Power Machines N5

Power Machines N5
Module 1:
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 6

1.1.1 Absolute temperature ............................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Standard temperature and pressure ( S.T.P. )..................................................................... 7
1.1.3 Normal temperature and pressure ( N.T.P. ) ....................................................................... 7
1.1.4 Standard atmosphere ( ICAO ) .............................................................................................. 7
1.1.5 Heating and expansion of gasses.......................................................................................... 7
1.1.6 Specific heat ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Thermodynamic laws .................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.1 Joule’s law .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Clausius’ theory ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.3 Boyle’s law .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.4 Charles’s law ................................................................................................................................ 9
1.2.5 Specific heat capacity of a gas .......................................................................................... 10
1.3 Gas processes ............................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.1 Isobaric process (constant pressure)................................................................................... 12
1.3.2 Isometric process (constant volume) .................................................................................. 14
1.3.3 The polytropic process ............................................................................................................ 14
1.3.4 The isothermic process (constant temperature) ............................................................. 15
1.3.5 The adiabatic process ............................................................................................................. 17
1.4 Entropy ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Module 2:
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 29

2.2 Boilers ............................................................................................................................................... 30
2.2.1 Fire tube boilers ......................................................................................................................... 30
2.2.2 Water tube boilers .................................................................................................................... 34
2.3 Methods of firing boilers ............................................................................................................. 36
2.3.1 Solid coal firing........................................................................................................................... 36
2.3.2 Pulverized coal firing ................................................................................................................ 37
Gateways to Engineering Studies

1
Power Machines N5
2.3.3 Oil firing ........................................................................................................................................ 39

2.4 Properties of steam ...................................................................................................................... 39
2.4.1 Water ............................................................................................................................................ 39
2.4.2 Steam ........................................................................................................................................... 40
2.4.3 Saturated steam ....................................................................................................................... 40
2.4.4 Dry steam .................................................................................................................................... 40
2.4.5 Superheated steam ................................................................................................................. 40
2.5 Enthalpy and steam generation.............................................................................................. 40
2.5.1 Triple point ................................................................................................................................... 40
2.5.2 Enthalpy of water...................................................................................................................... 41
2.5.3 Enthalpy of evaporation ( hfg ).............................................................................................. 41
2.5.4 Dryness fraction ......................................................................................................................... 42
2.5.5 The steam phase diagram ..................................................................................................... 44
2.5.6 Throttling calorimeter ............................................................................................................... 48
Module 3:
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 54

3.2 Types of condensers .................................................................................................................... 55
3.2.1 Surface condenser ................................................................................................................... 55
3.2.3 Jet condenser ............................................................................................................................ 57
3.3 Finding the amount of cooling water required ................................................................... 59
3.4 Condenser pumps ....................................................................................................................... 61
3.4.1 Edwards air pump..................................................................................................................... 62
3.4.2 Rotary air pump......................................................................................................................... 63
3.4.3 Air ejector system ...................................................................................................................... 63
3.4.4 Condenser efficiency .............................................................................................................. 64
3.4.5 Vacuum efficiency ................................................................................................................... 64
3.4.6 Air leakage into condensers .................................................................................................. 64
3.4.7 Daltons law of partial pressures ............................................................................................ 65
Module 4:
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 69

4.1.1 Combustion ................................................................................................................................ 69

2
Power Machines N5
4.2 Fuels.................................................................................................................................................. 69
4.2.1 Solid fuels ..................................................................................................................................... 69
4.2.2 Liquid fuels .................................................................................................................................. 70
4.2.3 Gaseous fuels ............................................................................................................................. 70
4.3 Combustion ................................................................................................................................... 71
4.3.1 Calorific value............................................................................................................................ 71
4.3.2 Measuring the calorific value ................................................................................................ 71
4.3.3 higher heating value ............................................................................................................... 77
4.3.4 Lower heating value ................................................................................................................ 77
4.3.5 Stoichiometry (chemically correct air fuel ratio) ............................................................. 78
4.4 Air fuel ratio .................................................................................................................................... 79
Module 5:
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 88

5.2 Construction .................................................................................................................................. 89
5.2.1 Single-acting cylinder .............................................................................................................. 89
5.2.2 Double-acting cylinder ........................................................................................................... 91
5.3 Work done by a reciprocating compressor ......................................................................... 92
5.3.1 The clearance volume ............................................................................................................ 94
Module 6:
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 101

6.2 Steam turbines ............................................................................................................................ 101
6.2.1 Impulse turbines....................................................................................................................... 102
6.2.2 Reaction turbines .................................................................................................................... 103
6.2.3 Speed control .......................................................................................................................... 103
6.3 Thermodynamics of a steam turbine ................................................................................... 103
6.3.1 Velocities on blade inlet ....................................................................................................... 105
6.3.2 Velocities on blade exit ........................................................................................................ 106
6.3.3 Work done on the blades..................................................................................................... 107
6.4 Governors ..................................................................................................................................... 110
6.4.1 Centrifugal governors ............................................................................................................ 111
6.4.2 Watt governor.......................................................................................................................... 111

3
Power Machines N5
6.4.3 Porter governor........................................................................................................................ 113

6.4.4 Spring-controlled governors ................................................................................................ 113
6.4.5 The Hartnell governor ............................................................................................................ 114
6.4.6 Sensitivity and friction ............................................................................................................ 115
Module 7:
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 122

7.2 General requirements ............................................................................................................... 122
7.3 Duties of manufacturers ........................................................................................................... 123
7.4 Duties of users .............................................................................................................................. 123
7.5 Approval and duties of approved inspection authority ................................................. 124
7.6 Registration of a steam generator ........................................................................................ 125
7.7 Pressure equipment marking .................................................................................................. 126
7.8 Pressure and safety accessories ............................................................................................ 127
7.9 Inspection and test .................................................................................................................... 128
7.10 Records ....................................................................................................................................... 130
7.11 Introduction to boiler and pressure vessels ...................................................................... 131

4
Power Machines N5
Icons used in this book

We use different icons to help you work with this book; these are shown in the table
below.
Icon Description Icon Description
Assessment / Activity Multimedia
Checklist Practical
Demonstration/ observation Presentation/ Lecture
Did you know? Read
Example Safety
Experiment Site visit
Group work/ discussions, role-

Take note of
play, etc.
Theoretical – questions,
In the workplace
reports, case studies, etc.
Keywords Think about it

5
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
 Describe the laws of thermodynamics

 Describe the gas processes
 Calculate the heat transferred on a gas
 Calculate the work done on or to a gas
 Calculate the internal energy of a gas
1.1 Introduction
Since temperature and air pressure vary from place to place it is

necessary with a standard reference condition to compare testing
and documentation of chemical and physical processes.
Note:
Thermodynamics is a relation between heat and work and the
properties of a gas like mass, specific heat capacity etc.
The following are some terms used for taking accurate measurements:
1.1.1 Absolute temperature

Absolute or thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law of
thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest temperature is the zero
point. At this point, absolute zero, the particle constituents of matter, has
minimal motion and can become no colder.
Absolute temperature is measured in Kelvin ( K ), where:

6
Power Machines N5
1.1.2 Standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P.)

S.T.P. is commonly used to define standard conditions for temperature and
pressure which is important for the measurements and documentation of
chemical and physical processes where:
1.1.3 Normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P.)

N.T.P. is commonly used as a standard condition for testing and
documentation of fan capacities where:
1.1.4 Standard atmosphere (ICAO)

Standard model of the atmosphere adopted by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) where:
1.1.5 Heating and expansion of gasses

Thermal expansion is the tendency of a gas to change in volume in response
to a change in temperature. This is through heat transfer.
Temperature is a function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a gas.

When a gas is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules is increased. Thus, the
molecules begin moving more and usually maintain a greater average
separation.
The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the

gasses coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
1.1.6 Specific heat
Definition: Specific heat

The amount of heat transferred (energy) required to raise a unit
mass of gas by 1 degree raise in temperature.

7
Power Machines N5
1.2 Thermodynamic laws

1.2.1 Joule’s law
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of
energy, adapted for thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of
energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant. Energy
can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or
destroyed.
The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the internal
energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the
system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.
And
Where:
Uf
U1
Also
Q
W
Looking at the formula above:

 When the system gains heat, Q is positive and when it loses heat, Q in
negative.
 When work is done by the system, W is positive and when work is done on
the system, W is negative.
1.2.2 Clausius’ theory

The Clausius theorem (1855) states that for a system exchanging heat with
external reservoirs and undergoing a cyclic process (i.e. a process which
ultimately returns a system to its original state) heat will always flow from a
reservoir with a higher temperature to a reservoir with a lower temperature.
1.2.3 Boyle’s law

Boyle's law is an experimental gas law which describes how the pressure of
a gas tends to increase as the volume of a gas decreases.
Note: A modern statement of Boyle's law is:

The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is
inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if
the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within
a closed system.

8
Power Machines N5
Boyle's law can be stated as:
Where:
P1
P2
V1
V2
T1 =
T2 =
1.2.4 Charles’ law

Charles' law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas
law which describes how gasses tend to expand when heated. Figure 1.1
A modern statement of Charles' law is:

When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin
temperature and the volume will be directly related.
This directly proportional relationship can be written as:
Figure 1.1 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law on a PV diagram

9
Power Machines N5
Equating (1) and (2):
It follows then that for any contained mass of gas, the change of state is
governed by the equation:
But for a specific gas under specific conditions, R = characteristic gas constant.
When the mass of the gas is considered:
This is the characteristic equation for a perfect gas.
1.2.5 Specific heat capacity of a gas

Equal to the ratio of the heat added to (or removed from) a gas to the
resulting temperature change.
Specific heat capacity at constant volume ( Cv )

The amount of heat transfer when the volume remains constant and the
temperature changes by one degree.
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure ( Cp )

The amount of heat transfer when the pressure remains constant and the
temperature changes by one degree.

10
Power Machines N5
Worked Example 1.1
A gas, whose original pressure, volume and temperature was 140 kN/m2, 0.1
m3 and respectively, is compressed to a new pressure of 700 kN/m2, and
a new temperature .
Find the new volume of the gas.
Solution:
Worked Example 1.2
A quantity of gas has a pressure of 350 kN/m2 when its volume is 0.03 m3 and
its temperature is . If R = 0.29 kJ / kg.K, find the mass of gas present.
Solution:
Worked Example 1.3
A gas in its original state has the following:
Pressure = 275 kPa

Volume = 0.09 m3
Temperature =
This gas has its state changed at constant pressure until its temperature
becomes . Find how much heat is transferred from the gas.
R = 0.29 kJ / kg.K and kJ / kg.K

11
Power Machines N5
Solution:
Find the mass of gas:
Heat transferred:
1.3 Gas processes
Note:
A gas is said to have undergone a process when the state of a gas
has changed due to an operation that has been carried out on the
gas.
There are 5 different processes that we will consider in this course. The other
three processes will be dealt with at a later time.
1.3.1 Isobaric process (constant pressure)
Figure 1.2 Work done by a gas on a cylinder
Consider Figure 1.2 The pressure of a gas in the cylinder is kept constant while
the piston moves a distance. The force on the piston will remain constant. The
pressure = force on the piston x the inside area of the cylinder.
Work done by the gas:

12
Power Machines N5
But A x L = swept volume, so we get:
Figure 1.3 shows the P V graph of the process above:
Figure 1.3 Work done by a gas
It is obvious that with the pressure remaining constant, the gas has to receive
heat and the piston has to move. Thus:
H2 = final enthalpy =
H1 = original enthalpy =

13
Power Machines N5
1.3.2 Isometric process (constant volume)

The constant volume process is also referred to as the isochoric process.
If there is no change in volume in the cylinder in Figure 1.2, then the distance
moved by the piston = 0. Therefore:
The change in internal energy:
So the change of the total heat:
1.3.3 The polytropic process
A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that obeys the relation:
where P is the pressure, V is specific volume, n is the polytropic index and C is a

constant. Figure 1.4
All processes that can be expressed as a pressure and volume product are
polytropic processes. Some of those processes are unique. This equation can
accurately characterize a very wide range of thermodynamic processes, that
range from n=0 to n= which covers, n=0 ( isobaric ), n=1 ( isothermal ), n=γ (
isentropic ), n= ( isochoric ) processes and all values of n in between.
Figure 1.4 PV diagram of a polytropic process

14
Power Machines N5
The polytropic process equation is particularly useful for characterizing

expansion and compression processes which include heat transfer. The one
restriction is that the process should display a constant energy transfer ratio K
during that process:
Work done:
Combining the polytropic law and the characteristic gas equation

of a perfect gas:
From the polytropic law:
( )
From the characteristic equation:
Combining equation (1) and (2):
( )
Also:
( )
And
( ) ( )
1.3.4 The isothermic process (constant temperature)

An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the
temperature remains constant:
ΔT = 0.

15
Power Machines N5
This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal

reservoir, and the change occurs slowly enough to allow the system to
continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange.
In an adiabatic process is where a system exchanges no heat with its

surroundings (Q = 0). In other words, in an isothermal process, the value ΔT = 0
and therefore ΔU = 0 (only for an ideal gas) but Q ≠ 0, while in an adiabatic
process, ΔT ≠ 0 but Q = 0.
Note:
The law of the isothermal process is:
PV = C
Figure 1.5 shows an isothermal process plotted on a PV diagram. The change

of state from 1 to 2 is given by:
Figure 1.5 PV diagram of an isothermal process where the temperature

at 1 equals the temperature at 2
Work done:
Introducing:

16
Power Machines N5
1.3.5 The adiabatic process

An adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or matter
between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings.
In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred only as work. The adiabatic

process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound
the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in
thermodynamics.
Did you know?

Some chemical and physical processes occur so rapidly that they
may be conveniently described by the "adiabatic approximation",
meaning that there is not enough time for the transfer of energy as
heat to take place to or from the system.
No heat is transferred and so the adiabatic process is a specific part of the

polytropic process where:
The adiabatic index ( ) satisfies the particular case of this process. Work done
then becomes:
The non-flow energy equation:

17
Power Machines N5
1.4 Entropy
Definition: Entropy
The idea of entropy comes from a principle of thermodynamics
dealing with energy. It usually refers to the idea that everything in
the universe eventually moves from order to disorder, and entropy is
the measurement of that change.
The word entropy means "a turning toward" or "transformation." The word was
used to describe the measurement of disorder by the German physicist
Rudolph Clausius and appeared in English in 1868. A common example
of entropy is that of ice melting in water. The resulting change from formed to
free, from ordered to disordered increases the entropy.
Think about it!

Entropy is very similar to energy.
Energy measures the capability of an object or system to do work.
Entropy, on the other hand, is a measure of the "disorder" of a
system.
What "disorder refers to is really the number of different microscopic states a

system can be in, given that the system has a particular fixed composition,
volume, energy, pressure, and temperature. By "microscopic states", we mean
the exact states of all the molecules making up the system.
The idea here is that just knowing the composition, volume, energy, pressure,
and temperature doesn't tell you very much about the exact state of each
molecule making up the system.
For even a very small piece of matter, there can be trillions of different
microscopic states, all of which correspond to the sample having the same
composition, volume, energy, pressure, and temperature.
Why should it be important, after all, if you know the bulk properties? Isn't that
all one usually needs? It turns out that no, in fact if you want to, say, exact
energy from say steam and convert it to useful work, those details turn out to
be crucial.
Entropy is denoted by (S) and the change in entropy can be shown by:

18
Power Machines N5
Worked Example 1.4
A quantity of gas has an initial pressure, volume and temperature of 140 kPa,
0.14 m3 and 25 C respectively. It is compressed to a pressure of 1.4 MPa
according to the law PV1.25 = constant.
Find the change of entropy. Cp = 1.041 kJ/kg.K and Cv = 0.743 kJ/kg.K
Solution:
For 1 kg gas:
Also:
( ) ( )
For 0.221 kg of gas:
Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7 show a summary of the expansion and compression
laws of gasses

19
Power Machines N5
Figure 1.6 Expansion curves. Work done is the area under the graph in each
case
Figure 1.7 Compression curves. Work done is the area under the graph in
each case

20
Power Machines N5
Worked Example 1.5
A gas whose original pressure and temperature were 300 kN/m 3 and 25
degrees Celsius respectively, is compressed according to the law PV1.4 = C
until its temperature is 180 degrees Celsius. Find the new pressure of the gas.
Solution:
For a polytropic compression, the relationship between pressure and

temperature is:
( )
And from this:
( )
( ) ( )
Worked Example 1.6
0.25 kg of air at a pressure of 140 kPa occupies 0.15 m 3 and from this
condition it is compressed to 1.4 MPa according to the law PV1.25 = C.
Find the change of internal energy of the air if Cp = 1.005 kJ / kg.K and Cv =
0.718 kJ / kg.K Also find the work done on or by the air.
Solution:
Change in internal energy:

21
Power Machines N5
Figure 1.8
( )
( ) . /
Change in internal energy:
This is a positive change in energy hence it is a gain of internal energy to the

air.
Work done:
This is negative hence work is done on the air.

22
Power Machines N5
Worked Example 1.7
A certain gas, which has a mass of 2,268 kg, is compressed polytropically

from a pressure of 103,4 kPa and a volume of 2,125 m 3 to a pressure of 3 102
kPa and a volume of 0,125 m3. The gas constants R is 0,288 kJ/kg.K and Cv is
0,67 kJ/kg.K.
Calculate the following:
1. The index of compression

2. The initial temperature in Kelvin
3. The temperature after compression in Kelvin
4. The work done in kilojoules
5. The change in internal energy
Solution:
1. =
( ) =
( ) =
= 30
=
= 1,2
2. =
=
= 336,39 K
3. =
=
= 593,63 K
4. =
= -840,125 kJ

23
Power Machines N5
5. =
= 2m268 X 0,67 X (593,63 – 336,39)
= 390,89 kJ
Worked Example 1.8
0,625 kg gas at a pressure of 103 kPa and a temperature of 288 kelvin is

compressed isothermally to a pressure of 310,2 kPa. Its volume is now
reduced at constant pressure to 0,085 m3 and finally, its pressure is raised at
constant volume to 413,6 kPa. R= 0,286 kJ/kg.K.
The initial volume of the gas

The volume of the gas after the isothermal compression
Solution:
1. =
=
= 0,4998 m3
2. =
=
= 0,6596 m3
3. =
=
= 147,508 K

24
Power Machines N5
4. =
=
= 196,677 K
4. =
=
= -25,11379 kJ
Activity 1.1
Draw up a table for the summary of the gas laws. Use 6 columns with the
headings: Process, Law symbol, Heat added or rejected (Q), Change in
internal energy, and Other formula. Use 6 rows for the five processes.
[find all formula for each process]
Activity 1.2
0,6 kg of gas is at a pressure of 1,5 MPa and a temperature of 300ºC. This gas
is expanded reversibly and politropically to a pressure of 150 kPa. The
following data is applicable to this gas:
 Index of expansion = 1,24

 Gas constant = 0,287 kJ/kg.K
 Specific heat capacity at constant pressure = 1,005 kJ/kg.K

1. The temperature of the gas after expansion
2. The work done
3. The heat flow
4. The change in entropy during the expansion for 1 kg of steam
[367; 0.06578; 0.42126; 147.8375; 0.718; -88.7448; 59.0927; 0.21309]
Activity 1.3
The density of a certain gas at 0ºC and 100 kPa is 1,28 kg/m3. 5 kg of this gas
is compressed adiabatically from a temperature of 0ºC and a pressure of 100
kPa to a pressure of 5 200 kPa. The gas constant Cv is 0,754 kJ/kg.K.

