CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

People are often surprised about what can be produced on the small plots and acreages

found in cities. In Nigeria, agriculture was primarily a rural based activity. But, because of the

increasing demand for food and jobs for many urban dwellers, it became necessary for urban

households to embark on urban agriculture (UA) as a means of filling the food demand and

supply gap and providing income for other households’ requirements. In addition, the practice of

urban agriculture has continued to increase in recent years with the structural adjustment of the

Nigerian economy around 1986. The rise in food price, un- employment and inflation brought by

the structural adjustment (World Bank, 1990) and the decline in the average real income of both

rural and urban household have compelled many urban dwellers into farming in the urban areas.

According to Smit et al. (1996), UA can be defined as “an industry that produces, process

and markets food and fuel, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers within a town,

city or metropolis, on land and water dispersed throughout the urban and peri-urban area,

applying intensive production methods, using and reusing natural resources and urban wastes, to

yield a diversity of crops and livestock.

Urban agriculture (UA) plays a key role in food security and is found in smart cities,

which are a phenomenon closely related to urban economies, culture, science, and technology;

urban agriculture indicates that a city's economic development has reached a higher level.

Compared with other agricultural practices, urban agriculture makes intensive use of capital,

facilities, technology, and labor. It is also an industrialized, market-oriented agriculture, and can

1
take advantage of the developed markets, information and transportation networks of

international cities to boost agricultural production and interregional trade.

Urban agriculture (UA) refers to agricultural practices in urban areas and their

surrounding regions (peri-urban), and is a centralized operation involving horticulture, animal

husbandry, aquaculture, and other practices for producing fresh food or other agricultural

products. There are many different approaches to urban agriculture, including ground-level

farming, rooftop farming, hydroponics, greenhouses and other new technologies (De Zeeuw,

2011). Urban agriculture has the potential to produce food for local consumption, especially

perishables and high-value horticultural crops. Also, there is increasing interest in commercial-

scale cultivation of nonfood crops in urban areas, such as flowers, green walls, and the like.

Urban agriculture provides many benefits, including food security for people in the city, a

reduction of energy used in conventional agricultural practices and food service, a reduction of

carbon footprints, and environmental services for cities in terms of providing open green space.

All over the world, people are turning unused lots, back yards, and even rooftops into gardens.

Imagine if this movement could grow so massive that cities would no longer have to depend on

rural and suburban agriculture to produce food for their own citizens. Unfortunately, like the two

sides of a coin, there are always pros and cons. Some of these problems are lack of open green

space, soil contamination, pest management, water availability, high production costs, changes in

climate and atmospheric conditions among many others.

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1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Research

1.2.1 Aim

The study aims to understand the operational practice of urban farming in Ile-Ife with a view of

integrating them into urban planning

1.2.2 Objectives

The objectives of this research are as follows:

1. To identify where urban agriculture are practiced in Ile-Ife, Osun;

2. To know the operational practices of urban agriculture;

3. To identify the challenges faced in the urban agriculture sector;

4. To understand how residents perceive it.

1.3 Limitation of Study

Financial constraint– Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in

sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection

(internet, questionnaire and interview).

Time constraint– The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic

work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

1.4 Study Area

The study area, Ile-Ife is an ancient town in South Western Nigeria about 218 kilometers

Northeast of Lagos with a population of about 755,260 persons. Ile-Ife covers a total land mass

of 1,791 km2. Geographically, the study area lies within latitudes 7º28’ N and 7º46’ N, and

longitudes 4º36’ E and 4º56’ E (Fig. 1).

3
Fig. 1. Location of the study area, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria
(Source: Digital archives of the Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife)

1.5 Justification
The purpose of the study is to enhance knowledge about the operation of urban farming
enterprises in Ile-Ife and to guide the adoption and integration of similar operations in the
planning of towns. This way, understanding how urban farming works in this particular setting is
vital in demonstrating its applicability for the betterment of the community for urban planning
and design. That is why, integrating urban agriculture into city planning will improve food
availability, food security, promote responsible use of resources as well as an overall human
quality of live in cities. However, the knowledge from this study on urban agriculture offers
numerous benefits that extend beyond food production, making it a vital area of study for
improving city life

4
 CHAPTER ONE
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 PREAMBLE
The first geographical account of urban agriculture was published on central Africa in 1960s,

scattered and isolated survey by individuals like Egziabher et. al., (1994) have giving way to

institutional projects. Generally, several studies have been carried out on urban agriculture in all

ramification but literatures on studies in Nigeria are almost none existent. The classifications of

UA production systems are many in literature. Some studies have focused on specific categories

such as production systems based at home (Chauca,1999), and at open space locations (Freeman

1991 and ENDA-ZW,1997).

