Assignment – 1

Name: Roll No.:

Introduction to Computers
Computer: An electronic device that stores and manipulates information. Unlike a calculator, it is able to
store a program and retrieve information from its memory.
Definition of Computers as per IT ACT 2000: “Computer” means any electronic, magnetic, optical or
other high-speed data processing device or system which performs logical, arithmetic, and memory
functions by manipulations of electronic, magnetic or optical im- pulses, and includes all input, output,
processing, storage, computer software, or communication facilities which are connected or related to
the computer in a computer system or computer network;
Basic Components of Computers:
Input unit, Output unit, Storage/ memory unit, Central Processing unit, Arithmetic & Logic unit, Control
unit.

1. Input unit: Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment with the
computer system performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that depend
upon the particular device used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a manner similar
to typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a mouse, which is
another type of input device.
In short, an input unit performs the following functions.
a) It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world
b) It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
c) It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.
2. Output unit: It supplied information and results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links
the computer with the external environment. As computers work with binary code, the results
produced are also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it
must be converted to human acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called
output interfaces.
In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit.
a) It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot be
easily understood by us.
b) It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
c) It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
3. Storage/ Memory Unit: The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system
through input units have to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts.
Similarly, the results produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer system before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the
intermediate results produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing.
 The Storage Unit or the primary / main storage of a computer system is designed to do all these
things. It provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results and also
space for the final results.
In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store:
a) All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from input
devices).
b) Intermediate results of processing.
c) Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4. Central Processing Unit: The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for
all events inside the computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs "Arithmetic
and Logical operations". The operations a Microprocessor performs are called "instruction set" of
this processor. The instruction set is “hard wired” in the CPU and determines the machine
language for the CPU. The more complicated the instruction set is, the slower the CPU works.
Processors differed from one another by the instruction set. If the same program can run on two
different computer brands they are said to be compatible. Programs written for IBM compatible
computers will not run on Apple computers because these two architectures are not compatible.
The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the
Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a human body, all
major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of the body function as directed by the
brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the
CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of
a computer system.
5. Arithmetic & Logic unit: The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place
where the actual execution of the instructions takes place during the processing operations. All
calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and
instructions, stored in the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed
to the ALU where processing takes place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit.
Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage
until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to ALU and back again as
storage many times before the processing is over. After the completion of processing, the final
results which are stored in the storage unit are released to an output device.
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part where actual computations take place. It consists of
circuits that perform arithmetic operations (e.g. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division over
data received from memory and capable to compare numbers (less than, equal to, or greater
than).
6. Control unit: The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external
devices. It interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines what data, if any, are
needed, where it is stored, where to store the results of the operation, and sends the control
signals to the devices involved in the execution of the instructions.
Other important hardware units of Computers:
1. SMPS: A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that converts power using
switching devices that are turned on and off at high frequencies, and storage components such as
inductors or capacitors to supply power when the switching device is in its non-conduction state.
2. Motherboard: A motherboard is one of the most essential parts of a computer system. It holds
together many of the crucial components of a computer, including the central processing unit
(CPU), memory and connectors for input and output devices. The base of a motherboard consists
 of a very firm sheet of non-conductive material, typically some sort of rigid plastic. Thin layers of
copper or aluminum foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet. These traces are very
narrow and form the circuits between the various components. In addition to circuits, a
motherboard contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the other components.
3. CMOS: CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) is the term usually used to describe
the small amount of memory on a computer motherboard that stores the BIOS settings. Some of
these BIOS settings include the system time and date as well as hardware settings.
4. Exhaust Fan: The fan attached to the SMPS rotates as long as the computer is on & keeps the
SMPS unit cool. There is also a small fan on the CPU (microprocessor), which keeps the
microprocessor chip cool.
5. Clock Chip: In general, the clock refers to a microchip that regulates the timing and speed of all
computer functions. Within this chip is a crystal that vibrates at a specific frequency when
electricity is applied. The shortest time any computer is capable of performing is one clock, or one
vibration of the clock chip. A clock speed of 100 MHz means that that it can generate 100 million
pulses/ vibrations per second.
6. BUS Cable: A group of wires through which the information is transferred among the various
components of the computer. Buses are responsible for all the communication between the
microprocessor & the other units. Bus carrying the address of a memory location is called address
bus (unidirectional) whereas; a bus carrying the actual data is called the data bus (bidirectional).
7. Expansion Slots: A place in a computer where an expansion card can be inserted. They are used to
add some more value to the computer by adding new capabilities.
8. Cache Memory: Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides
high-speed data access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs,
applications and data. It is the fastest memory in a computer, and is typically integrated onto the
motherboard and directly embedded in the processor or main random access memory (RAM).
9. Ports: A computer port is a connection point or interface between a computer and an external or
internal device. Types of Ports: -
a) Serial Ports: These are most commonly used for connections to mice and modems.
b) Parallel Ports: These are most commonly used for printers.
c) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) Ports: These are used to connect printers and up to
seven total devices, such as hard disks and tape drives, to the same port; they can support
higher data transmission speeds than serial or parallel ports.
d) Universal Serial Bus (USB) Ports: As the name implies, these can be used to connect many
devices including all previously mentioned plus keyboards, scanners, external hard drives, USB
drives (also sometimes called thumb drives or portable USB drives), cameras, iphones and
many other peripherals and devices.
Famous Ports with port numbers:
Port Number Description Port Number Description
20 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Data 53 Domain Name System
21 FTP Control 80 HTTP
23 Telnet 194 Internet relay Chat (IRC)
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 443 HTTPS
Memory Unit: Memory unit can be classified as Primary & Secondary memory or Internal & External
Storage. Unit & Description:
Unit Value (in bits or binary) Unit Value (in bits or binary)
Bit Binary Digit ( either 0 or 1) Word A group of 16 bits is called word.
Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble. 1 Kilobyte (KB) 1024 Bytes
Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. 1024 KB 1 Megabyte (1 MB)
Difference between Primary & Secondary Memory:
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
These are semiconductor memories. These are magnetic and optical memories.
They are characterized as volatile random access They are non-volatile.
memories (RAM) or non-volatile memories (ROM).
They contain program and data that is currently These are used to for bulk storage.
being used by microprocessor.
These memories are fast enough to interact with Slower than primary memories.
the microprocessor.
Also known as Main Memory Also known as Backup Memory or Auxiliary
Memory. E.g. Tapes, Floppies, Hard Discs, CD
ROMs, DVDs