25
Power Machines N5

1. The gas constant R
2. The adiabatic index of compression, gamma
3. The initial volume at 0ºC and 100 kPa
4. The final volume at 5 200 kPa
5. The work done during compression
[0.286; 1.38; 3.9; 0.22263; - 2020.2]
Activity 1.4
3,5 kg of air at 410 kPa and 130ºC expands politropically to 101,3 kPa and 18
ºC. The specific heat capacity at constant pressure is 1,005 kJ/kg.K and the
gas constant R is 0,287 kJ/kg.K for air.
1. The original volume

2. The final volume
3. The value of the index of expansion
5. The change in entropy
[0.98735; 2.88558; 1.3; 375; 0.259]
Activity 1.5
A certain gas has a density of 1,5 kg/m3 at free air conditions with a pressure
of 101,3 kPa and a temperature of 18 ºC. It takes 389 kJ to heat 1,67 kg of this
gas at constant pressure from 18 ºC to 250 ºC.
1. The characteristic gas constant R of the gas

2. The specific heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure
3. The specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume
4. The change in internal energy
5. The work done
[0.232; 1.004; 0.772; 299.104; 89.896]

26
Power Machines N5
Activity 1.6
0,5 kg of gas is expanded from 2 068 kPa and a volume of 0,0566 m 3 to 103,4
kPa according to the law . The gas constant ‘R’ is 0,288 kJ/kg.K and
Cv is 0,72 kJ/kg.K.
1. The final volume

2. The original absolute temperature
3. The final absolute temperature
5. The heat received or rejected in kilojoules
[0.481; 812.84; 345.39; 168.3; 0]
Activity 1.7
0,125 m3 of a gas is heated at constant volume from a temperature of 350 ºC

and a pressure of 930 kPa to a pressure of 3 930 kPa. This gas then undergoes
an adiabatic expansion to a pressure of 230 kPa when . The gas
constant for this gas is 0,288 kJ/kg.K and the specific heat capacity of this gas
at constant volume is 0,702 kJ/kg/K.
1. the temperature of the gas at the commencement of the adiabatic

expansion
2. the temperature of the gas at the completion of the adiabatic expansion
3. the quantity of heat absorbed by the gas during the isochoric process
4. the work done during the adiabatic process
[0.08334; 1759.64; 1.3; 0.01488; - 7.39054]
Activity 1.8
A certain gas has a density of 1,28 kg/m3 at 200 kPa and 267 ºC. The
law, , Is used to expand 0,7 kg of this gas to 2,5 times Its original
volume, from 200 kPa and 267 ºC.
1. The characteristic gas constant

27
Power Machines N5
2. The original and final volume of the gas

3. The final pressure of the gas
4. The final temperature of the gas
5. The work done during the expansion
[0.289; 1.3655; 61.332; 413.991; 87.9]
Activity 1.9
A constant volume process was used to heat 3,3 kg of gas from a

temperature of 21ºC and 0,87 m3 to a temperature of 137 ºC. The specific
heat capacity of the gas at constant volume Is 0,718 kJ/kg.K and the gas
constant Is 0,269 kJ/kg.K.
1. The quantity of heat transferred in kJ

2. The final pressure of the gas after heating
[274.85; 322.285; 449.445]
Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No

 Describe the laws of thermodynamics
 Describe the gas processes
 Calculate the heat transferred on a gas
 Calculate the work done on or to a gas
 Calculate the internal energy of a gas
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak to
your facilitator for guidance and further development.

28
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the main types of boilers and their specific application

 Describe the different methods of firing a boiler
 Calculate the enthalpy, volume and internal energy of wet steam
 Calculate the enthalpy, volume and internal energy of dry steam
 Calculate the enthalpy, volume and internal energy of superheated
steam
 Calculate the dryness fraction using the calorimeter
2.1 Introduction
Many call the water vapor that comes out of a boiling kettle, steam.
But this vapor that is seen as a light cloud has too little energy to be
used to generate power in industry.
Figure 2.1 Simplified steam generation plant

29
Power Machines N5
Referring to Figure 2.1, some of the steam generation equipment that is going
to be covered is the boiler, condenser and air pump.
2.2 Boilers
2.2.1 Fire tube boilers
A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through
one or (many) more tubes running through a sealed container of water.
The heat of the gases is transferred through the walls of the tubes by thermal
conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating steam.
Did you know?

This type of boiler was used on virtually all steam locomotives in the
horizontal "locomotive" form.
This has a cylindrical barrel containing the fire tubes, but also has an extension
at one end to house the "firebox". This firebox has an open base to provide a
large grate area and often extends beyond the cylindrical barrel to form a
rectangular or tapered enclosure.
The horizontal fire-tube boiler is also typical of marine applications, using

the Scotch boiler. Vertical boilers have also been built of the multiple fire-tube
type, although these are comparatively rare; most vertical boilers were either
flued, or with cross water-tubes.
Figure 2.2 A three pass fire-tube boiler

30
Power Machines N5
2.2.1.1 The Cornish boiler:

The earliest form of fire-tube boiler was the "high-pressure" Cornish boiler. This is
a long horizontal cylinder with a single large flue containing the fire. The fire
itself was on an iron grating placed across this flue, with a shallow ash-pan
beneath to collect the non-combustible residue.
Did you know?

Although considered as low-pressure (perhaps 25 psi) today, the
use of a cylindrical boiler shell permitted a higher pressure than the
earlier "haystack" boilers.
As the furnace relied on natural draught (air flow), a tall chimney was required
at the far end of the flue to encourage a good supply of air (oxygen) to the
fire. Figure 2.3.
For efficiency, the boiler was commonly encased beneath by a brick-built

chamber. Flue gases were routed through this, outside the iron boiler shell,
after passing through the fire-tube and so to a chimney that was now placed
at the front face of the boiler.
Figure 2.3 A Cornish fire-tube boiler with one fire tube
2.2.1.2 The Scotch marine boiler

The Scotch marine boiler differs dramatically from its predecessors in using a
large number of small-diameter tubes. This gives a far greater heating surface
area for the volume and weight. The furnace remains a single large-diameter
tube with the many small tubes arranged above it.
They are connected together through a combustion chamber – an enclosed

volume contained entirely within the boiler shell – so that the flow of flue gas

31
Power Machines N5
through the fire tubes is from back to front. An enclosed smokebox covering
the front of these tubes leads upwards to the chimney or funnel.
Note:
Typical Scotch boilers had a pair of furnaces, larger ones had three.
Above this size, such as for large steam ships, it was more usual to
install multiple boilers.
2.2.1.3 The locomotive boiler

A locomotive boiler has three main components: a double-walled fire box; a
horizontal, cylindrical "boiler barrel" containing a large number of small flue-
tubes; and a smoke box with chimney, for the exhaust gases.
The boiler barrel contains larger flue-tubes to carry the superheater elements,
where present. Forced draught is provided in the locomotive boiler by injecting
exhausted steam back into the exhaust via a blast pipe in the smokebox.
Locomotive-type boilers, Figure 2.4 are also used in traction engines, steam
rollers and portable engines and some other steam road vehicles. The inherent
strength of the boiler means it is used as the basis for the vehicle: all the other
components, including the wheels, are mounted on brackets attached to the
boiler.
Figure 2.4 A locomotive fire-tube boiler

32
Power Machines N5
Did you know?

It is rare to find superheaters designed into this type of boiler, and
they are generally much smaller (and simpler) than railway
locomotive types.
2.2.1.4 The Lancashire boiler:

The Lancashire boiler is similar to the Cornish, but has two large flues containing
the fires. Figure 2.5. It was the invention of William Fairbairn in 1844, from a
theoretical consideration of the thermodynamics of more efficient boilers that
led him to increase the furnace grate area relative to the volume of water.
Later developments added Galloway tubes (after their inventor, patented in

1848), crosswise water tubes across the flue, thus increasing the heated surface
area.
As these are short tubes of large diameter and the boiler continues to use a
relatively low pressure, this is still not considered to be a water-tube boiler. The
tubes are tapered, simply to make their installation through the flue easier.
Figure 2.5 A Lancashire fire-tube boiler with two fire tubes
2.2.1.5 The vertical fire-tube boiler

A vertical fire-tube boiler is a vertical boiler where the heating surface is
composed of multiple small fire tubes, arranged vertically.
These boilers were not common, owing to drawbacks with excessive wear in
service. The more common form of vertical boiler, which was very similar in
external appearance, instead used a single flue and water-filled cross tubes.

33
Power Machines N5
Another form used horizontal fire-tubes, even where this added complexity,
such as the Cochran boiler.
2.2.2 Water tube boilers

Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the
steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are
separate in the furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes
that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam. Figure 2.6.
The heated water then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam is
drawn off the top of the drum. In some services, the steam will re-enter the
furnace through a superheater to become superheated.
Definition: Superheated steam

Superheated steam is defined as steam that is heated above the
boiling point at a given pressure.
Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore used to drive turbines, since
water droplets can severely damage turbine blades.
Figure 2.6 A typical water tube boiler arrangement

34
Power Machines N5
2.2.2.1 Thornycroft boiler

The Thornycroft type features a single steam drum with two sets of water tubes
either side of the furnace. These tubes, especially the central set, have sharp
curves.
Apart from obvious difficulties in cleaning them, this may also give rise to
bending forces as the tubes warm up, tending to pull them loose from the
tubeplate and creating a leak. There are two furnaces, venting into a
common exhaust, giving the boiler a wide base tapering profile.
Figure 2.7 shows this boiler with its tube configuration along with three mud
drums and one central steam drum at the top.
Figure 2.7 The Thornycroft type boiler
2.2.2.2 Yarrow boiler

Named after its designers, the then Poplar-based Yarrow ship builders, this type
of three drum boiler has three drums in a delta formation connected by water
tubes. The drums are linked by straight water tubes, allowing easy tube-
cleaning.
Figure 2.8 The Yarrow type boiler

35
Power Machines N5
This does, however, mean that the tubes enter the drums at varying angles, a
more difficult joint to caulk. Outside the firebox, a pair of 'cold-leg' pipes
between each drum act as 'downcommers'.
Did you know?

Due to its three drums, the Yarrow boiler has a greater water
capacity. Hence, this type is usually used in older marine boiler
applications. Its compact size made it attractive for use in
transportable power generation units during World war 2.
Figure 2.8 shows a Yarrow boiler tube arrangement with two mud drums and a
single steam drum at the top.
2.3 Methods of firing boilers

2.3.1 Solid coal firing
The combustion process with solid fuel can be performed by mechanical
spreader stoker or hand stoker firing. Solid fuel firing in steam boiler can be
classified as underfeed stoker firing and overfeed stoker firing.
2.3.1.1 Underfeed stoker firing

Underfeed stoker firing is the process of combustion in which the new coal is
heated by radiation in the presence of air and located under ignited fuel bed.
The heating of coal is running less rapidly and release volatile matter combine
with air, so generating low smoke.
2.3.1.2 Overfeed stoker firing

Overfeed stoker firing is the process of combustion in which the unignited fuel
or incoming coal is located above ignited fuel bed. The ignited fuel transfer
heat to the incoming coal by radiation.
Moreover coal is heated by convection from hot gases that have been
through the combustion.
Secondary air is added to perform complete combustion unless steam boiler

will produce more smoke because the hot gases contain little oxygen.
Figure 2.9 shows a mechanical boiler feed for solid coal.

36
Power Machines N5
Figure 2.9 Solid coal firing of boiler
2.3.1.3 Travel grate stoker solid coal firing

Here, the coal is burnt on a chain grate which continuously travels forwards.
Combustion takes place during the journey of coal from first end to last end of
the furnace.
At the end of combustion heavier ash content falls into ash pit by gravitational
force as the grate chain moves like conveyor belt. The lighter ash particles and
combustion gases fly away with primary air.
2.3.2 Pulverized coal firing

A pulverized coal-fired boiler is an industrial or utility boiler that generates
thermal energy by burning pulverized coal (also known as powdered coal or
coal dust since it is as fine as face powder in cosmetic makeup) that is blown
into the firebox.
The basic idea of a firing system using pulverized fuel is to use the whole
volume of the furnace for the combustion of solid fuels. Coal is ground to the
size of a fine grain, mixed with air and burned in the flue gas flow. Biomass and
other materials can also be added to the mixture.

37
Power Machines N5
Coal contains mineral matter which is converted to ash during combustion.

The ash is removed as bottom ash and fly ash. The bottom ash is removed at
the furnace bottom.
Did you know?

This type of boiler dominates the electric power industry, providing
steam to drive large turbines.
Pulverized coal provides the thermal energy which produces about 50% of the
world's electric supply.
For getting most calorific value of coal, the coal is pulverized in fine powder
and then mixed with sufficient air. The mixture of coal powder and air is fired in
the steam boiler furnace to achieve most efficient combustion process. This is
most modern and efficient method of boiler firing.
Due to pulverization, the surface area of coal becomes much larger, and in
this method air required for combustion is much less. As the quantity of
required air and fuel both are less, loss of heat in this method of boiler firing is
much less, hence temperature can easily be reached to the designated level.
Did you know?

As the combustion is most efficient pulverized coal firing increases
the overall efficiency of steam boiler.
As handling of lighter coal dust is much easier than handling of heavier coal
chips, it is quite easy to control the output of the boiler by controlling supply of
fuel to the furnace.
Hence fluctuation of system load can smoothly be met. In addition, these

advantages, pulverized coal firing system has many disadvantages. Such as:
 The initial cost of installing this plant is very high.

 Not only initial cost, running cost of this plant is quite high as
 Separate pulverization plant to installed and run additionally.
 High temperature causes high thermal loss through flue gas.
 This type of method of boiler firing has always a risk of explosion.
 This is also difficult and expensive to filter fine ash particles from
 Fine gas. Moreover, the quantity of ash particles in the flue gas is
 More in pulverized system.
Process of pulverization is discussed here in brief.
First the coal is crushed by preliminary crasher. The coal is crushed to 2.5 cm.
or less.

38
Power Machines N5
Then this crushed coal is passed through magnetic separator to separate any
iron content in the coal. Iron must be removed; otherwise during pulverizing
iron particles will cause spark which results unwanted fire hazard.
After that, crushed coal is dried properly before pulverization. The moisture
content must be less than 2% after drying operation.
Then the coal is crushed again in fine particles in ball mill. This process is
referred as pulverization.
This pulverized coal is then puffed with air and put into furnace as fluid.
2.3.3 Oil firing

An oil burner or oil furnace is a heating device which burns heating oil, diesel
fuel or other similar fuels. The fuel is atomized into a fine spray usually by forcing
it under pressure through a nozzle. This spray is usually ignited by an electric
spark with the air being forced through by an electric fan.
Note:
Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber by spray nozzles.
The nozzles are usually supplied with high pressure oil. Because of problems
with erosion, and blockage due to lumps in the oil, they need frequent
replacement, typically every year. Fuel nozzles are usually rated in fuel volume
flow per unit time.
2.4 Properties of steam

2.4.1 Water
Water exists between 0 degrees Celsius and Superheated water.
Superheated water is liquid water under pressure at temperatures between the

usual boiling point, 100 °C and the critical temperature, 374 °C. It is also known
as "subcritical water" or "pressurized hot water." Superheated water is stable
because of overpressure that raises the boiling point.
Water vapour, or aqueous vapour, is the gaseous phase of water. Water

vapour can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or
from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapour is
invisible.
Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapour is continuously generated

by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is lighter than air and triggers
convection currents that can lead to clouds.

39
Power Machines N5
2.4.2 Steam
The enthalpy of evaporation is the energy required to turn water into the
gaseous form when it increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard
temperature and pressure; this change in volume can be converted
into mechanical work by steam engine such as reciprocating piston type
engines and steam turbines.
2.4.3 Saturated steam

If saturated steam is reduced in temperature (whilst retaining its pressure) it will
condense to produce water droplets, even if it is still considerably above the
boiling point of 100 °C at standard pressure. These condensation droplets are a
cause of damage to steam turbines blades, the reason why such turbines rely
on a supply of dry, superheated steam.
2.4.4 Dry steam

Dry steam is saturated steam that has been very slightly superheated. This is not
sufficient to change its energy appreciably, but is a sufficient rise in
temperature to avoid condensation problems, given the average loss in
temperature across the steam supply circuit.
Did you know?

Towards the end of the 19th century, when superheating was still a
less-than-certain technology, such steam-drying gave the
condensation-avoiding benefits of superheating without requiring
the sophisticated boiler or lubrication techniques of full
superheating.
2.4.5 Superheated steam

Superheated steam is a steam at a temperature higher than its vaporization
(boiling) point at the absolute pressure where the temperature is measured.
The steam can therefore cool (lose internal energy) by some amount, resulting
in a lowering of its temperature without changing state (i.e., condensing) from
a gas, to a mixture of saturated vapour and liquid.
If saturated steam (a mixture of both gas and saturated vapour) is heated at

constant pressure, its temperature will also remain constant as the vapour
quality (think dryness, or percent saturated vapour) increases towards 100%,
and becomes dry (i.e., no saturated liquid) saturated steam.
Continued heat input will then "super" heat the dry saturated steam. This will
occur if saturated steam contacts a surface with a higher temperature.
2.5 Enthalpy and steam generation

2.5.1 Triple point
All the three phases of a particular substance can only coexist in equilibrium at
a certain temperature and pressure, and this is known as its triple point.

40
Power Machines N5
The triple point of water, where the three phases of ice, water and steam are
in equilibrium, occurs at a temperature of 273.16 K and an absolute pressure of
0.006 112 bar. This pressure is very close to a perfect vacuum.
If the pressure is reduced further at this temperature, the ice, instead of

melting, sublimates directly into steam.
2.5.2 Enthalpy of water

This is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of water from a
datum point of 0°C to its current temperature.
At this reference state of 0°C, the enthalpy of water has been arbitrarily set to
zero. The enthalpy of all other states can then be identified, relative to this
easily accessible reference state.
Did you know?

Sensible heat was the term once used, because the heat added to
the water produced a change in temperature. However, the
accepted terms these days are liquid enthalpy or enthalpy of
water.
At atmospheric pressure (0 bar), water boils at 100°C, and 419 kJ of energy are
required to heat 1 kg of water from 0°C to its boiling temperature of 100°C.
It is from these figures that the value for the specific heat capacity of water (
Cp ) of 4.19 kJ/kg °C is derived for most calculations between 0°C and 100°C.
2.5.3 Enthalpy of evaporation ( hfg )

This is the amount of heat required to change the state of water at its boiling
temperature, into steam.
It involves no change in the temperature of the steam/water mixture, and all

the energy is used to change the state from liquid (water) to vapor (saturated
steam).