2.2 CONCEPT AND CURRENT TREND

Urban agriculture may be defined in simple term as the growing, processing and distribution of

food and other products through intensive plant cultivation and animal husbandry in and around

cities. It is integrated into the local urban economic and ecological system. Many stakeholders

are involved in UA but some carry it out in bigger ways than others. However, most urban

farmers are low-income men and women who grow food largely for self-consumption and cash

income, on small plots that they do not own, with little if any support or protection (FAO, 1996

and 1999).

Most definitions refer to production phase of agriculture; recent definitions add processing and

trade to production and stress interaction between them. Conceptually, urban agriculture is

complementary to rural agriculture; it is integrated into the local urban economic and ecological

system. The term was originally used only by scholars and media, but now been adopted by even

5
international agencies like the UN agencies such as the UNDP (Smit et al., 1996 and FAO, 1996

and 1999). Smith et. al., (1996) claims that an estimated 800 million people are engaged in UA

worldwide; of these, 200 million are market producers, employing 150 million people full time.

Despite limited support and heavy losses, UA is generating produce valued in the tens of

millions of US Dollars, year in year out, in major LDC’s urban centres (Mougeut, 2000).

According to Mougeut, (2000), a definition which takes into account the use of resources is

defined by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as “an industry that produces,

processes and markets food and fuel, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers

within a town, city, or metropolis, on land and water dispersed throughout the urban and peri

urban areas, applying intensive of crops and livestock”.

Sustainable urban agriculture is an essential tool that addresses a city’s problems in innovative

ways. Purchasing food that is locally grown decreases energy needs and cost associated with

long distance travel and refrigeration. Economic development and community revitalization are

achieved when neighborhoods take pride in a community garden, when inner-city residents gain

the ability to grow and market their own food, and when inner-city farmers’ markets provide new

opportunities for entrepreneurs and commercial farmers. Individual health and a sense of

empowerment is enhanced when urban dwellers have access to a greater control over their own

food system. The city’s residents can benefit from cleaner air, lower summer temperatures and

recycles water and trash. As the urban population grows, so too, is the complexity of how to feed

people who are so far removed from the actual production of foods. The sheer tonnage of food

that must be transported daily to supply a city’s residents is stunning. Fruits and vegetables

shipped from distant states and countries can spend as many as seven to fourteen days in transit

before arriving in the supermarkets (Mougeot, 1994).

6
The first French geographical account of urban agriculture was published on central Africa in

1960s, scattered and isolated survey by individuals like Egziabher et. al., (1994) have giving way

to institutional projects. Generally, several studies have been carried out on urban agriculture in

all ramification but literatures on studies in Nigeria are almost none existent. The classifications

of UA production systems are many in literature. Some studies have focused on specific

categories such as production systems based at home (Chauca,1999), and at open space locations

(Freeman 1991 and ENDA-ZW,1997). 3 Urban agriculture may be defined in simple term as the

growing, processing and distribution of food and other products through intensive plant

cultivation and animal husbandry in and around cities. It is integrated into the local urban

economic and ecological system. Many stakeholders are involved in UA but some carry it out in

bigger ways than others. However, most urban farmers are low-income men and women who

grow food largely for self-consumption and cash income, on small plots that they do not own,

with little if any support or protection (FAO, 1996 and 1999).

Most definitions refer to production phase of agriculture; recent definitions add processing and

trade to production and stress interaction between them. Conceptually, urban agriculture is

complementary to rural agriculture; it is integrated into the local urban economic and ecological

system. The term was originally used only by scholars and media, but now been adopted by even

international agencies like the UN agencies such as the UNDP (Smit et al., 1996 and FAO, 1996

and 1999). Smith et. al., (1996) claims that an estimated 800 million people are engaged in UA

worldwide; of these, 200 million are market producers, employing 150 million people full time.

Despite limited support and heavy losses, UA is generating produce valued in the tens of millions

of US Dollars, year in year out, in major LDC’s urban centres (Mougeut, 2000).

7
According to Mougeut, (2000), a definition which takes into account the use of resources is

defined by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as “an industry that produces,

processes and markets food and fuel, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers

within a town, city, or metropolis, on land and water dispersed throughout the urban and peri

urban areas, applying intensive of crops and livestock”. Sustainable urban agriculture is an

essential tool that addresses a city’s problems in innovative ways. Purchasing food that is locally

grown decreases energy needs and cost associated with long distance travel and refrigeration.