Difference between RAM & ROM

RAM (Random Access Memory) ROM (Read-only Memory)
Random Access Memory or RAM is a form of data Read-only memory or ROM is also a form of data
storage that can be accessed randomly at any storage that cannot be easily altered or
time, in any order and from any physical location, reprogrammed. Stores instructions that are not
allowing quick access and manipulation. necessary for re-booting up to make the computer
operate when it is switched off. They are
hardwired.
RAM allows the computer to read data quickly to ROM stores the program required to initially boot
run applications. It allows reading and writing. the computer. It only allows reading.
RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when the It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained even
device is powered off. when the device is powered off.
The two main types of RAM are static RAM (SRAM) The types of ROM include PROM, EPROM and
and dynamic RAM (DRAM). EEPROM.

Operating System & its Type:

Operating System: An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs,
excluding firmware, require an operating system to function. OR
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between computer user and computer hardware.
Types of Operating Systems:
1. Batch operating system: The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer
directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run
as a group.
2. Time-sharing operating systems: Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located
at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or
multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multi-programmed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that
in case of Multi-programmed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas
in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Advantages Disadvantages
Provides the advantage of quick response. Problem of reliability.
Avoids duplication of software. Question of security and integrity of user programs
and data.
Reduces CPU idle time. Problem of data communication.

3. Distributed operating System: Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve
multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are
referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows –
a) With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at
another.
b) Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
c) If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
d) Better service to the customers.
e) Reduction of the load on the host computer.
f) Reduction of delays in data processing.