41
Power Machines N5
Figure 2.10 Enthalpy temperature curve
The old term latent heat is based on the fact that although heat was added,
there was no change in temperature. However, the accepted term is now
enthalpy of evaporation.
Like the phase change from ice to water, the process of evaporation is also
reversible. The same amount of heat that produced the steam is released
back to its surroundings during condensation, when steam meets any surface
at a lower temperature. See Figure 2.10.
This may be considered as the useful portion of heat in the steam for heating
purposes, as it is that portion of the total heat in the steam that is extracted
when the steam condenses back to water.
2.5.4 Dryness fraction

Steam with a temperature equal to the boiling point at that pressure is known
as dry saturated steam. However, to produce 100% dry steam in an industrial
boiler designed to produce saturated steam is rarely possible, and the steam
will usually contain droplets of water.
Note:
In practice, because of turbulence and splashing, as bubbles of
steam break through the water surface, the steam space contains
a mixture of water droplets and steam.

42
Power Machines N5
Steam produced in any shell-type boiler, where the heat is supplied only to the
water and where the steam remains in contact with the water surface, may
typically contain around 5% water by mass.
If the water content of the steam is 5‰ by mass, then the steam is said to be
95% dry and has a dryness fraction of 0.95.
The actual enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam is the product of the dryness
fraction ( ) and the specific enthalpy ( ) from the steam tables. Wet steam
will have lower usable heat energy than dry saturated steam.
Actual enthalpy of evaporation
Therefore:
Actual total enthalpy
Because the specific volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower

than that of steam, the droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible
space. Therefore the specific volume of wet steam will be less than dry steam:
Actual specific volume
Where is the specific volume of dry saturated steam.
Worked Example 2.1
4 637,5 kJ of heat is dissipated from 1,75 kilograms of wet steam which is at a

pressure of 2 000 kPa. The supply water which is used to form the steam enters
the evaporator at 26,5 ºC. The wet steam Is then superheated to 350 ºC. The
specific heat capacity of the water is 4 187 J/kg.K.

1. The dryness fraction of the wet steam
2. The change in enthalpy from wet steam to superheated steam for 1 kg of
steam
3. The increase in the specific volume of the steam for 1 kg of steam
Solution:
1. =
= 2 650 kJ/kg
=
= 4,187 X 26,5

43
Power Machines N5
= 111 kJ/kg
=
= 2650 -111
= 2539 kJ/kg
But =
=
= 0,863
2. =
=
= 3 138 – 2 539
= 599 kJ/kg
2.5.5 The steam phase diagram

The data provided in the steam tables can also be expressed in a graphical
form. Figure 2.11 illustrates the relationship between the enthalpy and
temperature of the various states of water and steam; this is known as a phase
diagram. From the diagram, note the following:
A to B:
Heat is added to water which will reach a specified pressure and, depending
on that pressure, the saturation temperature ( ts ) will be reached. This is the
sensible phase of the process of generating steam. The enthalpy change is hf.
B to C:
At point B, vapour starts forming and as heat continues to be added the
enthalpy of evaporation is hfg, changes at constant temperature,
C to D:
The vapour is no longer in contact with water and the superheat phase starts.
The temperature starts to rise again.

44
Power Machines N5
Figure 2.11 Enthalpy temperature diagram
Enthalpy values as they occur in the formation of steam are set out in tabular
form.
The first phase in the generation of steam is warming up the water from an
original temperature to saturation temperature. The energy added to the
water during this phase if liquid enthalpy ( )
Enthalpy of sensible heat:

[ ]
The second phase is when energy continues to be added, creates an enthalpy

of evaporation ( ). This occurs at constant saturation temperature. The liquid
is transformed into dry saturated vapour.
Enthalpy of latent heat:
The third phase as energy continues to be added is when the temperature

starts to raise again at constant pressure. This is the enthalpy of dry saturated
vapour ( ).

45
Power Machines N5
Find in steam tables

Enthalpy of superheated steam:
( )
Enthalpy total:
( )
Worked Example 2.2
10 kg of water, at a pressure of 920 kPa and a temperature of 60 ºC, is

heated to boiling point, then to dry saturated steam and then to
superheated steam, with a temperature of 210 ºC. The specific heat
capacity of superheated steam is 2,1 kg/kg. ºC and that of water is 4,187
kJ/kg. ºC.
Calculate the following with the aid of steam tables:
1. The enthalpy of the sensible heat in MJ

2. The enthalpy of the latent heat In MJ
3. The enthalpy of the superheat in kJ
4. The enthalpy of the total heat required for superheating the water In MJ
5. The saturation temperature of the steam
Solution:
1. = { }
= { }
= 4 957,8 kJ
= 4,9578 MJ

46
Power Machines N5
2. = (from steam tables)

=
= 20 260 kJ
= 20,26 MJ
3. =
= { }
= 707,7 kJ
4. =
= 4 958 + 20 260 + 707,7
= 25 925,7 kJ
= 25,9257 MJ
5. = 176,3 ºC
Worked Example 2.3
Steam which contains 4,2% moisture enters a superheater at a pressure of 4

MPa. The steam is then superheated to a temperature of 400 ºC at constant
pressure.

1. The heat transferred in the superheater in kJ/kg
2. The volume of steam entering the superheater in m3/kg
3. The volume of the superheated steam leaving the superheater in m 3/kg
Solution:
1. =
= { }
= { }
= 3 214 – 2 728,054
= 485,946 kJ/kg
2. =
=
= 0,04766 m3/kg
3. = 0,0773 m3/kg (@4 000 kPa and 400 ºC)

47
Power Machines N5
Given:
= 2 460 kg/h = 0,88
= 760 mm Hg = 688,744 mm Hg
= 31ºC =
= 4,2 kJ/kg.K
= 9,5 kPa
=
=
= 20,62476 kg/kg steam
= 20,62476 X2 460
= 50 736,9096 kg/hour
2.5.6 Throttling calorimeter

An instrument utilizing the principle of constant enthalpy expansion for the
measurement of the moisture content of steam; steam drawn from a steam
pipe through sampling nozzles enters the calorimeter through a throttling
orifice and moves into a well-insulated expansion chamber in which its
temperature is measured. Also known as steam calorimeter see Figure 2.12

48
Power Machines N5
Figure 2.12 A throttling calorimeter
Worked Example 2.4
A dryness fraction test was done using a combined separating and throttling
calorimeter. The pressure in the mains was 580 kPa and 0,12 kg water was
collected in the separating calorimeter. The mass of steam condensed at the
exit from the throttling calorimeter was 11,2 kg. The manometer on the
throttling calorimeter Indicated a pressure of 120 kPa and the temperature
shown on the thermometer was 115ºC. Cp for superheated steam is 2 kJ/kg.
ºC.

1. The dryness fraction of the steam in the separating calorimeter
2. The dryness fraction of the steam in the throttling calorimeter
3. The dryness fraction of the steam in the mains
Solution:
1. =

49
Power Machines N5
2. =
=
=
= 2 038,4
= 0,976
3. =
=
=
Activity 2.1
Use steam tables and find the specific liquid enthalpy, the specific enthalpy
of evaporation and the specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 0.5 MPa.
[640.1; 2107.4; 2747.5]
Activity 2.2
Find the specific volume of water at saturation temperature for a pressure of

4 MPa.
[250.3; 0.001252]
Activity 2.3
The volume of steam at a pressure of 1 100 kPa is 0,1945 m 3/kg. The specific
heat capacity of superheated steam is 2,1 kJ/kg.K.
1. The quality of the steam

2. The enthalpy of the steam
3. The temperature of the steam
[1.096; superheated; 2867.19; 225.62]

50
Power Machines N5
Activity 2.4
11,5 kg of water, at a pressure of 880 kPa and a temperature of 48ºC is

heated to boiling point, then dry to saturated steam and then to
superheated steam, with a temperature of 210 ºC. The specific heat
capacity of superheated steam is 2,1 kJ/kg.ºC and that of water is 4,187
kJ/kg. ºC.
1. The enthalpy of the sensible heat in MJ

2. The enthalpy of the latent heat in MJ
3. The enthalpy of the superheat in kJ
4. The enthalpy of the total heat required for superheating the water in MJ
5. The saturation temperature of the steam
[6.187; 23.38; 859.74; 30.4267; 174.4]
Activity 2.5
The data provided below refers to steam. Use steam tables and/or by
calculation, determine the condition of the steam, the volume of the steam
and where the steam Is wet, calculate the dryness fraction also.
1. P = 800 kPa t = 200°C

2. Vg = 0,009308 m3/kg t = 347,3 °C
3. P = 2,35 MPa h = 2 777 kJ/kg
4. P = 16 MPa h = 2777 kJ/kg
5. P = 1 500 kPa t = 200 °C h = 2 796 kJ/kg
[70; 9.31; 116]
Activity 2.6
With the aid of steam tables, calculate the following:
1. The enthalpy found in 2 kg of steam which has a pressure of 480 kPa and
is 7,3% wet.
2. The enthalpy of a kilogram of steam which has a pressure of 1,5 MPa, a
temperature of 396 ºC and a specific heat capacity of 2,1 kJ/kg.K.
3. The dryness fraction of wet steam which has an enthalpy of 2 650 kJ/kg at
a pressure of 1,3 MPa.
4. The heat required to change 2,3 kg of water from a temperature of 31 ºC

51
Power Machines N5
to dry saturated steam at a pressure of 1 000 kPa.
[5183.648; 3205.17; 0.19; 6088.1]
Activity 2.7
1.5 kg of steam originally at a pressure of 1 MPa and temperature of 225

degrees Celsius is expanded until the pressure becomes 0.28 MPa.
The dryness fraction of the steam is then 0.9. Find the change in internal
energy that occurs.
[2666; 2504.49; 0.5814; 2341.69; -324.31; 486.47]
Activity 2.8
Steam at 1.4 MPa and dryness fraction 0.7 is throttled to 0.11 MPa. Find the
dryness fraction of the steam after throttle.
[0.787]
Activity 2.9
Steam with a pressure of 5 MPa and dryness fraction of 0.9 has a mass of 1 kg.
Find the enthalpy, volume and density of the mass of steam.
[2630.2; 0.0355; 28.2]
Activity 2.10
The equivalent evaporation from and at 100 ºC of a boiler plant is 9,552. The
pressure In the plant Is 2 000 kPa and the temperature of the steam leaving
the plant Is 250 ºC.
The temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the economiser are 43,8 ºC and
81,4 ºC respectively. The calorific value of the fuel Is 32 MJ/kg and the dryness
factor of the steam entering the superheater is 0,948.
1. The mass of steam generated per kilogram of fuel

2. The thermal efficiency of the plant

52
Power Machines N5
3. The heat to the economiser In kJ/kg fuel

4. The heat to the evaporator in kJ/kg fuel
[7.923; 67.37; 158; 2698.772; 2357.772]
Self-Check

 Describe the main types of boilers and their specific application
 Describe the different methods of firing a boiler
 Calculate the enthalpy, volume and internal energy of wet
steam
 Calculate the enthalpy, volume and internal energy of dry
steam
 Calculate the enthalpy, volume and internal energy of
superheated steam
 Calculate the dryness fraction using the calorimeter

53
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the construction and operation of the surface condenser

 Describe the construction and operation of the jet condenser
 Calculate the condensing water required
 Calculating cooling surface required
 Describe the construction and operation of the air pump
 Calculate the condensing and vacuum efficiency
3.1 Introduction
The steam turbine itself is a device to convert the heat in steam to

mechanical power. The difference between the heat of steam per
unit mass at the inlet to the turbine and the heat of steam per unit
mass at the outlet from the turbine represents the heat which is
converted to mechanical power.
Note:
There are two main condenser types in use, namely the surface
condenser and the jet condenser.
The steam turbine itself is a device to convert the heat in steam to

mechanical power. The difference between the heat of steam per unit mass
at the inlet to the turbine and the heat of steam per unit mass at the outlet
from the turbine represents the heat which is converted to mechanical power.
Therefore, the more the conversion of heat per kilogram of steam to

mechanical power in the turbine, the better is its efficiency.
By condensing the exhaust steam of a turbine at a pressure below

atmospheric pressure, the steam pressure drop between the inlet and exhaust
of the turbine is increased, which increases the amount of heat available for
conversion to mechanical power.
Most of the heat liberated due to condensation of the exhaust steam is carried
away by the cooling medium (water or air) used by the condenser.

54
Power Machines N5
3.2 Types of condensers

3.2.1 Surface condenser
A surface condenser is a commonly used term for a water-cooled shell and
tube heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam
turbine in power stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which
convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state at a pressure
below atmospheric pressure.
Figure 3.1 shows a surface condenser that returns the cooling water for
another pass. This is termed a two-pass condenser. Single pass condensers are
also available where the cooling water runs through the condenser once and
the discharges out.
Figure 3.1 The two-pass surface condenser
3.2.1.1 The shell

The shell is the condenser's outermost body and contains the heat exchanger
tubes. The shell is fabricated from carbon steel plates and is stiffened as
needed to provide rigidity for the shell.
When required by the selected design, intermediate plates are installed to

serve as baffle plates that provide the desired flow path of the condensing
steam. The plates also provide support that help prevent sagging of long tube
lengths.
3.2.1.2 The vacuum system

For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most
commonly supplied by and maintained by an external steam jet
ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the motive fluid to
remove any non-condensable gases that may be present in the surface
condenser.

55
Power Machines N5
The venture effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli’s principal, applies to

the operation of steam jet ejectors.
Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such as the liquid ring type, are also
popular for this service.
3.2.1.3 Tube sheets

At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of stainless
steel is provided, with holes for the tubes to be inserted and rolled. The inlet
end of each tube is also bell mouthed for streamlined entry of water. This is to
avoid eddies at the inlet of each tube giving rise to erosion, and to reduce
flow friction.
To take care of length wise expansion of tubes some designs have expansion
joint between the shell and the tube sheet allowing the latter to move
longitudinally.
Note:
In smaller units some sag is given to the tubes to take care of tube
expansion with both end water boxes fixed rigidly to the shell.
3.2.1.4 Tubes
Generally the tubes are made of stainless steel, copper alloys such as brass or
bronze, cupronickel, or titanium depending on several selection criteria. The
use of Titanium condenser tubes are usually the best technical choice,
however the use of titanium condenser tubes has been virtually eliminated by
the sharp increases in the costs for this material.
The tube lengths range to about 26 m for modern power plants, depending on
the size of the condenser. The size chosen is based on transportability from the
manufacturers’ site and ease of erection at the installation site. The outer
diameter of condenser tubes typically ranges from 3/4 inch to 1-1/4 inch,
based on condenser cooling water friction considerations and overall
condenser size
3.2.1.5 Water boxes

The tube sheet at each end with tube ends rolled, for each end of the
condenser is closed by a fabricated box cover known as a waterbox, with
flanged connection to the tube sheet or condenser shell. The waterbox is
usually provided with man holes on hinged covers to allow inspection and
cleaning.
Note:
In thermal power plants, the purpose of a surface condenser is
to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain
maximum efficiency, and also to convert the turbine exhaust steam
into pure water (referred to as steam condensate) so that it may be
reused in the boiler as boiler feed water.

56
Power Machines N5
3.2.1.6 Evaporative condenser

Where cooling water is in short supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used.
Figure 3.2 shows an evaporative condenser.
An air-cooled condenser is however, significantly more expensive and cannot

achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure (and temperature) as a
water-cooled surface condenser.
Figure 3.2 The evaporative condenser
3.2.3 Jet condenser

This type of condenser is suitable where conditions permit condensation of
exhaust steam by direct contact with the cooling water. It can maintain a
pressure of less than 0,07 bar and can condense over 12000 kg/h of
steam. Figure 3.3.
The vacuum is created in the chamber by an air ejector. The cooling water is
sprayed into the chamber and the fine spray contacts the steam. The steam
condenses and falls to the bottom of the condenser chamber with the
injection water.

57
Power Machines N5
The condensed steam and injection water is withdrawn using a centrifugal

extraction pump. The jet condenser is generally provided with safety features
to guard against flooding.
There are mainly three types of jet condensers:

 Low level condenser
 High level condenser
 Ejector condenser
Figure 3.3 The Jet condenser
3.2.3.1 Low level condenser

Here a condenser chamber is placed at low elevation and overall height of
the unit is low enough so that the condenser may be directly placed beneath
the steam turbine, pump or pumps and are required to extract the cooling
water condensate and air from the condenser.

58
Power Machines N5
3.2.3.2 High level condenser

If a long pipe over 10 m, is closed at top end, filled with water, open at bottom
and bottom is immersed in water, then atmospheric pressure would hold the
water up in the pipe to a height of 10 m at sea level.
On the basis of this principle, high level or Barometric jet condenser is

designed. Figure 3.3 shows a high level jet condenser.
3.2.3.3 Ejector condenser

In this type of condenser, the momentum of falling water is utilized to extract or
ejects air from condensates. The condenser chamber consists of a central
vertical tube in which there is a string of many cones or converging nozzles. The
exhaust steam enters from side way of the cylindrical condenser chamber. The
central tube is provided with number of wholes or steam ports.
3.3 Finding the amount of cooling water required

The principle used is:
Loss of heat by steam = heat gained by the cooling water
The type of steam entering the condenser is wet steam and so we use the
analogy:
Where:
= Sensible enthalpy of steam at constant pressure
= Dryness fraction of steam entering the condenser
= Enthalpy of evaporation of the steam at the condenser
= Enthalpy of condensate
= Mass of cooling water required
Worked Example 3.1
2 460 kg of steam, with a dryness fraction of 0,88, is condensed in a surface

condenser every hour. The barometer reading is 760 mm Hg and the vacuum
meter reading is 688,744 mm Hg. The temperature of the condensate is 31 ºC
and the temperature of the cooling water rises by 25 ºC. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4,2 kJ/kg.K.
Calculate the mass of cooling water required per hour.

59
Power Machines N5
Solution:
=
= 9,5 kPa
=
=
=
=
=
Worked Example 3.2
Exhaust steam with a dryness fraction of 0,89 enters a surface condenser,

which has a vacuum of 699,5 mm mercury, and is condensed to water at a
temperature of 34,6 ºC.
The barometer reading Is 760 mm mercury. The suction temperature of the

pump is 34,6 ºC and R for air is 0,287 kJ/kg.K.
1. The combined pressure of the steam and air in the condenser

2. The partial pressure of the air
3. The mass of air extracted for every kilogram of steam whilst considering
that air and steam occupy the same volume
Solution:
1. =
= 8 kPa
2. =
=
=
=
= 2,5 kPa
3. =

60
Power Machines N5
=
=
= 35,31248 m3/kg
=
=
=
=
3.4 Condenser pumps

The air pump is much larger than the feed pump, even though the water
through-put is the same overall. There are several reasons for this. One reason is
the air pump may be required to empty the condenser at a reasonable rate. If
the condenser is full, the air pump may need to move 20 or more litres in a
short time.
Note:
The purpose of the Air Pump is to remove the water from the
condenser and push it into the Hotwell. In doing so a vacuum is
created in the Condenser, often approaching 736 mm Hg (near
perfect Vacuum). There are many air pump designs.
Also the principle of the Air Pumps is to operate as a scavenging pump. That is
the pump is designed to pump more (around 10x) the amount of water as the
feed pump, and so on a stable system the air pump will only be 10% full of
water at each pump stroke. The rest would either be a void (vacuum) or
steam, because water will boil at about 25ºC at a near vacuum.
Also note that the outlet valve is at the top. This allows any air which was
dissolved in the water and has since escaped to be pushed out first thing. This
allows only water to remain in the pump area, allowing the best vacuum to
form.
As a scavenging pump, the air pump has to grab what it can. The best way to
do this is to ensure the pump is as empty as possible before it draws in
condensate. The only way to achieve this is to design the pump with minimal
volume left in the cylinder when the piston is fully in. Valves should also be
designed to leave little space inside the cylinder area.

