward at the start
C. Verbal praise
D. Level of interest during free sessions
E. Receiving a reward
F. The degree of interest in the game
G. Monetary reward
90
READING PROGRAM
VOCABULARY
7
administrative considerable exclusion restrict
allocate cycle facilitate seek
approach debate flexibility status
assign decade maximum trace
code eliminate percent traditional
concentration enhanced phase widespread
8
access corporate indication psychologist
authority crucial innovation residential
conclusion differentiate methods response
confirm display obviously somewhat
contradictory equipment potential survey
conventional exhibition presumably technical
9
adapt establish overall stressful
analytic hence overlap sufficient
approximately incorporate parallel theory
assess injured period transmit
contracted internal preceding undergo
discriminating military series volunteer
91
READING PROGRAM
A. Fill in the blanks in the following text with the appropriate words from the box.
Use each word ONCE. There are more words than you need.
adapt enhance global innovations periods sufficient

considerable establish imply obviously restrictions undergo
crucial facilitate incorporates overall seek volunteers
1
Work camps are international short term projects which gather ________________
from different countries and cultures. The __________________2 aim is to support a project
of a community such as environmental activities and working with children who lack
_______________3 care and attention in their homes. Participating in a work camp or a similar
project can be exciting for many young people who _______________4 to explore the world,
build job skills and make a difference. Besides, most of the activities can ________________5
participants’ health as they generally include physical activity such as walking, running,
constructing or taking kids swimming. Most camps welcome people aged 18-35, although there
may be age ______________6 for certain projects. It is essential for individuals who are
interested in taking part in a work camp to be able to easily _________________7 to different
situations and environments.
One organization which runs such volunteering programs is Canadian Alliance for
Development Initiatives and Projects (CADIP). CADIP is a non-profit Canadian organization
which promotes peace and cooperation in multi-cultural environments. It also aims to
______________8 the individual growth of the participants through teaching new skills.
CADIP ______________9 many types of activities into its program, which run throughout the
10
year for ________________ ranging from 2 weeks to 18 months. So far, CADIP has
11
helped ________________ many schools, training centers, libraries and other similar
projects across the world. By setting up educational institutions this way, it has provided
_______________ 12 benefits to many people in need.
_________________13, taking part in a volunteering program is an enriching
experience. However, it requires hard work and dedication. Participants may sometimes
14
_________________ many difficulties as they are in an unfamiliar place, away from their
15
families and learning a whole new culture. Therefore, it is _______________ for
volunteers to maintain their enthusiasm and passion throughout the process.
92
READING PROGRAM
administrative approximately debate hence methods residential

approach contradictory decades indication preceding survey
authorities conventional eliminate innovative presumably widespread
Some major cities in Turkey have been experiencing huge population increases for the
past few _________________ 1. This is most likely due to urbanization. According to a /an
2
_________________ carried out in 2010, over 70% of Turkish population lives in urban
3
areas. This has caused _________________ concern about migration from rural areas to
cities, for these fast-growing cities face enormous challenges. One problem is the increasing
demand for transport, especially in _______________ 4 areas, that is, areas where people live
in significant numbers. _______________ 5, the main reason for this is that many people still
prefer to drive because public transport is inadequate. Therefore, for a long-term solution, a
6
comprehensive _______________ to transportation planning must be adopted. The local
_____________ 7 in councils all over Turkey should develop projects to solve transportation
problems. Secondly, the cities face amenity problems such as water supply and sewage system
8
problems. This is an _______________ that the city infrastructure cannot support the
migrating masses. In this regard, improvements are required, for which funding is necessary.
The collection of user fees and taxation are ________________ 9, or usual, ways of raising
funds. These two _________________ 10 can also be used to fund infrastructure improvement.
However, these ways of fundraising often attract strong political and public
________________ 11. __________________ 12, municipalities or local _______________ 13
14
bodies in cities should find _________________ ways of financing these services. In
addition, when developing solutions, the government and locals authorities must agree. If the
local authorities raise taxes while the government increases funds, for example, such
__________________ 15 policies may lead to social unrest.
93
READING PROGRAM
94
READING PROGRAM
WEEK 4
(4 blocks)
Reading Material
Individual and Communal Adaptation R1
Media and Persuasion R1 (optional)
Dyslexia R2
Is Your Online Data Safe? R2 (optional)
95
READING PROGRAM
96
READING PROGRAM
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNAL ADAPTATION

1 The central problem of life is adaptation to those external conditions which provide the
materials for existence but which also impede and limit expansion. For every form of life there
is an irreducible minimum of materials and conditions without which growth and reproduction
are impossible. Light, temperature, humidity, food elements, etc., in varying degrees and
combinations, are essential to all species. Variations in these qualities of the environment,
together with the presence of competitors and predators, impose restrictions on the number of
beings that may occupy an area. It is thus imperative that the organism gain control, through
one device or another, over the factors that constitute its environment. Adaptation is the
securing and conserving of control over the environment.
2 Types of Environment: The environment of any life form is a set of manifold external
circumstances which influence, positively or negatively, the activities of the organism. Any
attempt to enumerate the components of the environment involves one in an endless task: for
each species and type of life responds to a variety of stimuli in a way more or less peculiar to
itself. It is possible for general purposes, however, to avoid the extreme multiplicity of factors
included in the meaning of environment by making a simple classification, namely: (1)
inorganic and (2) organic. In the former are included all the mechanical and nonliving
conditions that surround the organism, such as light, air pressure, humidity, temperature,
minerals, topography, etc. The latter, the organic environment, comprises all manifestations
of life whose activities impinge upon the individual or group of individuals. This includes other
members of the same species as well as representatives of different species present in the area.
Thus man’s organic environment is composed of the vegetation which impedes his movements,
animals which prey upon him and upon which he preys, domesticated plants and animals, and,
what is often most important, his fellowmen. The adaptive efforts of the individual organism,
then, are directed toward both inorganic and organic phases of the environment.
3 Types of Adaptation: The almost infinite variety of ways in which organisms meet
life problems may be classified into two broad categories: 1. Individual adaptations; 2.
communal adaptations. Since the individual organism is the common denominator of life,
adaptations are always observable in the actions of individuals. It is also true, however, that
individuals are independent in but few respects; they inevitably live together and collaborate
with their fellows in overcoming the resistances to life. The relationship of one type of
adaptation to the other should become clear in the course of the following discussion.
4 Individual adaptations: As they relate to the environment, they may be further

subdivided into genetic and somatic types. That is to say, the responses of living forms to
inorganic and organic factors may consist of either genetic or somatic changes. Genetic
adaptations, although manifested by individuals, pertain to the morphology of the species;
whereas somatic adaptations are characteristics peculiar to the individual. A brief survey of
how these adaptations are exhibited by different organisms will enable us to understand more
fully the meaning of adaptation and at the same time will reveal certain marked similarities in
all forms of life.
5 Genetic and Somatic Adaptation: The first and most elementary problem
confronting the organism is that of acquiring physiological equipment appropriate to its
survival in a given environment. That is to say, each habitat imposes basic requirements upon
its occupants which must be fulfilled in the structures of the organisms. These we term genetic
97
READING PROGRAM
adaptations. Darwin emphasized this mode of adjustment in his explanation of the origin of
species. Adaptations of the structural type are genetically produced; they result from hereditary
variation and environmental selection. Every organism is unique to some degree in its genetic
qualities. Those individuals whose genetic qualities enable them to live in a specific
environment may establish themselves there: the rest perish or move to an environment in
which they can survive. Thus, there tends to be “a definite correlation between the peculiarities
of inhabitants and those of habitats.”
6 Long-time changes in the environment are met by genetic adaptations. But at any given
time for any given individual, it is not sufficient that organic structure be fitted only to a
particular set of external conditions. The organism must have within its structure a degree of
plasticity which will enable it to accommodate itself to the cyclical variations as well as to
other special conditions in the habitat. Somatic adaptation, observable in the bodily changes
and forms of behaviour that develop in the course of the individual’s life cycle, is therefore of
fundamental importance to the survival of the individual and indirectly of the species. - (A) -
The capacity for somatic adaptation is also genetically conditioned and may almost be
considered a structural element. - (B) - Plasticity is a general characteristic of all living forms,
but is present in varying degrees in different species and in different individuals within a
species. - (C) - Unlike genetic adaptations, however, adaptations of the somatic order are
temporary; they exist in the life of an individual but are not passed on to succeeding
generations. - (D) -
7 The human organism is also capable of a considerable degree of somatic adaptation to

food, climate, and other aspects of the environment. The digestive system, though it suffers a
disturbance upon a change of diet, will generally become readjusted in a short time. Likewise,
when the body is exposed to the hot rays of the sun, it will develop a protective shield,
commonly referred to as skin tanning. Man’s heart and lungs vary in size with the altitude at
which he customarily lives, that is, with the atmospheric pressure and the proportion of oxygen
in the air.
8 Differences between man and other animals: The primary cause of man’s
extraordinary adaptability is his superior mental capacity. Other features of his unspecialized
physiology, such as his erect posture, his opposable thumb, and his ability to produce sounds,
contribute to the relatively unrestricted functioning of this capacity. Whereas other animals
depend largely on genetic changes for adaptation to environment, man’s chief form of
adjustment has been through agencies external to himself, but largely of his own fashioning.
Instead of developing claws, wings, hard shell coverings, horns, etc., man has constructed tools,
clothing, weapons, and various other devices from the materials of his environment. This is not
to say, however, as is sometimes implied, that there is a sharp demarcation between man and
other animals in regard to the possession and exercise of mental capacity. Many other animals
in adjusting to the environment make use of agencies external to themselves. Monkeys use
sticks to knock coconuts from trees, birds and insects construct nests, and beavers fell trees and
build dams to refashion their natural habitats.
9 Maladaptation: Maladaptation is also common among human beings. For the most
part it results from change in environment along with the persistence of habitual ways of acting.
This is one reason why many tribal peoples, such as the Tasmanians, become extinct when
their territories are invaded by people with more efficient technologies. The specific
maladaptations that appear in periods of transition are much the same whether the individuals
98
READING PROGRAM
are preliterate or civilized. The Chukchee, for example, who turned from sedentary coast-
dwellers to pastoral nomads, carry with them heavy complicated shelters resembling their
former permanent dwellings, instead of developing a simpler and more easily transportable
type. Likewise, people from northwestern Europe, notably Britain, who have sought to
colonize the tropics have insisted on retaining food habits, manners of dress, and other
inappropriate customs acquired in the mother country. In every group may be found
superstitions and customs that are no longer relevant to the conditions of life but which
nevertheless are allowed to continue, creating confusion and interfering with efficient
functioning.
10 Communal Adaptation: The discussion to this point has been centered principally
upon the individual as the representative of a species. But one of the first lessons learned by
the conscientious observer of life is that organisms do not live as discrete units, except,
possibly, for brief periods of time. They do not, in other words, achieve their adaptation to the
environment alone and unaided. Nothing could be more erroneous than a conception of the
organic world merely as a distribution of self-sufficient and disparate units of life. Living
organisms are inevitably dependent upon their fellows in one way or another; and the organic
world, viewed in its generality, is a multitude of partnerships and corporations that overlie and
interpenetrate one another, thus constituting an intricate network of vital relationships.
11 The complex character of the adaptation process derives in part from the inherent
physical and mental limitations of the organism, but probably to a much greater extent from
the rapid reproduction rate of which living creatures are capable with the resultant tendency to
overcrowding the available life space. W.G. Sumner provides us with an apt, though somewhat
oversimplified, explanation of the way in which organic and inorganic environments become
interrelated. When an individual, he observes, is attempting to accomplish something in an
area, the fact that other individuals are trying to do the same thing in the same area is for him
a highly important condition. The individual organism may ignore the others and thus, by
exposing itself to the risk of unnecessary interference and conflict, increases its chances of
failure in the enterprise. Or it may adjust its activities to those of its co-inhabitants and thereby
enhance the probability of success. In other words, through cooperation energy is conserved
and the effects of chance occurrences that threaten the life of the organism are minimized.
Adaptation to the physical and mechanical conditions of the environment is facilitated, in fact
is secured, through the mutual adaptation of organisms.
12 Students of life are in general agreement that the universal tendency is for organisms to
confront the environment not as individuals but as units in a cooperative effort at adaptation.
For example, plants, the most independent of living forms, “do not ordinarily live alone like
hermits but are found growing along with other plants in communities that usually consist of
many individuals.” Concerning animals, Darwin wrote: “Although there is no evidence that
any animal performs an action for the exclusive good of another species, yet each tries to take
advantage of the instincts of the other, as each takes advantage of the weaker bodily structure
of the other species.” Man is no exception to the general rule. Men everywhere live in
association with other forms of life as well as with their fellowmen. Few instances of solitary
human beings have come to light and, while information concerning these feral creatures is far
from satisfactory, it appears that survival in every case was contingent upon the individual’s
adapting his activities to those of other species.
99
READING PROGRAM
13 Thus, it is evident that adaptation is a collective phenomenon, involving all the

organisms occupying a given area. To this “higher physiology of organisms” we apply the
term communal adaptation in order to convey the idea that adaptation to the environment is a
population rather than an individual problem.
14 Interrelatedness of life: Relationships among living creatures, however, are infinitely

more complex than they appear on the surface. Darwin was among the first to fully appreciate
nature’s intricate pattern which he described in the metaphor “web of life.” This vivid concept
has since become the point of departure for ecological study; we must, therefore, examine in
some detail the meaning of this idea.
15 Creatures that, to all outward appearances, are “… remote in the scale of nature …” are
found to be linked together in a chain of relations. Much has been accomplished since Darwin
stirred the intellectual world by the publication of his observations and theories and much new
light has been shed on the correlations of organisms and their collective adjustment to the
varying physical environment. Darwin and his colleagues sketched the principal outlines in
nature’s pattern and subsequent students have been rapidly filling in the details of the pattern
with many valuable discoveries. The deeper the analysis of the “web of life” is pushed, the
more meaningless becomes such a word as “independent.”
16 Symbiosis: Upon analysis of the web of life, we find that one of its most conspicuous
and important components is the symbiotic relationship. The term symbiosis denotes a mutual
dependence between unlike organisms. Because they make dissimilar demands on the
environment, members of different species may supplement the efforts of one another. The
food-enemy relationship is of this order. The eater and the eaten are engaged in a vital
cooperation, each contributing to and facilitating the circulation of life-giving matter. But their
mutual assistance is also more direct. The food species produces a surplus population for the
maintenance of a predator species. The latter, by its predation, exercises a control on the size
of the food species population which, if it grew too large, would be exposed to extinction by
contagion or by the exhaustion of its own food supply. “It is easy to see that what may be a
one-sided harmful relation between individuals may be a tolerable or even beneficial relation
between populations.”
17 Nature is full of instances of direct mutual helpfulness between unlike organisms. Much
of the complexity of the web of life is due to the prevalence of this phenomenon.
18 The dependence of herbivore upon bacteria to assist in breaking down the cells of plants
taken into the stomach as food; the cooperation between certain plants and animals by which
the animals are provided with fruit and the plants have their seeds scattered widely over the
environment; the entrance of the little plover into the mouth of the crocodile to pick the blood-
sucking leeches from the gums of that huge amphibian; the partnership between man and
favoured plants and animals―man providing an ideal habitat devoid of natural enemies and in
return having his food supplied; these and numerous other occasions of symbiosis draw the
threads of interrelationship in the living world into a tight and complex fabric.
100
READING PROGRAM
1. What is the most significant component of man’s organic environment?

_________________________________________________________________________.
2. a) Despite the fact that both genetic and somatic adaptations can be seen in individual
members of species, only __________________________belong to the structure of the
species.
b) If the genetic attributes of species are not compatible with their environment, there are two
consequences: They __________________________________________________________.
The somatic adaptations made by an organism reveal the inherent versatility of the
organic structure in meeting local variations in the environment.
___________
4. In the context of paragraph 8, what does “agencies external to humans” mean?

A. The capacity to act out of free will
B. The capacity to adapt psychologically
C. The ability to exercise mental capacity
D. The capacity to make use of equipment
___________
5. Accompanying the shift in the environment, ___________________________________

leads to maladaptation.
101
READING PROGRAM
6. Which of the following CANNOT be based on Sumner’s evaluations?
A. Inseparable reliance on each other helps individuals minimize conflicts.

B. Individuals aligning their actions with those of fellow inhabitants conserve energy.
C. Individuals navigating the challenges autonomously protect their own interests.
D. Reciprocal adjustment generally benefits the individuals in nature.
__________
7. Which statement below is TRUE based on paragraphs 14 and 15?

A. The intellectual world was not surprised by Darwin’s theories and observations.
B. The “web of life” shows the relations linking the close ones in the scale of nature.
C. The interdependence of organisms in nature is more meaningful today.
D. Nature’s intricate pattern was known by many ecological scientists before Darwin.
__________
8. Which one of the following examples of dependence can be an example of symbiosis?

A. Birds building nests on the branches of trees
B. A herd of cattle grazing in a field
C. A tapeworm living in the intestines of a mammal
D. Bees collecting nectar from flowers
__________
9. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the text?
A. Species do not act independently in nature.

B. Mutual helpfulness between dissimilar organisms is very rare in nature.
C. Individual adaptation efforts focus on the organic and inorganic forms of the
environment.
D. What looks harmful between individuals may benefit the population.
__________
102
READING PROGRAM
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNAL ADAPTATION - VOCABULARY STUDY

A. Collocations
a. Complete the blanks with one of the words given below.
gain, impose, become, shed, pastoral, common
1. ____________________ denominator 4. ___________________ nomads

2. ____________________control 5. ____________________ extinct
3. ____________________ light 6. __________________ restrictions
b. Now complete sentences below with one of the combinations you have formed above.
Pay attention to the prepositions.
1. New discoveries ___________________ ___________________ on the mysteries of the

universe.
2. Most of the North American Indians were ________________ __________________
who moved from plain to plain to search for food.
3. The administration is planning to ________________ ________________ on the use of
the computer room.
4. The party ____________________ ___________________ of a nation of over 100
million
people.
5. If pollution and global warming can not be reversed many animal and plant species will
______________________ _____________________.
6. The ___________________ ______________________ among the members of the group
is their the strong drive for achievement.
B. Fill in the blanks with one of the phrases below. (Make the necessary changes.)
Pay attention to the prepositions.
a. peculiar to : it’s unique or only found in particular circumstances

b. impinge upon: to have an effect on, often by restricting the way one can behave.
c. collaborate with: to cooperate
d. pertain to : to be related; refer
e. appropriate to; right for the occasion, suitable; proper; acceptable
f. to accommodate (--self) to: to get used to sth. or to adjust to sth.
g. prey upon : to hunt or kill for food.
h. contingent upon: to depend on sth. else, in order to happen or to exist.
i. to provide someone with sth.: to supply
j. engaged in : to do an activity or to be involved in it.
k. exposed to: to be unprotected against sth. (the meaning in the text)
l. in association with: to do something together
103
READING PROGRAM
1. Cats ________________________ mice.