4. Network operating System: A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server
the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
Advantages Disadvantages
Centralized servers are highly stable. High cost of buying and running a server.
Security is server managed.
Upgrades to new technologies and hardware Regular maintenance and updates are required.
can be easily integrated into the system.
Remote access to servers is possible from Dependency on a central location for most
different locations and types of systems. operations.
5. Real Time Operating System: A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which
the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the
environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required
updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is very
less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated
application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints,
otherwise the system will fail. For example, scientific experiments, medical image systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
 Assignment - 2
Name: Roll No.:
Windows Short-cuts
Sr. No. Shortcut Key Function
Commonly used OS-level shortcuts
1 Alt + Tab toggle between programs
2 Windows button + D go to the desktop
3 Windows button + Tab show all active windows in taskbar – or cycle through Modern
UI apps with Windows 8
4 PrtScn save screen capture to clipboard; "paste" the image into an
image editing program to save it out as a file
5 Windows button opens applications menu – or Start screen with Windows 8
Browser shortcuts
6 Ctrl + T open a new tab
7 Ctrl + Shift + T reopens the tab you last closed; works multiple times
8 F5 reload page
9 Backspace go to previous page; works multiple times
10 Ctrl + Tab cycle between tabs
Commonly used shortcuts in most applications
11 Ctrl + Z undo last operation
12 Ctrl + Y redo last operation
13 Crtl + O open file
14 Crtl + S Save
15 Ctrl + W close active window or file
16 Crtl + Q quit application
Copy-and-paste delight
17 Ctrl + A select all in active window; i.e. select all text on page
18 Ctrl + X cut to clipboard
19 Ctrl + C Copy
20 Ctrl + V Paste
Find, select, and navigate text
21 Ctrl + F find; helpful if you're searching for a particular word on a
website or document
22 Ctrl + Shift + down arrow select until end of line
23 Ctrl + Shift + up arrow select until beginning of line
24 Ctrl + Home move cursor to top/start of document
25 Ctrl + End move cursor to bottom/end of document
 Use of Function keys on your Computer
Function Key Description
F1 F1 is considered as the universal shortcut for help.
F2 F2 is considered as a edit key universally.
F3 F3 lets you search specific files and folders in Window Explorer. Similarly you
can use F3 to search/Find something in almost all browsers including Google
Chrome, Firefox Mozilla and Microsoft Edge.
F4 F4 is known as the great escape key. Pressing Alt + F4 immediately closes the
current program without saving the same. It can be used in an emergency it can
be used to close browser windows you don’t want others to see.
F5 F5 is the most popular among Internet surfers because it refreshes the browser
content. It also performs a similar action in Windows Explorer. However, a few
users know that pressing Ctrl+F5 will hard refresh a browser webpage. This
means that the content will be reloaded from the server instead of the browser
cache.
F6 F6 can be used like Tab key on Windows desktop to toggle from the desktop
files to the taskbar and the system tray icons. It can also be used to bring
focuses on the address bar on most browsers. In Microsoft Office programs, it
toggles between the menu items and workspace.
F7 While F7 does not have any use in Windows, it can be used to turn on Caret
browsing on Mozilla Firefox. This feature places a moveable cursor in web
pages, allowing you to select text with the keyboard.
F8 Pressing F8 during the Windows boot process lets you enter into the Windows
Start Menu (commonly used to launch the safe mode).
F9 If you are a programmer you would know that F9 is used in Integrated
Development Environments. Ctrl+F9 will compile and run the code.
F10 F10 shows the Menu bar in Firefox and IE or highlights the same on most
programs. Pressing the combination of Shift + F10 is equivalent to right-click
and pops out the context menu.
F11 Pressing F11 opens full-screen mode in Windows Explorer and all browsers
including Google Chrome. On MS Excel Shift + F11 adds a new sheet and Ctrl +
F11 adds a new macro to the workbook.
F12 Pressing F12 in Microsoft Word will instantly open the Save As option for you to
save the document as a new file. Pressing Ctrl + Shift + F12 is equivalent to Ctrl +
P on MS Office.
 Assignment – 3
Name: Roll No.:
Introduction to Networking
Computer Network: - A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computers and other
hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and
information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process
residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer
interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network…

History of Internet: - Internet Stands for Inter-Network. The Internet was the result of some visionary
thinking by people in the early 1960s that saw great potential value in allowing computers to share
information on research and development in scientific and military fields. J.C.R. Likelier of MIT first
proposed a global network of computers in 1962, and moved over to the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) in late 1962 to head the work to develop it. Leonard Klein rock of MIT and later
UCLA developed the theory of packet switching, which was to form the basis of Internet connections.
Lawrence Roberts of MIT connected a Massachusetts computer with a California computer in 1965 over dial-
up telephone lines. It showed the feasibility of wide area networking, but also showed that the telephone line's
circuit switching was inadequate. Klein rock’s packet switching theory was confirmed. Roberts moved over to
DARPA in 1966 and developed his plan for ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).
These visionaries and many more left unnamed here are the real founders of the Internet…

The Internet, then known as ARPANET, was brought online in 1969 under a contract let by the renamed
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) which initially connected four major computers at universities
in the southwestern US (UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UCSB, and the University of Utah)… The early
Internet was used by computer experts, engineers, scientists, Defense officers and librarians. E-mail was
adapted for ARPANET by Ray Tomlinson of BBN in 1972. He picked the @ symbol from the available
symbols on his teletype to link the username and address…

Protocols: - A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network.
These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed
physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer…

E.g. TCP  Transmission Control Protocol, IP  Internet Protocol, FTP  File Transfer Protocol, HTTP 
Hypertext Transfer Protocol, ARP  Address resolution Protocol…

Topology: - Physical and logical layout of the system is known as topology…

Types of Topology: - 1. Bus/ Linear Topology. 2. Ring Topology. 3. Star Topology. 4. Mesh
Topology. 5. Hybrid Topology.