61
Power Machines N5
3.4.1 Edwards air pump

The Edwards Air pump design, Figure 3.4, is one of the more successful designs.
It is a simple design with only two moving parts, it makes use of the fact that
water contains momentum and at the same time compressing the water to
prevent it from flashing into steam (remember at 736 mm Hg water will boil at
about 25C).
The piston moves down, forming a vacuum. As it approaches the bottom it

opens up ports around the cylinder. This allows the water to fill the void
(vacuum) in the cylinder.
By doing this, water vapour and steam is generated because of the rapid
expansion of the water, taking up valuable space in the cylinder which could
otherwise be filled with water.
To help fill the cylinder with water, when the piston has reached the bottom of
its travel it forces a jet of water from the very bottom of the air pump into the
cylinder. By compressing the water into the cylinder instead of "sucking" the
water in, no steam or water vapour is created, and most which was created
before is forced back to water.
Figure 3.4 Edwards air pump
The piston is then raised shutting off the inlet ports and forcing all air and water
through the top valve. This top valve, often a simple flat ring over a series of
holes, is held shut only due to the vacuum within the cylinder.
The only downside to an Edward’s air pump design is they don't operate to
their design at very low speeds, and they have a tendency to clank. These are
often small factors compared to the benefits of having a decent vacuum.

62
Power Machines N5
3.4.2 Rotary air pump

Water is forced outward by centrifugal force and as it rotates about the inner
rim of the pump, it draws air with it and discharges the water/air mixture at
high velocity.
3.4.3 Air ejector system

An air ejector or steam ejector is a device which uses the motion of moving
fluid (Motive Fluid) to transport another fluid (Suction fluid). It is has a wide
range of application in steam ejector in boiler condenser, fresh water
generator and in priming the centrifugal pump.
It works on the principle of convergent /divergent nozzle as it provides the

venturi effect at the point of diffusion as the tube gets narrows at the throat the
velocity of the fluid increases and because of the venturi affect it pressure
decreases, vacuum will occur in the diffuser throat where the suction line will
be provided.
An air ejector which uses the high pressure motive fluid such as air or steam to
flow through the convergent nozzle the function of the convergent nozzle is to
convert the pressure energy of the motive fluid into the velocity energy. Figure
3.5. As in convergent nozzle the following effect takes place,
Figure 3.5 Air ejector system
As the pressure energy before entering the convergent nozzle is greater and
the velocity is less for the fluid. At the point of discharge, the pressure energy is
converted into the velocity so the velocity will be greater and the pressure will
be less during the discharge.
Divergent nozzle the opposite effect takes place velocity energy is convert into
pressure energy, at the point of diffusion there is a low pressure or vacuum is
created which is used to suck the other fluid for the motion.
It is one of the types of air ejector which is used in the steam like near the
condenser to remove the non-condensable gases and some vapour entering

63
Power Machines N5
into main condenser by an air ejector and it is cooled by the main condensate
and released in the ejector condenser.
3.4.4 Condenser efficiency

Condenser efficiency is influenced by the following:
 The difference between the inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling
water.
 The difference between the temperature of the steam in the condenser
and the inlet cooling water temperature.
The efficiency is the ratio of the above two conditions.
Where:
= Cooling water inlet temperature
= Cooling water outlet temperature
= Steam temperature
3.4.5 Vacuum efficiency

This is a ratio of the partial pressure of the steam inside the condenser and the
condenser pressure.
The vacuum efficiency depends on the amount of air there is present inside
the condenser. If there is no air in the condenser then the efficiency will be
100%.
3.4.6 Air leakage into condensers

3.4.6.1 Method of measuring air leakage
This scheme measures the total pressure and temperature in air suction
pipelines of steam condensers with air added in calibrated steps, for two
different combinations of pumps.
With the aid of steam tables, air partial pressures are plotted against added air
leakages. This allows the leakage of the set to be found, and a temperature
obtained from the plots shows whether the water vapour is saturated or
superheated.
The method is useful in routine checks, for showing how much of the leakage is
into particular parts, so that remedial action can be taken, and for revealing if
water temperatures are affecting pump displacements and augmenting air
pressures within condensers, in which case fuel may be saved.

64
Power Machines N5
3.4.6.2 The effects of air leakage

The effect of the air leakage is to introduce non-condensable (air) into the
steam and cause the vacuum that the condenser can produce to rise. That
leads to less horsepower development by the turbine due to the higher
exhaust pressure.
3.4.6.3 Good condenser design

The way to prevent air from the atmosphere from entering the condenser is by
good design and then by careful fabrication and installation.
3.4.7 Daltons law of partial pressures

The problem of an air - steam mixture is solved with this law. The law states that
the pressure exerted by a mixture of gasses is equal to the sum of the pressures
of those individual gasses that make up the mixture.
Each individual gas acts independently of the mixture and the pressure of
each gas taken alone is known as its partial pressure.
Worked Example 3.3
A vacuum gauge on a condenser reads 660 mm Hg and the barometer

height is 765 mm Hg. Steam enters the condenser with a dryness fraction of
0.8 and has a temperature of 41.5 degrees Celsius.
Find the partial pressures of the air and steam in the condenser if the steam is
condensed at a rate of 1500 kg/h.
Solution:
From steam tables at 41.5

65
Power Machines N5
Activity 3.1
A surface condenser handles 4 520 kg of wet steam, with a dryness fraction

of 0,81, every hour. The barometer and vacuum meter readings are 760 mm
Hg and 662 mm Hg respectively. Air leaks In at a rate of 0,9 kg for every 1 000
kg of steam entering the condenser.
The temperature of the condensate and the air pump suction is 39 °C.
Cooling water enters the condenser at 20 °C and leaves at 35,75 °C. The gas
constant for air is 0,288 kJ/kg.K and the specific heat capacity of water is
4,187 kJ/kg.K.

1. The quantity of cooling water required In kg/min
2. The capacity of the air pump In m3/mln
3. The capacity of the new air pump in m3/min if the air was cooled to 36,2
°C before being pumped from the condenser
[13; 180; 25.664; 47.7]
Activity 3.2
Every hour a surface condenser processes 6 500 kg exhaust steam, which has
a dryness traction of 0,83. Air leakage Into the condenser Is at a rate of 1 ,2
kg/1 000 kg of steam. The air pump suction pipe and the condensate have a
temperature of 31 ºC each.
The barometer and vacuum gauge reading is 760 mm Hg and 662 mm Hg

respectively. The temperature of the cooling water is increased by 21 ºC after
it passes through the condenser. The specific heat capacity of the water is 4
187 kJ/kg.K and R tor air is 0,88 kJ/kg.K.
1. The mass of cooling water required by the condenser every minute

2. The capacity of the air pump in m3/min
[13; 2537.351; 8.5; 304; 13; 1.339]

66
Power Machines N5
Activity 3.3
A container is filled with a mixture of air and wet steam at a temperature of

39 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 100 kPa. The temperature is then raised
to 120.2 degrees.
If the steam remains wet, find:

1. The initial partial pressures of the steam and air
2. The final partial pressures of the steam and air
3. The total pressure in the container after heating.
[7; 97; 122.24; 322.24]
Activity 3.4
A cylinder contains a mixture of air and wet steam at a pressure of 130 kPa
and a temperature of 75.9 degrees Celsius. The dryness fraction of the steam
is 0.92. The air – steam mixture is then compressed to one – fifth of its original
volume with a final temperature of 120.2 degrees.
Find:
1. The final pressure in the cylinder.
2. The final dryness fraction of the steam.
[40; 90; 3.67; 507.1; 200; 707.1; 0.734; 0.83]
Activity 3.5
1. Name 4 auxiliaries in a steam plant and state the function of each.

2. Name two types of steam boilers.
3. Name two types of steam condensers.
Activity 3.6
1. State Daltons law regarding partial pressures.

2. Explain with the aid of a sketch what is meant by the triple point.
3. State three advantages of a condenser.

67
Power Machines N5
Activity 3.7
A surface condenser has the following conditions:

 Air that leaks in with the steam = 5 kg/h
 Vacuum in the condenser = 86.4 kPa
 Barometer reading = 760 mm Hg
 Temperature at the steam – air draw-off = 24.1 degrees
Take R = 0.288 for air and find the volume of air extracted per hour and the
mass of steam in this air.
[15; 12; 35.65; 0.781]
Self-Check

 Describe the construction and operation of the surface
condenser
 Describe the construction and operation of the jet condenser
 Calculate the condensing water required
 Calculating cooling surface required
 Describe the construction and operation of the air pump
 Calculate the condensing and vacuum efficiency

68
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes
 Describe solid, liquid and gaseous fuels

 Describe the higher and lower calorific values of fuel
 Calculate the minimum air required for complete combustion
 Calculate the products of combustion
 Describe the bomb calorimeter and the Orsat apparatus
4.1 Introduction
In thermodynamics, the term exothermic process describes a

process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its
surroundings, usually in the form of heat.
4.1.1 Combustion
Combustion is a high-temperature exothermic chemical reaction between
a fuel and oxygen that releases heat and light.
It is usually atmospheric oxygen that produces oxidized, often gaseous
products, in a mixture termed as smoke.
4.2 Fuels
Most fuels are made up of carbon or hydrogen or a combination of the two
termed hydrocarbons.
4.2.1 Solid fuels

Solid fuels, such as coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce
gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce
more of them.
Definition:
The term endothermic process describes a process or reaction in
which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings, usually, but
not always, in the form of heat.

69
Power Machines N5
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated

temperatures in the absence of oxygen.
Combustion of an organic fuel in air is always exothermic because the double

bond in O2 is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds,
and therefore the formation of the stronger bonds in the combustion products
CO2 and H2O results in the release of energy.
The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping

phases:
 Preheating phase, when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and
then fire point. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry
distillation.
 Distillation phase or gaseous phase, when the mix of evolved flammable gases
with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and
light. Flames are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid
maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.
 Charcoal phase or solid phase, when the output of flammable gases from the
material is too low for persistent presence of flame and the charred fuel does
not burn rapidly and just glows and later only smoulders.
Coal is the solid hydrocarbon fuel that is mostly used in industry.
4.2.2 Liquid fuels

Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the
gas phase. It is the vapour that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will
normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point.
Note:
The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it
can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at
which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start
combustion.
Examples of hydrocarbon liquid fuels used to run boilers and furnaces are
diesel and fuel bunker oil. Jet paraffin is used to run gas turbines and there are
many varieties of petrol and other hydrocarbons used to power internal
combustion engines.
In boilers and furnaces, the liquid fuel is atomized through nozzles to create
more burn area so the liquid fuel acts more of a vapour.
Pulverized coal is so fine, that is acts like a liquid when it is sprayed out at high
velocity through nozzles.
4.2.3 Gaseous fuels

Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions
are gaseous. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such

70
Power Machines N5
as methane or propane) or hydrogen or mixtures thereof. Such gases are

sources of potential heat energy and is readily transmitted and distributed
through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption.
Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel
gases are liquefied for storage or transport.
While their gaseous nature has advantages, avoiding the difficulty of

transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it also
has limitation. It is possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in
certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion.
For this reason, odorizes are added to most fuel gases so that they may be
detected by a distinct smell.
4.3 Combustion
Definition:
A reagent is a substance or compound added to a system to cause
a chemical reaction, or added to see if a reaction
occurs. a reactant is more specifically a substance consumed in
the course of a chemical reaction.
4.3.1 Calorific value

The heating value (or energy value or calorific value) of a fuel, is the amount
of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it. The energy
value is a characteristic for each substance.
It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance; usually mass, heating
value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter.
4.3.2 Measuring the calorific value

The higher heating value is experimentally determined in a bomb calorimeter.
The combustion of a stoichiometric mixture of fuel and oxidizer (e.g. two moles
of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen) in a steel container at 25 °C is initiated
by an ignition device and the reactions allowed to complete.
When hydrogen and oxygen react during combustion, water vapour is

produced. The vessel and its contents are then cooled to the original 25 °C
and the higher heating value is determined as the heat released between
identical initial and final temperatures.
When the lower heating value (LHV) is determined, cooling is stopped at

150 °C and the reaction heat is only partially recovered. The limit of 150 °C is
an arbitrary choice.

71
Power Machines N5
Note:
Higher heating value (HHV) is calculated with the product of water
being in liquid form while lower heating value (LHV) is calculated
with the product of water being in vapour form.
A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used in

measuring the heat of combustion of a particular reaction.
Figure 4.1 The bomb calorimeter
Figure 4.1 shows a bomb calorimeter. Bomb calorimeters have to withstand

the large pressure within the calorimeter as the reaction is being measured.
Electrical energy is used to ignite the fuel; as the fuel is burning, it will heat up
the surrounding air, which expands and escapes through a tube that leads the
air out of the calorimeter.
When the air is escaping through the copper tube it will also heat up the water
outside the tube. The change in temperature of the water allows for
calculating calorie content of the fuel.

72
Power Machines N5
The calorific value is obtained by:
In using the results obtained during the experiment, there is a cooling

correction factor to take into account.
This is because of the cooling that takes place during the experiment. This
correction will be incorporated in the question given.
4.3.2.1 The water equivalent

For any given substance the equivalent mass of water W having the same
specific heat as the given substance is called its Water Equivalent.
Worked Example 4.1
A bomb calorimeter was used to test the heat value of coal.
The following readings were:

 Mass of coal burned = 0.546 kg
 Mass of water in bomb = 2.8 kg
 The water equivalent of the calorimeter = 1.05 kg
 Corrected temperature rise = 1.056 degrees
Find the calorific value of the coal.
Solution:
Known: The specific heat capacity of water = 4.187 kJ/kg.K
The gas calorimeter determines the calorific value of a fuel. Figure 4.2 shows a
central funnel with a burner, B. A cooling coil around the outside of the funnel
and a condensate trap at the bottom. The outer casing is lagged for
insulation.
Thermometers measure the cooling water inlet and outlet temperatures and
the gas exhaust passes out at the bottom where a thermometer measures the
exhaust temperature.

73
Power Machines N5
Note:
Most gasses contain H2 and this helps to form H2O on the coils that
drip off into the condensate trap.
At the top is an arrangement that gives a constant head of cooling water. The
gas pressure is kept constant by a gas governor.
The calorific value of the gas can be found by the knowledge that the energy
gained by the cooling water is equal to the energy liberated by burning the
gas.
Figure 4.2 The gas calorimeter
An Orsat gas analyser is used to analyse a gas sample (hydrocarbon) for

its oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content. Figure 4.3.
Although largely replaced by instrumental techniques, the Orsat remains a
reliable method of measurement and is relatively simple to use.
The apparatus consists essentially of a calibrated water-jacketed

gas burette connected by glass capillary tubing to two or three absorption
pipettes containing chemical solutions that absorb the gasses it is required to
measure. For safety and portability, the apparatus is usually encased in a
wooden box.

74
Power Machines N5
The absorbents are:
 Potassium hydroxide (Caustic Potash)

 Alkaline pyrogallol
 Ammoniacal Cuprous chloride
Figure 4.3 The Orsat apparatus
The base of the gas burette is connected to a levelling bottle to enable

readings to be taken at constant pressure and to transfer the gas to and from
the absorption media. The burette contains slightly acidulated water with a
trace of chemical indicator (typically menthyl orange) for coloration.
By means of a rubber tubing arrangement, the gas to be analysed is drawn

into the burette and flushed through several times. Typically, 100ml is
withdrawn for ease of calculation.
Using the stopcocks that isolate the absorption burettes, the level of gas in the
levelling bottle and the burette is adjusted to the zero point of the burette.
The gas is then passed into the caustic potash burette, left to stand for about
two minutes and then withdrawn, isolating the remaining gas via the stopcock
arrangements. The process is repeated to ensure full absorption.

75
Power Machines N5
After levelling the liquid in the bottle and burette, the remaining volume of gas
in the burette indicates the percentage of carbon dioxide absorbed.
The same technique is repeated for oxygen, using the pyrogallol, and carbon
monoxide using the ammoniacal cuprous chloride.
4.3.2.2 Analysis by volume

Avogadro’s hypothesis states that equal volumes of different gases at the
same pressure and temperature contain the same number of molecules.
This means that the proportion of volumes is valid so if one gas has twice the
number of molecules than another, then it has twice the volume.
Worked Example 4.2
A gas was calibrated with the following values:

 Volume of gas used = 0.0085 m3
 Temperature of the gas = 18 degrees C
 Gas manometer height = 100 mm Hg
 Barometer height = 755 mm Hg
 Mass of cooling water used during gas burn = 3.76 kg = M
 Mass of condensate in same time = 0.0054 kg = m
 Temperature of cooling water in = 14 degrees C = t1
 Temperature of cooling water out = 24 degrees C = t2
Solution:
The volume of gas used must be converted to the volume as it would exist at
25 degrees C and 760 mm Hg.
Let this volume = V. then
Energy released by gas = energy gained by water

76
Power Machines N5
4.3.3 Higher heating value

The quantity known as higher heating value (HHV) (or gross energy or upper
heating value or gross calorific value (GCV) or higher calorific value (HCV)) is
determined by bringing all the products of combustion back to the original
pre-combustion temperature, and in particular condensing any vapour
produced.
Note:
Such measurements often use a standard temperature of 15 °C. This
is the same as the thermodynamic heat of combustion since
the enthalpy change for the reaction assumes a common
temperature of the compounds before and after combustion, in
which case the water produced by combustion is liquid.
The higher heating value takes into account the latent heat of
vaporization of water in the combustion products, and is useful in calculating
heating values for fuels where condensation of the reaction products is
practical (e.g., in a gas-fired boiler used for space heat).
In other words, HHV assumes all the water component is in liquid state at the
end of combustion (in product of combustion) and that heat below 150 °C
(302 °F) can be put to use.
4.3.4 Lower heating value

The quantity known as lower heating value (LHV) (net calorific value (NCV)
or lower calorific value (LCV)) is determined by subtracting the heat of
vaporization of the water vapour from the higher heating value. This treats any
H2O formed as a vapour. The energy required to vaporize the water therefore
is not released as heat.
LHV calculations assume that the water component of a combustion process is

in vapour state at the end of combustion, as opposed to the higher heating
value (HHV) (a.k.a. gross calorific value or gross CV) which assumes that all of
the water in a combustion process is in a liquid state after a combustion
process.
The LHV assumes that the latent heat of vaporization of water in the fuel and
the reaction products is not recovered. It is useful in comparing fuels where
condensation of the combustion products is impractical, or heat at a
temperature below 150 °C (302 °F) cannot be put to use.
Another definition, used by Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) and

originally used by API (data collected for API research project 44), is
the enthalpy of all combustion products minus the enthalpy of the fuel at the
reference temperature (API research project 44 used 25 °C. GPSA), minus the
enthalpy of the stoichiometric oxygen (O2) at the reference temperature,

77
Power Machines N5
minus the heat of vaporization of the vapour content of the combustion

products.
The distinction between the two is that this second definition assumes that the
combustion products are all returned to the reference temperature and the
heat content from the condensing vapour is considered not to be useful. This is
more easily calculated from the higher heating value than when using the
preceding definition and will in fact give a slightly different answer.
Definition: Stoichiometric
A stoichiometric amount or stoichiometric ratio of a reagent is the
optimum amount or ratio where, assuming that the reaction
proceeds to completion:
 All of the reagent is consumed
 There is no deficiency of the reagent
 There is no excess of the reagent.
4.3.5 Stoichiometry (chemically correct air fuel ratio)

Stoichiometry is founded on the law of conservation of mass where the total
mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products leading to the
insight that the relations among quantities of reactants and products typically
form a ratio of positive integers.
This means that if the amounts of the separate reactants are known, then the
amount of the product can be calculated. Conversely, if one reactant has a
known quantity and the quantity of product can be empirically determined,
then the amount of the other reactants can also be calculated.
Gravimetric analysis of the combining masses of fuel and air before

combustion and the products of combustion.
Air contains about 78 % nitrogen which does not add to the combustion
process and the amount of nitrogen before combustion is the same as the
amount after combustion.
Worked Example 4.3
Complete the combustion equation of hydrogen plus oxygen to form water.
Solution:
The relative atomic mass of hydrogen = 1
The relative atomic mass of oxygen = 16

78
Power Machines N5
Atomic mass of the constituents:
Thus, it appears that:
Simplify by dividing through by 4:
Note that this equation must always be balanced.