2. The style of decoration ____________________ the 1940s has become fashionable again.
3. Genetic adaptations ____________________ the morphology of the species.
4. An organism must have within its structure some plasticity which will enable him to
________________________ himself __________________ the changing conditions.
5. Individuals ____________________ their fellows to overcome the difficulties of life.
6. The eater and the eaten are ___________________________ a vital cooperation.
7. The organic environment comprises all manifestations of life whose activities
_______________________________ the individual.
8. W.G. Sumner _________________________ us ________________________ an
explanation of the way in which organic and inorganic environments become interrelated.
9. If the population of the species grows too much, it will be _________________________
extinction by the exhaustion of its own food supply.
10. An organism has to acquire physiological equipment which is ______________________
its survival in a given environment.
11. It appears that survival in every case was ________________________ the individual’s
adapting his activities to those of other species.
12. Men everywhere live _____________ other forms of life as well as with their fellowmen.
C. Use the following adjectives to complete the sentences below.
a. unique: being only one of its type

b. disparate: clearly different; that cannot be compared in their qualities or types
c. mutual: equally shared by each one; equally so one toward the other
d. preliterate: not leaving or keeping written records.
e. irreducible: which cannot be made smaller or simpler
f. imperative: urgent; which must be done
g. sedentary: not moving from one place to another; settled
h. intricate: containing many detailed parts and thus difficult to understand
i. solitary: alone or single; lonely
j. devoid: entirely without or wanting; lacking
1. For every form of life there is a(n) _____________________ minimum of materials and
conditions without which growth and reproduction is impossible.
2. He preferred a ___________________ life in the mountains to the hectic life in the city.
3. The plot of the film was so ____________________________ that it was very difficult to
follow what was happening.
104
READING PROGRAM
4. Although it is not obvious, there is a link between these ___________________________

aspects of scientific research.
5. This stamp is _________________________; all others like it have been lost or destroyed.
6. A _________________________ life is not for me; I’d rather keep moving from one
country to another.
7. He is the total amateur, totally lacking in imagination, totally ______________________
of
any technical skill.
8. It’s ________________________ that we take measures to prevent air pollution.
9. Their hatred for each other is ___________________________.
10. It’s difficult to study the history of __________________________ societies.
D. Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the given words.
predator / predation / predatory

1. _________________________ animals sometimes attack the villagers in India.
2. Lion, wolf or hawk are _________________________________
3. ________________________ is common in the wild, in fact, it’s necessary for survival.
manifest (v, adj) manifestation
1. His behaviour toward us today was the ____________________ of his true character.
2. He rarely ____________________________ interest in his studies.
3. Fear was ____________________________ on his face.
confront / confrontation
1. The government is not prepared to face a ________________________ with the unions
2. Can you think of typical problems that ______________________ Turks learning English?
versatile / versatility
1. Because of its ____________________, nylon has been used in making all kinds of things.
2. He is a very ___________________ performer. He can act, sing, dance and play the piano.
peculiar / peculiarity / peculiarly
1. Lately, she has been behaving rather ______________________________.
2. Each city has its own _________________________, its own history and character.
3. This food has a _____________________ taste. I don’t think I like it.
4. That way of speaking is ___________________ to people in this small part of the country.
105
READING PROGRAM
MEDIA AND PERSUASION

1 In today’s world, persuaders use increasingly sophisticated ways of exerting influence
over the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of their audiences. We are constantly bombarded by
persuasive messages. Everyone from advertisers and politicians to our friends and colleagues
seek to gain our support for their ideas, products, or services. It is essential, therefore, that we
develop an ability to critically analyze the messages we encounter so as not to be misled by the
persuaders. Consider two brief examples:
2 A television commercial for a new car tells us much more than how many miles to the
gallon the car gets or which safety features it includes. Automobile advertising tells us what
kind of cars we should drive, the cultural importance of driving particular cars, and why it is
important to have the freedom of mobility that driving affords. We often do not even realize
how the implicit messages of advertisers affect our attitudes and, ultimately, our buying
behavior.
3 Politicians - with the help of news media’s power to persuade big donors to help them
- use public opinion polling to shape the public’s agenda, telling us which issues are important
and which are not. While this agenda may be reflective of some people’s priorities, it is just as
likely to exclude the priorities of many others. The path to success lies in the persuasive power
of their campaigns on big donors. If big donors perceive a politician as a credible candidate,
one with a chance of forwarding their objectives, they will invest money in that candidate and
decide to sell the politician’s message. In other words, politicians purposely create agendas that
ignore many members of the public, instead targeting those smaller, more influential groups
that can help them win elections.
Persuasive Power
4 The link between media effects and persuasion has been discussed broadly in many
studies. In order to better understand the issue, the bounds of persuasion should be defined first.
Miller (1980, 2002) stresses that persuasion encompasses three different processes: response
shaping, response reinforcement, and response change. Response shaping focuses on the initial
formation of how someone reacts to an object, while response reinforcement speaks to a
strengthening of a preexisting reaction toward an object. This type of response is not purely
evaluative and can include generating resistance to influence as well. Response change in its
purest form is identified as a shift in the attitudes (positive/negative) of someone’s reaction to
an object.
5 Discussions of media effects in relation to persuasion often form around an artificial

boundary constraint of defining persuasion as being about response change only (Holbert,
Garrett, & Gleason, 2010). This definition represents a disservice to the concept. Any
discussion of media effects that focuses solely on response change implicitly adopts a limited
approach. But, when persuasion is seen also to include response shaping and response
reinforcement, it becomes clear that media influence and all its complexities can be understood
as persuasion.
6 The intricate relationship of media and persuasion has attracted the attention of many
researchers. Shrum (2012) is considered a pioneer in entertainment media research for his
theory which aims to deconstruct the delicious paradox of entertainment media. This paradox
106
READING PROGRAM
incorporates media’s delivering of pleasure and enjoyment while simultaneously promoting

and persuading the audience. This is where the delicious paradox comes into play: the
dichotomy between pleasure-giving and invisible persuasion. As explained in the model, the
media aim to entertain audiences while simultaneously persuading consumers to unconsciously
change perspectives, accept offers, and buy products. Product placement is one of the most
established forms of invisible persuasion. According to PQ Media’s Branded Entertainment
Marketing Forecast, paid product placement spending grew 33.7% to $2.90 billion in 2007; the
growth is attributed to the increase in digital video recorders that allow viewers to skip
commercials, thus requiring more product placement throughout the actual program. The fact
is, advertisers are sucking every last drop of blood out of the consumer and that, according to
Shrum, stimulates the internalization process of its audience. This cycle of providing
entertainment at the expense of free thinking by the viewer is at the heart of Shrum’s conclusion
that the lines between media and persuasion have been blurred, affecting cognitive responses.
The Cultivation Theory
7 Research on the psychological processes underlying television viewing effects takes its
starting point from cultivation theory. Cultivation theory is a broad theory that relates media
content with particular outcomes. In its most basic form, the theory suggests that television is
responsible for shaping, or “cultivating”, viewers’ conceptions of social reality. The combined
effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly distorts and reshapes the
recognition of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for the culture as a whole. Gerbner
argues that the media maintain and propagate already existing values amongst members of a
culture, thus binding them together.
8 Theorists of this persuasion are best known for their study of television violence, a hotly
debated, and beaten to death topic. However, there are many studies that expand beyond the
study of violence to cover gender, demographics, cultural representations, and political
attitudes among many others. The theory suggests that television and media possess a small
but significant influence on the attitudes and beliefs of society. The primary proposition of
cultivation theory states that the more time people spend “living” in the television world, the
more likely they are to believe social reality portrayed on television. Under this umbrella,
perceptions of the world are heavily influenced by means like images and ideological
messages. Gerbner and Gross (1976) assert that television is a medium of the socialization of
most people into standardized roles and behaviors.
Television as a Cultivation Tool
9 Numerous content analyses of television have shown that a number of incidents are
consistently overrepresented on television relative to their real-world incidence. Such events
include crime, violence, affluence, marital discord, and particular occupations such as doctors
and lawyers, just to name a few. Cultivation theory posits that frequent viewing of these
distortions of reality will increasingly result in the perception that these distortions reflect
reality (Gerbner et al. 2002). Numerous studies have confirmed the predicted correlation
between amount of viewing and beliefs congruent with the television portrayals. For example,
TV viewing has been shown to be associated with wrong assumptions about the estimates of
the number of doctors, lawyers, and police officers in the real world, the prevalence of violence
and the prevalence of ownership of expensive products (Shrum 1996, 2001). In addition, heavy
television viewing has been shown to be associated with greater anxiety and fearfulness, greater
107
READING PROGRAM
faith in doctors, greater pessimism about marriage, greater interpersonal mistrust, and higher
levels of materialism (Burroughs, Shrum, and Rindfleisch 2002).
10 Television’s cultivation of conceptions and behaviors is a consistent process but is

integrated in different ways and with different results into different patterns of life. Therefore,
a fuller understanding of television’s contribution may be achieved by paying particular
attention to differences across different subgroups. For example, it is well documented that
more educated, higher income groups have the most diversified patterns of cultural
opportunities and activities; therefore, they tend to be lighter viewers. But the heavy viewers
in the higher education, high income groups respond differently. Their responses are more like
those of other heavy viewers, most of whom have less education and income. It is the college-
educated, higher income light viewers who diverge from the mainstream cultivated by
television; heavy viewers of all groups tend to share a relatively homogeneous outlook.
New Perspectives
11 Although the general cultivation theory holds that heavy viewers should have world
views that are more consistent with the world of television than light viewers, there have been
modifications and refinements to the theory that have been directed towards understanding
variables that may moderate the cultivation effect. One of these refinements is mainstreaming.
Mainstreaming is the view that people’s life experiences may moderate the cultivation effect.
Specifically, those whose life experiences are more discrepant from the world of television are
the most likely to be influenced by the television message. Consistent with this formulation,
Gernber et al. (1980) showed that when television viewing was considered as a function of
income or race, only respondents with high or moderate incomes showed a positive correlation
between television viewing and the belief that fear of crime is a serious personal problem,
whereas those with low incomes showed no such effect. Similarly, the cultivation effect was
noted for white respondents but not for non-white respondents. Thus, mainstreaming predicts
an interaction between television viewing and certain demographic variables.
12 A second refinement to general cultivation theory is resonance. Like mainstreaming,

resonance suggests that viewers’ life experiences may moderate the cultivation relation.
However, resonance predicts an interaction between television viewing and life experience that
is essentially opposite to that of mainstreaming. Resonance suggests that those people whose
life experiences are more compatible with the experiences of the television world will be most
affected by the television message, rather than least affected as mainstreaming predicts. When
a viewer’s personal experiences involve crime and violence, heavy viewing of television
programs may result in a double dose of the television message and significantly boost
cultivation in that particular area (Gerbner et al., 1980).
13 Cultivation theory essentially implies that regular and prolonged exposure to television
will alter a viewer’s perceptions of reality. Gerbner claims that such an analysis is an
examination of the consequences of an ongoing and pervasive system of cultural messages, so
it seems peculiar that so little of this research has been done in the non-television realm. – A –
Newer media fit this definition; since its inception, the Internet has continuously evolved to fit
the needs of a population that thrives on globalized knowledge. – B – Through social media in
particular, it seems that an application of cultivation theory would be a worthy endeavour. Like
all forms of media, there are heavy users online. – C – Gerbner defines such a viewer as
someone who watches and engages in four or more hours of television a day. According to
108
READING PROGRAM
Nielsen (2012), the average Internet usage in the U.S. is about 30 hours a month at home and
approximately 57 hours total when work is taken into consideration. – D – This information
indicates that there exists a sufficient audience and that cultivation could be tested in this new
research area. Obviously, further studies are needed to clarify the cultivation effect of new
media on people and the culture as a whole.
1. What skill is necessary to avoid persuaders’ deceptive influence on our beliefs and
behaviors?
________________________________________________________________________
2. Politicians focus on smaller groups’ priorities rather than those of bigger groups because
more powerful small groups’ financial contributions ______________________________.
3. Which one of the following CANNOT be an example of response reinforcement?
A. A music application recommending playlists based on users’ preferences, inspiring

them to explore diverse music genres on this application.
B. A food delivery service rewarding customers with loyalty points for each purchase,
encouraging them to order regularly and experiment with new culinary options.
C. A university offering online therapy sessions for students experiencing mental health
challenges, getting rid of students’ bias against therapy.
D. A high school arranging outdoor trips for students where students earn participation
points counting for 1% of their term grade average.
__________
4. What is the primary focus of Shrum’s theory in paragraph 6?
A. It delves into the historical evolution of media and its impact on persuasion.
B. His research explores the cognitive effects of media enjoyment on consumer behavior.
C. It shows the coinciding pleasure and persuasion aspects of entertainment media.
D. His work examines the role of media in shaping cultural values and norms.
________
109
READING PROGRAM
5. What method is mostly being used in the entertainment media in order to achieve
invisible persuasion?
________________________________________________________________________
6. Which statement best summarizes the difference between Gerbner’s and Shrum’s theories
discussed in paragraphs 6 and 7?
A. Gerbner’s theory centers on media exposure and its negative effects, whereas Shrum’s
theory focuses on its positive effects on the individual and the society.
B. Gerbner’s theory shows the gradual influence of media consumption on perceptions of

reality, while Shrum’s theory looks at how media impact consumer behavior right
away.
C. Gerbner’s theory explores how media content influences individual choices, but
Shrum’s theory examines media’s role in shaping cultural beliefs.
D. Gerbner’s theory suggests that media reinforce cultural values; however, Shrum’s
theory argues that media subtly alter societal perceptions over time.
_________
7. According to the Cultivation Theory, what tools does television make use of in order to
manipulate perceptions?
________________________ and ________________________
8. Which of the following is NOT an example of distorted reality as a result of heavy

television viewing?
A. Believing that doctors are trustworthy

B. A negative perception of marriage
C. Believing that many people purchase luxurious products
D. A more optimistic perception of other people
_________
9. Which group of people are least influenced by the cultivation effect of television?
________________________________________________________________________
110
READING PROGRAM
10. Mainstreaming suggests that the cultivation effect will be higher for the people with life
experiences which are ________________________ from the ones depicted on television.
11. According to the resonance view, when does increased exposure to media violence lead to
greater cultivation effects among heavy viewers?
_______________________________________________________________________
12. There is a missing sentence in paragraph 13, and the paragraph shows four letters (A, B,
C, D) where the missing sentence could be added. Read the paragraph and decide where
the following sentence fits in paragraph 13.
While such a figure may seem significant, there are users who spend much more
time online with social media.
__________
111
READING PROGRAM
DYSLEXIA
What is Dyslexia?
1 Dyslexia means difficulty with words. The problem has been called word-blindness and
specific reading or writing deficit. Although many people face difficulties while learning to
read and write, dyslexia is used by professionals to denote the difficulty in attaining normal
reading ability despite good teaching and hard work. Traditional dyslexia is sometimes called
developmental dyslexia and is about difficulty acquiring reading skill. Acquired dyslexia
usually results from physical trauma leading to reading difficulties after reading was mastered.
2 A good way to understand dyslexia is to establish what it is not. It is not a sign of low
intelligence or laziness. It is also not due to poor vision. It is a common condition that affects
the way the brain processes written and spoken language. People with dyslexia can understand
complex ideas. Sometimes they just need more time to work through the information. They
may also need a different way to process the information, such as listening to an audiobook
instead of reading it. Because dyslexia is primarily associated with trouble reading, some
doctors, specialists and educators may refer to it as a “reading disorder” or a “reading
disability.” But it can also affect writing, spelling and even speaking.
3 Dyslexia is a lifelong condition. However, once a person is diagnosed, there are many
effective teaching strategies and tools that can help with dyslexia. It is important to ensure that
the reading problem is not due to other factors. Dyslexia tends to run in families and boys are
more vulnerable than girls. This certainly seems to suggest that genetic factors may be
important.
Decoding and Comprehension
4 Reading involves two basic processes. The first is to recognize a string of letters and to
decipher the code into a word. One has to learn the letters: how they sound and how syllables
are formed. This is a slow and laborious job which most frequently results in reading that is
instantaneous and automatic. The second process is more abstract. It makes the text
meaningful and connected to experience. It is possible to decode without comprehension: to
absent-mindedly read without anything having ‘sunk-in’. Dyslexics can have very specific
difficulties such as how words are spelled (orthography), what words mean (semantics), how
sentences are formed (syntactics) and how words are built up of roots, prefixes and suffixes
(morphology). Psychologists have devised word-decoding tests so we can measure how good
a person is relative to the average.
Subgroups
5 As with nearly all psychological problems, experts point out that people with the
problem are far from a homogeneous lot and frequently fall into recognizable subgroups. This
process of delineating subgroups often helps with precise diagnosis and theory building. The
problem with making these fine distinctions is getting agreement from experts on the groups
and the terminology. The first distinction, proposed in the 1960s, was between auditory
dyslexia (problems in differentiating between phonemes and linking/blending them together
into a word) and visual dyslexia (difficulty in interpreting, remembering and understanding
letters and images of words). Auditory dyslexics have problems with distinguishing letters that
112
READING PROGRAM
sound the same, like b or p; d or t. Visual dyslexics have difficulty identifying words as visual
shapes, so ‘mad’ looks like ‘dam’ for example, they also spell phonologically, writing ‘wot’
for ‘what’, ‘ruff’ for ‘rough’. Later further distinctions were made between dysphonic dyslexia,
dyseidetic dyslexia, and alexia. Still, the best way to diagnose a person’s reading difficulties is
to look very carefully at the processes they use: what they can and cannot do easily and
correctly.
Symptoms
6 Thus, for children with dyslexia, reading a single word can be a struggle. Early in
elementary school, students are expected to read a passage of text and answer questions about
it. This is what is known as “reading comprehension,” and it is essential for building a strong
foundation for success in school. Students with dyslexia often have reading comprehension
problems because they need to develop several underlying skills. The initial skill is connecting
letters to sounds: children have to learn that each letter of the alphabet is associated with a
certain sound or sounds and to connect them to “sound out” words. Then, they have to decode
text, which starts with the process of sounding out words. Once a child can decode individual
words, he/she can start to make sense of entire sentences. Another skill is word recognition.
This is the ability to read a familiar word at a glance without having to sound it out. The more
words children can recognize by sight, the faster they will be able to read. Average readers can
recognize a word by sight after sounding it out a dozen or so times. Students with dyslexia may
need to see it 40 times. Understanding the text is the next skill. Strong readers can remember
what they have just read. They can summarize it and recall specific details. Readers with
dyslexia can get too involved sounding out individual words. It may take such a long time to
read a sentence that they may not remember the sentence that came before it. This interrupts
the flow of information and makes it harder to understand and relate the new material to what
they already know. The final step is reading fluently. Fluent readers can recognize most words
by sight and quickly sound out unfamiliar words. They also can read smoothly and at a good
rate, which is essential for good reading comprehension.
7 Some children do not seem to struggle with early reading and writing, but later on, they
have trouble with complex language skills, such as grammar, reading comprehension and more
in-depth writing. People with dyslexia tend to be better listeners than readers. But dyslexia can
make it hard to filter out background noise, making listening comprehension a challenge too.
8 Because dyslexia affects some people more severely than others, a child’s symptoms
may look different from those in another child. Some children with dyslexia may struggle with
spatial concepts such as left and right, and navigation problems may result in their getting lost
in school hallways and other familiar places. Other dyslexics may have unusually high or low
tolerance for pain. Dyslexia can also lead to troublesome self-expression, because it can be
hard for persons with dyslexia to structure their thoughts during conversation. Others struggle
against misunderstanding nonliteral language such as jokes and sarcasm during conversation.
9 Dyslexia may affect everyday skills and activities. Social skills is one such area.
Struggling academically in school, for example, can make a child feel inferior around other
students, resulting in frustration and low self-esteem. The child may stop trying to make new
friends or may avoid group activities, thus becoming unsociable.
113
READING PROGRAM
10 The signs may also look different at various ages. More often, though, dyslexia is
identified in grade school, because as schoolwork gets more demanding, troubles become more
apparent. Many children have one or two of these issues on occasion, but those with dyslexia
have several of these issues, and they do not go away. Some additional difficulties dyslexia
results in are difficulty gripping a pencil, trouble understanding a sequence of oral directions,
and difficulty organizing and managing time.
Diagnosis and Treatment
11 There is no single test for dyslexia, and getting a formal identification often involves a
team of professionals. As part of the evaluation process, the parents and teachers may be asked
to fill out questionnaires about the child’s strengths and weaknesses. Then, the child’s doctor
may test the child’s vision and hearing to see if these could be affecting his/her ability to read.
The doctor would also evaluate the child’s development and whether other family members
have reading problems or other learning issues. As a next step, the child may be tested by a
psychologist or other professional who specializes in learning issues. These specialists can
provide insights into how the child thinks. They will do tests to zero in on which areas he/she
is struggling with. Psychological testing can also determine whether Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression or other issues are interfering with
learning.
12 The specialists will discuss their findings and recommend ways to help the child. A
healthy diagnosis is of vital importance because there are some conditions that can coincide
with or be mistaken for dyslexia. One such condition is ADHD, which can make it difficult to
stay focused during reading and other activities. Roughly a third of students with attention
issues also have dyslexia. It is also worth noting that teachers sometimes overlook signs of
dyslexia and assume a child has ADHD. That might be because children who have difficulty
reading can fidget from frustration. They can also act up in class to cover up not knowing how
to do what the teacher is asking.
13 Having looked at the weaknesses of dyslexics, it is important to mention that most

dyslexics have many strengths as well. For one, though they may not test well academically,
they are usually very bright, highly intelligent in fact. It should always be kept in mind that
many dyslexics have very high levels of IQ and that the difficulties they experience in reading
or spelling are in direct contrast to the level of their creativity in many other areas. Dyslexics
are very creative, and talented in art, drama, music, sports, mechanics, designing, or
engineering because they learn best through hands-on experience, experimentation, and
observation. The important point is for parents, schools and specialists to work together to help
with their weaknesses and boost their strengths. Seeing a psychologist could help the child deal
with the possible anxiety and depression that dyslexia may cause. Parents’ reading out loud to
the child from an early age, using audio recordings of books, apps and other high-tech help
would also be helpful. Voice-recognition software can help older students tackle writing
assignments by letting them dictate their ideas instead of having to type them. The main point,
however, is to focus on effort, not outcome, for the sake of motivation.
114
READING PROGRAM
1. What two factors must be present for a professional to differentiate between common reading
difficulties and dyslexia?
a. ______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
2. The facts that dyslexia is likely to ______________________________ and is more