Bus Topology: - Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the nodes
(computers as well as servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus or backbone cable), by the help of
interface connectors. Every workstation communicates with the other device through this Bus. A signal from
the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable. Although the message is
broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it. If the
MAC /IP address of machine doesn’t match with the intended address, machine discards the signal.
A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be
used to extend it.

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set-up and extend bus network. Efficiency of Bus network reduces as the
number of devices connected to it increases.
Compared to other topologies we need less If the main cable (i.e. bus) encounters some
cable for this. Hence It is cheap. problem, whole network breaks down…
Good for small networks. Not good for big networks.

Ring Topology: - It is only logical layout of the system. In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to
each-other in such a way that they make a closed loop. Each workstation is connected to two other
components on either side, and it communicates with these two adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the
network, in one direction. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN. The nodes with
token are the ones only allowed to send data. Other nodes have to wait for an empty token to reach them.

Advantages Disadvantages
Its performance is better than that of Bus If one workstation or port goes down, the
topology. Even when load increases. entire network gets affected.
Due to token ring technology security Network is highly dependent on the wire which
enhanced. connects different components.
Each computer has equal access to resources. Costlier than Bus topology.

Star Topology: - In Star topology, all the components of network are connected to the central device called
“hub or a router or a switch”. All the data on the star topology passes through the central device before
reaching the intended destination. Hub acts as a junction to connect different nodes present in Star Network,
and at the same time it manages and controls whole of the network. Depending on which central device is
used…

Advantages Disadvantages
Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the If central device fail whole network goes down
rest of network.
Centralized management. It helps in Use of central device increases the cost of the
monitoring the network. network.
Easy to connect new nodes or devices. Performance and as well number of nodes
which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device.

Mesh Topology: - In a mesh topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other
nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the
network. This type of topology is very expensive as there are many redundant connections. It is commonly
used in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh topology…

Advantages Disadvantages
Data can be transmitted from different devices There are high chances of redundancy in many
simultaneously. of the network connections.
If one of the components fails there is always Very high cost.
an alternative present.
Expansion and modification in topology can be Set-up and maintenance of this topology is
done without disrupting other nodes. very difficult.

Hybrid Topology: - Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two different things. Similarly in this type of
topology we integrate two or more different topologies to form a resultant topology which has good points (as
well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific
topology. This combination of topologies is done according to the requirements of the organization.
Remember connecting two similar topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology.

Advantages Disadvantages
Reliable: Fault detection and troubleshooting Complexity of Design: One of the biggest
is easy in this type of topology. drawbacks of hybrid topology is its design.
Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of Only computer professional can handle such
network by adding new components. type of topology…
Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid
according to the requirements of the architectures are usually larger in scale, they
organization and by optimizing the available require a lot of cables, sophisticate network
resources. devices, etc.
OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference model: - It provides structural approach to troubleshoot an
issue. Each layer is functionally independent of the others, but provides services to the layer above it and
receives services from the layer below it.

1. Physical Layer: - The Physical layer transmits bits from one computer to another. It defines how the
cable is attached to the network adapter and what transmission technique is used to send data over the
cable. E.g. Hub.
2. Data Link Layer: - This layer is responsible for transferring frames from one computer to another,
without errors. After sending a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving computer.
Basically it works on MAC address. E.g. Switch.
3. Network Layer: - The Network layer addresses messages and translates logical addresses and names
into physical addresses. It also determines the route from the source to the destination computer and
manages traffic problems. E.g. Router.
4. Transport Layer: - The Transport layer handles error recognition and recovery. It also repackages
long messages when necessary into small packets for transmission and at the receiving end, rebuilds
packets into the original message… E.g. TCP & UDP.
5. Session Layer: - This layer establishes dialog control between the two computers in a session,
regulating which side transmits, and when and how long it transmits. E.g. RPC & SQL.
6. Presentation Layer: - The Presentation layer translates data from the Application layer into a network
format (and vice-versa). This layer also manages security issues by providing services such as data
encryption and compression.
 7. Application Layer: - The Application layer is the layer at which applications access network services.
This layer represents the services that directly support applications such as software for file transfers,
database access, email, and network games. E.g. Protocols.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)/IP (Internet Protocol): - The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is
one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two original components of the
suite, complementing the Internet Protocol (IP), and therefore the entire suite is commonly referred to as
TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of octets from a program on one computer to
another program on another computer. TCP is the protocol used by major Internet applications such as the
World Wide Web, email, remote administration and file transfer.