23.2 % oxygen is present in air by mass. Hence, the 8 kg of oxygen above is
23.2 % of the mass of air necessary to complete combustion of the H2.
Find the air needed:
The nitrogen present:
In conclusion:
1 kg H2 is burned in 34.5 kg of air and produces the products of combustion of
9 kg H2O with 26.5 kg N2
4.4 Air fuel ratio

Take the combustion of H2 and O2 to form water H2O. This time the equation
has not been balanced:
Notice that with the constituents (on the left) there are two hydrogens and two
oxygens. But with the product (on the right), there are two hydrogens and only
one oxygen.
Balance this equation by:
When the 2 is placed in front of the water molecule, we get four hydrogen and
two oxygen. The 2 placed in front as shown above affects the hydrogen and
oxygen.
Looking to the constituents, a 2 needs to be placed before the hydrogen

molecule to balance the equation:
The equation is now balanced.

79
Power Machines N5
Worked Example 4.4
Hexane, C6H14 a type of paraffin, is combusted with oxygen. Write down the
basic equation and then balance it.
Solution:
This shows that the carbon will form CO2 and the hydrogen will form H2O.
Note the following steps:
Now balance the oxygen:
Total oxygen is = 9.5 O2
The equation id balanced but it is impossible to have half an atom as in 9.5

O2
This equation is now correct.
If the analysis of air is given by mass, then proceed as follows:

 Find the mass of oxygen required for each constituent.
 From this find the total mass of oxygen required.
 Subtract any oxygen that might be in the fuel.
 Stoichiometric mass of air = O2 required / 0.232
Worked Example 4.5
The chemical analysis of 1 kg of coal is as follows:
C = 86%, H2 = 3%, S = 0,5% and the rest is non-combustible. 16,5 kg of air is

provided for the complete combustion of 1 kg of the coal.

1. The theoretical mass of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg
of the coal

80
Power Machines N5
2. The percentage of excess air supplied

3. The masses of the products of combustion
4. Express the mass's in 3. as percentages
Solution:
1. = [ ]
= [ ]
= [ ]
=
2. =( )
= 50%
= 3,667 x 0,86 = 3,15362 kg
= 9 x 0,03 = 0,27 kg
= 2 x 0,05 = 0,1 kg
= 2,53862 x = 2,53862 kg
= 16,5 x = 12,705 kg
TOTAL = 18,767 kg
4. = = 16,804%
= = 1,438%
= = 0,533%
= = 13,526%
= = 67,699%
TOTAL = 100%
Worked Example 4.6
The chemical analysis by mass of a fuel is 78% carbon, 14% hydrogen and 8%
oxygen. 35% of excess air is required for complete combustion and it is
supplied at 101 kPa and 26 ºC. The gas constant R for air Is 0,287 kJikg.K.
Calculate the volume of air required for complete combustion of the fuel.

81
Power Machines N5
Solution:
=( ) , -
=( ) *, - { } +
= 18,313 kg
=
= 15,55934 m3
Worked Example 4.7
A certain sample of fuel contains the following elements by mass:
- Oxygen 3,7%
- Hydrogen 9,2%
- Carbon 84,6%
- Sulphur 2,5%
The calorific value of sulphur, carbon and hydrogen is 9,5 MJ/kg, 35 MJ/kg
and 145 MJ/kg respectively. The partial pressure of the steam Is 6,5 kPa in the
exhaust gases.

1. The higher calorific value of the fuel
2. The lower calorific value of the fuel
Solution:
1.1 = , ( )-
= , ( )-
= 0,2375 + 29,61 + 12,6694

= 42,5169 MJ/kg
1.2 =
=
= 40,5189 MJ/kg
( )
2.1 =

82
Power Machines N5
= 54 334,928 kJ / kg
= 54,335 MJ/kg
2.2 =
=
= 50,981 MJ/kg
Activity 4.1
A bomb calorimeter was used to determine the calorific value of a sample of

coal. The following readings were obtained during the test.
Specific heat capacity of water 4,187 kJ/kg. ºC

Water equivalent of the calorimeter 0,6 kg
Maximum temperature of the water 24,6 ºC
Temperature of water before ignition 17,8 ºC
Mass of water used 2,2kg
Mass of coal used 1,36 grams
Calculate the calorific value of the coal In MJ/kg.
[58.618 MJ/kg]
Activity 4.2
A fuel was tested, using a bomb calorimeter, and the following data was
recorded:
- Mass of fuel used 0,73 g
- Water equivalent of the bomb 50 g
- Mass of the water in the calorimeter 2,5 kg
- Minimum temperature of the water 24,767 ºC
- Maximum temperature of the water 28,482 ºC
- The quantity of hydrogen in the fuel 15,4%
- The partial pressure of the steam In the exhaust gases 5,5 kPa
- The specific heat capacity of water 4,187 kJ/kg. ºC

1. The higher calorific value of the fuel In MJ
2. The lower calorific value of the fuel in MJ
[54.335; 50.981]

83
Power Machines N5
Activity 4.3
A fuel consists of 72 % carbon, 20 % hydrogen and 8 % oxygen by mass. Find

the mass of air required to completely burn 1 kg of the fuel.
[3.44; 14.8]
Activity 4.4
A sample of coal has the following analysis by mass: carbon 87%; hydrogen
5%; oxygen 6%; sulphur 1% and ash 1%. The composition of air is 23% oxygen
by mass and the atomic masses are: carbon 12; oxygen 16; sulphur 32 and
hydrogen 1. 30% excess air is supplied for complete combustion of the coal.

1. The mass of oxygen required for complete combustion of 1 kg of coal,
from first principles
2. The theoretical mass of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg
of coal
3. The actual mass of air supplied for complete combustion of 3,5 kg of coal
[3.19; 0.45; 0.02; 2.67; 11.609; 52.821/3.5]
Activity 4.5
A furnace gas made of coal has the following volumetric analysis: 28%
hydrogen; 21% carbon monoxide; 2% oxygen and the remainder are
nitrogen. 25% excess air is supplied and only the hydrogen and carbon
monoxide burn. 3% carbon dioxide.
The atomic masses are:

Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
Calculate the following from first principles:

1. The volume of oxygen required to burn 1 m3 of fuel
2. The theoretical volume of air required to burn 1 m3 of fuel
3. The actual volume of air used to burn 1 m3 of fuel
4. The actual air/fuel ratio
[0.225; 1.0714; 1.339]

84
Power Machines N5
Activity 4.6
A certain fuel has the following composition:

77,7% Carbon
6,8% Hydrogen
1,2% Nitrogen
2,2% Sulphur
8,8% Oxygen
3,3% Ash

Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
Sulphur 32
Calculate the following first principles:
1. The mass of oxygen required for the combustion of carbon

2. The mass of oxygen required for the combustion of hydrogen
3. The mass of oxygen required for the combustion of sulphur
4. The total mass of oxygen required
5. The mass of air required
6. The mass of nitrogen
[2.072; 0.544; 0.022; 2.55; 11.087; 8.549]
Activity 4.7
The volumetric composition of a gas is:
Hydrogen 6,5%
Carbon monoxide 16%
Methane (CH4) 4,5%
Carbon dioxide 13%
Oxygen 5%
Nitrogen 55%

Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16

85
Power Machines N5
Draw a table using the following headings: Symbol; % by volume; molecular

mass; % volume x molecular mass, % by mass and determine the composition
of the gas by mass.
[0.463; 15.971; 2.567; 20.392; 5.704; 54.902]
Activity 4.8
A sample of coal has the following analysis by mass:
Carbon 77,9%
Hydrogen 7,9%
Oxygen 5,8%
Sulphur 7,2%
Ash 1,2%
The atomic masses are as follows:

Sulphur 32
Oxygen 16
Carbon 12
Hydrogen 1
Air is supplied at 27,8% excess.
1. The theoretical mass of oxygen required for complete combustion of 1,32

kg of the coal from first principles
2. The theoretical mass of air for complete combustion of 3,12 kg of the coal
3. The actual mass of air required for complete combustion of 2,13 kg of the
coal
[15.939; 2.32; 0.56; 2.82; 10.3; 30.9; 118.1682]
Activity 4.9
18,04 kg of air is used for the complete combustion of a kilogram of fuel.
The fuel has the following composition:

Carbon = 87%
Hydrogen = 2,5%
Sulphur = 1%
The balance of the fuel is non-combustible

86
Power Machines N5
Calculate the percentages of the products of combustion.
[11; 7.04; 64; 3.19; 0.225; 1.619; 0.02; 13.89; 18.944]
Activity 4.10
1 kg of fuel oil which has the formula C12 H4 completely burnt with the aid of
40% e3xcess air. The atomic mass of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen is 12,16
and 1, respectively.
1. The theoretical mass of air required to burn the fuel

2. The actual mass of air used to burn the fuel
3. The mass of each product of combustion
4. The percentage analysis, by mass, of the combustion products
[12.22; 17.11; 3.568; 0.243; 11244; 13.175; 19.7; 1.34; 6.21; 73]
Self-Check


87
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes

5.1 Introduction
In this course we are going to deal with single stage reciprocating

air compressors only. Figure 5.1 shows a reciprocating air
compressor with the compressor at the top cooled by a fan and
driven by an electric motor, this is mounted on the receiver tank.
Definition:
An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric
motor, diesel or gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored
in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air).
Figure 5.1 Reciprocating air compressor

88
Power Machines N5
5.2 Construction
A reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement compressor that
uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver air at high pressure.
The intake air enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression
cylinder where it gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion
via a crankshaft, and is then discharged.
There is an inlet or suction valve and a discharge valve. Both are one way
valves and both are spring loaded so it takes a certain amount of force to
open them. The inlet valve will only let air come into the cylinder and the
discharge valve will only let air out.
As the piston moves downward through the cylinder, air is sucked in the inlet
valve. When the piston moves up through the cylinder the inlet valve closes
and the discharge won't open until a certain amount of force is applied.
This causes the air to be trapped inside while the volume is reduced, increasing
the pressure. When the pressure is enough to open the discharge valve, then
the air goes out at the higher pressure.
5.2.1 Single-acting cylinder

A single-acting cylinder in a reciprocating compressor is a cylinder in which
the working air acts on one side of the piston only. For one revolution of the
crank, one swept volume of air is delivered.
Note:
Single-acting reciprocating compressors only have valves on top of
the cylinder, so there is one compression cycle for every turn of the
crankshaft.
5.2.1.1 The cylinder

This is a metal tube-shaped casing (or body), which is generally fitted with a
metal lining called a 'cylinder liner'. The liner is replaceable when it becomes
worn and inefficient.
The cylinder is also fitted with suction and discharge ports which contain
special spring loaded valves to allow air to flow in one direction only.
5.2.1.2 The piston

The piston consists of a metal drive rod connected to the piston head which is
located inside the cylinder. The piston head is fitted with piston rings to give a
seal against the cylinder lining and minimize internal leakage.
The other end of the drive rod extends to the outside of the cylinder and is
connected to the driver. Modern industry generally used high power electric

89
Power Machines N5
motors and gearing to convert the rotating motion into a reciprocating action.
In a single acting compressor, the backward stroke of the piston causes a

suction which pulls in air through the inlet valve. (The same suction action
keeps the discharge valve closed).
On the forward stroke, the positive pressure generated by the piston, closes the
inlet valve and opens the discharge valve. The air is displaced into the
discharge system.
Safety Warning!
Because the action is positive displacement, a piston compressor
can generate very high pressure and therefore MUST NEVER be
operated against a closed discharge system valve unless it is fitted
with a safety relief system in order to prevent damage to the
compressor and/or the driver and/or other downstream equipment.
Figure 5.2 Single acting air compressor

90
Power Machines N5
Figure 5.3 View of single acting air compressor showing the crank
5.2.2 Double-acting cylinder

A double-acting cylinder, Figure 5.4 is a cylinder in which the working air acts
alternately on both sides of the piston. In order to connect the piston in a
double-acting cylinder to an external mechanism, such as a crankshaft, a hole
must be provided in one end of the cylinder for the piston rod and this is fitted
with a gland or stuffing box to prevent escape of the working air.
Double-acting reciprocating compressor is similar to single-acting, but they

have inlet and discharge valves on both sides of the cylinder. This gives you
two compression cycles for every turn of the crankshaft.
Did you know?

Double-acting reciprocating are some of the most efficient
compressors ever built, but they're not as common as they used to
be. They're still around, but they're extremely large.
You rarely see one under 100 hp. Back in the days, they used to be called
earth-movers, because being around one felt like you were in an earthquake.
If the compressor didn't have the right foundation and vibration isolation, it
could tear down the building it was in. These used to be the workhorses in
manufacturing plants, but in the last 20-30 years that role was taken over by
rotary screw compressors.

91
Power Machines N5
Figure 5.4 Working principle of the double acting air compressor
5.3 Work done by a reciprocating compressor

The function of a compressor is to take a sufficient amount of air and to
increase its pressure. Compressors may be classified into different categories.
Some of them are the reciprocating compressor, rotary compressor, etc.,
Each has their own advantages and disadvantages. As we know, the

reciprocating compressors may be used for high pressure applications.
Now let us consider the following for a single stage single acting reciprocating
compressor without clearance volume.
Let P1, V1, T1 be the Pressure, volume and Temperature of the fluid before
compression, P2, V2, T2 be the pressure, volume and temperature of the fluid
after compression, and r be the compression ratio = P2/P1
Now let us discuss the PV diagram of a single acting, single stage reciprocating
compressor without clearance volume, Figure 5.5.
In this diagram, the path 1-2 represents the polytropic compression.
From the above diagram it is clear that the air is drawn in by the cylinder
during the suction stroke (1-2). The air is compressed during the compression
stroke (2-3) at constant temperature (T1=T2).
Now, the pressure rises from P1 to P2 from 2-3. The air will be delivered when
sufficient pressure has been reached so that the valves can be opened. The
delivery of air takes place from 2-3.
In brief:
4-1 : Suction stroke (air is drawn into the cylinder) Volume of air, V1, at
P1 and T1

92
Power Machines N5
1-2 : compression stroke (air gets compressed inside the cylinder)

According to the law PVn = C from pressure Pi to P2. The
volume decreases from V1 to V2 and the temperature increases
from T1 to T2.
2-3 : air is delivered under pressure at V2, P2 and T2
3-4 : delivery closes and the suction valve opens for admitting fresh
air inside the cylinder.
Figure 5.5 A theoretical PV diagram neglecting clearance
Work done is the are under the graph

The energy equation:
Where:
H = Enthalpy
Also:

93
Power Machines N5
( )
Since:
( )
5.3.1 The clearance volume

This is the volume that remains in the cylinder after the piston has reached the
end of the compression stroke. Figure 5.6.
From point 2 to 3 compressed air is delivered from the cylinder but at 3, the
piston has reached the end of its stroke and so delivery of air stops at 3. V3 is
the clearance volume and is filled with compressed air.
As the piston starts its intake stroke, the residual compressed air expands
according to the law PVn = C and it is not until the pressure is reduced to intake
pressure at 4 that the inlet valve will begin to open. This fresh charge of air (V1 –
V4) is called the effective swept volume.
Figure 5.6 A theoretical PV diagram with clearance

94
Power Machines N5
The volumetric efficiency:
The clearance ratio:
Figure 5.7 Actual PV diagram with clearance

The actual PV diagram Figure 5.7 shows the effects at inlet and delivery of gas
inertia and turbulence. The two shaded areas (negative work areas) are in
addition to the theoretical area.
Worked Example 5.1
A single stage, double-acting air compressor takes In air at 15,965 m 3/min.

The air intake conditions are 101 kPa and 19 ºC. The delivery pressure is 750
kPa and the speed of the compressor Is 325 r/min. R for air is 0,287 kJ/kg.K, the
mechanical efficiency of the compressor Is 85% and the index n = 1,33. The
stroke length of the piston rod Is 1,25 times the diameter of the cylinder and
there Is no clearance volume.
1. The effective stroke volume

2. The diameter of the piston In mm
3. The stroke length of the piston rod In mm
4. The delivery temperature in Kelvin
5. The power required to drive the compressor

95
Power Machines N5
Solution:
1. =
= 0,02456 m3 / stroke
2. =
0,02456 =
D =√
= 0,29247 M
= 292,5 mm
3. =
=
=
4. =( )
= ( )
= ( )
= 480,21 K
5. = ( ) 0( ) 1
= ( ) 0( ) 1
= 82,07 kW
Worked Example 5.2
The clearance volume of a single-stage, single acting, reciprocating

compressor, is 6,5% of the stroke volume. The compressor takes 1n air 33 ºC
and 96 kPa and delivers it to a receiver at 650 kPa. The polytropic index of
compression is 1,35. 'R' for air is 0 ,287 kJ/kg.K and the free air delivery

96
Power Machines N5
conditions are 101,3 kPa and 18 ºC.

1. The volumetric efficiency at intake conditions
2. The volumetric efficiency referred to free air delivery conditions
3. The effective volume per kilogram of air
4. The work done per kilogram of air
Solution:
1. = ( )
= ( )
= 79,696%
2. =
= 71,824 %
3. =
=
4. = ( ) 0( ) 1
= ( ) 0( ) 1
= 217,44424 kJ / kg
Activity 5.1
0,04 m3/s of air Is drawn into a single-acting, single-cylinder, reciprocating air

compressor, at a pressure of 105 kPa. The air is then delivered to an air
receiver at a pressure of 625 kPa according to the law PV132 = C. The
compressor has a mechanical efficiency of 82% and a motor transmission
efficiency of 88%. The stroke to bore ratio is 1,4 to 1 and the compressor runs
at 8 r/s.