common in ________________________ than in ________________________ indicates
that it might be hereditary.
3. Keito cannot tell the difference between the words “tap” and “pat” while reading. What type
of dyslexia does she have?
________________________________________________________________________
4. Kaan cannot recall what he has read in the previous paragraph as he moves on to the next
one. Which one of the reading skills explained in paragraph 6 does Kaan have a problem
with?
________________________________________________________________________
5. Evan has more trouble than his friends in following what the teacher is saying in a loud and
Crowded classroom because his dyslexia makes it more difficult for him to____________
_______________________________________________________________________.
6. Read paragraphs 8 - 10. Fill in the box below with the ultimate effects of the problems
dyslexia may cause in the following areas:
Communicative Psychological/Social Physical
getting lost
115
READING PROGRAM
7. According to the text, which of the below does NOT have to be evaluated before a child is
diagnosed as dyslexic?
a. vision
b. hearing
c. motor skills
d. family
e. psychology
8. Contrary to their troubles in reading, persons with dyslexia have no problems in fields that
require ______________________________ due to their considerable intelligence and
learning-style that is based on ____________________________________,
_________________________________ and ___________________________________.
116
READING PROGRAM
IS YOUR ONLINE DATA SAFE?
http://www.itpro.co.uk/it-legislation/27814/what-is-gdpr-everything-you-need-to-know
https://iapp.org/news/a/gdpr-matchup-turkeys-data-protection-law/
1 The Internet has made the access and exchange of information – including personal
data – easier and faster than ever. Individuals are providing their personal data online,
knowingly and sometimes unknowingly for many different purposes. Social interactions are
also increasingly taking place over the net – for example in social platforms, for creating new
opportunities, but it also risks privacy. The frontier-less nature of the Internet, which enables
the free flow of data across countries, also brings new challenges.
2 In 1981 the Council of Europe adopted the first international treaty to address the right
of individuals to the protection of their personal data: Convention for the Protection of
Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, known as “Convention
108”.
3 The treaty was drafted in a technologically neutral style, which enables its content to
be fully valid today. To ensure that its data protection principles are still adapted to new tools
and new practices, the text is currently being updated. To this day, it still remains the only
legally binding international instrument with a worldwide scope of application, open to any
country, and with the potential to become a global standard.
4 The new regulation for the protection of personal data was enforced at the end of
May,2018 and it affects every citizen, business, organization and public authority that handles
personal information. The General Data Protection Regulation, or simply, GDPR, aims to
strengthen the data rights of EU residents and to harmonise data protection law across all
member states, making it identical. The GDPR also aims to give control to individuals over
their personal data and to simplify the regulation for international business by unifying the
regulation within the EU. It makes it easier for people to discover what information
organisations have on them. In essence, it seeks to bring more transparency to people about
what data organisations collect, and what those organisations use it for, as well as enabling
people to prevent unnecessary data collection. The new regulation brings along an increase in
fines that organizations face if they do not comply with the rules and misuse personal data.
5 While many of the GDPR’s rules are similar to those defined in the EU’s Data
Protection Directive 1995 (which was enshrined in UK law as the Data Protection Act 1998),
the older directive was created before the age of social media, and before the internet had
dramatically transformed the way we work and live.
6 Almost all of us have enjoyed the use of “free” services from the likes of Google,
Facebook and Twitter in exchange for a wide range of personal information – from names and
email addresses, to political leanings and sexual orientations. Confusing terms and conditions
and tick boxes made it harder for people to understand what exactly they were agreeing to
giving these tech giants.
7 The potential consequences of this widely-defined transfer for personal data was
demonstrated by Facebook’s Cambridge Analytica scandal, where a third party app used
millions of users’ profile data to influence the outcome of the 2016 US election.
8 A separate aim of GDPR is to make it easier and cheaper for companies to comply with
data protection rules. The EU’s 1995 directive allowed member states to interpret the rules as
they saw fit when they turned it into local legislation. The nature of GDPR as a regulation, and
not a directive, means it applies directly without needing to be turned into law, creating fewer
variations in interpretation between member states. The EU believes this will collectively save
companies €2.3 billion a year.
117
READING PROGRAM
9 In short, GDPR applies to almost every organisation. If you control or process personal
data relating to EU residents – whether they’re customers or your own staff – you now have to
do so in a way that complies with GDPR. Organisations do not have to be based in the EU to
be bound by GDPR. They only need to be processing or holding data on EU residents in order
for GDPR to apply to them.
10 Depending on your role in collecting or processing that data, the regulation will view
you as either a data controller or a data processor. A data controller defines the terms (how and
why) of data processing, but does not necessarily carry out these activities themselves. That
means they might contract a third party to collect and process data – telling them how to do it,
and stating what purpose they are doing it for.
11 A data processor is the third party that performs the actual data collection and data
processing. That means a controller could be any organisation, from a high street retailer to a
global manufacturing giant to a charity, while a processor has to be an IT services firm that the
data controller employs.
12 It is the controller’s job to make sure the processor complies with data protection law,
while processors must maintain records of their processing activities to prove they abide by the
rules. If a processor violates GDPR, it must notify its controller immediately, and the controller
will still be liable for financial penalties given that their processor disregards the rules. GDPR
states that controllers must make sure it is the case that personal data is processed lawfully,
transparently, and for a specific purpose. That means people must understand why their data is
being processed, and how it is being processed, while that processing must abide by GDPR
rules.
13 “Lawfully” has a range of alternative meanings, not all of which need to apply. Firstly,
it could be lawful if the subject has consented or agreed to their data being processed.
Alternatively, lawful can mean to comply with a contract or legal obligation; to protect an
interest that is “essential for the life of” the subject; if processing the data is in the public
interest; or if doing so is in the controller’s legitimate interest – such as preventing fraud. At
least one of these justifications must apply in order to process data.
14 The EU has substantially expanded the definition of personal data under the GDPR. To
reflect the types of data organisations now collect about people, online identifiers such as IP
addresses now qualify as personal data. Other data, like economic, cultural or mental health
information, are also considered personally identifiable information. Pseudonymised personal
data may also be subject to GDPR rules, depending on how easy or hard it is to identify whose
data it is. Anything that counted as personal data under the Data Protection Act also qualifies
as personal data under the GDPR.
15 Under the aim of giving people more control over their information, GDPR ensures that
people can ask to access their data at “reasonable intervals”, with controllers having a month
to comply with these requests. Both controllers and processors must make clear how they
collect people’s information, what purposes they use it for, and the ways in which they process
the data. The legislation also says that firms must use plain language to convey these things
clearly and coherently to people: it is time to wave goodbye to those confusing, dense terms
and conditions.
16 People have the right to access any information a company holds on them, and the right
to know why that data is being processed, how long it is stored for, and who gets to see it.
When possible, data controllers should provide secure, direct access for people to review what
information a controller stores about them. They can also ask for that data, if incorrect or
incomplete, to be fixed whenever they want.
118
READING PROGRAM
17 GDPR makes it clear that people can have their data deleted at any time if it is not
relevant anymore – i.e. the company storing it no longer needs it for the purpose they collected
it for. If the data was collected under the consent of an individual, s/he can withdraw this
consent whenever they like. They might do so because they object to how an organisation is
processing their information, or simply do not want it collected anymore. The controller is
responsible for telling other organisations (for instance, Google) to delete any links to copies
of that data, as well as the copies themselves.
18 In consideration of this legislation, every company, organisation, public authority
and/or individual is obliged to observe the new regulation or they will be confronted with
significantly increased fines for non-compliance, which is up to €2 million or 4% on the
turnover of a company.
19 Turkey, similar to the European Union, has been experiencing data protection hype. In
2017, Turkey approved Convention 108 of the Council of Europe and passed into law a
framework on the protection of personal data, the Turkish Data Protection Law (DPL).The
Turkish Data Protection Law originates from the European Union Directive 95/46/EC, with a
number of its original add-ons and revisions.
Purpose limitation
20 The purpose limitation principle remains to be the cornerstone of data protection
legislation around the world. “Purpose limitation” means that personal data can only be
collected for specific, pre-defined purposes (“purpose specification”) and not be used for
purposes that are incompatible with the purposes for which the data was originally collected
(“compatible use”). A compatibility test is necessary to ensure that personal data is not further
processed for purposes that are incompatible with the purposes for which the data was
originally collected. The DPL also requires that personal data processing respect compatible
use. The key difference here is that the DPL does not allow for a “compatible purpose”
interpretation and strictly prohibits any further processing. The Justice Commission expresses
that if any other purposes arise following the collection of the data, processing for such new
purposes will need to be done as if the controller is processing the data for the first time. This
means that if the data is collected for a purpose based on the consent of the data subject, the
controller will be able to use the same data for another purpose only if it obtains further consent.
Processing grounds and consent
21 Processing grounds available under the DPL are similar to those of the GDPR with two
major exceptions: First is that the DPL requires consent for both the processing of non-sensitive
and sensitive personal data, and second, it is considerably more problematic to process sensitive
personal data without consent under the DPL. Personal data includes information relating to
the race, ethnic origin, political opinion, philosophical belief, religion, clothing, membership
to associations, foundations or trade-unions, health, sexual life, convictions and security
measures, and the biometric and genetic data.
22 DPL clearly imposes that personal data, whether sensitive or non-sensitive, must be
processed with the “explicit consent” of the data subject. Explicit consent is defined as “freely
given specific and informed consent” in DPL. At first sight, it might seem that DPL requires
explicit consent even for the processing of non-sensitive personal data. This can be interpreted
to mean that the DPL provides an even higher level of protection to the data subjects as opposed
to that of the European Union. However, things get a little bit interesting when we dive into
the definition of “explicit consent” under the DPL and compare it to the GDPR’s. The
definition stated in the GDPR reads as “freely given, specific, informed and unambiguous
indication of the data subject’s wishes by which he or she, by a statement or by a clear
119
READING PROGRAM
affirmative action, signifies agreement to the processing of personal data relating to him or
her”. The consent required by the DPL for the processing of non-sensitive personal data has,
in fact, lower standards than that of the GDPR due to its ambiguity. In other words, “explicit
consent” within the meaning of the DPL consists of even lesser regular “consent” than within
the meaning of the GDPR.
23 Turning to another difference, the processing grounds available for sensitive personal
data under the DPL are highly limited in comparison to those of the GDPR. Accordingly, apart
from the “explicit consent” of the data subject, sensitive personal data, except for data
concerning health and sexual life, can be processed if it is permitted under a Turkish law. On
the other hand, personal data concerning health or sexual life can only be processed for the
purposes of protection of public health and planning or sustaining health care services under
the obligation of confidentiality. As can be seen, the processing grounds are quite limited for
sensitive personal data, particularly when the data concerns health or sexual life.
24 The new data processing regulations both in The EU and Turkey have well defined
limitations for the good of the citizens. Data controllers have to take all adequate measures as
stated in the decision by the DPL and GDPR. The results of violations are serious. In Turkey,
for instance, the unlawful activity in question may be subject to imprisonment between 18
months to 54 months according to Article 135 of the Turkish Criminal Code. In addition to
that, since processing sensitive data without taking adequate measures can be regarded as
“failure to comply with the decisions of the DPL”, an administrative fine can of 25,000 to
1,000,000 Turkish Lira (USD 6.500 – 2.600.000) can be applied.
120
READING PROGRAM
Read the text carefully and answer the questions below.
1. What quality of “Convention 108” makes the text applicable even today?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Which of the following is NOT among the purposes of GDPR?

a. To make data protection rules equal for all EU citizens.
b. To empower EU citizens’ rights against misuse of their personal data.
c. To rise the penalties for inappropriate use of data.
d. To ease the process of tracking companies that collect personal data.
3. Although the new directive is very similar to the one in 1995, the older fell short because at
that time ______________________________ did not exist and _____________________
was not very influential.
4. What offer of tech giants encouraged people to give away their personal information without
understanding what they were agreeing with?
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Read the information below about “Data Controllers” and “Data Processors”. Match them
with their responsibilities. Write DC or DP next to the statements.
a. They do not have to be from the IT sector. _______________

b. They specify the purpose and the methods of data collection. _______________
c. They are responsible for checking whether data collection is legal. _______________
d. They have to inform the other party if there is something wrong. _______________
e. They need to keep record of their data processing procedures. _______________
6. Under the definition of personal data in GDPR, in addition to IP addresses and economic,
cultural & mental health information ____________________________ data can be
considered personal if it is ____________________ to spot the individual.
7. If a person wants his/her data deleted, _______________________ is in charge of removing

the individual’s data completely including its links and all other copies completely with
other organizations.
121
READING PROGRAM
8. Read paragraphs 20-23 and circle the sentences that are TRUE for Turkish Data Protection
Law (DPL). There might be more than one correct statement.
a. DPL states that personal data can only be used for a different reason if the subject gives
additional permission.
b. Processing of non-sensitive data in DPL is as protective as GDPR.
c. A person’s voting preferences are considered sensitive data.
d. Not all sensitive data processing requires explicit consent of the subject.
__________________________
122
READING PROGRAM
VOCABULARY
10
aid confine highlight predominate
alternative criteria imply proportion
arbitrary despite inherent random
chemical extract justify regulate
complement federal label unique
comprise guarantee layer whereas
11
abandon devote input prohibitive
adjacent diminish minimize region
annual duration nevertheless terminate
benefit expansion occur ultimate
cite expert outcome virtually
conduct inevitable predict volume
12
adequate commodity fluctuate secure
anticipate discrete insert site
attain enable mutually supplement
aware ensure nonetheless sustain
capable exploit precise transport
clarify export sector utilize
123
READING PROGRAM
arbitrary commodity expansion inevitable outcomes regulate

attain discrete exploit minimizes predict sustain
cite ensure fluctuate mutually predominates virtually
Investing in the stock market, where stocks and shares are sold, is a risky business. People
who do not hesitate to risk what they have may either earn or lose large sums of money. In its
broad sense, what investors do is to buy and sell company shares considering the possible
________________ of the company’s future performance. The results of the company’s future
1
activities and decisions are not the only component in this process. There are a lot of factors.
Therefore, authorities _________________ 2
the market taking all these factors into
account. That means investors have to be very careful with when, how much and in which
company to invest if they want to make profits. They need to follow the agenda of the country
and the world, and _________________ what might happen resulting from current affairs.
3
This is because the stock market is so vulnerable to outside effects. The prices of the shares
may _________________ wildly with the changes in the economy. _________________
4 5
everything about politics and the economy affects the stock market.
As we all know a stock or a share is not a concrete _________________ like gold but an 6
abstract and _________________ 7

entity with its own dynamics. In addition to current
conditions of the market, speculators are always at work. Those people buy some shares and
start spreading rumors about how profitable that specific investment will be. By doing so, they
try to _________________ that people invest in specific companies. When people start buying
8
the shares of those companies, the demand for those shares _________________ the market. 9
As a result of this, others assume that this is a profitable investment and they should buy some
shares, too. When the prices of the shares rise, the speculators start selling their shares for a
much higher price. Although the others may lose, the _________________ result is that the 10
speculators win.
This system is to the benefit of not only investors but also companies. If a company needs
money for development and _________________ 11
into new areas, it is much better to
_________________ the stock market than ask for bank loans. This way it will generate the
12
money it needs and will not have to pay interests. When the companies ________________ 13
the aimed amount of share sales, they can grow bigger and earn more. Therefore, the investors
124
READING PROGRAM
who bought the shares of that company earn, too. Although it seems quite simple, to
_________________ this profitability, in other words, to keep profiting, both companies and
14
individual investors need to be careful in this _________________ 15

business where chance
plays the biggest part.
adequate aware comprise enabled nonetheless supplement
adjacent capable conduct inherent precise terminated
although clarifying confine justified prohibitive utilizing
Consumption is mostly encouraged to keep the economy going. Desires

_________________ 1
in human nature lead people to consume more and more.
_________________, the sources of the world are not enough to support endless consumption.
2
For this reason, governments always seize the opportunity of enforcing high amounts of taxes
when they need to control the consumption of specific items. These ________________ taxes 3
are always at hand against cases such as excessive usage of luxury goods. To
_________________ the excessive usage to a minimum, and prevent people from buying
4
more than they need, taxes have proved useful in many cases.
Assume that cars have become so affordable that almost everyone

is ________________ of buying more than one car. When there are at least two cars per
5
family, there will of course be countless problems. These problems will not solely be as simple
as being stuck in the traffic longer or not being able to find parking spaces. Think of the carbon-
monoxide emissions, air pollution and the future of our world. These problems are so serious
that they require to be _________________ 6
immediately. What do you think would be the
best way to end these problems - to ban people from buying a lot of cars, to make them pay
penalties if they do, or to _________________ campaigns against multiple car ownership?
7
The first two of these suggestions cannot be _________________ as they are against human
8
rights. In democracy, individuals are free to buy the things they can afford. Also, organizing
campaigns may not be_________________ or effective. However, if higher-than-normal or
9
additional taxes are implemented, people will not want to pay more, and will surely avoid
having two or more cars.
125
READING PROGRAM
On the other hand, additional tax implementation cannot and should not
_________________ 10
the basis of a country’s tax policy. There are several ways of
_________________ additional taxes, but using them to ________________ the economy
11 12
will be too cruel to its citizens. The _________________ 13

aim of these taxes is to deter
excessive usage, but not to support the economy. Of course, there are other and most probably
better ways of preventing overconsumption such as making people _________________ of 14
its results. If the citizens are sensitive to our common future, _________________ 15
why it
may pose a threat to our world in the long term may be effective.
126
READING PROGRAM
WEEK 5
Reading Material
The Great War and European Culture R1
Social Aspects of GM Foods R1
Sounds Familiar? R2
Cultural Studies and Cultural Politics R2
127
READING PROGRAM
128
READING PROGRAM
THE GREAT WAR & EUROPEAN CULTURE

Pre-reading Vocabulary Study
1. Prefix: A letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning.
Pre – before in time or rank.
e.g. prewar, premarital, predetermine (A prefix never changes the part of speech.)
Post – after in time or sequence, following.
e.g. postwar, postgraduate
Inter – between or among. e.g. international, intercontinental
– together, mutual. e.g. interdependent, interrelated
2. Important Vocabulary Items:
Armistice (n.) : truce, peace, ceasefire
Butchery (n.) : slaughter, killing, murder, bloodshed
Chic (adj.) : stylish, fashionable, up-to-date
Decade (n.) : a period of ten years
Despair (n.) : total loss of hope, misery, depression
Dynasty (n.) : empire, house, rule, regime
Escapism (n.) : to retreat from unpleasant reality through fantasy or dreams
Hostility (n.) : hatred, opposition, conflict, warfare
Mainstream (adj.) : central, conventional, accepted
Mood (n.) : state of mind, atmosphere, feeling
Pessimism (n.) : the tendency to expect the worst and see the worst in all things
Rage (n.) : a. fury, anger b. the latest fashion
3. Fill in the blanks using the words above.
1. I am not in the ________________for fun tonight, I won’t be coming to the party.
2. Time passes quickly as you get older; you look back and not just a year but a ___________
has already passed.
3. The armies began to bury their dead once _________________was declared.
4. If the ______________ between these two nations continues to rise, there may be a war.
5. His wife is pretty and she also dresses well; she is always really_________________.
6. Medieval wars usually involved a lot of ______________________.
7. He seemed to be in total __________________ after losing his job and his house.
8. As a marginal artist, she never paid attention to ________________ trends.
9. Smart watches seem to be the technological __________________ of our time.
10. My father flew into a ________________ when I told him I had spent all my pocket money.
11. John is an optimist, always seeing the good side of things, whereas his wife is the exact
opposite, she has completely given in to ______________________.
12. The same ____________________ had been ruling the country for 30 years when the
masses finally took to the streets and demanded democracy.
13. Romantic comedies are merely a form of_____________________. They help us to forget
about the difficulties of our everyday lives.
129
READING PROGRAM
THE GREAT WAR AND EUROPEAN CULTURE21