Communication Media: - For communication two or more than two computers / components must be
interconnected to each other. Transmission media is used to transmit data. Media may be bounded (wired) or
unbounded (wireless).

1. Unbounded Media: - Wireless network is a connectionless network between multiple components /

Computers in which data signal flow through air. Hence, it is not guided or bound to a channel to flow.
A. Micro waves: - Microwave transmission is considered as a “Line of Site” technology. This is
because the proper functioning of microwave transmission requires that the airspace between two
microwave towers in clear of mountains, buildings, and other objects that could possibly block
signals from being intercepted by the towers. It can travel near about 50 km. Repeaters may be
used to amplify the signal.

Advantage Disadvantage
No specific path is required for data Signal can be stopped by solid objects
transfer. like wall or hills.
Large data can be transmitted due to its As the distance increases, signal becomes
large bandwidth. weak.
Cheap than other wireless devices. Requirement of transmitter and receiver
on line of site.

B. Radio waves: - Radio wave is the transmission of signals through free space by electromagnetic
waves with frequencies significantly below visible light. Due to its higher frequency it holds most
of the property of light. Its frequency range is 3 kHz to 300 GHz. Radio waves are capable to
reach hilly regions or remote places also. Radio wave uses packet radio (combination of
transmitter and receiver) transmission.

Advantage Disadvantage
Solid objects cannot stop signals. Expensive than micro wave.
No separate transmitter and receiver is Signals may be corrupted by atmospheric
required. noise.
 C. Communication Satellite: - Satellite communication, in telecommunications, the use of artificial
satellites to provide communication links between various points on Earth. Satellite
communication has two main components: the ground segment and the space segment. A typical
satellite link involves the transmission or uplinking of a signal from an Earth station to a satellite.
The satellite then receives and amplifies the signal and retransmits or downlinking it back to Earth,
where it is received and reamplified by Earth stations and terminals. Satellite communications play
a vital role in the global telecommunications system. Approximately 2,000 artificial satellites
orbiting Earth relay analog and digital signals carrying voice, video, and data to and from one or
many locations worldwide.

Advantage Disadvantage
It can cover large areas of earth. Expensive, Large antennas required.
Very high data communication rate. Difficult to install and maintain.

2. Bounded Media: - It is a physical media in which we use wire to interconnect two or more than two
computers. It is also called as cabling system.
A. Twisted Pair Cabling: - A type of cable that consists of two independently insulated wires twisted
around one another. One wire carries the signal while the other wire is grounded. The use of two
wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. There are two
types of twisted pair cabling----
i. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): - The majority of Ethernet networks/ Computer
networks utilize this type of cabling. As the name implies this cable doesn't have a shield to
protect from electrical interference.
ii. STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): - It is similar to UTP. STP is a pair of wires wound around
each other and each pair is placed inside a protective foil wrap to protect it from crosstalk.
These wires are placed in an outer copper braid to protect it from external interference. STP
can use in environment that are near electrical units and radio towers.
Advantage Disadvantage
Less expensive & easily available. As distance increases signal become weak.
Best for small networks (100m) Not useful for large network.
Easy to maintain. Affected by noise and atmosphere.

B. Coaxial Cable: - Coaxial cables are a type of cable that is used by cable TV and that is common
for data communications. Data is transmitted through the center wire, while the outer braided layer
serves as a line to ground. Both of these conductors are parallel and share the same axis. This is
why the wire is called coaxial! It is much costlier than twisted pair cable but used for long
distance.

Advantage Disadvantage
Reduce electric interference Costly than twisted pair cable
High data transfer rate Not useful for very large network

C. Optical fiber: - It is a an optical fiber cable which uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to
transmit data. A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of
transmitting messages modulated onto light waves. Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural
form for computer data) rather than analogically.