Economic development and community revitalization are achieved when neighborhoods take

pride in a community garden, when inner-city residents gain the ability to grow and market their

own food, and when inner-city farmers’ markets provide new opportunities for entrepreneurs and

commercial farmers. Individual health and a sense of empowerment is enhanced when urban

dwellers have access to a greater control over their own food system. The city’s residents can

benefit from cleaner air, lower summer temperatures and recycles water and trash. As the urban

population grows, so too, is the complexity of how to feed people who are so far removed from

the actual production of foods. The sheer tonnage of food that must be transported daily to

supply a city’s residents is stunning. Fruits and vegetables shipped from distant states and

countries can spend as many as seven to fourteen days in transit before arriving in the

supermarkets (Mougeot, 1994).

2.3 TYPES OF URBAN AGRICULTURE

Urban agriculture involves various types that help grow and sustain food in cities. These parts

include:

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 Horticulture: Fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants are the

horticulture components that can be included in the urban farming. These crops can be

cultivated by different systems of cultivation.

 Livestock and poultry: Small animals and birds can be included in urban farming without

much effort. Rearing Rabbits, poultry and quail can be reared in small areas available in the

terrace or balcony of urban houses. They can be fed with the locally available resources from

the garden and their manure can be used to fertilize the plants.

 Aquaculture and fish farming: This is the practice of cultivating aquatic organisms under

controlled conditions. This can include fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants.

Essentially, it involves breeding, rearing, and harvesting aquatic species in ponds, tanks, or

ocean enclosures for food, ornamental purposes, or other commercial uses.

 Apiculture: Apiculture is the practice of beekeeping, which involves the management and

cultivation of honeybee colonies for the production of honey, beeswax, pollen, royal jelly,

and other hive products. Beekeepers, known as apiarists, tend to the needs of bee colonies,

including providing suitable housing (beehives), managing pests and diseases, and ensuring

access to food sources. The primary focus of apiculture is often on the production of honey, a

natural sweetener and food source produced by bees from flower nectar. However, other hive

products like beeswax (used in candles, cosmetics, and polishes), pollen (collected by bees as

Sa protein source), and royal jelly (a substance produced by worker bees to feed larvae and

queen bees) are also valuable commodities in apiculture.

2.4 IMPORTANCE OF URBAN AGRICULTURE

9
1. Food security and accessibility: Urban agriculture reduces reliance on distant food sources,

making cities more resilient to disruptions in the global food supply chain. By producing food

locally, urban areas can ensure a more stable food supply, especially in times of crisis.

Additionally, it increases access to fresh and nutritious produce, particularly in food deserts

where residents have limited access to grocery stores.

2. Environmental sustainability: One of the most significant benefits of urban agriculture is its

positive impact on the environment. Green spaces created by urban farms help mitigate the urban

heat island effect by reducing surface temperatures and increasing evaporative cooling.

Furthermore, urban agriculture promotes biodiversity by providing habitats for pollinators and

other beneficial insects. Additionally, it contributes to carbon sequestration and improves air

quality by absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen.

3. Land use efficiency: Integrating agriculture into urban land use optimizes the use of available

space, especially in densely populated cities where land is limited and expensive. By repurposing

vacant lots, rooftops, and other underutilized spaces for farming, cities can maximize their

productive capacity and reduce urban sprawl. This also helps preserve agricultural land on the

outskirts of cities, preventing further encroachment into natural habitats and agricultural

landscapes.

4. Community engagement and education: Urban agriculture fosters community engagement

by bringing people together around a shared activity. Community gardens and urban farms serve

as gathering spaces where residents can connect with nature, learn about sustainable farming

practices, and share knowledge and resources. These spaces also provide opportunities for

education and skill-building, particularly for children and youth, who can learn about the

importance of healthy eating and environmental stewardship.

10
5. Economic opportunities: Urban agriculture can stimulate local economies by creating job

opportunities and supporting small-scale businesses. As urban farms grow and develop, they

generate demand for a range of goods and services, including agricultural inputs, equipment,

processing facilities, and distribution networks. Additionally, urban agriculture can be a source

of income for entrepreneurs who sell produce directly to consumers through farmers’ markets,

community-supported agriculture (CSA) programs, or local restaurants and grocery stores.

6. Resilience and adaptation to climate change: With climate change posing increasing threats

to food security and environmental stability, urban agriculture offers a way for cities to adapt and

build resilience. By diversifying food production systems and adopting climate-smart

agricultural practices, urban farmers can better withstand extreme weather events, water

shortages, and other climate-related challenges. Moreover, urban agriculture can contribute to

climate change mitigation efforts by sequestering carbon in soils and reducing greenhouse gas

emissions associated with long-distance food transportation.