Politics
1 World War I (1914-1918), also known as the Great War, can be viewed as the event
that ended the nineteenth century and started the twentieth. With the collapse of the Romanov
dynasty and the revolutionary uprisings of 1917, Russia had to draw out of the war. These
radical changes led perhaps to the worst four years in Russian history due to famine, diseases,
and the deaths from civil war. - (A) - In fact, these years were almost worse than the Great War
itself. In the Middle East, at this time, one crisis followed another. - (B) - The first signs of
trouble came in March 1919, when widespread rioting occurred in Egypt after British
authorities exiled a popular nationalist. - (C) - In December, Mustafa Kemal, the hero of
Gallipoli, held elections to a new Turkish Chamber of Deputies that immediately declared
independence. - (D) - Their aim was firstly to be able to oppose and fight against the secret
wartime treaties published by the Bolsheviks, which planned to split the Ottoman Empire into
British, French, Italian, and Greek administrative areas and zones of influence. In early 1920,
Kemal moved against French troops in Southern Anatolia, one of the areas which had been
promised to France. Immediately after this, Pan-Arab supporters demanded the creation of an
Arab state including present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and western Iraq, claiming,
correctly, that British authorities had promised as much in 1915 in the hopes of ending Ottoman
rule.
2 Revolutionary events shook other parts of Central and Eastern Europe as well.
Germany’s monarchy did not survive the end of the war. Austria- Hungary also fell apart as
the empire’s major ethnic groups formed independent states and Austrian workers, like their
German brothers, proclaimed a republic in Vienna. When an armistice took effect on November
11, 1918, the Romanov, Hohenzollern, and Habsburg dynasties that had been so responsible
for the outbreak of war over four years earlier had fallen. So had thirty-seven million men, the
dead, the wounded, and the missing of the Great War.
A New Order
3 The butchery of the Great War and the events that followed widened and deepened
antiwar feelings that had existed for decades before the hostilities began. Preventing the
possible reoccurrence of such violence was a major priority and the underlying motive behind
all change. One result was no doubt the creation of the League of Nations. Another was the
increasing presence and weight of America in all kinds of international decision and policy-
making processes. A world peacekeeping organization, international agreements, Great Power
guarantees to punish aggressive states and to discuss arms reductions, and a United States of
Europe: these were the outlines of a new pacifist world order.
Culture
4 The slaughter of the Great War and the years immediately after produced pessimism
and deep despair. Culture clearly reflected this pessimism in the years after the war, mainly
because the bloodshed did not end for years after the armistice. “Doubt and disorder are in us
and with us”, said French poet and critic Paul Valery in 1922. This psychological state of
Europe no doubt helps to explain the nature of much of postwar culture. It was strengthened
by the realization that prewar modernists had been correct to criticize mainstream culture, an
21
Adapted From : Eric Dorne Brose, A History of Europe In The Twentieth Century. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2005.)
130
READING PROGRAM
awareness that now led them further down the path of experimentation and innovation. This
mood of pessimism may have affected popular culture too, for its exaggerated emphasis on
entertainment probably contained an element of escapism. Culture began to be less pessimistic
only as the mid-decade drew on, eventually becoming guardedly optimistic at the end of the
1920s. This found reflection in literature, philosophy, psychology, music and architecture, even
in flying, the “extreme sport” of the time.
5 The most extreme case of the initial mood of despair was “Dada”, voiced through
strange poems, confusing paintings, meaningless collages of newspaper scraps and rubbish,
and so on. Dada’s systematized nonsense was briefly chic in the immediate postwar period as
it held a mirror to the irrationality and absurdity of Europe’s self-destruction. Dada soon
yielded to a related cultural phenomenon, surrealism, which had the Freudian aim of expressing
subconscious desires normally repressed by civilization. Surrealism would influence many of
the great artists of the 1920s like poet T.S. Eliot, painter Salvador Dali, and novelists James
Joyce and Virginia Woolf. Its manifesto praised the dream, the subconscious, love that is freed
from all moral or social bonds, revolutionary passion and atheism.
6 The music of Alban Berg contained similarly rebellious themes as well as a
revolutionary sound that echoed Europe’s troubles. He employed a new twelve-tone technique
in Wozzeck (1922), the story of a soldier who feels “chained, sick, captive, resigned, in fact
humiliated” after the Great War. Betrayed by his wife, Wozzeck experiences real anguish,
which eventually drives him to murder and suicide. However, he promises that if he and his
fellow victims in uniform ever get to heaven, they would set to work making thunder.
Literature
7 In T.S. Eliot’s poem The Waste Land (1922)22, readers face a different, far darker mood.
The work moves surrealistically between two worlds. One is a world of lower-class bars,
meaningless sexual relations, rape, and trash floating in the Thames, the other is made up of
numerous other wastelands drawn from medieval European legends and mystic eastern
literature. Though The Waste Land continues to find new and brave interpretations, its meaning
to contemporaries was clear. Eliot’s Waste Land was a place not merely of misery, but it
represented anarchy and doubt. In the postwar world of shattered dreams, tensions, and
bankrupt institutions, life no longer seemed serious or logical.
8 During the chaotic years after the armistice and the peace treaties, two of the century’s
most important and widely studied novels were published. The first, Ulysses (1922), by Irish
surrealist James Joyce, tells the story of one day in the life of an average man in Dublin. Bloom,
Joyce’s atypical hero, seems to exemplify the absolute dullness of human existence as he
wanders aimlessly through the city’s streets and pubs in 1904. This was apparently a cruel
parody of Homer’s hero returning from Troy. But more is at work here, for the gifted author’s
unconventional grammatical presentation also mirrors the fragmented, disconnected world
around him. Joyce’s style in Ulysses disturbed and provoked many readers. He made use of
complex wordplay, fragments of foreign languages, unknown historical references and
surrealistic fantasy in over seven hundred pages of sometimes incomprehensible and puzzling
stream of consciousness.
9 The other novel of the period was Mann’s The Magic Mountain (1924), written during
Europe’s postwar years of despair and intended to serve as a cultural bridge of understanding
over life’s complexities. Thus, the novel is set in a sanatorium where patients must cope with
22
6. Wasteland : An area of land on which not much can grow, or which has been damaged in some way.
131
READING PROGRAM
the death of others as well as the possibility of their own death. In The Magic Mountain, Mann
criticizes the ideas and institutions of prewar Europe and shows that they will be of no use in
solving the problems of the future.
10 Erich Maria-Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), exemplifying the great
anti-war novels, follows the harrowing journey of Paul Bäumer, a young German soldier, and
his comrades who enlist in World War I after listening to patriotic speeches of their teacher.
Remarque highlights the brutal realities of war, capturing the physical and psychological toll it
takes on the soldiers. As Paul confronts death, despair, and the loss of his comrades, he grapples
with the futility of war and its dehumanizing effects. Due to its perceived negative
representation of Germany, it was one of the many books burned by the Nazi Party
after Hitler took power. In 1931, the book was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize.
Popular Culture
11 Taking advantage of the West’s increasingly common eight-hour workday and off-time
on weekends, people cycled into the country, went hiking, and camped out in much greater
numbers. Closer to home they learned to swim in municipal bath houses built by labor-oriented
governments eager to provide voters with an experience that had previously been reserved for
the wealthy elite. Furthermore, as workers and white-collar employees across America and
Northwestern Europe gathered to watch sporting events, massive stadiums were built to
accommodate them. Ohio Stadium in provincial Columbus sat almost 90,000 football fans;
Wembley Stadium in London held 126,000 for soccer; and Strahav Stadium in Prague, built
for track and gymnastic meets, packed in an incredible 240,000. Berlin’s indoor Sport Palace
also held huge crowds, especially for the city’s beloved bicycle races. Certainly one dominant
trend of the postwar years was its driving determination to return to normalcy.
12 Daily newspapers and frequent cinema visits emerged as other common features of
postwar popular culture. Thus circulation for big city papers like the Daily Express and the
Petit Parisien multiplied as more than half the adult population came to read one. Movies, too,
affected much greater numbers of people than before 1914 as the era of silent films came into
its own. In both Britain and Germany weekly attendance rose above fifteen million, bringing
about one-quarter of adults into a theater once a week.
13 The rapidly maturing second industrial revolution led to another form of popular
entertainment and public information in the 1920s – the radio. Made possible by Guglielmo
Marconi’s invention of transatlantic wireless communication in 1901 and the advent of vacuum
tubes in 1904, radio transmission technology advanced quickly with the wartime need to
communicate quickly inside mass armies, and then found peacetime uses after the armistice.
14 The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) came on the air in 1922 with only
newscasts, adding classical music and great plays to its repertoire in 1923, the first address by
King George V in 1924, and light music and sports shortly thereafter. The popularity of the
new device sent sales skyrocketing into the millions. By 1932 half of all British and German
households owned radio sets. French percentages were lower, and Italian and East European
lower still. The European average stood at one set per seven or eight households, but the
widespread practice of collective listening had made radios the universal conveyor of popular
culture across the continent.
15 Increasingly by the late 1920s, radio programs included jazz, the rage music of the age.
Widespread purchase of jazz recordings and record players strengthened this trend. Jazz
seemed to symbolize the spirit of democracy, in fact, at a time when both spread quickly
132
READING PROGRAM
throughout the western world: The new music rose up from the people; it did not come down
from the elite conservatories. Thus, according to the historian Peter Jelavich, all public officials
needed to hear it.23 “If only the Kaiser had danced jazz- then all of that [killing] never would
have come to pass!” The writer’s humor touches us today, but it led to many questions as the
interwar decades unfolded, for the jazz craze would neither secure the peace nor rescue
democracy.
1. Which consequences of political transformation made the postwar years destructive for
Russia? Write two.
a. _______________________________________________________________________
b._______________________________________________________________________
That same spring, Amanullah Khan successfully challenged British rule in

Afghanistan, and then declared a jihad and invaded India.
__________
3. What was Britain’s real motive in promising the Arabs the establishment of their own state?
________________________________________________________________________
4. Which of the following was NOT a part of the new world order created after the Great War?
A. growing influence of the USA

B. talks on increasing each state’s weaponry
C. establishment of an international organization
D. lessons learnt from bloodshed and violence
__________
5. The new European culture that developed after the war was based mainly on a modernist
critique of prewar mainstream culture, paving the way for _________________________.
23
7Peter Jelavich, The Berlin Carbaret, (Cambridge: Massachusetts, 1993) p.170.
133
READING PROGRAM
6. Which idea below is NOT correct based on paragraph 5?
A. Dadaism provided a satirical reflection of the irrationality of the war’s devastation.

B. Surrealism did not emphasize the importance of conformity to moral and social norms.
C. Dada’s impact persisted long after the war, shaping art and culture for years to come.
D. The goal of surrealism was to give voice to hidden longings that society suppressed.
__________
7. The word “anguish” in paragraph 6 can best be replaced by ____________.

A. skepticism
B. insecurity
C. sorrow
D. indifference
__________
8. Match the postwar literary works from the text below with their themes. Write your answers
in the spaces provided.
Literary works: Their themes:
1. All Quiet on the Western Front ________ a. Mundane nature of everyday life in a seemingly
chaotic and separated world.
2. The Magic Mountain ________ b. Despair and disillusionment with the postwar
world that has become a realm of uncertainty and
chaos.
c. Portrayal of war as a system stealing young
3. The Waste Land ________
people’s lives for nothing and condemnation of its
heroic and glorious image.
4. Ulysses ________ d. Complexity of life through the exploration of
human mortality and its inevitability.
9. The massive stadiums built after World War I mainly revealed Europe’s wish to ________
__________________________________________________________________________.
134
READING PROGRAM
10. Which necessity of the war contributed to developments in radio technology?
__________________________________________________________________________
11. What is the meaning of the word “conveyor” as used in paragraph 14?
A. A network for planning radio show topics related to popular culture.

B. A system for tracking radio usage and audience preferences.
C. A common means of enhancing cultural influences across different regions.
D. A medium through which cultural content is transmitted and shared.
__________
12. In paragraph 15, the writer suggests all the following except the idea that:
A. Jazz can play a role in preventing major historical events like conflicts and wars.
B. Jazz, along with the principles of democracy, rapidly expanded across the West.
C. Jazz music was not created by the upper-class society in the late 1920s.
D. Jazz’s appeal was further fueled by the growing use of record players and jazz albums.
__________
135
READING PROGRAM
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

1 Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from organisms whose genetic
material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through the
introduction of a gene from a different organism. Most existing genetically modified crops
have been developed to improve yield, through the introduction of resistance to plant diseases
or of increased tolerance of herbicides. Commercial sale of genetically modified crops began
in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr, delayed ripening tomato. There is broad
scientific consensus that food on the market derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to
human health than conventional food. However, opponents have objected to GM foods on
several grounds including safety issues, environmental concerns, and economic concerns.
Equally important, there are other issues regarding public acceptance and rejection and
agricultural applications of gene technology that concern society as a whole.
Genetically modified foods as a public issue: historical background
2 The first major controversy associated with gene technology in Europe took place in
the late 1980s, when genetically modified foods were not at the commercialization stage, but
industrial applications of gene technology were developed to the production and marketing
stages. The policy response was at first sporadic, and confined to national regulations. Later,
the European Commission harmonized the national regulations across Europe. Community
legislation on genetically modified organisms concerning their authorization has been in place
since the early 1990s and throughout the decade, this regulatory framework was further
extended and refined. The Regulation on Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients (258/97/EC
of 27 January 1997) sets out rules for authorization and labeling of novel foods including food
products containing, consisting or produced from GMOs, recognizing for the first time the
consumers right to information and labeling as a tool for making an informed choice. Ongoing
legislative initiatives concern the traceability and labeling of GMOs and the authorization of
GMOs in food and feed. European regulation is the result of a regulatory tradition, and reflects
a specific policy process that frames the issue of gene technology solely as an issue of risks to
the environment and human health.
3 Although an initial outcome of the implementation of the first European directive

seemed to be a settlement of the conflicts over gene technology, by 1996 the second
international level controversy over gene technology was triggered by the arrival of GM
soybeans at European harbors. (Lassen et al., 2002b). The result of these events has been to
focus public attention on the emerging biosciences more generally, and on genetically modified
foods in particular. The public debate has resulted in the formation of nongovernmental
organizations with explicit interest in debating the issues associated with the emerging
biosciences.
Public attitudes and risk perceptions
4 In a democratic society where choice exists, people will not consume foods that they
associate with some negative attribute. Various factors may contribute to such concerns. These
include beliefs that there is potential for negative environmental impact associated with
production processes or agricultural practices and perceptions that there is uncertainty
associated with unintended human or animal health effects. The latter appears to be particularly
true if people believe that these negative or risky effects are hidden by producers or regulators
to serve a vested interest. Ethical concerns are also important, for example, that a particular
136
READING PROGRAM
technology is in some way ‘‘tampering with nature’’, or that unintended effects are
unpredictable and thus unknown to science. Some technologies may also be described as
transformative, as they have potential consequences for the way in which society is organized.
Societal responses to the application of technological innovations may be driven by concerns
about the impact that the technology will have on social structures and relationships. For this
reason, considerable effort has been directed towards understanding people’s attitudes towards
the emerging biosciences.
Risk perception and behavior
5 Naturally occurring risks are less threatening than hazards which are technological in
origin, and people fear potentially catastrophic hazards more than those which affect a similar
number of individuals but at different times. Public perceptions of risk have often been
dismissed on the basis of irrationality, and have tended to be excluded from policy processes
by risk assessors and managers. However, it is these public concerns and associated risk
behaviors that have direct consequences for human health, food safety and security, economic
expansion, and international regulation. In the case of genetically modified foods, public
outrage was a consequence of the perception that they were exposed to a potential risk and that
it was involuntary and uncontrollable. In terms of understanding how people’s attitudes and
values influence their acceptance or rejection of genetically modified foods, it is important to
understand their attitudes towards science and technology per se, where values such as beliefs
about the integrity of nature may also be important.
What are the public worried about?
6 A first wave of qualitative research tried to clarify risks that people were concerned
about. The concerns identified in these studies ranged from more or less concrete unintended
effects, such as allergies, outcrossing, and development of super-weeds, to worries prompted
by uncertainty per se, for example, unintended effects on human health and the environment,
and the potential irreversibility of any negative impact.
7 The range of concerns voiced by consumers is remarkably constant over different fields
of application. Some of these concerns are intrinsic to the technology itself. Others appear, in
part, to be expressions of worries about risks. Perceived unnaturalness is one such example.
On one hand, it appears as an expression of a fundamental concern over human interference
with “the Order of Nature”. On the other hand, unnaturalness can also be an expression of
concern about risk—people defending this view believe that there are inherent safety
mechanisms present in nature and natural processes. Gene technology, it is argued, bypasses
these mechanisms, with potentially dangerous results. Another finding of recent research is
that, although the public is concerned with the outcomes of technical risk assessments, they are
also concerned about the uncertainty related to these outcomes, suspecting that risk assessments
are based on an insufficient level of scientific knowledge.
The internal structure of attitudes to GM foods
8 Qualitative investigations provide a much richer understanding of people’s concerns

and perceptions than surveys. A potential problem with qualitative, in-depth investigations as
the ones reviewed above is that they are usually based on small samples, potentially limiting
137
READING PROGRAM
their generalizability. In a large scale study, Hampel (1999) reanalyzed the Eurobarometer
46.1 data (collected in 1996) and estimated the relative importance of these factors for six
different fields of applications, including genetically modified foods of the first generation
(taking genes from plant species and transferring them into crop plants to make them more
resistant to insect pests) and the second generation (using modern biotechnology in the
production of foods, for example to give them a higher protein content, to be able to keep them
longer or to change the taste). For both generations of genetically modified foods, he found
that only the perceived usefulness and moral acceptability of the application determined
people’s overall support for it, with moral acceptability being the slightly stronger determinant,
whereas the influence of perceived risk was negligible when the other factors were statistically
controlled in the model.
9 In a survey involving representative samples of Danish, German, Italian, and UK

consumers, Bredahl (2001) investigated the degree of interrelatedness among consumers’
perceptions of 15 specific risks and benefits associated with genetically modified foods. If
consumers judged these risks and benefits independently and only then formed an overall
evaluation, the co-variation among these perceptions should be negligible. If, on the other hand,
people judged the risks and benefits on the basis of their prior attitudes towards gene
technology, their co-variation should be substantial. And indeed, the 15 risks and benefits could
statistically be reliably represented by a common underlying perceived-risk dimension and a
common underlying perceived-benefit dimension. Bredahl’s analysis of the internal structure
of consumer attitudes to genetically modified foods suggests that people first form attitudes
towards the overall risk and usefulness of the technology, and only then infer from these
attitudes how risky or beneficial they find a particular consequence related to a particular
application of the technology.
Relation to general socio-political attitudes and values
10 It has often been found that consumer attitudes towards genetically modified foods can
reasonably well be predicted by general socio-political attitudes or values. Among these are,
for example, attitudes towards technological progress and attitudes towards environment and
nature. In the Bredahl (2001) study, for example, no less than 61% of the variance in perceived
risk and 53% of the variance in perceived benefit could be explained by such general attitudes
and values. Results suggest that attitudes to genetically modified foods have value-expressive
functions rather than being the result of a risk-benefit trade-off as assumed by models of
technical rationality.
Public acceptance
11 The supposition that risk perceptions may be offset by perceptions of benefit has led
many scientists and industrialists to assume that if only a particularly desirable benefit can be
developed in the context of genetically modified foods, then public acceptance will result.
Problematically, how the public defines risk and benefit, and how the experts define the same
issues, may be very different. Furthermore, the public are not homogenous with respect to their
opinions and attitudes. Differences in perceptions of risk and benefit associated with various
hazards exist between different countries and cultures, between different individuals within
countries, and within different individuals at different times and within different contexts
(Burger et al., 2001). The food industry will need to predict what kind of genetically modified
138
READING PROGRAM
products will be acceptable as well as beneficial to consumers, particularly in the area of

‘preventative nutrition therapy’, where novel foods with specific health benefits will be
developed and commercialized. Failure to do so is likely to compromise commercialization of
specific products, particularly as judgments about what constitutes a benefit is likely to be left
to consumers’ own judgments in the market. For instance, people do not necessarily eat healthy
foods at present, despite considerable efforts at developing health information campaigns.
There is therefore no reason why people will automatically accept novel foods that have health
benefits, independent of additional concerns about the technological approach used to produce
them. Thus, introducing consumer benefits associated with particular foods is unlikely to result
in a general acceptance of genetically modified foods—rather some consumers will be very
positive towards some products, others will prefer alternative food choices. Of course, food
choice assumes the introduction and implementation of effective labelling strategies in this
instance.
139
READING PROGRAM
1. The European Commission’s regulations on GM foods throughout the late 1900s indicate
that gene technology is regarded as a threat to _____________________ and
_______________________.
2. What specific event that created a public concern in Europe resulted in the formation of
nongovernmental organizations dealing with the emerging biosciences?
________________________________________________________________________
3. Which two of the following are NOT listed in paragraph 4 as a consideration when
individuals in democratic societies choose what to eat?
A. Ethical issues about the manipulation of nature and effects not yet understood by science
B. Economic factors related to the affordability and availability of food products
C. The lack of clarity regarding accidental impacts on human or animal health
D. Environmental concerns over agricultural activities or food production methods
E. Fears about how new technologies might affect social dynamics
F. Considerations about the cultural significance of certain foods
__________ & __________
4. Which aspect of the risk involved in exposure to GM foods led to public reaction?
________________________________________________________________________
5. According to research, apart from the concern that gene technology interferes with the order
of nature, the public is suspicious of the adequacy of ______________________________
on which the risk evaluations are built.
6. Which of the following is NOT true according to paragraph 8?

A. The results of qualitative studies may not always be suitable for making generalizations.
B. When moral acceptability is achieved, people can side with GM foods.
C. The first generation GM foods are more prone to natural contamination when
compared with natural foods.
D. The second generation GM foods are aimed at improving the composition and
durability of foods.
__________
140
READING PROGRAM
7. Bredahl (2001) suggests that people’s socio-political attitudes towards GM foods are based
on _______________________________________________ rather than comparison of
risk and benefit.
8. What can be inferred from paragraph 11?
A. The food industry does not have to anticipate consumer preferences and attitudes
toward genetically modified foods, especially those that are beneficial to health.
B. It is not simple to change the public opinion about genetically modified products only
by emphasizing their benefits.
C. The divergence between how the public and experts perceive risk and benefit has no
effect on the acceptance or rejection of genetically modified foods.
D. Technological approach in production is not taken into consideration before accepting

new healthy meals.
__________
9. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the text?
A. The perceptions of food safety and risks by both scientific communities and the public
B. The impact of consumer preferences and market dynamics on the adoption of GM foods
C. Scientific findings that prove the long-term health effects of consuming GM foods
D. Regulatory frameworks to enhance public understanding and awareness of GM foods
__________
141
READING PROGRAM
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

VOCABULARY STUDY
A. Fill in the blanks with one of the prepositions given below. Some of them may be used
more than ONCE.
from in with of about to
1. Dress sizes range ____________ small to extra-large.

2. The cancer risks associated ____________ smoking have been well documented.
3. The Department of Health is concerned ____________ the welfare of the population.
4. I inferred ____________ her expression that she wanted to leave.
5. A sudden downpour contributed ____________the traffic jam.
6. Should an adult male be concerned ____________ excess iron intake?
7. The institute derives all its money ____________foreign investments.
8. By closing the infected farms we are hoping to confine the disease ____________ the north
of the region.
9. Icy road conditions in Teesdale resulted ____________ two roads being closed.
10. Decisions were often made on the basis ____________ incorrect information.
B. Match the words below with their definitions.
1. yield (n.) __ a. happening sometimes; not regular or continuous

2. sporadic (adj.) __ b. belonging to a thing by its very nature
3. tamper (v.) __ c. to agree to sth which is not exactly what you want
4. outrage (n.) __ d. to balance one influence against an opposing influence
5. prompt (v.) __ e. large in size, value, or importance
6. intrinsic (adj.) __ f. to interfere with sth to damage it or make unauthorized
changes
7. pest (n.) __ g. a strong feeling of anger and shock
8. substantial (adj.) __ h. a situation where you accept sth negative to get sth positive
9. trade-off (n.) __ i. to cause someone to say or do something
10. compromise (v.) __ j. an insect or small animal that is harmful or damages crops
11. offset (v.) __ k. an amount of sth. positive, e.g. food or profit
142
READING PROGRAM
C. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb given, making the
appropriate changes where necessary. You may use the words more than once.
triggered (adj.), trigger (n.), trigger (v.)

1. Eating chocolate can ______________ a migraine headache in some people.
2. A _____________________ bomb went off at the opening of the exhibition.
3. The closure of a mine can be a _________________for strike.
4. Seeing the rumors were true, he pulled the _________________ of the shotgun .
emerging (adj.), emerge (v.), emergence (n.)

1. She’s the most exciting British singer to _________________ on the pop scene for a
decade.
2. China’s _____________________ as an economic power raises a couple of important
questions.
3. Western governments should be giving more aid to the __________________ democracies
of the Third World.
4. She ______________________ from the scandal with her reputation intact.
hazard (n.), hazardous (adj.)

1. The busy traffic entrance was a ____________________ to pedestrians.
2. Growing levels of pollution represent a serious health ________________ to the local
population.
3. The Ministry of Health publicized a list of products that are potentially
_________________ to health.
determinant (n.), determine (v.), determined (adj.), determination (n.)

1. The _______________________ of policy is not your business - your job is to implement
it.
2. Education is the second most important _____________________ of recreational
participation.
3. A pitch inspection will ___________________ whether or not the match will be played.
4. The proposal had been dropped in the face of _____________________ opposition.
5. Soil and climate are the main ______________________ of how land is used.
resistant (adj.), resist (v.), resistance (n.)