97
Power Machines N5
1. The diameter of the piston

2. The Indicated power
3. The shaft power
4. The power of the electric motor required to drive the compressor
[0.005; 165.673; 9.373; 11.43; 13]
Activity 5.2
A double-acting, single stage air compressor Is required to deliver 5 kg of air

per minute at a pressure of 510 kPa. The temperature and pressure at the end
of the suction stroke are 21 ºC and 98 kPa respectively. The compressor runs
at 245 r/min and it has a clearance volume of 5% of the stroke volume. The
index for compression and expansion Is 1,33 and R for air is 0 ,287 kJ/kg.K. The
stroke length is 242 mm and the piston diameter Is 200 mm.
1. The swept volume

2. The volume 'V1'
3. The volume 'V3'
4. The volume 'V4'
5. The compressor power
[0.0076; 0.00798; 0.00038; 0.00313; 14.331]
Activity 5.3
A single stage, single-acting, reciprocating air compressor has a stroke

volume of 17,563 litres. The pressure at the outlet of the compressor is 395 kPa
while the inlet pressure is 99 kPa. The compressor has a clearance volume of
4,85% of the stroke volume and the index for compression and expansion is
1,32.

1. The volume 'V3'
2. The volume 'V1'
3. The volume V4·
4. The volumetric efficiency
5. The isothermal efficiency of the compressor
[0.017563; 0.000852; 0.018415; 0.00243; 91; 84.2]

98
Power Machines N5
Activity 5.4
A single-acting, single stage air compressor takes in 1,8 m 3 of air per minute at
a pressure of 120 kPa and 19 ºC. The speed or the compressor Is 360 r/min
and the delivery pressure is 820 kPa. The efficiency of the motor is 83% and
the compressor runs at a mechanical loss of 12%. The diameter to stroke ratio
Is 1:1,7. The characteristic gas constant for air is 0,268 kJ/kg.K and the
polytropic index is 1,32.

1. The indicated power
2. The cylinder diameter
3. The stroke length of the piston
4. The motor output power
5. The motor input power
[8.813; 155.3; 264; 10; 12]
Activity 5.5
A double-acting, single stage air compressor Is required to deliver 6,5 kg of air

per minute at a pressure of 510 kPa. The temperature and pressure at the end
of the suction stroke are 21 ºC and 98 kPa respectively. The compressor runs
at 245 r/min and it has a clearance volume of 5% of the stroke volume.
The Index for compression and expansion is 1,33 and R for air is 0 ,287 kJ/kg.K
The stroke length is 242 mm and the piston diameter is 200 mm.

1. The swept volume
2. The volume V1'
3. The volume V3'
4. The volume V4'
5. The compressor power
[0.0076; 0.00798; 0.00038; 0.00131; 18.631]
Activity 5.6
A single-stage, double-acting compressor must deliver 16 m3 of air every

minute. The compressor receives the air at 101,3 kPa and 20 ºC and delivers it
at a pressure of 900 kPa. The effective volume Is 0 ,94 of the swept volume,
and the speed of the compressor is 375 r/min. The index of compression is 1,3

99
Power Machines N5
and the mechanical efficiency Is 79%.

1. The volumetric efficiency
2. The swept volume
3. The temperature of the delivered air
4. The power required to drive the compressor
[73.8; 0.0289; 485.05; 97.12]
Activity 5.7
A single cylinder, single-acting compressor takes In 56,4 m3 of air every hour.

The air is delivered at a pressure of 900 kPa after It is received at a pressure of
103 kPa and 22 °C. The compressor does not have a clearance volume and
the law of compression is PV1,35 = C. The stroke to bore ratio is 1,6 to 1 and the
speed is 350 r/min.
The electric motor experiences a power loss of 10% and the compressor
experiences a power loss of 12%. Air has a specific heat capacity of 0,287
kJ/kg.K.
Calculate the following.

1. The indicated power of the compressor
2. The bore diameter in mm
3. The stroke length In mm
4. The power rating of the motor used to drive the compressor in kW
[4.694; 0.002686; 128.8; 206.08; 5.93]
Self-Check


100
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the operation of the steam on the blades of an impulse turbine

 Describe the operation of the steam on the blades of an reaction turbine
 Describe the velocity diagram with all the velocity components
 Calculate the work done on the blades
 Describe the operation of the Watt, Porter and Hartnell types of governors
 Calculate the maximum speeds
6.1 Introduction
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal

combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor
coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in
between.
6.2 Steam turbines

Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move
entirely due to the impact of steam on them and their profiles do not
converge. This results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop
as steam moves through the blades.
Did you know?

A turbine composed of blades alternating with fixed nozzles is
called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine or Brown-
Curtis turbine.
Nozzles
Nozzles appear similar to blades, but their profiles converge near the exit. This
results in a steam pressure drop and velocity increase as steam moves through
the nozzles. Nozzles are usually fixed to the stator.
Blades
Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and their profiles do
not converge. This results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure
drop as steam moves through the blades. Blades are usually fixed to the rotor.
Figure 6.1

101
Power Machines N5
Condensing
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants.
These turbines receive steam from a boiler and exhaust it to a condenser. The
exhausted steam is at a pressure well below atmospheric, and is in a partially
condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%.
Casing
Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are
coupled to a generator.
Turbine efficiency
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, doing work, in a
number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is
extracted from them and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines.
Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each
stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both.
Typically, higher pressure sections are reaction type and lower pressure stages
are impulse type.
Figure 6.1 Turbine blade showing fixing dovetail
6.2.1 Impulse turbines

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed
jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which is converted into shaft
rotation by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes
direction.
A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in
steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its
pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or
more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of expansion of
steam, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity.

102
Power Machines N5
The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum
velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this
higher exit velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
6.2.2 Reaction turbines

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force
produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor.
Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the
stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then
changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades.
A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam
accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no
net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both
pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the
rotor.
6.2.3 Speed control

The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run
up slowly to prevent damage and some applications (such as the generation
of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control.
Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an over-speed trip,

which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to
close.
Note:
If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks
apart, often catastrophically. Turbines are expensive to make,
requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials.
6.3 Thermodynamics of a steam turbine

The steam turbine operates on basic principles of thermodynamics using the
part 3-4 of the Rankine cycle shown in the adjoining diagram.
Superheated steam (or dry saturated steam, depending on application)

leaves the boiler at high temperature and high pressure. At entry to the
turbine, the steam gains kinetic energy by passing through a nozzle (a fixed
nozzle in an impulse type turbine or the fixed blades in a reaction type turbine).
When the steam leaves the nozzle it is moving at high velocity towards the
blades of the turbine rotor. A force is created on the blades due to the
pressure of the vapour on the blades causing them to move.

103
Power Machines N5
A generator or other such device can be placed on the shaft, and the energy
that was in the steam can now be stored and used.
The steam leaves the turbine as a saturated vapour (or liquid-vapour mix
depending on application) at a lower temperature and pressure than it
entered with and is sent to the condenser to be cooled.
Note:
The first law enables us to find a formula for the rate at which work is
developed per unit mass.
Assuming there is no heat transfer to the surrounding environment and that the
changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible compared to the
change in specific enthalpy we arrive at the following equation
Isentropic efficiency
To measure how well a turbine is performing we can look at
its isentropic efficiency.
This compares the actual performance of the turbine with the performance
that would be achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine.
When calculating this efficiency, heat lost to the surroundings is assumed to be

zero.
The starting pressure and temperature is the same for both the actual and the
ideal turbines, but at turbine exit the energy content ('specific enthalpy') for
the actual turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because of
irreversibility in the actual turbine.
The specific enthalpy is evaluated at the same pressure for the actual and
ideal turbines in order to give a good comparison between the two.
The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing the actual work by the ideal work.

104
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.2 Large rotor with two turbines
6.3.1 Velocities on blade inlet

Figure 6.3 shows the how steam changes direction through the blade
imparting a force on the blade that causes it move in the direction indicated.
The steam has a velocity of Cai and an angle and the blade is moving at a
velocity U , then the velocity of the steam relative to the blade, Cri will be
obtained by compounding these two velocities as shown in the inlet velocity
triangle. See the velocity triangle Figure 6.4 (a) and the vector diagram Figure
6.4 (b).
The velocity Cwi is in the direction of the blade movement and is termed the
velocity of whirl at inlet.
Cfi is the velocity of flow and is along the axis of rotation.
Figure 6.3 Steam direction is changed

105
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.4 (a) and (b) Inlet condition on blade. (a) Velocity triangle and
(b) Vector diagram
6.3.2 Velocities on blade exit

Figure 6.5 (a) shows the velocity triangle at the blade exit. As the steam passes
over the moving blade it changes direction and leaves the blade with an exit
relative velocity of Cre at an angle To the angle of direction.
The blade will be moving with a velocity U. Therefore the steam at exit has two
component velocities Cre and U. These velocities are compounded to give the
absolute velocity Cae.
Cwe is the velocity in line with the moving blades called the velocity of whirl at
exit and Cfe is termed the velocity of flow at exit and is in the direction of the
axis of rotation.

106
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.5 (a) and (b) Outlet condition on blade. (a) Velocity triangle and
(b) Vector diagram
6.3.3 Work done on the blades

The combined vector diagram Figure 6.6 must be accurately drawn out with
the correct angles and to a suitable scale. From this, the relevant velocities are
obtained.
Figure 6.6 Combined vector diagram
Work done on blades:

107
Power Machines N5
Force to change the velocity of whirl
The negative sign shows the force acts in the direction opposite to the rotation.
The reaction force has the same magnitude so this is the formula that we use.
The work done per second or power
Blade or diagram efficiency
Axial thrust is found by using the change in the velocity of flow:
Worked Example 6.1
A single-stage impulse turbine has an average blade speed of 300 m/s. The
gas leaves the turbine at an angle of 50º and the velocity coefficient is 0,75.
The blade inlet angle is 26 º and the gas flows at a rate of 48 kg/s through the
turbine. The relative exit velocity of the gas is 600 m/s.
1. Use a scale of 1 cm = 50 m/s and construct a velocity diagram

(landscape) and enter all the values (m/s) onto the diagram
2. Use the diagram and determine the following:
2.1 the nozzle angle
2.2 the velocity of the gas leaving the nozzles
2.3 the velocity of the gas leaving the turbine
2.4 the blade outlet angle
2.5 the relative inlet velocity of the gas
2.6 the power developed by the turbine in MW
2.7 the axial thrust of the turbine in kN
Solution:
1.

108
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.7
2.1 =
2.2 =
2.3 =
2.4 =
2.5 =
2.6 =
=
=
2.7 =
=
=
=
Worked Example 6.2
The velocity of steam leaving the nozzles of an impulse turbine is 900 m/s and
the nozzle angle is 20º. The blade velocity is 300 m/s and the velocity
coefficient of friction is 0,7. The blading is symmetrical and the mass flow of
the steam is 1,8 kg/s.

2.1 the blade inlet angle
2.2 the driving force on the wheel
2.3 the axial thrust
2.4 the diagram power

109
Power Machines N5
2.5 the diagram efficiency
Solution:
1.
Figure 6.8
2.1 =
2.2 =
=
=
2.3 =
=
=
2.4 =
=
=
=
2.5 =
= 68,89%
6.4 Governors
A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate
the speed of a machine, such as an engine.

110
Power Machines N5
Did you know?

A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as
the Watt or fly-ball governor, which uses weights mounted on
spring-loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft is spinning, and
then uses proportional control to regulate the shaft speed.
In steam turbines, the steam turbine governing is the procedure of monitoring

and controlling the flow rate of steam into the turbine with the objective of
maintaining its speed of rotation as constant. The flow rate of steam is
monitored and controlled by interposing valves between the boiler and the
turbine.
6.4.1 Centrifugal governors

These governors use centrifugal force to act on two balls with the same mass.
The governor types are:

 The Watt governor
 The Porter governor
 The Proell governor
6.4.2 Watt governor

Power is supplied to the governor from the engine's output shaft by a belt or
chain connected to the lower belt wheel. The governor is connected to
a throttle valve that regulates the flow of working fluid (steam) supplying
the prime mover.
Note:
As the speed of the prime mover increases, the central spindle of
the governor rotates at a faster rate and the kinetic energy of the
balls increases.
This allows the two masses on lever arms to move outwards and upwards
against gravity. If the motion goes far enough, this motion causes the lever
arms to pull down on a thrust bearing, which moves a beam linkage, which
reduces the aperture of a throttle valve. Figure 6.10.
The rate of working-fluid entering the cylinder is thus reduced and the speed of
the prime mover is controlled, preventing over-speeding.
Mechanical stops may be used to limit the range of throttle motion, as seen
near the masses in the image at right.

111
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.9 Watt governor
Read:
In 1787 Watt adopted the centrifugal governor and after it was
named "Watt's governor".
Figure 6.10 Action of a Watt governor
To eliminate the effect of the tension in the arm and reaction at the sleeve, we
Take moments resulting in the formula below. Figure 6.10.
The mass of a ball is m and the centrifugal force on it is F. The

112
Power Machines N5
6.4.3 Porter governor
Figure 6.11 The Porter governor
For higher speeds, the porter governor is used. Figure 6.11 shows the added
mass on the moving sleeve. It is a Watt governor with this added central mass.
Figure 6.12 Action of a Porter governor
To eliminate the effect of the tension in the arm and reaction at the sleeve, we
Take moments resulting in the formula below. Figure 6.12.
The mass of a ball is m and the centrifugal force on it is F. M is the mass of the
central load.
( )
6.4.4 Spring-controlled governors

The common types of spring loaded governors are:

113
Power Machines N5
 The Hartnell governor

 The governor with spring connected balls
6.4.5 The Hartnell governor

There is a central spring which is initially compressed. This spring can be
adjusted to give any required equilibrium speed for a given ball radius.
Figure 6.13 The Hartnell governor
Taking moments about the fulcrum O. of the bell-crank lever, the formula
below is obtained.
Looking at Figure 6.14, M is the mass of the sleeve and P is the force acting on
the sleeve by the spring.
Figure 6.14 The action of the Hartnell governor

114
Power Machines N5
6.4.6 Sensitivity and friction

If the maximum and minimum speeds of a governor is and respectively
and its mean speed is , then the sensitivity is defined as
If the friction between the sleeve and spindle is taken into account, then
Mg + f when the sleeve is rising and Mg – f when the sleeve is falling.
In controlling the force and stability there are the centripetal force of the balls
acting inward, the spring force, etc.
These forces are the controlling forces, and Figure 6.15 shows the curve for the
Porter governor. Figure 6.16 shows the curve for the Hartnell governor.
At any equilibrium speed, , the controlling force is equal and opposite to the
centrifugal force.
Figure 6.15 The force radius curve of a Porter governor
A governor is stable if, for each speed within the working range there is only
one radius of rotation for equilibrium. The ratio F/r must increase as increases.
For the Porter governor curve, the condition is satisfied.

115
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.16 The force radius curve of a Hartnell governor
For the Hartnell governor, this condition is satisfied only if the straight line curve
intercepts the vertical axis below the origin. Figure 6.16.
Worked Example 6.3
A porter governor has 300 mm arms and the rotating balls each have a mass
of 1.8 kg. At a mean speed of 120 r/min, the arms make an angle of 30
degrees to the vertical.
Find the central dead load needed and the sensitivity of the governor if the
sleeve movement is 25 mm.
Solution
( )
At the mean speed:
Dead load needed … M = 5.73 kg
When the sleeve rises 25 mm:

116
Power Machines N5
Figure 6.17
When the sleeve falls 25 mm:
Activity 6.1
Steam with a velocity of 600 m/s enters an impulse turbine row of blades at
an angle of 25 º to the plane of rotation of the blades. There is a 10% loss in
relative velocity due to friction in the blades. The blade exit angle is 30º and
the mean blade speed is 255 m/s.

117
Power Machines N5

2.1 the inlet angle of the blade
2.2 the exit angle of the gas from the turbine
2.3 the power developed by the turbine
2.5 the axial thrust per kilogram of steam
[300; 725; 240; 455; 425; 0.934; 222]
Activity 6.2
The nozzles of an impulse turbine supply 5 kg of gas at an angle of 19º every

second. The gas leaves the nozzle at a speed of 1 000 m/s. The mean blade
is 475 m/s and the outlet angle of the moving blades is 23º. There is a 9,5%
frictional loss in the relative part of the blades.

2. Determine the following from the diagram:
2.1 the inlet angle of the moving blade
2.2 the exit angle of the gas
2.3 the driving force on the wheel in kN
2.4 the axial thrust on the wheel in N
2.5 the power developed by the turbine in MW
[35; 90; 4.725; 625; 2.244; 515.85]
Activity 6.3
An impulse turbine has a blade ring which is 1,91 m in diameter and it rotates
at 3 500 r/min. The blade speed is 0,35 of the steam velocity leaving the
nozzles, which are inclined at 20º to the plane of the wheel. The velocity
coefficient of friction is 0,9 and there is no axial thrust.
1. Calculate the blade velocity of the turbine in m/s

2. Calculate the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzles
3. Use scale 1 cm = 50 m/s and construct a velocity diagram (landscape)
and enter all the values (m/s) onto the diagram.
4.1 The diagram efficiency
4.2 The power developed per kilogram of steam per second

118
Power Machines N5
[350; 700; 38; 117; 115; 390; 590; 312]
Activity 6.4
5 000 kg of steam per hour, leaves the nozzles of an impulse turbine at a

velocity of 1 000 m/s and at an angle of 20º to the plane of the wheel. The
steam leaves the turbine at 85º to the plane of the wheel. The inlet angle of
the moving blade is 35º and the outlet angle is 30º. The wheel rotates at 11
000 r/min.
Use a scale of 1 cm = 50 m/s and construct a velocity diagram (landscape)

and enter all the values (m/s) onto the diagram.
[85; 20; 30; 35; 965; 340; 275.5]
Activity 6.5
12 kg of gas flows into an impulse turbine every minute, at a velocity of 600

m/s making an angle of 28º to the plane of rotation. The absolute outlet
velocity of the gas is axial to the turbine shaft. The velocity of the blades is
240 m/s and the coefficient of friction is 0,85.

2.1 the inlet angle of the moving blade
2.2 the outlet angle of the moving blade
2.3 the velocity at which the gas leaves the turbine
2.4 the angle at which the gas leaves the turbine
2.5 the power generated in the turbine
2.6 the turbine efficiency
[44; 33; 155; 90; 18.6; 70.67; 25]
Activity 6.6
Gas leaves a single-stage impulse turbine at an angle of 41º. Friction over the
blading causes a 10% loss in velocity. The relative velocity of the gas at the
inlet to the blades is 350 m/s at an angle of 30 º. The blade experiences a
peripheral velocity of 175 m/s when 50 kg of gas flows through the turbine
every second.