Advantage Disadvantage
Due to greater bandwidth it can carry Restriction on bending the cable as glass
more data. is used as a conductor.
It is much thinner and lighter than metal Difficult to install and maintain
wires.
Very high data transmission speed. Expensive.

Network Components: - To build a network, different components and peripherals are needed. Every
component is useful to perform a specific task.

1. Server: - It is the main computer of the network having greater efficiency than others (clients). All
other computers in a network are connected through server only. It can control other computers and
manage traffic. Basically there are two type of server----
A. File Server: - It stores all information and allows to share it very quickly.
 B. Print Server: - It controls all print jobs in a network.
2. Workstations / Nodes / Clients: - All computers connected to server are called as client. All clients
communicate with each other through server.
3. Modem: - It is an electronic device which is a combination of modulation (digital to analog) as well
as demodulation (analog to digital). It is used for connecting a computer to telephone line. There are
two types of modem----
A. Internal Modem: - It is plug inside the circuit board and it is cheap.
B. External Modem: - It is connected to serial port using straight cable and it is costly.
4. Hub: - It is multiport device which is used to connect many computers in a single network. Hub is a
half duplex device (at a particular instance of time either input is possible or output is possible) with
speed limit of upto 10Mbps. Hub is biggest broadcast device and works on layer 1. It works on shared
bandwidth. There are two types of Hub-
A. Passive Hub: - It is a dumb device act as a simply wiring concentrator. It is an unpowered device
hence it doesn’t amplify the data signal before retransmitting it.
B. Active Hub: - It is a smart device and act as a concentrator with giving extra strength to the data
signal. It is powered device hence it amplify the signal before retransmitting it.
5. Switch: - A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within
one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer)
of the OSI model. It is full duplex device (at a particular instant of time both input and output is
possible) with speed limit upto 100Mbps. It is multi cast device and works on dedicated bandwidth
6. Router: - A router is a device used to connect two different networks situated at two different / same
geographical locations. It helps us to select best route or way for the data to reach the destination
address in order to avoid overloading or collision. It works on L3.
7. Bridges: - It is a logical device which finds a midway between two networks. It is also used to connect
to different networks. A bridge magnifies the data transmission signal. It monitors the traffic between
two networks and increases the efficiency of the network.

Types of Network: - Basically there are three types of network i.e. LAN, MAN and WAN.

1. LAN (Local Area Network): - It is a relatively small network that is confined to a small geographic
area, such as a single office or a building. Laptops, desktops, servers, printers, and other networked
devices that make up a LAN are located relatively close to each other. A key characteristic is that all
of the equipment that comprises a LAN is owned by a single entity.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): - The term Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is typically used
to describe a network that spans a citywide area or a town. MANs are larger than traditional LANs and
predominantly use high-speed media, such as fiber optic cable, for their backbones. MANs are
common in organizations that need to connect several smaller facilities together for information
sharing. MANs share many of the same security threats as LANs, but on a larger scale.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network): - It covers a significantly larger geographic area than LANs or MANs. A
WAN uses public networks, telephone lines, and leased lines to tie together smaller networks such as
LANs and MANs over a geographically dispersed area. Connecting devices in different geographic
areas together for information sharing, WANs are an important piece of enterprise networks. It have
greater security than LAN and WAN.
Broadcast Network: - In computer networking, broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that will be
received by every device on the network. Data consists of the destination address also. In practice, the scope
of the broadcast is limited to a broadcast domain. There are two types broadcast network---

1. Server Based Network: - In a server-based network, the server is the central location where users
share and access network resources. This dedicated computer controls the level of access that users
have to share resources. Shared data is in one location, making it easy to back up critical business
information. Each computer that connects to the network is called a client computer. In a server-based
network, all clients communicate with each other through server only. All users have one user account
and password to log on to the server and to access shared resources. Server operating systems are
designed to handle the load when multiple client computers access server-based resources.

Advantage Disadvantage
Resources and data security are controlled When server goes down, operations will cease
through the server. across the network.
New technology can be easily integrated into Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
system.
Server can be accessed remotely and across Large networks will require a staff to ensure
multiple platforms. efficient operation.

2. Peer-to-Peer Network: - In a peer-to-peer network, a group of computers is connected together so

that users can share resources and information. There is no central location for authenticating users,
storing files, or accessing resources. This means that users must remember which computers in the
workgroup have the shared resource or information that they want to access. It also means that users
must log on to each computer to access the shared resources on that computer. In most peer-to-peer
networks, it is difficult for users to track where information is located because data is generally stored
on multiple computers.