1. Mosquitoes are becoming ____________________ to insecticides.
2. ___________________ is the degree to which a substance prevents the flow of electricity
through it.
3. Elderly people are not always ____________________ to change.
4. Students want to discover the truth themselves, and they ________________ having
conclusions forced upon them.
143
READING PROGRAM
SOUNDS FAMILIAR?
Pre-Reading
Watch the following videos to learn the terms “pitch” and “timbre,” which you will
need to better understand the text.
- “Music Lesson for Kids - level 1 – Pitch” @ https://goo.gl/B5FRCH or
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EfeFWXdStgk
- “Musical Timbre of Instruments and Singers Definition” @
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=144QVYv__S4 or
https://goo.gl/7rNYqE
SOUNDS FAMILIAR?
1 How are memories of music different from other memories? Why can music trigger
those memories in us that otherwise seemed buried or lost? And how does expectation lead to
the experience of emotion in music? How do we recognize songs we have heard before? Tune
recognition involves a number of complex processes. It requires that our brains ignore certain
features while we focus only on features that do not change from one listening to the next –
and in this way, extract the invariant properties of a song. That is, the brain’s computational
system must be able to separate the aspects of a song that remain the same each time we hear
it from those that are one-time-only variations, or from those that are peculiar to a particular
presentation. If the brain did not do this, each time we heard a song at a different volume, we
would experience it as an entirely different song! And volume is not the only parameter that
potentially changes without affecting the underlying identity of the song. Instrumentation,
tempo and pitch can be considered irrelevant from a tune-recognition standpoint.
Instrumentation is the combination of musical instruments that are used to play a piece of
music. Tempo is the speed of a piece of music. Pitch is the term referring to how high or low a
particular sound is. In the process of abstracting out the features that are essential to a song’s
identity, changes to these three features must be set aside.
2 Tune recognition dramatically increases the complexity of the neural system necessary
for processing music. Separating the invariant properties from the momentary ones is a huge
computational problem. Lots of people have sound files on their computers, but many of the
files are either misnamed or not named at all. No one wants to go through a file and correct bad
spellings, like “Etlon John,” or rename songs like “My Aim is True” to “Alison” by Elvis
Costello (the words my aim is true are in the chorus, but none of these words are in the name
of the song). Fortunately, now we have a computer program capable of correcting such
mistakes.
3 Solving this automatic naming problem is relatively easy for a computer; each song has
a digital “fingerprint,” and all one needs to do is write a computer program that can efficiently
search a database of a half-million songs in order to correctly identify the song. This is called
a “lookup table” by computer scientists. It is equivalent to looking up your Social Security
number in a database given your name and date of birth: only one Social Security number is
presumably associated with a given name and date of birth. Similarly, only one song is
associated with a specific sequence of digital values that represent the overall sound of a
particular performance of that song. The program works fabulously well at looking up. What
it cannot do is find other versions of the same song in the database. A computer user might
144
READING PROGRAM
have eight versions of “Mr. Sandman” on her hard drive, but if she submits the version by Chet
Atkins to a program and asks it to find other versions (such as the ones by Jim Campilongo or
the Chordettes), it cannot. This is because the digital stream of numbers that starts the MP3 file
does not give us anything that is readily translated to melody, rhythm, or loudness, and we do
not yet know how to make this translation. Our program would have to be able to identify
relative constancies in melodic and rhythmic intervals, while ignoring performance-specific
details. The brain does this with ease, but no one has invented a computer that can even begin
to do this.
4 This different ability of computers and humans is related to a debate about the nature
and function of memory in humans. Recent experiments of musical memory have provided
decisive clues in sorting out the true story. The big debate among memory theorists over the
last hundred years has been about whether human and animal memory is relational or absolute.
The relational school argues that our memory system stores information about the relations
between objects and ideas, but not necessarily details about the objects themselves. This is
called the constructivist view, because it implies that, lacking sensory specifics, we construct
a memory representation of reality out of these relations (with many details filled in or
reconstructed on the spot). The constructivists believe that the function of memory is to ignore
irrelevant details, while preserving the main points. The competing view, put forth by those
who think that memory is absolute, is called record-keeping. Supporters of this view argue that
memory is like a tape recorder or digital video camera, preserving all or most of our
experiences accurately, and with near-perfect fidelity.
5 Several studies also point to the malleability of memory, i.e., how it can be easily
manipulated. Seemingly minor interventions can powerfully affect the accuracy of memory
retrieval. An important series of studies was carried out by Elizabeth Loftus of the University
of Washington, who was interested in the accuracy of witnesses’ courtroom testimonies.
Subjects were shown videotapes and asked leading questions about the content. If shown two
cars that barely scraped each other, one group of subjects is asked how fast they were going
when “they barely scraped each other,” while the other group is asked, “how fast were the cars
going when they smashed each other?” Such one-word substitutions caused dramatic
differences in the eyewitnesses’ estimates of the speeds of the two vehicles. Then Loftus
brought the subjects back, sometimes up to a week later, and asked, “How much broken glass
did you see?” (There really was no broken glass). The subjects who were asked the question
with the word smashed in it were more likely to report “remembering” broken glass in the
video. Their memory of what they actually saw had been reconstructed on the basis of a simple
question the experimenter had asked a week earlier. Findings like these have led researchers to
conclude that memory is not particularly accurate, and that it is constructed out of disparate
pieces that may themselves not be accurate. Memory retrieval (and perhaps storage) undergoes
a process similar to perceptual completion or filling in - a fact that supports the constructive
view. Have you ever tried to tell someone about a dream you had over breakfast the next
morning? As we tell the dream, we notice gaps, and we almost cannot help but fill them in as
we unfold the narrative. We also do the same for any real or unreal past experience.
6 On the other hand, we also know that people can recognize hundreds, if not thousands,
of voices. You can probably recognize the sound of your mother’s voice within one word, even
if she does not identify herself. You can tell your spouse’s voice right away, and whether he or
she has a cold or is angry with you, all from the tone of the voice. Then, there are well-known
voices – dozens, if not hundreds, that most people can readily identify: Leonard Cohen, Müşfik
Kenter, Tom Waits and Haluk Bilginer. We can hold in memory the sound of these voices,
145
READING PROGRAM
often as they are uttering specific content or catchphrases. This supports the record-keeping
theory. Similarly, Douglas Hintzman performed a study in which people were shown letters
that differed in font and capitalization. Contrary to studies of constructivists, subjects were able
to remember the specific fonts such as those in “F l u t e”, i.e., that the letter “f” was capitalized,
that the lowercase letters “u”, “t” and “e” were written in bold and that the letters “u” and “e”
were also italicized.
7 In fact, there is more to it. We enjoy listening to impressionists who do comedy routines
by mimicking the voices of celebrities, and often the funniest routines involve phrases that the
real celebrity never said. In order for this to work, we have to have a stored memory trace for
the timbre of the person’s voice, independent of the actual words. This could contradict the
record-keeping theory by showing that it is only the abstract properties of the voice that are
encoded in memory rather than the specific details. But, we might argue that timbre is a
property of sounds that is separable from other attributes; we can hold on to our “record-
keeping” theory of memory by saying that we are encoding specific timbre values in memory
and still explain why we can recognize the sound of a clarinet, even if it is playing a song we
have never heard before. So which account is right? Record-keeping or constructivist? In short,
neither.
8 There is now an emerging consensus among memory researchers that neither the
record-keeping nor the constructivist view is correct, but that a third one is the correct theory:
the multiple-trace model. But how can it account for the fact that we extract invariant properties
of melodies as we are listening to them? As we attend to the melody, we must be performing
calculations on it. Apparently, in addition to presentation, we also calculate melodic intervals
and tempo-free rhythmic information. As a result, we create a pitch-free outline that will enable
us to recognize the same song when we listen to it in a different tone.
9 Familiar music activates both upper temporal lobes and the hippocampus, a structure
deep in the center of the brain that is known to be crucial to memory encoding and retrieval.
Because context is of particular importance to the multiple-trace model, it can also explain how
we sometimes retrieve old and nearly forgotten memories. Walking down the street and
suddenly smelling an odor you have not smelled for a long time and hearing an old song that
instantly retrieves deeply buried memories when the song was first popular are examples to
this. We treat our memories like a photo album. Certain stories we are accustomed to telling to
our friends and families, certain past experiences we recall for ourselves during times of
struggle, sadness, joy, or stress, to remind us of who we are and where we have been. We can
think of this as the repertoire of memories, which we are used to playing back, like the
repertoire of a musician and the pieces he knows how to play.
10 According to multiple-trace memory models, every experience is potentially encoded
in memory. Not in a particular place in the brain, because the brain is not like a warehouse;
rather, memories are encoded in groups of neurons that, when set to proper values and
configured in a particular way, will cause a memory to be retrieved and replayed in the theater
of our minds. When we cannot remember something, it is not because it was not stored in
memory. Rather, the problem is finding the right cue to access the memory and properly
configure our neural circuits. Just as your third-grade class photo does, a song playing
comprises a very specific and vivid set of memory cues. Because the multiple-trace memory
model assumes that context is encoded along with memory traces, the music you have listened
to at various times in your life is cross-coded with the events of those times. Nevertheless,
although a particular song may be associated with a certain time in someone’s life, it will not
146
READING PROGRAM
enable him to retrieve memories from those times if he got used to listening to it afterwards. If
the song has not been listened to for a long time; on the other hand, it functions as a key
unlocking all the experiences associated with the memory for the song, its time and place. And
because memory and categorization are linked, a song can access not just specific memories,
but more general, categorical ones: hearing a 1970s disco song, say, “YMCA,” you might find
other songs from that genre playing in your head.
11 As scores of theorists and philosophers have noted, music is based on repetition. Music
works because we remember the tones we have just heard and are relating them to the ones that
are just now being played. Almost every memory-related study has shown the brain’s activation
to music, but not to random collections of sounds or musical tones. When done skillfully,
repetition is emotionally satisfying to our brains, and makes the listening experience
pleasurable. The more we enjoy, the more we remember. Without memory there would be no
music.
147
READING PROGRAM

1. According to the principles of tune recognition, which of the following is more likely to
happen? Write the letter in the blank.
a) Zaruret hears a song on the radio which she heard a week ago at a lower volume, but
she cannot recognize it.
b) Erdinç plays on his bağlama the national anthem of Turkey, which is originally
played by an orchestra. Hearing Erdinç’s version for the first time, Yılmaz suddenly
starts singing it along.
c) Upon hearing “Akdeniz Akşamları” at a faster tempo, Şuayip has difficulty spotting
it.
d) Sung at a lower pitch by the bass opera singer, Zaz’ song “Je Veux” is not
recognizable to the audience.
__________
2. Write TRUE/FALSE according to the information in paragraphs 2 and 3.

____________ A computer program can rename an mp3 file entitled “Aşk İçin Ölmeli Aşk O
Zaman Aşk” by Sezen Aksu as “Her Şeyi Yak,” which is the real title of the song.
____________ Automatic naming computer programs can rewrite typos in song titles such as
“Adkeniz Aşkamları” as “Akdeniz Akşamları”.
____________ Merely processing the specific sequence of digital values of “Her Şeyi Yak”
sung by Sezen Aksu, a computer program can identify various versions of “Her Şeyi Yak”
including the versions sung by different artists such as Duman and Haris Alexiou.
Based on the information in paragraphs 4 – 6, which school’s theory do the following
cases exemplify? Write Relational (R) or Absolute (A) in the blanks.
3. _______________ Subjects are presented the word F O R E N S I C S for 2 minutes. 3
minutes later, when they are asked which letters were italicized and written in bold, all of
them write F, E and S.
4. _______________ A group of subjects watch a video where a bicycle slightly hits a
pedestrian. When asked “how badly did the bicycle crash the poor victim?”, most of them
reply “very badly.”
5. _______________ Ayşe’s cell phone screen is broken, and she cannot see who is calling,
but she can still recognize her son’s voice the moment she picks up her phone to hear her son
say “hello.”
6. _______________ Unable to remember every single detail, Maria tells the police officer
how she lost her wallet, but she adds extra information whenever she feels she forgets a
detail.
148
READING PROGRAM
7. Read paragraphs 8 and 9 and complete the passage below.

The way _____________________________________ model addresses how a listener
perceives unchanging features of a piece of music is not only about ____________________,
but also about ___________________________and ________________________________.
Placing strong emphasis upon ____________ , this model tackles how a song can suddenly
bring back long-lost memories of our childhood from a wide repertoire stored in the depths of
our brain.
8. Circle either will or will not and then fill in the blank.
“Amigos Para Siempre” was the song that played at Mel’s graduation ceremony 20 years ago.
He liked it so much that he has been listening to it once in a while for the last 10 years. If the
song plays once again now, hearing it will / will not make him think of memories related to
his graduation ceremony because ________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
149
READING PROGRAM
CULTURAL STUDIES AND CULTURAL POLITICS

1 Cultural studies is a multi-disciplinary or inter-disciplinary field of inquiry which blurs
the boundaries between itself and other disciplines. It is centred on issues of power, politics,
and the need for social change. One of the central arguments of cultural studies is that its object
of study, culture, is an area of struggle over meaning. That is, within the field of culture,
different understandings of the world have fought for power and the claim to truth. One way
of doing this is to have the power to name things and to make particular descriptions stick,
which, of course, is a form of cultural politics. Why? Because such power enables some kinds
of knowledge and identities to exist and to grow and not others. It matters whether we are black
or white, male or female, Turkish or French, rich or poor, because of the different cultural
resources by which we have been formed and to which we have access.
2 For example, to describe women as full human beings and citizens with equal social
rights and obligations is quite a different matter from seeing them as sub-human domestic
workers with bodies designed to please men. To use the language of citizenship to describe
women makes the place of women in business and politics legitimate. The language of sexual
and domestic inequality, on the other hand, denies this place, because it tries to confine women
to the traditional domestic sphere.
3 During the 1970s and 1980s cultural politics was discussed using a vocabulary drawn
from Antonio Gramsci. The most significant concept within Gramscian cultural studies is
hegemony. For Gramsci, hegemony means a historical bloc24 of ruling classes exercising social
authority and leadership over the subordinate25 classes through a combination of force and
consent26-winning.
4 In Gramscian analysis, hegemony involves education and the winning of consent more
than the use of brute force and violence. The state is not visualized here as a crude arm of the
ruling class. Gramsci makes a distinction between two kinds of state. The night-watchman state
acts as a repressive mechanism reliant on the army, the police, and the judicial system, and the
ethical state plays an educative and formative role in the creation of citizens and the winning
of consent.Though force remains an option for social control, during times of relative stability
it takes a back seat to the unifying role of ideology.
5 For Gramsci, ideologies provide people with rules of practical conduct and moral
behaviour. Ideologies are both lived experience and a body of systematic ideas whose role is
to organize and bring together different social elements in the formation of hegemonic and
counter-hegemonic blocs. Ideological hegemony is the process by which certain ways of
understanding the world become so self-evident or naturalized as to make alternatives
nonsensical or unthinkable.
6 In the Gramscian view the way in which people organize their lives and experiences
become crucial areas of the ideological struggle. This is where hegemony, understood as a fluid
and temporary series of alliances, needs to be constantly rewon and renegotiated. The creation
and dissolution27 of ideological hegemony is an ongoing process, and culture is a sphere of
continuous struggle over meanings.
24
Bloc – coalition, association, alliance, group.
25
Subordinate – inferior, lesser, dependent, lower.
26
Consent - permission, allowance, leave, approval, yes.
27
Dissolution – disintegration, division, partition, falling apart.
150
READING PROGRAM
7 Gramscian concepts proved to be of long-lasting significance because of the central

importance given to popular culture as an area of ideological struggle. As a result, while the
concept of hegemony was originally utilized in relation to social class, after the Gramscian
emphasis on popular culture, its scope became broader as it covered the power relations of sex,
gender, race, ethnicity, age and national identity. The concepts of ideology and hegemony also
became applicable to feminism, postcolonial theory, the politics of race, etc.
8 Gramscian thinking places cultural analysis and ideological struggle at the heart of
western society and politics. Thus, by implication it raises cultural studies to a place of
importance for those concerned with social change and underlines its part in this process. It
puts special emphasis on the work of intellectuals and their relations with other participants in
the social struggle. Here Gramsci offers a significant distinction between traditional
intellectuals and organic intellectuals.
9 Traditional intellectuals are those persons who fill the scientific, literary, philosophical
and religious positions in society. This includes those working in universities, schools,
churches, the media, medical institutions, publishers and law firms. Though traditional
intellectuals may be drawn from different class backgrounds, their status, position and
functions lead them to view themselves as independent of any class or ideological role.
However, for Gramsci they produce, maintain and circulate those ideologies that become
naturalized as common sense because they are a part of hegemony. For example, many
journalists, television producers and other media intellectuals play an ideological role in
society.
10 By contrast, organic intellectuals are said to be an important part of the working-class
and later feminist, postcolonial, African-American etc. struggles. They are also said to be the
thinking and organizing elements of the counter-hegemonic class and its allies in the economic,
social and political fields. Consequently, this role is played not only by those situated within
the educational world, but also by trade unionists, writers, campaigners, community organizers,
shortly by anyone who uses their skills and/or resources for the sake of the counter-hegemonic
struggle.
11 As cultural studies developed, the model of organic intellectuals was adopted widely,
and as part of this intellectual project, the constructed character of many ideas, and the myths
and ideologies buried in them were pointed out. As cultural studies is concerned with the
meanings and resources of culture, so cultural politics involves the struggle over these
meanings and resources. It involves having the power to name or describe ourselves in “new
languages” in the belief that this will have desirable social consequences. Thus, cultural power
turns into identity politics when, for example, African-Americans challenge the representation
of black people as marginal and criminalized, or when women redescribe themselves as citizens
of equal standing with men.
12 Social change becomes possible through rethinking and redescribing the social order
and the possibilities for the future. Since there is no such thing as a private language, then
redescription is a social and political activity. This rethinking of ourselves emerges through
social practice and also through social conflict. In doing so, it brings new political subjects and
practices into being.
13 The main agents of social change, it is now argued, are not so much classes (though
they play a part) as cultural movements that have developed from new social conflicts. These
movements are centred more in the spaces of consumption, welfare and habitat. In this context,
the ideology of liberal democracy emphasizes a broader sphere of social rights. In pursuit of
151
READING PROGRAM
those rights, a new political focus is sought around the struggles of urban, ecological, anti-
authoritarian, anti-institutional, feminist, anti-racist, ethnic, regional, or sexual minorities.
14 Typical of this politics of difference is work on new ethnicities in which ethnicity
defines new spaces for identities; constitutes new hybrid identities; and insists on the specific
features and importance of all knowledge and identities. Ethnic identity is a construction, that
is, a description in language, rather than a reflection of an essential, fixed, natural state of being.
The central cultural problem for all ethnic minorities is one of invisibility and namelessness,
that is, a relative lack of power to represent themselves as complex human beings and to
challenge negative stereotypes. Responses to this problem have involved the adoption of a
number of strategies such as the demand for positive images, the search for multiculturalism,
the adoption of anti-racism, and the politics of representation.
15 The demand for positive images can be understood as the need to show that one ethnic
group is as really “as good as” or “as human as” another in the context of the negative
stereotypes and assimilationist expectations of society. The multiculturalist strategy also
demands positive images but has no requirement for assimilation. Instead, ethnic groups are
held to be of equal status and have the right to preserve their cultural heritage. Multiculturalism
aims to celebrate difference. For example, the teaching of a multi-faith religious education, the
performance of rituals and the promotion of ethnic food become part of educational policy.
16 This strategy incorporates many positive aspects, but it overlooks the dimension of
power. The day-to-day experiences of racism in relation to housing, employment and physical
violence may slip from view. In contrast, the anti-racist argument highlights the operations of
power and challenges the ideological and structural practices that constitute racist societies.
This includes criticizing racist language in schoolbooks and the overrepresentation of one
ethnic group in committees and decision-making bodies.
17 The politics of representation is double-coded. On the one hand, it concerns questions
of dialogue, images, language, reality and meaning; on the other hand, questions of
representation are part of the discussion on democracy, citizenship, and the public sphere. The
concept of citizenship is a mechanism for linking the micropolitics of representation/identity
with the official macropolitics of institutional and cultural rights.
18 One major point on which cultural studies has been criticized is that it has been too
concerned with consciousness and the ideological struggle and not enough with the institutional
dimensions of cultural power. It should adopt a more pragmatic approach and work with
cultural producers and institutions on cultural policy formulation, execution, and the
production of cultural products.This would include museums, the government departments for
education, art, culture, media, and sport, schools, institutions of higher education, theatre
administration, television organizations, record companies and advertising agencies.
152
READING PROGRAM

1. According to Gramsci, which kind of state relies more on winning consent?
________________________________________________________________________
In the section below, you will see some of the ideas discussed in this text. Read the
paragraphs (5-8) first. Then read each idea (A-F). Find the paragraph that each
particular idea is related with. Write the letter in the given blank. There are more ideas
than you need.
2. Paragraph 5 __________
3. Paragraph 6 __________
4. Paragraph 7 __________
5. Paragraph 8 __________
A. For Gramsci, ideology consists only of ideas and moral rules.