119
Power Machines N5

2.2 the nozzle velocity
2.3 the exit angle of the moving blades
2.5 the power developed
[315; 20; 510; 19; 3.625; 5.25]
Activity 6.7
The blades of a single-stage impulse turbine has a mean diameter of 960 mm.
100 kW of power develops at a speed of 4 755 r/min. The gas discharges in
an axial direction and the coefficient of friction is 0,87. Both blade angles are
30º each to the plane of rotation.
1. Calculate the blade velocity in m/s

3.2 the mass flow of gas in kg/s
3.4 State the volume and enthalpy of 1 kg of steam which has a
temperature of 500 ºC and a pressure of 0,5 MPa.
[239; 17; 0.816; 85.6; 0.7108; 3484]
Activity 6.8
In a Hartnell governor the length of the ball arm is 190 mm. The sleeve arm is
140 mm and the mass of each ball is 2.7 kg. The distance of the pivot of each
bell-crank lever from the axis of rotation is 170 mm and the speed, when the
ball arm is vertical, is 300 r/min. The speed is to increase 0.6 % for a lift of 12
mm of the sleeve.
1. Neglecting the dead load on the sleeve, find the necessary stiffness of
the spring.
2. Find the initial required compression.
[0.0804; 1230; 1364; 11160; 0.11]

120
Power Machines N5
Activity 6.9
1. Define the sensitivity, stability and isochronism as applied to governors.

2. For isochronism, the equilibrium speed remains constant for all radii of
rotation.
3. Describe equilibrium speed.
Activity 6.10
1. A spring controlled governor has two balls, each with a mass of 2.3 kg.
The mean speed is to be 500 r/min and the variation is 2 %.
2. The extreme radii of the path of the balls are 110 mm and 85 mm. Find the
controlling force at the balls in each case.
3. If the effect of friction is 45 N at each ball, find the highest and lowest
speeds.
[721.5; 514.5; 525; 468]
Self-Check

 Describe the operation of the steam on the blades of an impulse
turbine
 Describe the operation of the steam on the blades of an
reaction turbine
 Describe the velocity diagram with all the velocity components
 Calculate the work done on the blades

 Describe the operation of the Watt, Porter and Hartnell types of
governors
 Calculate the maximum speeds

121
Power Machines N5
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the condition that boilers and pressure vessels should be kept in
 Describe documentation required in order to operate a boiler
 Describe how boiler documentation is obtained
 Describe the procedure to be taken before changes are performed on a
boiler
7.1 Introduction
Below are extracts from the factories act relevant to the work
covered in this course.
7.2 General requirements

(1) Any person who manufactures, imports, sells, offers or supplies any
pressure equipment described in these Regulations for use in the
Republic shall ensure that such equipment complies with these
Regulations.
(2) Any person who erects or installs any pressure equipment for use in the
Republic shall ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, that it is
erected or installed in a safe manner and without risk to health and
safety when properly used.
(3) All pressure equipment for use in the Republic shall be categorized and
submitted to the applicable conformance assessments of SANS 347 in
addition to the requirements of the relevant health and safety standard
incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of the Act.

122
Power Machines N5
7.3 Duties of manufacturers

(1) The manufacturer shall have an obligation to ensure that all equipment
designed and manufactured for use in the Republic shall be conformity
assessed and subjected to the requirements set out in SANS 347.
(2) Subject to the requirements set out in the relevant health and safety
standard incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of the
Act, the manufacturer shall ensure that the pressure equipment as
manufactured, modified, inspected, tested or repaired is safe and
without risks to health when properly used.
(3) Subject to the requirements of this regulation a manufacturer shall issue

a certificate of manufacture for all pressure equipment supplied, with a
verification signature by an approved inspection authority when so
required.
(4) Subject to the requirements of this regulation a manufacturer shall

comply with any other duty assigned to the manufacturer in these
Regulations.
(5) A manufacturer who determines that pressure equipment in use has a

latent defect shall advise the chief inspector in writing forthwith thereof
and of measures being taken to correct the defect.
7.4 Duties of users

(1) The user shall ensure that the pressure equipment is operated and
maintained within its design and operating parameters.
(2) The user shall, subject to the relevant health and safety standard
incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of the Act –
(a) provide the manufacturer, repairer or modifier with

comprehensive information of the operating or intended
operating conditions of the pressure equipment, including the
characteristics of the fluid and operating parameters of other
connected pressure equipment, where reasonably practicable;
(b) ensure pressure equipment has a certificate, issued by the

manufacturer, including a verification signature by an approved
inspection authority when required, which certifies that the
pressure equipment has been designed and manufactured in
accordance with the relevant health and safety standard
incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of the Act;
(c) ensure pressure equipment has a certificate issued by the repairer

or modifier, including a verification signature by an approved

123
Power Machines N5
inspection authority when required, which certifies that the

pressure equipment has been modified or repaired in accordance
with the relevant health and safety standard incorporated into
these Regulations under section 44 of the Act;
(d) ensure that pressure equipment has a certificate issued by an

approved inspection authority before commissioning, where
applicable; and
(e) ensure that a gas system has a valid certificate issued by an

authorised person.
7.5 Approval and duties of approved inspection authority

(1) Only an organisation holding an approval certificate from the chief
inspector shall perform the duties of an approved inspection authority
within the scope of accreditation.
(2) An application for approval in terms of sub-regulation (1) shall include

the applicant’s proof of accreditation prescribed by paragraph (a) or
(b) of sub-regulation (3), including full contact details and address.
(3) The chief inspector’s approval –
(a) of inspection bodies operating in the Republic shall be subject to

the submission of an accreditation certificate issued by the
accreditation authority in accordance with the requirements of
SANS/ISO 17020 and SANS 10227: Provided that the chief inspector
may set additional requirements before granting approval; or
(b) of foreign inspection bodies shall be subject to the submission of

an accreditation certificate issued by an International Laboratory
Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) or an International
Accreditation Forum (IAF), Mutual Recognition Arrangement
signatory in accordance with the requirements of ISO/IEC 17020:
Provided that –
(i) the foreign inspection body shall ensure compliance with all
the duties assigned to an approved domestic inspection
authority in terms of these Regulations and within their scope
of accreditation together with the applicable health and
safety standards; and
(ii) the chief inspector may set additional requirements before

granting approval.

124
Power Machines N5
(4) Imported pressure equipment stamped by an ASME authorised

manufacturer in compliance with the full ASME Code of Construction
shall be deemed to meet the requirements of these Regulations.
(5) In the event of a dispute of a technical or safety issue, which could not
be reasonably resolved between an approved inspection authority and
any interested party, including the user, modifier, repairer or
manufacturer, an interested party may refer the case to the chief
inspector in writing for arbitration, setting out the full details of the
dispute.
(6) Upon receiving such a dispute in terms of sub regulation (5), the chief
inspector may appoint an arbitrator mutually agreed upon between the
parties.
(7) A case referred to the chief inspector in terms of sub regulation (5) shall
be investigated and arbitrated within a maximum of 90 days.
(8) An approved inspection authority shall ensure compliance with all the
duties assigned to an approved inspection authority in these Regulations
within its scope of accreditation and the relevant health and safety
standard.
7.6 Registration of a steam generator

(1) No user may use a steam generator unless such user is in possession of a
certificate of registration issued in terms of sub-regulation (3) for that
steam generator.
(2) Application for registration to use a steam generator shall be made prior
to use to the provincial director in the form of Annexure 2, including
copies of a certificate from the manufacturer and from the approved
inspection authority after installation prior to commissioning: Provided
that this sub-regulation shall not apply in respect of the re-erection of a
steam generator on the same premises.
(3) On receipt of an application for registration in terms of sub-regulation (1),

the provincial director shall forward that application to an inspector who
may issue a certificate of registration in the form of Part C of Annexure 2
in respect of that steam generator, subject to the conditions that may
be specified on the certificate.
(4) Any user of a steam generator for which a certificate of registration has
been issued shall cause the certificate of registration to be made
available on request to an inspector or an approved inspection
authority.

125
Power Machines N5
(5) A user shall, within seven days after discovering that the certificate of
registration has been lost, defaced or destroyed, apply to the provincial
director in the form of Part A of Annexure 2 for the issue of a duplicate
certificate, and affix the fee of R100,00 in the form of un-cancelled
revenue stamps to such an application.
(6) On receipt of an application in terms of sub-regulation (5), the provincial

director shall issue the duplicate certificate if he or she is satisfied that the
original certificate has been lost, defaced or destroyed.
(7) A user of a steam generator shall immediately notify the provincial

director in writing when –
(a) such steam generator is no longer in use;
(b) the right of control over the use of the steam generator is
transferred by the user to any other user; or
(c) the user moves the steam generator to premises other than the
premises reflected on its certificate of registration.
(8) A certificate of registration issued in terms of sub-regulation (3)

shall lapse –
(a) upon the transfer of the right of control over the use of the steam
generator to another user; or
(b) when a steam generator is removed from the premises reflected
on its certificate of registration.
7.7 Pressure equipment marking

(1) Every manufacturer of pressure equipment shall cause the pressure
equipment to be marked in accordance with the relevant health and
safety standard incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of
the Act.
(2) Every manufacturer shall cause a data plate to be permanently fixed in

a conspicuous place to any steam generator or pressure vessel with the
following minimum particulars:
(a) Name of manufacturer;
(b) country of origin;
(c) year of manufacture;
(d) manufacturer’s serial number;

126
Power Machines N5
(e) reference number, date and edition of the health and safety
standard;
(f) design pressure in units of Pascal;
(g) design temperature for both minimum and maximum in degrees

Celsius;
(h) capacity in cubic metres;
(i) unique mark of an approved inspection authority as applicable;

and
(j) the hazard category in accordance with the requirements of

SANS 347.
(3) In the case of composite pressure equipment the following information

shall be included in addition to that referred to in sub-regulation (2):
(a) The resin system of the corrosion barrier/lining;

(b) the resin system of the structural wall; and
(c) the name and specific gravity of the medium for which the vessel
was designed.
(4) No person may remove a marking or data plate referred to in this

regulation or wilfully damage or alter the particulars marked thereon,
except as provided in this regulation.
(5) A user shall ensure that any modification that changes the original
design conditions is identified by affixing an additional data plate.
(6) A user shall ensure that a data plate is affixed to any steam generator or
pressure vessel that has been re-certified: Provided that where the
manufacturer is unknown, the user responsible for the re-certification
shall be deemed to be the manufacturer.
7.8 Pressure and safety accessories

(1) No user may require or permit pressure equipment to be used unless it is
provided with all the pressure and safety accessories required by the
relevant health and safety standard which is incorporated into these
Regulations under section 44 of the Act and used in the design,
construction and manufacture of such pressure equipment: Provided
that alternative safety accessories other than those required by the
standard may be fitted with the written approval of an approved
inspection authority.

127
Power Machines N5
(2) In the absence of a requirement referred to in sub regulation (1) in the

relevant health and safety standard which is incorporated into these
Regulations under section 44 of the Act and used in the design,
construction and manufacture of such pressure equipment, safety
accessories shall be provided by the user as required by the approved
inspection authority and those safety accessories shall be so selected,
arranged and installed as to be safe for the particular purpose for which
the pressure equipment is to be used.
(3) Every user of a steam generator or pressure vessel shall ensure that the
steam generator or pressure vessel in use is fitted with at least one
pressure measuring device.
(4) Every user of a steam generator or pressure vessel shall ensure that the
steam generator or pressure vessel in use is fitted with at least one safety
valve and that safety valve is kept locked, sealed or otherwise rendered
inaccessible to any un-authorised person.
(5) The number and capacity of the safety valve referred to in sub-
regulation (4) shall comply with the requirements of the design standard
for the steam generator or pressure vessel or as required in terms of sub-
regulation (2).
(6) Every user shall ensure that the automatic controls and indicators of a
steam generator, pressure vessel or piping are arranged, installed,
maintained and operated in accordance with the relevant health and
safety standard which is incorporated into these Regulations under
section 44 of the Act and used in the design and manufacture of the
steam generator, pressure vessel or pressurized system: Provided that in
the absence of such provisions, where automatic controls and indicators
are installed, they shall be selected, arranged and installed subject to
the written approval of an approved inspection authority.
7.9 Inspection and test

(1) Subject to the requirements of the relevant health and safety standard
incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of the Act, the user
shall cause –
(a) steam generators or pressure vessels, including pressure and safety

accessories, after they are installed or re-installed and before they
are commissioned, to be subjected to a witnessed internal and
external inspection of a hydraulic pressure test to 1,25 times the
design pressure by an approved inspection authority: Provided
that Category I equipment as categorized in terms of SANS 347
may be inspected, tested and witnessed by the user: Provided
further that the user may, subject to the written approval of an
approved inspection authority, dispense with the internal

128
Power Machines N5
inspection and hydraulic pressure test where it could have an

adverse effect on the operation or integrity of the pressure
equipment;
(b) piping to be inspected and tested by the manufacturer after

manufacture, installation, modification or repair and before
commissioning in accordance with the relevant health and safety
standard incorporated into these Regulations under section 44 of
the Act, and, where applicable, to be witnessed by an approved
inspection authority: Provided that Category I equipment as
categorized in terms of SANS 347 may be inspected, tested and
witnessed by the user;
(c) every fire-tube steam generator to be subjected to an external

inspection every 12 months and a witnessed hydraulic test and
crack detection of critical welds every 36 months, by an approved
inspection authority for in-service inspection appointed by the user
in writing;
(d) every pressure vessel and steam generator, excluding those

referred to in sub-regulation (3), to be subjected to an internal and
external inspection and a hydraulic test to a pressure of 1,25 times
the design pressure by an approved inspection authority for in-
service inspection appointed by the user in writing, at intervals not
exceeding 36 months: Provided that Category I equipment as
categorized in terms of SANS 347 may be inspected and tested by
the user: Provided further that where the pressure equipment is not
subject to deterioration processes, the user may dispense with the
internal inspection and hydraulic pressure test, subject to a
maximum period of nine years for that pressure vessel or steam
generator and written approval by an approved inspection
authority: Provided further that the chief inspector may require a
specific steam generator or pressure vessel to be inspected or
tested more frequently; and
(e) all piping and pipelines to be inspected and tested in accordance

with the relevant in-service health and safety standard: Provided
that where the health and safety standard does not prescribe in-
service inspections and test intervals, such intervals shall be
determined by a risk-based inspection applying sound engineering
practice: Provided further that such inspection and test for
Category II equipment and higher as categorized in terms of SANS
347 shall be performed by a competent person referred to in
regulation 1 of the General Machinery Regulations, 1988.
(2) Where it is impracticable to use a liquid for the hydraulic pressure test
referred to in sub regulation (1)(d) or (e), the test may, subject to the

129
Power Machines N5
prior written approval of an approved inspection authority, be carried

out with an inert gas to a pressure of 1,1 times the design pressure:
Provided that, where reasonably practicable, the test shall be preceded
by an internal inspection and any conditions and precautionary
measures determined by the user and approved by the approved
inspection authority.
(3) Where an inspection or test carried out in terms of sub regulation (1)(c),
(d) and (e) reveals any weakness or defect whereby the safety of
persons may be endangered, the weakness or defect shall be reported
forthwith to the user by the person carrying out the inspection or test and
the user shall forthwith cease the use of the pressure equipment until
such weakness or defect has been rectified to the satisfaction of the
person who carried out the inspection and the approved inspection
authority concerned in cases of modifications or repairs, as the case
may be, or the steam generator, pressure vessel or storage vessel has
been re-rated to the satisfaction of the approved inspection authority.
7.10 Records
(1) Every user of pressure equipment shall keep a record, which shall be
open for inspection by an inspector, in which the certificate of
manufacture, and the results, after manufacturing, of all inspections,
tests, modifications and repairs shall be recorded.
(2) When pressure equipment is sold, the manufacturer shall ensure that it is
accompanied, where relevant, with instructions for the user, containing
all the necessary safety information relating to -
(a) mounting, including the assembling of different pieces of pressure

equipment;
(b) putting into service; and
(c) maintenance, including checks by the user:
Provided that those instructions shall cover information affixed to

the pressure equipment in accordance with these Regulations and
the relevant health and safety standard incorporated into these
Regulations by section 44 of the Act, with the exception of serial
identification, and be accompanied, where appropriate, by
technical documents, drawings and diagrams that are necessary
for a full understanding of the instructions: Provided further that, if
appropriate, the instructions shall also refer to hazards arising from
misuse of the pressure equipment.
(3) The manufacturer shall keep the original manufacturing records of the
pressure equipment for a minimum period of 12 years.

130
Power Machines N5
7.11 Introduction to boiler and pressure vessels

Below are extracts from the Boiler and pressure vessels act relevant to the work
covered in this course.
GENERAL 2.
(1) Except as provided in subsection
(2) this Act and the regulations apply to all boilers, pressure vessels, power
plants, heating plants and pressure plants and fuel-burning equipment.
(3) This Act and the regulations do not apply to
(a) a boiler having a boiler rating of 10 kilowatts or less in capacity which

forms the whole or part of a power plant;
(b) a boiler having a boiler rating of 20 kilowatts or less in capacity, installed
in a heating plant;
(c) a boiler that is intended to be used in connection with a hot water
heating system and that has no valves or other obstructions to prevent
circulation between the boiler and the expansion tank, but only if the
expansion tank is fully vented to the atmosphere;
(d) a pressure vessel of 152 millimetres or less in internal diameter;
(e) a pressure vessel which is used for the storage of hot water and has an
internal diameter of 610 millimetres or less;
(f) a pressure vessel operating at and with relief valves set at 103
kilopascals or less;
(g) a pressure vessel intended to be installed in a closed hot water heating
system having a working pressure of 207 kilopascals or less and having
an internal diameter of 610 millimetres or less; or
(h) any pressure piping system and machinery and equipment ancillary
thereto by which refrigerants are vaporized, compressed and liquefied
in the refrigerating cycle and that has a capacity of 10.5 kilowatts or
less. 1981, c.4, s.2; 1986, c.8, s.2; 1988, c.13, s.1; 2015,c.36,s.10
(4) Civil Service Act R.S.P.E.I. 1988, Cap. C-8
(1) In accordance with the Civil Service Act R.S.P.E.I. 1988, Cap. C-8, there
shall be appointed a chief inspector and such other inspectors as may
be required for the purposes of this Act and the regulations.
(2) Where the chief inspector is given any power or duty under this Act or
the regulations, the chief inspector may authorize an inspector or other
person to exercise or perform that power or duty upon such conditions
or in such circumstances as the chief inspector prescribes and
thereupon that power or duty may be exercised or performed by the
inspector or other person so authorized in addition to the chief
inspector. 1981,c.4,s.3; 1994,c.4,s.2 {eff.} July 14/94; 2012(2nd),c.2,s.2. 4.