B. Ideological hegemony normalizes certain ways of thought so much that different ways of
thinking are perceived as abnormal.
C. Ideological hegemony and culture are in a state of constant change and transformation.
D. Popular culture is a main area of ideological disputes.
E. The concept of hegemony is limited to power relations within or between social classes.
F. Cultural studies plays a crucial role in social transformation.
6. Which of the following is NOT an example of the organic intellectual? Write the letter in
the blank provided.
a. Ali is a professor at a state university. He is doing research for a book he plans to write
on the negative effects of government economic practices on the middle class.
b. Kay is the director of a theatre where underprivileged youth come together to perform a
play in support of women’s rights twice a year.
c. Mel is a doctor who works at a private hospital. He works for free on Saturday afternoons
to treat the poor from his neighbourhood.
d. Merve works for a newspaper where she frequently writes articles justifying government
policies.
__________
7. What does cultural power become when a woman states that she is equal to men?
________________________________________________________________________
153
READING PROGRAM
8. When we redefine ourselves and/or the social order, this is a social and political activity
because the language we use is not ___________________________. Such a rethinking
and redefinition is an outcome of social ___________________ and ________________.
9. Four strategies for dealing with the problems ethnic minorities suffer from are given in the
text. Which strategy is outlined below? Write the letter in the blank provided.
This strategy is against negative stereotypes and supports preserving the distinct qualities
and customs of ethnic minorities in a spirit of equality. It does not take power relations and
the everyday difficulties resulting from these into consideration.
a. the demand for positive images
b. the search for multiculturalism
c. the adoption of anti-racism
d. the politics of representation.
__________
154
READING PROGRAM
VOCABULARY
13
assemble denote inclination quote
assure domain investment reluctance
collapse explicit license specify
constraint framework mature subordinate
constructed immigrate notion subsidy
core implication oddness validity
14
advocate ethics legislation philosophy
bias external levy portion
bulk finite margin practitioner
coincide forthcoming ministry priority
compatible infrastructure orient qualitatively
contrary integration output refine
15
behalf empirical liberal statistics
colleague equate mediate straightforward
compile guideline notwithstanding substitute
compound identical pursue summarize
comprehensive infer restrain survive
deduce journal reveal undertake
155
READING PROGRAM
biases comprehensive empirical inferences restrain

coincide constraints external notion specify
compound deduce implications reveal undertake
Criminal profiling, also known as offender profiling, is a behavioral and investigative tool
used to determine the characteristics of unknown criminal subjects or offenders. The history
of profiling goes back to the 19th century when Cesare Lombroso and several others realized
the potential of profiling. However, their research is generally considered to be prejudiced,
reflecting the _________________________1 of their time.
Criminal profiling relies on the basic premise that an individual’s personality and
mannerisms guide their every behavior, including their criminal acts. According to many
experts, the crime scene can _________________________2 several facts about the offender.
The first step, therefore, is a _________________________3 investigation of the crime scene.
A detailed investigation, careful analysis of the nature of the crime and physical evidence like
crime scene photographs, police and autopsy reports, forensic data, etc. provide valuable
information. Such information enables the profiler to _________________________4
behavioral, personality and physical characteristics of an offender.
The practice of profiling also involves comparing the data obtained on the present case with
the information and statistical data on similar crimes solved in the past. The purpose is to find
details that _________________________5 . Any similarities between the present case and
previous crimes will point to more details about the criminal, leading to a more accurate profile.
Profiles that accurately _________________________6 the physical and psychological traits
of the offender are of immense help to the police in rapidly identifying and apprehending the
criminal.
On the other hand, although presented as an efficient approach of criminal investigation in

TV shows such as Law and Order and Criminal Minds, and the 1991 film Silence of the Lambs,
criminal profiling has serious _________________________ 7 in real life. For example, the
type of data utilized in profiling comes from law enforcement agencies where there are
variations in collection protocols, resulting in lowered internal validity. Furthermore, many
concerns have been raised as to whether reliable _________________________8 about a
156
READING PROGRAM
person’s physical and psychological traits can be made by examining a single instance of
behavior under such special conditions. While based on established practices of psychology
and sociology, there is little _________________________9 evidence suggesting that criminal
profiles are actually applicable to reality. Profiling heavily relies on the common sense as well
as the personal experience and intuition of the profilers who _________________________10
the task. For that very reason, at times courts can _________________________11 lawyers
from using a profile as evidence to convict a suspect because its scientific validity is questioned.
The accuracy of an offender profile may have serious _________________________. 12 If the
profile of an offender is wrong, or even slightly inadequate, police may be misled. For example,
following the bombing during the Centennial Olympic Games in Atlanta, the profile identified
the wrong man as the offender, causing him great distress, and delaying the capture of the true
offender. A further criticism is that profiling reinforces the _________________________13 of
a “criminal mind”. Most norms of a society are highly variable, so there is no basis on which
to suggest the profile of a normal or “deviant” mind.
B. Fill in the blanks in the following text with appropriate words from the box. Use each
word ONCE. There are more words than you need.
advocate explicit integration output quote
compatible inclination investments priority subsidies
denote infrastructure mediate qualitative substitute
Movement of refugees across borders has been a common occurrence in Africa for a
very long time. In 1969 African countries adopted the Convention Governing Specific Aspects
of Refugee Problems in Africa. This was an _________________________ 1 recognition by
African states of the nature and scope of refugee issues in Africa. The United Nations uses the
word refugee to _________________________2 those persons who have been forced to flee
their country because of persecution, war, or violence.
The capacity of these countries to respond to the refugee crisis is severely limited
because they are also facing difficult economic times. An influx of refugees into a country or
a region requires the development of ________________________3 that can respond to their
needs – housing, health care facilities, and schools for the children, etc. Of course this requires
significant _________________________4 which most of the states are incapable of making
due to their financial difficulties.
Another problem host countries or regions face is that many refugees remain in the
community where they are placed and never go back. For that reason, their smooth
157
READING PROGRAM
_________________________5 into the host community is of great importance. However,

many refugee groups are not readily accepted by the host communities, particularly when the
culture of the refugee group is not _________________________6 with that of the host nation
or region—a common issue in Africa. Quite often there are verious hostilities between the
refugees and the local population. In such cases central or local governments and sometimes
international organizations such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) have to _________________________7 the settlement process. It is common
practice for such organizations to impose rules in return for financial aid to the host
communities.
What differentiates the refugee issue in Africa from other parts of the world is that most
African nations are afflicted by ethnic clashes, civil wars, etc. It is the responsibility of the
national governments to provide protection to their citizens and to other persons on their
territory. Protection functions performed by international organizations such as UNHCR
cannot provide an adequate _________________________8 for national protection, but in
many impoverished countries, this has become UNHCR’s responsibility.
Of all the people in this drama, it is the refugee children who suffer the most. UNHCR
has identified three high _________________________9 issues with regard to refugee
children: military recruitment; sexual exploitation, abuse and violence; and separation from
families. UNHCR and several other international aid organizations continue to
_________________________10 against military recruitment of children in all circumstances.
Boys separated from their parents are particularly at risk of military recruitment. However, the
_________________________11 among boys and even girls is to become child soldiers
because they might feel safer if they have a gun to protect themselves and their families. UN’s
efforts to find host families to care for the refugee children without parents have been
ineffective.
Indeed, the one factor that might make a/an _________________________12 change in
the lives of these children is education. UNHCR and the international community have been
helping host states by providing _________________________13 for education; it is
considered an effective tool in protecting girls and boys from the dangers of military
recruitment, sexual abuse and violence as well as an important means to give them better
opportunities for the future.
158
READING PROGRAM
WEEK 6
Reading Material
New Media and Social Movements R1
Knowledge Management R1
Cheater Detection R2
Gone but Not Forgotten R2

Vocabulary Lists 16-17-18-19-20-21
& Exercises
159
READING PROGRAM
160
READING PROGRAM
NEW MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Pre-reading Vocabulary Study

1. Check the words in bold from the text. Try to guess their meanings from the context
and match the words with their possible meanings.
A B
a. stage (v.) _______ 1. a law, or a set of laws
b. foster (v.) _______ 2. knowing a lot about modern technology, especially
computers
c. solidarity (n.) _______ 3. to put an end to the activities of a person, body of
persons, etc.
d. impeachment (n.) 4. the quality of being reasonable and acceptable
_______
e. legislation (n.) _______ 5. to disappear, or to stop existing or happening

f. suppress (v.) _______ 6. the situation that exists now without any changes
g. dissent (n.) _______ 7. disagreement with the philosophy, methods, goals, etc.,
of a political party or government
h. corruption (n.) _______ 8. wise and careful
i. sphere (n.) _______ 9. to encourage a particular feeling, situation or idea to
develop
j. legitimacy (n.) _______ 10. agreement and support between people in a group who
have similar aims or beliefs
k. tech-savvy (adj.) 11. to stop fighting and admit that you have been beaten
_______
l. prudent (adj.) _______ 12. subject or area of knowledge, work, etc.
m. surrender (v.) _______ 13. dishonest or illegal behaviour by officials or people in

positions of power
n. evaporate (v.) _______ 14. the action of formally accusing a public official of a
serious offence in connection with their job
o. status quo (n.) _______ 15. to organize and take part in action that needs careful
planning
161
READING PROGRAM
2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate forms of the words above.
1. After the scandal, the _________________________ of the minister of the internal affairs
is being discussed widely in the conventional media given that a similar case had resulted
in the dismissal of the minister of economic years ago.
2. All his creative ideas _______________________ when he underwent stress.
3. The lawyers expressed serious doubts about the ____________________ of military
action.
4. They only want to maintain the _______________________ rather than introducing
reforms to develop democracy.
5. The state needs more ________________________ workers for its hi-tech industries.
6. The way the rebellion was _____________________ by government forces was criticized
by the international media as much as the local media.
7. I think it would be _______________________ to leave now before we start fighting.
8. The arrest of a number of officials on ___________________ charges created a big
sensation.
9. The government needs to introduce political reforms to match those in the economic
_______________________.
10. Psychologists caution that appropriate praise helps a child ____________________ a
sense of self-worth.
11. In order to promote __________________ among the members, the union decided to
organize a meeting.
12. There is a lot of ______________________ within the Parliament about women rights
among the political parties.
13. Rebel troops are refusing to ______________________ unless their rights are given
without question.
14. Most people expect tougher environmental _________________________ from the
Parliament to protect the natural life but large corporations continue to oppose it.
15. Bus drivers in Seoul are planning to ______________________ a 24-hour strike to reach
a deal for better pay.
162
READING PROGRAM
NEW MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
1 Since the 1990s, there have been growing discussions of internet activism and how new
media have been used effectively by a variety of political movements. The early adoption and
successful use of the Internet in the early 1990s by the indigenous EZLN28 Zapatista movement
in the Chiapas region of Mexico quickly dramatized how new media and grass roots
29
progressivism might synergize, excite the world, and challenge status quo culture and
politics. Activists who were already using the Internet as a technology for organizing and
communicating in digital hubs, such as The Well quickly drew upon the Zapatista’s
imaginative use of the Internet to begin broadcasting and tailoring their own messages to an
emerging global audience.
2 In the late 1990s, such activists began employing the Internet to foster connections and
stage events against the excesses of neo-liberalism and transnational corporate capitalism.
- (A) - For example, beginning with 18th June 1999, ‘Carnival Against Capital!’ demonstration
secretly organized hundreds of thousands of protesters (including labor, environmentalist,
feminist, anticapitalist, anarchist, and other groups) throughout the world to march in the new
found solidarity. - (B) - The Carnival continued with the infamous ‘Battle for Seattle’ against
the World Trade Organization (WTO) meeting in December 1999. - (C) - Since the emergence
of such campaigns, broad-based, populist political spectacles have become the norm, thanks to
an evolving sense of the way in which the Internet may be used in a democratic manner.
- (D) - The new media helped grow planetary citizenship by improving the means to become
informed, to inform others, and to construct new social and political relations.
3 According to Shirky (2011), the ability to spread messages without hierarchical

coordination has frequently proven to be a powerful tool in impairing existing power structures
and forcing political change. In 2001, Filipinos used text messages to coordinate a public
protest of more than a million demonstrators in downtown Manila, which helped to ensure the
impeachment of Philippine President Joseph Estrada. The same strategy was used in 2004 to
force Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar from office, and in 2009 the Communist Party
lost power in Moldova after the protests coordinated by the same means. Thanks to social
media, larger groups can now take on some kinds of coordinated action, such as protest
movements and public media campaigns, which were previously reserved for formal
organizations (Shirky, 2011).
4 While social media certainly provides benefits, it is not a guarantor of political change.
Iran’s Green Movement in 2009 and the 2010 Red Shirt uprising in Thailand are examples of
movements coordinated through social media that were ultimately eliminated by the violent
crackdown of the governments being challenged. Shirky (2011) points out that when new
media increases public access to speech or assembly, “a state accustomed to having a monopoly
on public speech finds itself called to account for anomalies between its view of events and the
public’s.” This new challenge of power is met with either censorship or physical force, and
physical force is often the most desirable means of suppressing political activism. Censorship,
28
EZLN: Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional: The Zapatista Army of National Liberation
29
grass roots: a movement which uses the people in a given district as the basis for a political or economic
movement
163
READING PROGRAM
for example, usually means shutting down Internet access or cell phone networks, which might
harm the economy or radicalize otherwise neglectful citizens.
5 Khondker (2012) highlights the challenge oppressive regimes now face when trying to
crush social dissent. Globalization as a complex social, economic, and technological process
can be viewed in terms of the spread and wider availability of communication technology,
which improves connectivity. Such connectivity is as vital for facilitating business transactions
as it is for social interactions and mobilizations. There is a fundamental contradiction in this
process since it is often the government, aided by corporate interests, that promotes the new
media; thus unintentionally creating a space for civic activism. This is why rapid, violent
crackdown is often the preferred means in countries where a real public sphere does not exist.
Arab Spring
6 The Arab Spring uprisings, which began in December 2010, provide a valuable case
study for the extent to which social media can force political change. While social media
undoubtedly played a vital role in organizing political movements in countries throughout the
Middle East, it is important to note that many were unsuccessful in achieving the political ends
they sought. In the so-called Facebook or Twitter revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, for
example, social network sites and the Internet were useful tools, but conventional media played
a crucial role in presenting the uprisings to the larger global community, who in turn supported
the transformations. In addition to that, it took a military assistance that lasted eight months to
collapse Muammar Gaddafi’s regime in Libya. The uprising in Bahrain—also fueled by the
use of social media—was unsuccessful not only because it faced a violent government
crackdown but also because those backups were absent.
7 It is certainly important not to fall into the trap of cyber-utopian thinking (Morozov,
2011), but the role social media now plays in triggering the rise of social movements and
political activism cannot be discounted. In Tunisia and Egypt, revolutionary conditions such
as government corruption, violent oppression, and economic imbalance laid the groundwork
for the exploitation of new media by the people as a means of organizing. Connectivity was
vital to spreading the message of revolution both before and during the dramatic
demonstrations in Cairo’s Tahrir Square. As Khondker (2011) puts it, “social media was a vital
tool—a necessary condition—especially in the face of a silenced conventional local media, but
a tool nevertheless. It was not a sufficient condition.” This highlights the difficulty in critiquing
the efficiency of social media as a force for political progress, or at least, political change. We
cannot say with certainty whether or not those successful political movements in which social
media played a central role could have succeeded without the technology. What seems
apparent, however, is that it definitely did not hurt.
Does It Really Work?
8 Those who criticize social media activism as “slacktivism30” (Gladwell, 2010) narrowly
focus their critique on movements that never escape the virtual space. As Shirky (2011) points
out, “the fact that some actors cannot move ahead to a better world does not mean that devoted
actors cannot use social media effectively.” In Gladwell’s critique, he points out that the so-
30
slacktivism: It is the blend of “slack” and “activism”, which means half-hearted activism, usually in the form
of posting badges, images, apps, or text on social media without taking further action.
164
READING PROGRAM
called “Twitter Revolution” inside Iran actually did not happen inside Iran. “The people
tweeting about the demonstrations were almost all in the West”. Regardless of where the tweets
were coming from, the mainstream media reported heavily on them, and the widespread press
coverage increased international support for the movements, especially in the West, thus giving
greater legitimacy to the movement in the global public sphere. And while the lack of a public
sphere within Iran explains the ultimate defeat of the movement, it seems prudent to look more
broadly at the benefits of social media. As Shirky puts it, “The more promising way to think
about social media is as long-term tools that can strengthen civil society and the public sphere.”
9 As Gladwell’s negative critique of social media suggests, it is simply a form of

organizing which favors the weak-tie connections31 that give us access to information over the
strong-tie connections32 that help us endure in the face of danger. Castells (2008) picks up
where Gladwell seems to stop short. Castells asserts that the diffusion of Internet, mobile
communication, digital media, and a variety of tools of social software have motivated the
development of horizontal networks of interactive communication that connect local and global
in chosen time. Castells highlights the phenomenon of “mass self-communication,” which is
“self-generated in content, self-directed in emission, and self-selected in reception by many
that communicate with many.” It is through this new virtual space where global interaction by
those who represent the force of “counter-power” is made possible. Counter-power is “the
capacity of a social actor to resist and challenge power relations that are institutionalized”
(Castells, 2008). Global capitalism, often referred to simply as globalism, is the dominant
global institution through which hierarchies of power are determined, and communication
technologies such as social media are vital to the maintenance of counter-power in this new
global environment. These technologies make possible the unlimited diversity and the largely
autonomous origin of most of the communication flows that construct, and reconstruct every
second the global and local production of meaning in the public mind (Castells, 2008). In other
words, “Access to information is far less important, politically, than access to conversation …
As with the printing press, the Internet spreads not just media consumption but media
production as well – it allows people to privately and publicly articulate and debate conflicting
views” (Shirky, 2011).
The Changing Power of New Media
10 If global capitalism stands as the supreme manifestation of sociopolitical power, it is

important to analyze the effects of social media on multinational corporate interests. The online
petition platform Change.org offers a fascinating case study for how individual opposition to
private business practices is being channeled into widespread public opposition. The resultant
public outcry creates a possible threat to the financial interests of these companies, causing
them to surrender to the demands of the counter-power movement. Molly Katchpole is
perhaps one of the best examples of the efficiency and future potential for online activism. In
2011, the 22-year-old nanny generated a petition on Change.org, criticizing Bank of America’s
announcement of a new $5-a-month fee for debit cards. Katchpole’s petition got more than
306,000 signatures in a month, and after the petition attracted some mainstream national media
coverage, Bank of America and other large financial institutions withdrew plans for the fee.
31
weak-tie connections: the interactions between members of different communities, with fewer shared
connections.
32
strong-tie connections: the interactions within communities and among people who have a lot of
connections.
165
READING PROGRAM
Not long after, Katchpole started a second petition, protesting a $2 charge by Verizon, a major
telecommunication provider, for online bill payments. It attracted more than 160,000 signatures
in just 48 hours, and Verizon withdrew the fee (Kristof, 2012). Verizon had to reverse its plan
but ironically, it is likely a safe assumption that Verizon managed to benefit from this negative
publicity and increased its revenues. Sites such as Change.org provide empirical, quantitative
data for measuring the efficiency of so-called “slacktivism” and its real-world effects on global
capital markets. According to Change.org’s website, “There are more than 20 million
Change.org users in 196 countries, and every day people use [their] tools to transform their
communities – locally, nationally and globally”. In 2010, there were one million Change.org
users. If the explosive growth of sites like Change.org is an accurate indicator of the potential
for even greater impact in the future, then social activism in the virtual sphere is going to
continue to be a strong force of counter-power.
11 The online petition is but one of the many examples of the effectiveness of viral
communication in the digital age. On January 18, 2012, several popular websites employed the
power of online social activism to spread their message of opposition to two bills that were
making their way through Congress. The Stop Online Piracy Act and the Protect IP Act both
heavily favored content providers in the entertainment industry, which played a large role in
lobbying Congress to pass the legislation. The acts, according to several major players in the
new media business, went too far in imposing broad restrictions on information flows within
the digital realm. According to Jamar (2012), there was an uprising among innumerable
Internet entrepreneurs and tech-savvy experts who analyzed the law and publicized the
domestic damage it could do to them and to many other online businesses. The popular
websites Wikipedia and Reddit led a strategic online communication campaign to raise
awareness and fuel opposition to the bills, blacking out their sites for the day and encouraging
their broad network of users to spread the message of opposition online and to contact their
congressional representatives. Although it stopped short of completely shutting down its page
for the day, Google also joined the black-out campaign. Ultimately, the broad, unquestioning
support for the bills in Congress evaporated” (Jamar, 2012).
12 The examples above suggest that the new media has offered new means of
communication as well as a wider arena for public to voice their concerns. It seems that the
effectiveness of those tools will be evaluated better in the future but the current state is
promising for more organized civil movements.
166
READING PROGRAM
1. What made activists, for the first time, aware of the importance of the Internet in reaching
worldwide crowds to communicate their concerns?
________________________________________________________________________.
This event gave rise to an international protest movement in resistance to neo-liberal

institutions and their related globalization policies, supporting democracy, social
justice, and a better world.
__________
A. It proposes alternative strategies for political activism, building upon social media-
coordinated movements given in paragraph 3.
B. It summarizes the main points about the effectiveness of social media in political activism
discussed in paragraph 3.
C. It provides additional examples of successful political movements utilizing social media

for activism mentioned in paragraph 3.
D. It contradicts the information in paragraph 3 by giving the limitations and failures of

social media-coordinated movements.
__________
4. When new media challenges the power of a monopolized state, the response of the state is
less likely to be _________________________________________________________
than _____________________________________ because the former carries the risk of
making indifferent people rebel and damaging __________________________________.
167
READING PROGRAM
5. According to Khondker (2012), oppressive governments take the risk of creating civic
activism by promoting social media because ____________________________________,
which is a key feature of social media, assists trade among many other fields.
6. Which of the following CANNOT be considered as a reason behind the failure of the
Bahrain uprising?
A. Lack of military assistance

B. Shortage of social media support
C. Inadequacy in conventional media coverage
D. Brutal repression by the state
__________
7. Based on the context in the text, what does “fall into the trap of cyber-utopian thinking” in
paragraph 7 mean?
A. Criticize the misuse of technology by political activists to spread their ideologies

B. Encourage the cautious use of digital technology for the success of social movements
C. Adopt overly optimistic beliefs about the transformative power of technology on society
D. Dismiss idealistic beliefs in the potential of digital technology to solve societal
problems
__________
8. “Twitter Revolution” in Iran was unsuccessful due to the absence of __________________

_____________________ within the country although it had gained international support
with the help of _______________________________________.
168
READING PROGRAM
A. To investigate the main factors that contributed to the failure of “Twitter Revolution”
inside Iran
B. To analyze the concept of “slacktivism” and its implications for social media activism
worldwide
C. To emphasize the limitations of social media activism in contexts lacking a public sphere,
as seen in Iran’s case
D. To suggest a broader understanding of the benefits of social media beyond individual

movements
__________
10. Complete the summary below using the information in paragraph 9.
New media has opened a new era in communication through its horizontal nature which has
linked ________________________________ and _______________________________
networks. Individuals all over the world started producing their own contents and share them
by their choice, which is called ___________________________________ by Castells
(2008). Communication technologies are indispensable in the continuation of
________________________________ which facilitates the global resistance and
challenges institutionalized power relations.
11. What unexpected outcome likely emerged from the petition against Verizon’s case in favor
of the company?
________________________________________________________________________.
12. The only supporters of the Stop Online Piracy Act and the Protect IP Act were from
_____________________________ business. The opponents of the bills asserted that the
legislation was suggesting strict control over _____________________________ in cyber
domain.
169
READING PROGRAM
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Historical Background
1 The past decade has been marked by a significant transition into the “knowledge era.”
The major driving force underlying this significant transition has been the emergence and
popularity of the Internet and the accompanying introduction of electronic commerce. The
Internet has had an “e-everything” impact on individuals, organizations, cultures, societies, and
the global economy. The dynamics of such a significant transition have highlighted the critical
importance of creating and managing knowledge as well as using that knowledge as a
competitive resource, which is crucial in today’s knowledge economy. The creation and
diffusion of knowledge have become increasingly important factors in competitiveness. More
and more, knowledge is being thought of as a valuable commodity. It has to be embedded in
products (especially high-technology products) and embedded in the tacit knowledge33 of
highly mobile employees. The past two decades have witnessed a significant transition into the
knowledge area.
2 Knowledge Management, (KM) is a concept and a term that arose approximately two
decades ago, roughly in 1990. Quite simply one might say that it means arranging an
organization's information and knowledge holistically. Duhon (1998) defined knowledge
management as a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing,
evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information assets. These assets may
include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and
experience in individual workers.
3 According to scholars Davenport and Prusak (1998), the knowledge advantage is the only
sustainable advantage for organizations in the information age. Due to the speed of innovation
and knowledge transfer, even knowledge-based competitive advantage is subject to erosion. In
fact, an organization’s capacity to improve existing competencies and learn new competencies
that are of value to existing and new customers is the most defensible competitive advantage.
Therefore, the increasing competitive pressures in the knowledge era, induced by rapid change,
increasing complexity, extensive information, and increasing uncertainty, enforce an
organization’s decision-makers to adhere to two related imperatives. The first imperative is to
learn at a rate faster than current and unforeseen competitors in order to attain learned
knowledge and to incorporate this knowledge into the organization’s knowledge bases. The
second imperative is to introduce this valuable knowledge into business models and services
so that the organization’s value propositions are more attractive to customers than the value
propositions of competitors.
What is Knowledge Management?

4 In concept, knowledge creation and management has been a concern of humanity
throughout our existence as civilized species. In the context of business and industry, the
current focus on knowledge management stems from developments in information technology
33
*tacit knowledge: knowledge that you do not get from being taught, or from books, etc. but get from personal experience,
for example when working in a particular organization
170
READING PROGRAM
and from the realization of the strategic importance of knowledge to the success of the
organization. Knowledge management is a set of organizational practices that combine the
information processing capacity of information technology with the creative and innovative
capacity of people to create, capture, organize, store and retrieve, diffuse, present, and maintain
knowledge for the organization’s benefit.
Why is Knowledge Management Important?
5 An organization must capture and effectively manage the relevant knowledge

encountered, created, and learned during the course of conducting business. Such captured
knowledge must, in turn, be embodied in an organization’s processes, products, services, and
business models. Thus, firms must ensure continuity in organizational learning for knowledge
management processes that enable timely and effective organizational responsiveness to
customers, market opportunities and threats, and competitors.
6 During the more stable times of the 20th century, the primary responsibility for
environmental scanning and customer information gathering belonged to senior management
and the marketing function of an organization. Once interpreted, depending upon its nature and
impact, this environmental scanning and customer information was passed “over-the-wall” to
other departments such as research and development, engineering, manufacturing operations,
finance, and accounting. In the knowledge era’s turbulent times, the responsibility for
environmental scanning and customer information gathering must be distributed down the
organizational levels and across the organizational functions and business units. Certainly,
strategic planning and decision-making need to remain the purview of senior management, but
the environmental scanning and interpretation must be more widely shared. As such,
organizations must possess the knowledge management processes to capture, organize, store,
and share the knowledge obtained from such environmental scanning activities. As a result,
knowledge management is a critically important necessity for conducting business in today’s
turbulent knowledge era.
7 In the knowledge era an organization must diligently integrate the perspectives and
interpretations of its key stakeholders in evaluating the environment. These key stakeholders
might include employees, customers, customers’ customers, suppliers, suppliers’ suppliers,
industry associations, and political and civic groups. One reason for the required involvement
of all the stakeholders is the limited information processing capability of humans. Such
cognitive limits represent the “bounded rationality” of managers conceptualized by Nobel
laureate Herbert Simon. Simon (1960) noted that the more turbulent a manager’s environment
becomes, the sooner he or she is likely to confront his or her cognitive limits to process the
myriad of information signals produced in the environment.
8 An analogy might further illustrate the idea behind bounded rationality and the need to
involve all stake-holders in environmental scanning and interpretation. Imagine someone who
can juggle two, three, or even four balls without dropping one. However, as the number of balls
to be juggled increases to five, six, or seven balls, it becomes impossible for the juggler to
handle them all. The juggler has reached the limits of his or her ability. Nevertheless, if instead
of one juggler, additional jugglers joined in to share the juggling responsibility, many more
balls could be handled without being dropped, assuming that their efforts were properly
coordinated. By distributing the juggling responsibility, more balls can be juggled.
171
READING PROGRAM
9 Futurists Ahin and Heidi Toffler have also noted cognitive limitations of managers in
centralized organizations. They state that while centralization in organizations is sometimes
needed, today’s lop-sided over-centralization puts too many decisional eggs in one basket. The
result is ‘decision overload’. Organizations must push as many decisions as possible down
from the top of the organization and out to the periphery. Such decentralization of decision
making enhances the organization’s ability to be flexible and agile in response to highly
dynamic competitive forces and conditions.
10 In turbulent environments, such organizations should have an internal culture with

knowledge management mechanisms and processes. -A- These knowledge mechanisms and
processes provide the flow of the right information to the right people at the right time for the
right reasons. Thus, knowledge management is imperative for organizations in the information
age. -B- Decision makers must detect external environmental changes, as they may impact the
organization’s desired or expected states in terms of its products, markets, competitors, and
legal and regulatory boundaries. For example, the environmental change resulting in the
deregulation of the utilities industry has driven utility companies to drastically change their
competitive postures. Their postures result in organizations that are more customer focused and
possess a marketing orientation. -C- Similarly, decision makers must also detect internal
environmental changes, as they may directly impact the organization’s desired or expected
states internally, such as its people, resources, processes, and technology. -D- Changes in the
economy can translate into higher costs in the factors of production. Hence, environmental
turbulence leads to changes that can impact an organization by influencing changes in its
desired or expected states.
Dynamics of the Knowledge Management Framework
11 Before investigating knowledge management enablers such as information technology,

it is important to understand the functions and requirements for knowledge management in an
organization. Effective organizational decision making requires timely, critical, and relevant
information about the changes in the external and internal environments. Decision makers must
be able to detect emerging problems or potential opportunities that may impact the
organization’s competitive advantage. This must be accomplished in spite of the environmental
realities of huge and enormously complex data volumes expanding at staggering rates.
12 The requirements for effective decision making have changed over time. In the
knowledge management framework, the knowledge management issues are shown as they have
transitioned over time. In the industrial age, data-driven decision making was the key driving
force for business decisions. In this stage, very limited computer processing capability and
limited database structures supported the organization. As computer processing and data
storage power increased dramatically, organizations shifted into the technology age. The more
evolved underlying technology better enabled organizations to convert data to information for
use in decision making and thereby better cope with the change. However, such a transition to
the technology age required a different kind of management information system structure as
well as a computer information structure to support this effort.
13 Now, as organizations transition into the knowledge era, the dynamics of business
activity are being clocked in terms of “Internet speeds.” This new environmental reality is not
driven by technology in and of itself, but is driven by knowledge workers who use technology
to enhance their decision making. The knowledge workers use knowledge, instead of relying
172
READING PROGRAM
solely on information or data, to guide their decision making. This orientation of knowledge-
based decision making requires new tools and models to generate business insights for the
organization. This basis of the new era of knowledge management utilizes knowledge workers
to integrate knowledge generated from various disparate data sources into decision making.
1. The use of knowledge as a competitive resource has led to its perception as a/an
________________________________________________________________________.
2. What must organizations do with their learned knowledge to make their value propositions
more appealing than those of their competitors?
a. __________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________________________
3. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of knowledge management?
A. It helps to merge information processing and human sources.

B. It allows for management of knowledge to the organization’s advantage.
C. It favors technology over the capacity of knowledge.
D. It helps businesses adapt and succeed in a fast-paced world.
__________
4. What quality of knowledge management and corporate learning is vital in order to respond
to the requirements of the business?
_____________________________________________________________________
5. During the unsettled times of the knowledge era, executives of an organization should be
responsible for ______________________________ and _________________________,
but__________________________ and ___________________________ must be
distributed to the whole organization.
6. Cognitive limits of managers make it imperative to include _________________________

in assessing the environment.
173
READING PROGRAM
7. Which practice allows an organization to adapt to frequent change?

________________________________________________________________________
Environmental turbulence may impact both the external and the internal delivery systems.
__________
9. What CANNOT be inferred from paragraph 11?
A. Successful knowledge management affects organizational decision-making greatly.
B. The growing intricacy and quantity of data interferes with decision-making in businesses.
C. There are particular tactics or approaches involved in identifying emerging issues.
D. Preserving the organization’s competitive edge is the responsibility of decision-makers.
__________
10. Which of the following is TRUE about the changes in the decision-making framework?
A. Developments in computer processing and storage led to the opening of the technology
era.
B. Transformation of information into data enabled organizations to deal with the change
smoothly.
C. Data-driven decision making fell short of supporting the organizations in the industrial
age.
D. Information management system structures haven’t changed much during the shift into
the technology age.
__________
11. What would NOT be the responsibility in the job description of a knowledge worker?
A. Keep learning about what’s new in the industry to make the work better.
B. Encourage everyone to share what they know, so they can all learn and work better.
C. Use new tools to understand complicated data and share with others in a simple way.
D. Manage administrative duties like scheduling meetings, checking office supplies.
_________
174
READING PROGRAM
CHEATER DETECTION34
1 Social exchange—cooperation for mutual benefit—is an ancient, pervasive, and cross-
culturally universal feature of human social life: “I provide benefit of some kind to you and
you reciprocate by providing a benefit to me, either now or later”. Sometimes it is explicit and
formal when people agree to trade goods or services. Other times, it is implicit and informal,
as when a woman living in a hunter-gatherer band shares food she has gathered with someone
who has helped her in the past. Evolutionary biologists demonstrated that social exchange
cannot evolve in a species unless those who engage in it are able to detect cheaters, that is,
individuals who take benefits from others without providing them in return. This claim
prompted the search for cognitive processes in humans. Research on conditional reasoning has
provided evidence that the human mind contains processes specialized for detecting cheaters.
2 Reasoning was a useful avenue for investigating the psychology of social exchange,
because social exchange involves a conditional: “If P then Q”. If A provides a requested benefit
to or meets the requirement of B(P), then B will provide a benefit to A (Q). Herein, a
conditional rule expressing this kind of agreement to cooperate will be referred to as a social
contract. A cheater is someone who takes a benefit without meeting the other party’s
requirement.
3 In 1966, Peter Wason introduced a selection task, called Wason task, to study
conditional reasoning. The task has become the most widely used instrument for the
experimental exploration of the psychology of human reasoning. Participants are presented
with four cards to identify possible violations of a conditional rule. In the standard problem,
each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other side. Hence, two of the four cards
show a letter and the other two show a number (e.g., A, T, 4, 7). Participants are asked to
consider the following rule introduced by the experimenter: “If there is an A on one side, then
there is a 4 on the other side.” Participants are then asked whether this rule applies to the cards
presented. Thus, participants have to indicate which cards necessarily need to be turned over
to be sure that the rule has been followed.
4 The correct solution focuses on the logical falsification rule which was put forward by
Karl Popper. Rather than prove things true, he claimed, experiments should be designed to
prove things false. Consequently, the logically correct choice is the ‘A’ and ‘7’ cards (which
corresponds to the P and not-Q cards). In the example, the only cards that might falsify the rule
are the ‘A’ and ‘7’ card. In the experiment, rules with abstract or descriptive content—
conditionals describing some state of the world—elicited a correct response from only 5-30%
of the subjects tested. In such tasks, most individuals select the cards that match the lexical
content of the rule; e.g., ‘A’ and ‘4’, which corresponds to the P and Q card. The performance
of normal subjects did not change even when the rules tested were familiar, or when the
subjects were trained, taught logic, or given incentives.
5 In sharp contrast, in the versions of the tasks where the conditional rule involves a social
exchange and a violation representing cheating, remarkable performance boosts are
consistently observed even on culturally unfamiliar rules. In these versions, the conditional rule
fits the following template: “If you accept benefit B from me, then you must satisfy my
requirement R”. For example: “If you drive my car, you have to fill up the gas afterwards.” A
person can thus be considered a cheater if that individual accepted the benefit but did not satisfy
34
Compiled from: Atran S. (2001). A Cheater–Detection Module?, Evolution and Cognition, Vol. 7, No. 2
Dan Sperber, Vittorio Girotto. Does the selection task detect cheater detection? Julie Fitness, Kim Sterelny. New
directions in evolutionary psychology, Macquarie Monographs in Cognitive Science, Psychology Press., 2002.
<ijn_00000053>
175
READING PROGRAM
the requirement (e.g., someone who drove the car but did not fill it up afterwards). Thus,
searching for cheaters corresponds to choosing the logically correct cards of P and not-Q in the
selection task, e.g., you only need to check the persons who either drove the car or did not fill
up the car afterwards.
6 Studies in cognitive neuroscience and cognitive development literature propose that the
majority of the subjects select P and not-Q cards in tasks involving social exchange. To account
for this view, further research in social contract reasoning was carried out by tasks including a
control task, which included a precaution rule, a conditional involving social exchange. 65 to
80% of subjects gave correct responses on the Wason selection task when the conditional (If
P, then Q): “If you engage in hazardous activity X, then you must take precaution Y”. They
proposed that selection of P and not-Q cards by the majority confirms that the processing of
social information is distinct from the processing of other kinds of information.
7 In the same vein, in deontological35 contexts, the conditions under which a person is
permitted to take action X, or is obliged to take precaution Y, studies show that more than 50%
of the participants make the correct P and not-Q selection. In such a task, for instance, subjects
are asked to imagine a worker who signs on with a firm under assurance that: “If an employee
works on the weekend, then that person gets a day off”. The subject is then asked to verify if
the contract is upheld by selecting from the following cards: “Worked Weekend” (P), “Worked
Only During Week” (not-P), “Got Day off” (Q), “Did Not Get Day Off” (not-Q). Most subjects
‘correctly’ pick the P and not-Q cards. But when asked to take the perspective of the employer,
rather than the worker, most subjects pick the not-P and Q cards. Deontic contexts seems to
differ from other conditions as they lack the benefit-requirement structure of social contracts.
8 In order to account for the findings above, Cosmides and Tooby propose the existence
of a cheater detection module to explain why we are so good at detecting cheaters. This module
is an adaptive algorithm in the brain that when activated causes individuals to automatically
look for cheaters in social exchange. According to Cosmides and Tooby’s point of view,
modules operate without conscious effort. The idea of this specific module of cheater detection,
proposed in their Social Contract Theory (SCT), stands in shrill contrast with the classical view
that states that all behaviour is based on one general learning mechanism (i.e., general cognitive
capacity, intelligence, rationality) and they all are connected to each other.
9 Judging precaution violations and detecting cheaters on a social contract are so alike
that, according to alternative theories, the cognitive architecture of the human mind does not
distinguish between the two. Like social contracts, precaution rules are conditional, deontic,
and involve utilities. While some propose that there is a separate cognitive specialization for
reasoning about hazards parallel to a social contract specialization, most theories of reasoning
propose that cheater detection and precautionary reasoning are both accomplished by more
general-purpose mechanisms that are designed on a single class of content; either any
conditional rule, any rule with certain pragmatic implications, any deontic rule—i.e., any rule
expressing permission, obligation, or entitlement, or any deontic rule involving utilities.
10 A number of studies have presented initial evidence in support for a distinct universal
cheater detection module. One research explores the social versus straight logic reasoning of
the Shiwiar people, an isolated group living in remote Equador. In the study, headed by
University of Oregon, 21 Shiwiar adults considered such pictorially presented social contracts
as “if you bring me a basket of fish, then you can borrow my motor boat.” If, for example, the
motorboat owner broke his promise to the fisherman—after he had eaten the basket of fish—
the Shiwiar quickly considered that cheating. They were just as good as detecting cheating as
students exposed to modern technology. This was taken as evidence that people have
35
Deontological: related to ethics
176
READING PROGRAM
developed an evolutionary strategy for determining when somebody has violated a tit-for-tat36
agreement. The patterns found in different cultures indicate that the human brain contains
programs that are specialized for detecting cheaters, regardless of their cultural variation.
11 Neuroimaging studies have been helpful in understanding the mechanisms employed
in reasoning. If a single set of reasoning procedure operates over both cheater detection and
precautionary reasoning, then brain damage that degrades performance on one type of rule
should degrade it on the other, because there is only one cognitive mechanism to be damaged.
One study presents a case of the patient “RM” who had injured the region of the brain known
for its social and emotional processing in a serious bicycle accident. The research team
compared RM’s reasoning about social exchange rules and safety rules. He had to determine,
for example, whether people had violated such social rules as “if you borrow my car, then you
should return it full of gas,” and such safety rules as “if you work with toxic chemicals, then
you should wear a safety mask.” RM performed normally on the safety tasks, as compared with
37 people without neuropsychological damage, and two others with different types of brain
damage. But he performed significantly below average on the social exchange tasks.
Researchers proposed that general reasoning abilities could account for this. But the team says
RM’s deficit suggests that detecting social cheaters depends on specialised neural circuitry.
12 Several other findings have revealed that brain damage can impair certain abilities
without damaging one’s ability to detect violations of social rules involving precaution
conditions. However, those people may not detect cheaters in a social exchange. On the other
hand, schizophrenia can impair general reasoning abilities such as the ones that involve
precaution conditions without impairing one’s ability to detect cheaters in social exchange.
This is further evidence that cheater detection is caused by a specialized mechanism in the
human mind/brain.
13 It seems that the cheater detection module develops in children as young as age 4. By
age 3, children understand what counts as cheating in social exchange but not what counts as
violating conditional rules describing the world. Researchers believe, however, that humans
aren’t the only animals who practice social exchange and detect social cheating. Other primates
appear to do it, too. However, as with language, in humans it is richly elaborated.
14 In non-human cases, cheating consists of failing to reciprocate in a standard kind of
exchange that is part of the behavioural repertoire of the species. For example, vampire bats
hunt each night in search of a blood meal to survive. Chances of success are highly variable
and a bat will die if unfed for sixty hours. To prevent starvation, bats with blood-filled stomachs
will regurgitate37 some of this valuable and hard-to-get resource to other hungry bats even if
they are nonrelatives. The best predictor of whether or not a bat complies with the mutual
benefit rule in the society is whether or not the nonrelative has previously shared food.
15 Living in a stable social community, vampire bats do not have difficulty in recognising
whether well-fed members share their resources with a needy one. However, it is unclear,
whether a bat that fails to regurgitate is recognized as a “cheater” only by individuals the bat
has denied. Alternatively, the bat might acquire a ‘reputation’ as a defector when other “co-
operators” observe the bat’s denial to those in need. It is also unclear whether cooperation is
on equal exchange or “from each according to its ability”, whether cheaters recognize the
consequences of their defection, and whether cheaters or would-be cheaters learn from the
‘punishments’ applied.
16 In spite of such evidence for a cheater detection module, alternative possibilities
deserve consideration. A particularly interesting alternative was advanced by Smedslund
36
Tit-for-tat: doing something bad to someone because they have done something bad to you.
37
regurgitate: to bring back swallowed food into the mouth.
177
READING PROGRAM
(1970). Smedslund postulated the hypothesis that logic and understanding are circularly
related. That is, to interpret a task response as illogical (e.g., failure to select the not-Q card),
one must assume that the participant understood the task. However, in Smedslund’s view, such
an assumption is not warranted. Responses that appear illogical imply a lack of logic only if
the participant and task administrator understand the task in the same way. However, because
one cannot be certain that tasks are in fact understood in the same way, one cannot conclude
that incorrect responses result from illogical reasoning. Thus, many participants might be
responding in an incorrect, though entirely logical, manner.
17 According to Smedslund, to escape the circular relationship between logic and
understanding, one must assume that logicality is the constant and understanding is the
variable, rather than vice versa. Consequently, failures on various selection tasks have nothing
to do with illogical reasoning. Theoretically, logic is a given, apparently even among very
young children, because the mind’s evolved architecture contains a small number of general-
purpose, relatively content-independent mechanisms. Thus, task failures have to do with
misunderstandings that occur; such misunderstandings may vary considerably from task to
task, from individual to individual, and possibly from one age to another.
18 Ahn and Graham have found support for this alternative “misunderstandings”
hypothesis. They argued that selection tasks are typically ambiguous with regard to the nature
of the stated conditional relationship. In other words, from the information that is typically
given on logic tasks, participants are unable to determine whether (a) P is a necessary and
sufficient condition for Q; (b) P is a necessary and insufficient condition for Q; (c) P is an
unnecessary and sufficient condition for Q; or (d) P is an unnecessary and insufficient condition
for Q. Elimination of this ambiguity is crucial because logically correct responses vary
depending on the nature of the stated conditional relationship. In short, Ahn and Graham found
that the frequency of logical responses increased when the nature of the relationship was
clarified. They, therefore, concluded that response errors do not reflect a breakdown in
conditional reasoning. Instead, such errors reflect differences in the way participants interpret
the initial, sometimes ambiguous, conditional relationship.
19 It seems that whether human mind has developed separate mechanisms for differential
reasoning tasks has not been proven yet. Further studies will shed more light on the workings
of our brains.
178
READING PROGRAM

1. Which of the following is NOT true about social exchange?
A. Social exchange has existed in all communities throughout history regardless of their
culture.
B. Implicit exchange includes casual give-and-take without delay.
C. If a species cannot identify cheaters, it cannot develop a system for mutual benefit.
__________
2. In the standard problem of Wason task, participants are expected to rely

on_________________ principle and pick ‘A’ and ‘7’ but the majority tended to pick the
cards ‘A’ and ‘4’ that conform to __________________ of the task.
3. Read paragraphs 5 to 7 and the task below. Check the statement/s that is/are possible
under this task. There may be more than one answer.
In one selection task scenario, in an office, the boss asks his employees to work extra hours
when needed. If the employee works extra, s/he should get extra payment. They were asked
to pick two cards to make sure the rule has been followed.
Works Works Gets extra Gets no

regular extra payment extra
hours hours payment
P not-P Q not-Q
A. The majority will pick the P and not-Q cards to detect the violation of the rule.
B. If the majority selects “Works regular hours” and “Gets extra payment” cards, it is an
evidence that processing social information is different from other kinds of information.
C. If participants adapted the role of the boss, they will choose the cards “Working extra
hours” and “Gets extra payment”.
____________________
4. Cosmides and Tobby’s theory assumes a cheater detection module that functions
_______________________________________ which contradict the single
______________________________ which was claimed by classical theories.
179
READING PROGRAM
5. Although the Shiwiar had a/an ______________________________ life-style, they were

similar to modernized people in _______________________________. It shows that
identifying violations of social agreements is a/an __________________________ that
exists in all cultures.
6. Which of the following tasks would RM perform similar to healthy people? Mark the ones
that apply. There may be more than one answer.
A. If you are working in a construction site, you have to wear a helmet.