131
Power Machines N5
Where any calculation is made with respect to the application of this

Act or the regulations, the calculation shall be made and determined
in accordance with the regulations. 1981,c.4,s.4.
FITTINGS 10.
(1) Any person who intends to construct in the province a fitting in connection
with any boiler, pressure vessel or pressure piping system, shall apply to the
chief inspector to register the fitting in accordance with the regulations.
(2) Where an inspector is satisfied that the application forms are properly
completed, the fitting shall be registered and the applicant notified
accordingly.
(3) No person shall commence construction of any fitting in the province

unless the fitting has been registered in accordance with the regulations.
1981, c.4, s.10. 11. Any person who brings into the province a new or used
fitting that has not been registered in accordance with the regulations shall
apply for registration of the fitting. 1981,c.4,s.11. 12.
(1) Where a person wishes to make any change to the manner or method of
constructing a fitting that is registered in accordance with the regulations,
the person shall apply to the chief inspector to register the change.
(2) Where an inspector is satisfied that the application forms are properly
completed, the change to the fitting shall be registered and the applicant
notified accordingly.
(3) Where the design of a fitting is changed, no person shall commence

construction in accordance with the change unless the change is
registered in accordance with the regulations. 1981,c.4,s.12;
2012(2nd),c.2,s.5. 13.
(1) Where a fitting has been registered in accordance with the regulations
and the chief inspector determines that the fitting
(a) is not safe; or
(b) does not meet or no longer meets the requirements of the regulations,
the chief inspector shall give notice in writing to the person who
registered the fitting that from a date specified in the notice, the fitting
described therein shall not be constructed in the province in
connection with a boiler, pressure vessel or pressure piping system.
(2) Upon receipt of a notice referred to in subsection

(1) the person who registered the fitting shall forward copies of the notice to
every person who is permitted to construct the fitting referred to in the
notice.

132
Power Machines N5
(3) No person shall construct a fitting in the province contrary to a notice

referred to in subsection (1).
(4) No person shall use, sell or otherwise dispose of any fitting in the province
that is intended for use in connection with a boiler, pressure vessel or
pressure piping system.
BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL IDENTIFICATION
14. Before an inspector issues the first certificate of inspection with respect to
any boiler or pressure vessel the inspector shall ensure that the boiler or
pressure vessel is stamped with an identification number. 1981,c.4,s.14;
2012(2nd),c.2,s.6.
Activity 7.1
1. Every user shall cause his/her pressure vessel to undergo an internal

inspection and a hydraulic test before commissioning. Who must do the
inspection and test?
2. A vessel under pressure may not be used unless they are at all times
maintained in a clean and safe order. From what must it be kept clean
and free?
3. No person shall use a boiler unless he/she is possession of what?
4. Regulation C99 of the factories act, refers to the returns of boilers. Name
six different occasions when a written notification and approval must be
sought from the inspector.
5. Define the term pressure vessel as given in the vessels under pressure
regulation.
6. Define the terms as given in the Vessels under pressure regulations: Modify
and repair.
7. Every boiler and pressure vessel shall be fitted with a data plate securely
fixed to the shell, in a conspicuous place. What particulars shall be on this
plate?
8. Of what changes in the status of a boiler must you forthwith notify the
provincial director?
9. What must you do if you intend to modify your boiler?
10. With reference to boilers, what shall cause the certificate of certification
to lapse?

133
Power Machines N5
Self-Check

 Describe the condition that boilers and pressure vessels should
be kept in
 Describe documentation required in order to operate a boiler
 Describe how boiler documentation is obtained
 Describe the procedure to be taken before changes are
performed on a boiler

134
Power Machines N5
Table of C
Past Examination Papers
NOVEMBER 2014
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
POWER MACHINES N5
(8190035)
26 November 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00
REQUIREMENTS:
Steam Tables (BOE 173)
Superheated Steam Tables (Appendix to BOE 173)
Calculators may be used.
This question paper consists of 5 pages and a formula sheet of 3 pages.
DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING

135
Power Machines N5
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

POWER MACHINES N5
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ALL the questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this question
paper.
4. Write neatly and legibly.

___________________________________________________________________

136
Power Machines N5
QUESTION 1:
1.1 State THREE advantages of a condenser. (6)
1.2 Every hour a surface condenser processes 6 500 kg exhaust steam,

which has a dryness fraction of 0,83. Air leakage into the condenser is at
a rate of 1 ,2 kg/1 000 kg of steam. The air pump suction pipe and the
condensate have a temperature of 31 ºC each. The barometer and
vacuum gauge reading is 760 mm Hg and 662 mm Hg respectively. The
temperature of the cooling water is increased by 21 ºC after it passes
through the condenser. The specific heat capacity of the water is 4 187
kJ/kg.K and R for air is 0,288 kJ kg K.
1.2.1 The mass of cooling water required by the condenser every minute (8)
1.2.2 The capacity of the air pump in m3/min (6)

[20]
QUESTION 2:
2.1 A certain gas has a density of 1,28 kg/m 3 at 200 kPa and 267ºC. The law
PV1,29=C is used to expand 0,7 kg of this gas to 2,5 time its original
volume, from 200 kPa and 267ºC.
2.1.1 The characteristic gas constant (3)
2.1.2 The original and final volume of the gas (6)
2.1.3 The final pressure of the gas (3)
2.1.4 The final temperature of the gas (3)
2.1.5 The work done during the expansion (3)
2.2 State the function of a governor. (2)

[20]
QUESTION 3:
Gas leaves a single-stage impulse turbine at an angle of 41 º. Friction

over the blading causes a 10% loss in velocity. The relative velocity of the
gas at the inlet to the blades is 350 m/s at an angle of 30°. The blade
experiences a peripheral velocity of 175 m/s, when 50 kg of gas flows
through the turbine every second.
3.1 Use a scale of 1 cm = 25 m/s and construct a velocity diagram in the (11)

137
Power Machines N5
ANSWER BOOK. Enter ALL the values (m/s) onto the diagram.
NB: NO marks will be awarded if the values (m/s) are NOT entered onto
the diagram and if the diagram is NOT constructed to the given scale.
HINT: Use the answer page in the landscape format to construct the
diagram.
3.2 Determine the following from the diagram:
3.2.1 The nozzle angle (1)
3.2.2 The nozzle velocity (1)
3.2.3 The exit angle of the moving blades (1)
3.2.4 The axial thrust (3)
3.2.5 The power developed (3)

[20]
QUESTION 4:
4.1 18,04 kg of air is used for the complete combustion of a kilogram of fuel. (18)
The fuel has the following composition:
Carbon = 87%
Hydrogen = 2,5%
Sulphur = 1%
The balance of the fuel is non-combustible
Calculate the percentages of the products of combustion.
4.2 Regulation C112 provides for the access and inspection openings of (2)
boilers.
Name TWO reasons for these openings.

[20]
QUESTION 5:
5.1 A single-stage, double-acting, compressor must deliver 16 m3 of air every

minute. The compressor receives the air at 101,3 kPa and 20 ºC and
delivers it at a pressure of 900 kPa. The effective volume is 0,94 of the
swept volume, and the speed of the compressor is 375 r/min. The index
of compression is 1 ,3 and the mechanical efficiency is 79%.

138
Power Machines N5
5.1.1 The volumetric efficiency (3)
5.1.2 The swept volume (4)
5.1.3 The temperature of the delivered air (3)
5.1.4 The power required to drive the compressor (6)
5.2 Regulation C97.7 refers.
State the hydraulic test pressure for the following boilers:
5.2.1 Boilers which do NOT exceed the working gauge pressure of 500
kPa.
5.2.2 Boilers which exceed the working gauge pressure of 500 kPa.
(2 x 2) (4)
[20]
TOTAL: 100

139
Power Machines N5

140
Power Machines N5

141
Power Machines N5

142
Power Machines N5
Marking Guidelines
NOVEMBER 2014
POWER MACHINES N5
(8190035)
26 November 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00

143
Power Machines N5

144
Power Machines N5

145
Power Machines N5

146
Power Machines N5

147
Power Machines N5

148
Power Machines N5

149
Power Machines N5

150
Power Machines N5

151
Power Machines N5
Table of C
AUGUST 2014
POWER MACHINES N5
(8190035)
5 August 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00
REQUIREMENTS:
Drawing instruments are required.

This question paper consists of 5 pages and a formula sheet of 3 pages.

152
Power Machines N5

POWER MACHINES N5
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this question
paper.

___________________________________________________________________

153
Power Machines N5
QUESTION 1:
1.1 The blades of a single-stage, impulse turbine has a mean diameter of 960 (3)
mm. 100 kW of power develops at a speed of 4 755 r/min. The gas
discharges in an axial direction and the coefficient of friction is 0,87. Both
blade angles are 30° each to the plane of rotation.
1.1.1 Calculate the blade velocity in m/s (8)
1.1.2 Use a scale of 1 cm = 50 m/s and construct a velocity diagram in (8)

the ANSWER BOOK. Enter ALL the values (m/s) onto the
diagram.
HINT: Use the answer page in the landscape format to construct the
diagram.
NB: NO marks will be awarded if the values (m/s) are NOT entered
onto the diagram and if the diagram is NOT constructed to the
given scale
1.1.3 Determine the following from the diagram:

a) The nozzle angle (1)
b) The mass flow of gas in kg/s (3)
c) The diagram efficiency (3)
1.2 State the volume and enthalpy of 1 kg of steam which has a temperature (2)
of 500 ºC and a pressure of 0,5 MPa.
[20]
QUESTION 2:
2.1 With the aid of steam tables, calculate the following:
2.1.1 The enthalpy found in 2 kg of steam which has a pressure of 480 (3)
kPa and is 7,3% wet.
2.1.2 The enthalpy of a kilogram of steam which has a pressure of 1 ,5 (3)

MPa, a temperature of 396 ºC and a specific heat capacity of 2,1
kJ/kg.K.
2.1.3 The dryness fraction of wet steam which has an enthalpy of 2 650 (3)
kJ/kg at a pressure of 1,3 MPa.
2.1.4 The heat required to change 2,3 kg of water from a temperature of (3)
31 ºC to dry saturated steam at a pressure of 1 000 kPa.
2.2 Name THREE apparatus used to determine the dryness fraction of steam. (3)
2.3 A boiler plant supplies 5 600 kg of wet steam every hour at a pressure of (5)

154
Power Machines N5
800 kPa. The steam is 9,5% wet and the supply water enters the boiler at
29 ºC. The boiler consumes 11 kg of coal every minute, which has a heat
value of 35 MJ/kg.
Calculate the efficiency of the boiler.

[20]
QUESTION 3:
1 kg of fuel oil which has the formula C12 H4 completely burnt with the aid
of 40% excess air. The atomic mass of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen is
12,16 and 1, respectively.
3.1 The theoretical mass. of air required to burn the fuel (8)
3.2 The actual mass of air used to burn the fuel (2)
3.3 The mass of each product of combustion (6)
3.4 The percentage analysis, by mass, of the combustion products (4)

[20]
QUESTION 4:
A single cylinder, single-acting compressor takes in 56,4 m3 of air every

hour. The air is delivered at a Pressure of 900 kPa after it is received at a
pressure of 103 kPa and 22 ºC. The compressor does not have a
clearance volume and the law of compression is PV1,35 = C. The stroke to
bore ratio is 1,6 to 1 and the speed is 350 r/min.
The electric motor experiences a power loss of 10% and the compressor
experiences a power loss of 12%. Air has a specific heat capacity of
0,287 kJ/kg.K.
4.1 The indicated power of the compressor (4)
4.2 The bore diameter in mm (8)
4.3 The stroke length in mm (2)
4.4 The power rating of the motor used to drive the compressor in kW (6)
[20]

155
Power Machines N5
QUESTION 5:
Name TWO types of compressors. (2)
5.1 State Boyle's law. (4)
5.2 State Charles' law. (5)
5.3 A constant volume process was used to heat 3,3 kg of gas from a
temperature of 21 ºC and 0,87 m3 to a temperature of 137 ºC. The
specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume is 0,718 kJ/kg. and
the gas constant is 0,289 kJ/kg.K.
5.3.1 The quantity of heat transferred in kJ (3)
5.3.2 The final pressure of the gas after heating (6)

[20]
TOTAL: 100

156
Power Machines N5

157
Power Machines N5

158
Power Machines N5

159
Power Machines N5
Marking Guidelines
AUGUST 2014
POWER MACHINES N5
(8190035)
5 August 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00

160
Power Machines N5

161
Power Machines N5

162
Power Machines N5

163
Power Machines N5

164
Power Machines N5

165
Power Machines N5

166
Power Machines N5

167
Power Machines N5
Table of C
NOVEMBER 2012
POWER MACHINES N5
(8190035)
15 November 2012 (X-Paper)

09:00 – 12:00
REQUIREMENTS:
Candidates will require drawing instruments, pens and a

ruler.
This question paper consists of 6 pages and a 3-page formula sheet.

168
Power Machines N5

POWER MACHINES N5
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
3. Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.

___________________________________________________________________

169
Power Machines N5
QUESTION 1:
1.1 What is meant by the specific heat capacity of an object? (2)
1.2 What is the purpose of governors? (2)
1.3 Name TWO types of steam turbines. (2)
1.4 What is the purpose of an Orsat apparatus? (2)
1.5 Name TWO types of steam boilers. (2)

[10]
QUESTION 2:
0,6 kg of a gas is at a pressure of 1 ,5 MPa and a temperature of 300 ºC.

This gas is expanded reversibly and politropically to a pressure of 150
kPa. The following data is applicable to this gas:
- Index of expansion = 1,24

- Gas constant= 0,287 kJ/kg.K
- Specific heat capacity at constant pressure= 1,005 kJ/kg.K
2.1 The temperature of the gas after expansion (3)
2.2 The work done (5)
2.3 The heat flow (4)
2.4 The change in entropy during the expansion for 1 kg of steam (3)
[15]
QUESTION 3:
4 637,5 kJ of heat is dissipated from 1,75 kilograms of wet steam which is

at a pressure of 2 000 kPa. The supply water which is used to form the
steam enters the evaporator at 26,5 ºC. The wet steam is then
superheated to 350 °C. The specific heat capacity of the water is 4 187
J/kg. K.
3.1 The dryness fraction of the wet steam (7)
3.2 The change in enthalpy from wet steam to superheated steam for 1 kg of (3)
steam

170
Power Machines N5
3.3 The increase in the specific volume of the steam for 1 kg of steam (5)
[15]
QUESTION 4:
10 800 kg of steam is generated every hour in a steam plant which

consists of an evaporator, superheater and an economiser. The feed water
enters the economiser at 29 ºC and the evaporator at 72 ºC. The steam
which leaves the evaporator is 50% wet. The pressure and temperature of
the superheated steam is 3 000 kPa and 250 ºC. Coal, which has a heat
value of 35 MJ/kg, is used at a rate of 15 kg/min.
Calculate the following for 1 kg of fuel:
4.1 The quantity of heat transferred to the water in the economiser (4)
4.2 The quantity of heat transferred to the water in the evaporator (4)
4.3 The quantity of heat transferred to the water in the superheater (3)
4.4 The efficiency of the steam plant (2)
4.5 The equivalent evaporation from and at 100 ºC (2)

[15]
QUESTION 5:
5.1 A certain sample of fuel contains the following elements by mass:
- Oxygen 3,7%
- Hydrogen 9,2%
- Carbon 84,6%
- Sulphur 2,5%
The calorific value of sulphur, carbon and hydrogen is 9,5 MJ/kg, 35

MJ/kg and 145 MJ/kg respectively. The partial pressure of the steam is
6,5 kPa in the exhaust gases.
5.1.1 The higher calorific value of the fuel (4)
5.1.2 The lower calorific value of the fuel (4)
5.2 A fuel was tested, using a bomb calorimeter, and the following data was
recorded:
- Mass of fuel used 0,73 g

- Water equivalent of the bomb 50 g
- Mass of the water in the calorimeter 2,5 kg

171
Power Machines N5
- Minimum temperature of the water 24,767ºC

- Maximum temperature of the water 28,482ºC
- The quantity of hydrogen in the fuel 15,4%
- The partial pressure of the steam in the exhaust gases 5,5 kPa
- The specific heat capacity of water 4,187 kJ/kg.ºC
5.2.1 The higher calorific value of the fuel in MJ (4)
5.2.2 The lower calorific value of the fuel in MJ (3)

[15]
QUESTION 6:
0,04 m% of air is drawn into a single-acting, single-cylinder, reciprocating

air compressor, at a pressure of 105 kPa. The air is then delivered to an
air receiver at a pressure of 625 kPa, according to the law PV1,32 = C. The
compressor has a mechanical efficiency of 82% and a motor transmission
efficiency of 88%. The stroke to bore ratio is 1,4 to 1 and the compressor
runs at 8 r/s.
6.1 The diameter of the piston (6)
6.2 The indicated power (3)
6.3 The shaft power (3)
6.4 The power of the electric motor required to drive the compressor (3)
[15]
QUESTION 7:
The nozzles of an impulse turbine supply 5 kg of gas at an angle of 19°,

every second. The gas leaves the nozzle at a speed of 1 000 m/s. The
mean blade speed is 475 m/s and the outlet angle of the moving blades is
23°. There is a 9,5% frictional loss in the relative part of the blades.
7.1 Use a scale of 1 mm = 5 m/s and construct a velocity diagram in the (5)
ANSWER BOOK (landscape) and insert ALL the values (m/s) on the
diagram.
7.2 Determine the following from the diagram:
7.2.1 The inlet angle of the moving blade (2)

172
Power Machines N5
7.2.2 The exit angle of the gas (2)
7.2.3 The driving force on the wheel in kN (2)
7.2.4 The axial thrust on the wheel in N (2)
7.2.5 The power developed by the turbine in MW (2)

[15]
TOTAL: 100

173
Power Machines N5

174
Power Machines N5

175
Power Machines N5

176
Power Machines N5
Marking Guidelines
NOVEMBER 2012
POWER MACHINES N5
(8190035)
15 November 2012 (X-Paper)

09:00 – 12:00

177
Power Machines N5

178
Power Machines N5

179
Power Machines N5

180
Power Machines N5

181
Power Machines N5

182
Power Machines N5

183
Power Machines N5

184
Power Machines N5

185
Power Machines N5

186

Power Machines N5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Machines N5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Machines N5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Machines N5

1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 29

Gateways to Engineering Studies

2.3.3 Oil firing ........................................................................................................................................ 39

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 54

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 69

Gateways to Engineering Studies

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 88

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 101

Gateways to Engineering Studies

6.4.3 Porter governor........................................................................................................................ 113

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 122

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Icons used in this book

Icon Description Icon Description

Assessment / Activity Multimedia

Demonstration/ observation Presentation/ Lecture

Did you know? Read

Experiment Site visit

Group work/ discussions, role-

Keywords Think about it

Gateways to Engineering Studies

 Describe the laws of thermodynamics

Since temperature and air pressure vary from place to place it is

1.1.1 Absolute temperature

Absolute temperature is measured in Kelvin ( K ), where:

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.1.2 Standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P.)

1.1.3 Normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P.)

1.1.4 Standard atmosphere (ICAO)

1.1.5 Heating and expansion of gasses

Temperature is a function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a gas.

The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the

1.1.6 Specific heat

Definition: Specific heat

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.2 Thermodynamic laws

Looking at the formula above:

1.2.2 Clausius’ theory

1.2.3 Boyle’s law

Note: A modern statement of Boyle's law is:

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Boyle's law can be stated as:

1.2.4 Charles’ law

A modern statement of Charles' law is:

This directly proportional relationship can be written as:

Figure 1.1 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law on a PV diagram

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Equating (1) and (2):

When the mass of the gas is considered:

This is the characteristic equation for a perfect gas.

1.2.5 Specific heat capacity of a gas

Specific heat capacity at constant volume ( Cv )

Specific heat capacity at constant pressure ( Cp )

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Worked Example 1.1

Find the new volume of the gas.

Worked Example 1.2

Worked Example 1.3