B. If a friend had lent you money in the past, you need to give him financial support
when s/he needs it.
C. If mobile phones are proven to damage your brain cells, you should avoid using them.
D. If your company has allowed you to take extra days off for your health issue, you
should accept to work extra when needed.
____________________
7. Unlike other types of brain damaged individuals, people with schizophrenia cannot use
their _________________________________ skills, which does not hinder their ability
to detect cheaters.
8. What social structure of bat vampire society makes it easy for them to recognize whether
mutual benefit rule is being applied?
_______________________________________________________________________
9. Match the following arguments with the people.

Write S (Smedslund) or AG (Ahn & Graham).
___________ A. Failure to select the not-Q card is not necessarily irrational.
___________ B. Logical responses will rise if uncertainty in conditions are eliminated.
___________ C. Selecting the Q card rather than the not-Q card may be dependent on age.
180
READING PROGRAM
GONE BUT NOT FORGOTTEN?

THE MYSTERY BEHIND INFANT MEMORIES
Joanna Schaffhausen | April 22, 2013
1 What is your earliest memory? A frightening fall down the stairs? Blowing out candles
on your third birthday? Or perhaps it is a trip to the hospital to visit a newborn sibling?
Whatever the content, it is probably short and rather hazy. Adult recollections of infancy and
early childhood are typically fragmentary. We forget so much, in fact, that psychologists have
coined the term “infantile amnesia” to describe the profound memory loss associated with the
start of life. Indeed, infantile amnesia seems to create a paradox concerning the brain’s
sensitivity to early experiences. From one viewpoint, there is considerable evidence that early
experiences impact the development of the brain. Adult social behaviors, resistance to stress,
and some language skills are clearly affected by what happens during the first stages of life.
But if the brain is so strongly affected by what happens in these early days, why cannot we
remember any of it?
2 Despite the importance of early learning, memories formed during infancy seem more
fragile than those formed later in life. One 1962 study illustrated this point well through an
investigation of long-term memory in rats. Researchers trained rats of different ages to fear one
compartment of a double chamber, and then tested how long the rats remembered the
experience. They found that the ability to remember increased dramatically with age. Infant
rats avoided the fear chamber immediately after training, but did not remember the training
three weeks later. In contrast, rats trained as adults remembered to avoid the fear chamber long
after the training occurred.
3 Research on infantile amnesia in humans relies on more anecdotal evidence. Some

people can recall a few memories formed when they were as young as 2 or 3 years of age, but
most of us can recall much more from when we were 5 or 6 years old. Studies suggest that we
are not simply forgetting what happened during our earliest years; far fewer autobiographical
memories exist from early childhood than simple forgetting predicts. So the fate of early
memories remains puzzling; solving the mystery of infantile amnesia may go a long way
towards a more general theory about how we remember and why we forget.
What Happens to Early Memories?
4 Theories about infantile amnesia can be divided into two broad categories: those which
hold that the memory loss is due to a storage difficulty (i.e., early experiences are not properly
transformed into long-term memories) and those that claim the memory loss is a retrieval
problem (i.e., the memories exist, but we cannot recollect them).
Possibly a Storage Failure
5 Research has shown that the neural circuitry of the brain is not fully functional in
infants. For example, we know that much of the visual system is still developing after birth,
and that myelination in many cortical areas is not completed for quite a while. However, these
findings are too general to explain such a specific phenomenon as memory. In many animal
species, the hippocampus, a brain structure that is critical for many types of memory formation,
is not entirely developed at birth. Numerous studies have illustrated that rats improve markedly
181
READING PROGRAM
on memory tasks 18 to 23 days after birth, during the time that the hippocampus becomes
mature. In humans, however, the hippocampus seems nearly mature at birth, so hippocampal
development is probably not at the heart of infantile amnesia. Instead, research has shown that
maturation of the infereotemporal cortex and the prefrontal cortex corresponds with the
improvement on a number of memory tasks. The activity of these regions may be the key to
the whereabouts of our earliest memories.
The Language Link
6 Perhaps the largest developmental change in humans is the acquisition of language,

which generally coincides with when we start to remember things (age 3-4 years). This close
association has led some researchers to suggest that language development allows internal and
external rehearsal of experiences, and hence better storage in long-term memory. Though there
is little doubt that memory for autobiographical experiences and language ability must be
linked to some degree, the fact that pre-verbal babies can demonstrate functional memories
suggests that language is not necessary for long term memory storage or retrieval.
7 So although there is definite evidence that brains of youngsters are still developing,
there seems to be little persuasive data demonstrating that the immature nervous system is
incapable of storing memories per se. Pre-school children as young as 2 years old are able to
recall events after intervals of 6 months or more, so by this point long term memory storage is
clearly functional. But by the time those children become adults, the memories formed during
early years are difficult to recall. This failure of memory suggests a problem with retrieval
rather than storage, and indeed there is increasing evidence to support this hypothesis.
Retrieval Failure
8 A multitude of experiments illustrate that young memory capabilities are more

extensive than previously believed. For example, infants as young as 5 months prefer novel
pictures over those already presented to them, even if the second viewing occurs several weeks
after the initial presentation.
9 One of the most definitive studies on early memories was conducted by Carolyn Rovee-
Collier. Rovee-Collier taught 2 to 6 month old infants that kicking a mobile strung above their
cribs would activate the mobile’s motor. The infants were tested again days later to see if they
could remember how to activate the mobile. Babies as young as 2 months old remembered the
foot kick technique for 1-3 days, and 6 month old infants remembered the correct action for
15-16 days. Interestingly, Rovee-Collier also found that reminding the babies of the activity by
moving the mobile herself prompted the youngest infants to remember the foot kick, suggesting
that infant memory retrieval may be subject to support.
10 If infantile amnesia is due to our inability to access old memories, one must ask what
causes the retrieval problem. One strong possibility is that growing up alters our perception to
such a degree that appropriate retrieval cues are never presented. For example, when you were
6 months old, everything in the world probably seemed huge. Your memories of that time are
probably colored by towering furniture and lots of talk that you could not yet understand.
Accessing these memories might be difficult in the adult world, where tables are no longer
three times as big as you are. As we age, our view of the world changes so much that the cues
that we associated with our earliest memories are no longer present, so we lose our connection
182
READING PROGRAM
to infant memories. Indeed, evidence suggests that infant memory retrieval might be highly
dependent on contextual cues. If Rovee-Collier changed one of the objects hanging from the
mobiles in her experiment, infants no longer remembered how to activate it with a kick. Given
that infantile memory retrieval seems to occur only when infants encounter stimuli that are
identical to those present during training, developmental changes in perception would make it
significantly harder to remember what happened after a long period of time.
Multiple Memory Systems
11 One of the important insights to emerge over the last 20 years is that memory is not a
single entity but that it is made up of several abilities controlled by distinct brain systems. The
major distinction is between conscious recollection of experience, called declarative memory
(like remembering your childhood best friend), and unconscious memories of skills and habits,
called nondeclarative memory (like your effortless backhand at tennis). The unconscious
memory system appears available from birth, while a conscious memory counterpart develops
later.
12 A fascinating series of studies that illustrates the impressive memory abilities of infants
comes from Andrew Meltzoff. He argues that Rovee-Collier’s work with the mobiles tests only
the unconscious “skills and habits” memories. Thus, he designed a test to see if infants were
capable of some form of conscious declarative memory. The experiment proceeded as follows:
14- to 16-month old infants were shown a demonstration of a series of novel toys, such as
collapsible cups, each accompanied by a specific “target action.” One group of infants were
allowed to play with the toys immediately afterward, the second group was only permitted to
watch. The children were tested either 2 or 4 months after the initial visit. During the test, the
children were allowed to play with the toys while an observer rated the number of times they
performed the predefined “target actions.” After two months, both groups of infants
demonstrated good memory about how to play with the toys, performing the target actions
frequently. Results at the 4 month test were similar, though there was a substantial decline in
the number of times the infants performed target actions, suggesting that the children might be
starting to forget. Nevertheless, the results are quite surprising. With only one exposure to the
toys lasting just one minute, infants were able to remember multiple target actions up to four
months after the demonstration.
Emotional Memories May Be More Available for Recall
13 In recent years there has been increased awareness about the role of emotion in the
modulation of memory, accompanied by the discovery that certain brain structures like the
amygdala are specialized for emotional learning. Moreover, some researchers have found that
high levels of stress may actually benefit recall. The links between emotion, stress, and memory
have led scientists to wonder whether there might be less infantile amnesia associated with
traumatic childhood events.
14 Ulric Neisser and colleagues at Cornell University examined this possibility in a study
investigating college students’ recall of four specific, life-altering events that occurred when
the students were between 1 and 5 years old. The students answered questions pertaining to the
birth of younger siblings, death of a family member, moving to a new home, and
hospitalization, and their answers were verified with their parents. Sibling birth and
hospitalization seemed especially memorable, since college students could recall these events
183
READING PROGRAM
even if they were only 2 years old when the experiences occurred. Moving and a family
member’s death seemed to emerge from the haze of amnesia around the more traditionally
accepted age of 3. There were no verifiable reports for recollection of events occurring before
age 2.
Future Directions
15 The question of the storage failure versus retrieval failure remains unresolved, but the
latest multiple-memory system approach actually incorporates both concepts. The relation
between emotion and early memory is perhaps the least understood aspect of infantile amnesia.
While there is some data to support the notion that emotions reinforce early experiences, the
picture is far from complete. Research so far has relied on individual recollections of events
that happened many years in the past; those memories have no doubt faded and have been
influenced by experiences like family stories, i.e. “You were so happy when your baby brother
was born!” The need for controlled studies where the subject’s emotion can be recorded as
experienced is imperative.
16 The emerging picture of infantile amnesia depicts a complex process, perhaps mediated
by several, differentially-developing memory systems. With future research using long-term
studies, measures of both conscious and unconscious memory, and better controlled emotional
memory studies, we may yet gain some insight into the mysteries of our earliest days.
184
READING PROGRAM
Read the text carefully and answer the questions below.

1. The study conducted in 1962 with rats showed that the long-term memory of rats is better
if they are trained as ____________________________.
2. According to the information in the text, which of the developmental factors listed below
may be responsible for infantile amnesia? Write the correct letter in the space provided.
a. hippocampus is yet immature
b. inferotemporal and prefrontal cortex are not mature yet
c. myelination of many brain areas is not complete
d. visual system is immature at birth
____________
3. Babies can remember events six months after their occurrence, but adults cannot remember
their memories dating from infancy. What is NOT a cause of such amnesia?
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Little Nellie is shown a set of pictures of toy bears, horses, and dogs. A few weeks later she
is shown two sets of pictures. The first set contains the same pictures of bears, horses and
dogs. The second set contains the pictures of geometric shapes: circles, stars and triangles.
Which set would attract her attention more; Set 1 or Set 2?
____________________
5. Five–month–old infants were taught to reach out to grab and shake a bright-colored rattle.
After multiple trials, the rattle was removed. After an interval of 15 days, the rattle was
reintroduced. The infants remembered how to shake it only after one trial.
What does this experiment demonstrate in relation to their memory retrieval?
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Five–month–old infants, when given a rattle of different shape and color, were not
successful in remastering the previously learned skill. This finding tells us that infant
memories may rely on _____________________________________________________.
7. What type of memory did the Meltzoff study show to be present in infants?
_______________________________________________________________________
185
READING PROGRAM
8. Which of the event(s) below is/are more likely to be remembered by college

students? Write the letter(s) in the space provided below.
a. Alice was about to celebrate her second birthday when her mother gave birth to
her sister.
b. When Ruşen lost his grandfather, he was two years old.
c. Aisha had to spend three days at a hospital at the age of two.
d. Claire moved into a new house with her father when she was two.
e. John’s parents got divorced when he was only two.
_____________
186
READING PROGRAM
VOCABULARY
16
author constitute induce radical
cease exceed interpret revolution
civil format interval subsequent
classical grant objective theme
commentary ideological principal vehicle
compute implicit proceed violation
17
albeit convinced equivalent parameter
ambiguous correspond file passive
amend credit formula preliminary
clause deviation grade protocol
consent distorted index route
consultation draft integral tense
18
accumulate detect inspect shift
brief enormous integrity spherical
channel generating medicine thereby
chart implement minimal uniformity
component incidence monitor version
convert inhibited option visualized
19
accommodate enforcement mechanism resolution
appendix financial pose restore
automatic ignorance prime scheme
committed incentive rational scope
compensate initially recovery suspend
displace irrelevant registration welfare
187
READING PROGRAM
20
abstract funding migrate revise
coherent institute paradigm scenario
context intelligence physically sequence
drama intrinsic previously simulate
erode investigation publish submit
focus invoke reverse successive
21
aggregate coordinate intervene prospect
analogy definite likewise ratio
circumstance depress logical react
commence hierarchy offset release
conceive hypothesis phenomenon temporarily
concurrent imposing positive unified
ambiguous constitute equivalent induce objective radical

amended correspond exceeds integral parameters revolution
cease deviate file interpret preliminary subsequent
consent distorted implicit interval principal violation
“Ethics” is a/an _________________ word; that is, it can be defined in more than one
1
way. That is probably why people _________________ what is meant by “ethical behavior”
2
differently. It is perhaps better to first understand what ethics is not.
Firstly, ethics is not about feelings. True, displaying ethical behavior gives one a good
feeling, while _________________ of ethical rules hurts the conscience. Still, feelings do
3
not _________________ a sound guide for behavior, simply because they may
4
_________________ from what is ethical. What if, for example, I feel so angry with someone
5
that I want to hit him? Would it be ethical to hit that person? Feelings are at best subjective;
188
READING PROGRAM
hitting that person feels good to me, not to that person. Ethics, on the other hand need to be
_________________ because they provide recipes for good conduct that benefit both the doer
6
and the receiver of an action.
Ethics is not the _________________ of religion, either. Religion does provide

7
_________________ that draw the boundaries of ethical behavior, but it does not relate to
8
those who do not have a religious belief. Again, ethics should apply to all, not just the religious.
Thirdly, being ethical is not the same as following the law. It is _________________ in the 9
definition of law that following it is correct behavior; nevertheless, the law itself may be
unethical. Think about the apartheid laws of South Africa, for example. Such laws need to be
_________________ so that they incorporate what is morally right. Just because a dominant
10
section of society gives a practice their _________________ , it doesn’t mean that the practice
11
is ethical.
Ethical behavior does not always _________________ to culturally accepted norms. Just
12
like law, norms may become corrupt, and society may develop _________________ images 13
of what is right. A good example to this is the slavery practices in pre-war America. The
emancipation of African slaves after the Civil War was a big _________________ that aimed 14
to put things right, but it did not happen overnight. American society was blind to the fact that
freedom is a/an _________________ element of existence for all people, not just a select few.
15
_________________ attempts by other leaders at ethical treatment of Afro-Americans

16
arguably brought about some of the leaders’ assassination.
Finally, ethics is not science. The _________________ task of science is to explain how
17
the world works. Natural and social sciences may explain what humans are like, but they do
not provide a basis to _________________ people into any behavior. Determining correct
18
behavior _________________ 19
the boundaries of scientific authority. This is because
something may be technologically feasible, but ethically unacceptable, at least for some.
Animal cloning, for example, was a/an _________________ 20
development that raised fiery
ethical discussions when it was first introduced.
189
READING PROGRAM
abstract enforcement incidence institutions poses shifts

compensate erode integrity irrelevant prospective successive
conceive implement intervene monitor rational unified
coordinate implicit intrinsic paradigm reverse uniformity
Justice is a/an _________________ 1 term; it does not have links to the concrete world. As
a result, different interpretations of the word have been put forward, which makes it hard to
_________________ 2 what “justice” really means. Still, there are basic principles that people
have agreed upon and made into laws in order to ensure justice for everyone.
In order for justice to exist, persons who violate the law must be caught and punished. This
activity is known as law _________________ 3. It is the job of many _________________ 4
5
such as the police, prosecutors, courts and prisons, to _________________ the laws that
govern a society. However, the police force is typically considered to be the authority. This
6
is probably because they closely _________________ the society in general, and
_________________ 7 criminals in particular, to discover criminal activity. Once they find out
about an activity that _________________ 8 a threat to public good, the police are also the first
to _________________ 9 in the activity and put an end to it.
10
Use of force is a/an _________________ characteristic of police work, since criminals
11
do not usually give themselves up. Use of weapons is also _________________ in any
attempt to bring in heavy criminals. Use of force and weapons causes general concern, but it
cannot be denied that effective police work lowers the _________________ 12 of crime.
The police force has to work around the clock because criminal activity does not stop.
Officers have to work in day/night _________________ 13 so that some are on duty at all hours
of the day.
The police force and other officers of the law have to _________________ 14 their activities
so that citizens can be protected effectively. That is, all authorities of law have to work in
harmony. They have to act like one entity because only their _________________ 15 effort can
16
preserve law and order. If, for example, courts _________________ police action by
releasing arrested criminals based on small factors, it is both a waste of time and resources, and
a source of frustration for the arresting officers. On the other hand, the police should not waste
190
READING PROGRAM
court time by making faulty arrests. For example, a man’s previous crimes do not constitute a
strong basis for arrest. Past crimes are considered _________________ 17 to the case in hand,
and arrests should be based on information about the case in question. This is also a human
18
rights issue. It is not possible to _________________ for the harm that is done to an
individual through wrongful law practices in any way. Therefore, law officers should be
19
_________________ in their behavior and not engage in unreasonable action. Their
20
_________________ is necessary to uphold justice; they cannot afford to ignore ethics or
moral codes.
191
READING PROGRAM
192

p2-p3 Ss 2024 Reading Student's

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

p2-p3 Ss 2024 Reading Student's

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

p2-p3 Ss 2024 Reading Student's

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BOĞAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

P2 & P3 SUMMER SCHOOL 2024

Economics, Needs, Wants & Scarcity R1

Constructing the Consumer R2

Why Trump Got Elected? R2

Vocabulary Revision Material

Vocabulary Lists 1-2-3 & Exercises

HOW K-POP BECAME A GLOBAL PHENOMENON1

1. Which two of the following are NOT mentioned in paragraphs 1 to 4?

A. The variety of music genres within K-pop

__________ and __________

4. What did H.O.T. prove by appearing on stage with Michael Jackson?

9. How does paragraph 16 relate to paragraph 15?

10. What can be said about female K-pop singers?

C. None of them have ever challenged gender-centric performance studio expectations.

11. What is the tone of the writer in paragraph 19?

ECONOMICS, NEEDS, WANTS AND SCARCITY

Factors: Resulting needs:

2. dissimilarities in development between two b. Facility replacements in residences

3. cultural diversity of modern countries of c. Varied consumption and quality of

6. Below is an example of how needs evolve:

7. In a class society, what does the continuous evolution of necessities transform?

9. The capitalist economy was able to ____________________________________________,

CONSTRUCTING THE CONSUMER

Marketing and Advertising

7 Advertising was another revolutionary development that influenced the creation of

The Transformation of Institution

Read the text carefully and answer the following questions.

2. According to paragraph 3, which of the following would be considered as appropriate

____ spending most of the family income on agricultural production

3. Read paragraphs 4-6 and fill in the blanks.

Department stores started to shape the culture with the ______________________________

A) advertising / fashion / service

B) service / fashion / advertising

C) fashion / service / advertising

6. The Department of Commerc ultimately worked to _____________________________ of

b. What enabled Ford workers to afford Ford cars?

WHY TRUMP GOT ELECTED?

1. In a traumatic and extraordinarily stressful event, a woman finds herself held

The Crisis Intervention Model

13 If we take a core part of Trump’s manifesto from his presidential campaign—

Read the text carefully and answer the following questions.

2. Stockholm syndrome can be described as a/an _______________ and

escape triggers consequences

A. Patty’s joining to SLA and changing her name was involuntary.

Remember: These are “head words” for “word families”.

conflicts cooperate estimated evolved maintain range

IT _________________ 8 to a business in many ways. First of all, it helps companies to

Another _________________ 13 of IT is to help businesses communicate more efficiently.

accompany concept consume declined interact retain

P2 & P3 SUMMER SCHOOL 2024

Genetically Modified Crops R1

Vocabulary Revision Material

Vocabulary Lists 4-5-6 & Exercises

Defining the Characteristics of Star Signs

Aries: March 20 - April 20 Taurus: April 21 -May 21

Gemini: May 22 - June 21 Cancer: June 22 - July 23

Leo: July 24 - August 23 Virgo: August 24 - September 23

Libra: September 24 - October 22 Scorpio: October 23 - November 22

and