Orsini F and D’Ostuni M (2022) The Important Roles of Urban Agriculture. Front. Young

Minds. 10:701688. doi: 10.3389/frym.2022.701688

2.5 PRACTICES OF URBAN AGRICULTURE

Time Spent

Farmers often spent less time on the farm or do not go to farm when the rains set in. Time spent

on the farm depends on the work for the day, the size of the farm, the labouers available, and

farmer’s involvement in other work aside farming. These reasons also correspond with time

spent on irrigation. Farmers of higher education do not spend a lot of time on the farm a day.

This may be due to their knowledge of the risk involved in overworking the human body.

11
If farmers continue this practice in old age and new farmers enter this business as anticipated,

space for urban farming will be highly limited especially so when land is being rapidly

developed.

Fertiliser and Pesticide Application

Fertiliser adds nutrients to the soil for high yields of vegetables, improves the soil structure and

water-retention capacity within the root zone, increases aeration of the rooting medium, lowers

bulk density, and holds major nutrients like nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Martin et al.,

2006 ; Williams et al., 1991). Fertilisers applied by at least every farmer were either organic,

inorganic, sor both. Organic fertiliser usually was predominant is poultry manure; which was

also the most predominant fertiliser used by farmers because it is relatively cheap and easy to

acquire. This confirms what was reported by Keraita et al. (2008) that poultry manure is

predominantly used in Kumasi by urban agricultural farmers. Inorganic fertiliser, on the other

hand, used, was predominantly N-P-K, 15-15-15. Inorganic fertilisers were often used by farmers

cultivating cabbages and aubergines (garden eggs). Farmers using both types of fertiliser were

into mixed.

Some pesticides used by farmers on KNUST campus and their active ingredients

farmers who were advanced in age frequently applied pesticide than the youth as detected in

their significance (α = 0.002). This may be due to the consciousness and perception of the youth

on the risk of frequent usage of pesticide. Also, statistical significance (p ≤0.05 ; α = 0.002)

existed between years of cultivation and pesticide application. Statistical significance (α = 0.028)

shows that farmers who were new in the practice frequently applied pesticide. They may

12
probably not be able to differentiate between diseased and pest-infected vegetables and none

infected ones.

Irrigation Practices

Sources of water used by farmers for irrigation included shallow wells, stream, and shallow wells

mixed with contaminated stream. For farmers supplementing their shallow wells with

wastewater, wastewater provided reliable water supply because flow is relatively continuous.

These farmers have channelled the wastewater (stream) into their shallow wells. Irrigation is

predominantly carried out using watering cans which is manual overhead irrigation method

(Obuobie et al., 2006). Irrigation often started as early as 5am (often the reporting time to work).

Though majorly irrigation may be once a day, others preferred twice. Irrigation often takes 40 –

62 % of the time farmers spent on the farm. Drechsel et al. (2006a) reported 40 – 75 % as time

spent by farmers in Kumasi on irrigation.

Nana O.B. Ackerson and Esi Awuah, “Urban Agriculture Practices and Health Problems among

Farmers Operating on a University Campus in Kumasi, Ghana”, Field Actions Science Reports

[Online], Special Issue 1 | 2010, Online since 09 June 2010, connection on 27 May 2024. URL:

http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/451

2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS OF URBAN AGRICULTURE

• Limited Space: One of the primary challenges of urban agriculture is limited space. Urban

areas are often densely populated, leaving little room for agricultural activities. Finding suitable

land for urban agriculture can be a significant barrier, especially in low-income neighborhoods

where land ownership may be limited.

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• Contaminated Soil: Urban soils can be contaminated with a variety of pollutants, including

heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals. Soil contamination can pose health risks for

both farmers and consumers, making it essential to test soil before planting and to take

appropriate measures to remediate contaminated soils.

• Limited Access to Resources: Urban agriculture may face limited access to resources,

including water, seeds, and other inputs. In many urban areas, water is a scarce resource, and

farmers may face restrictions on water use. Access to high-quality seeds and inputs can also be

limited, which can reduce crop yields and quality.

• Permitting and Regulations: Urban agriculture may also face regulatory barriers, including

zoning laws, health codes, and food safety regulations. These regulations can limit the types of

crops and animals that can be grown in urban areas and can create additional costs for farmers.

D.B. Freeman A city of Farmers: Urban agriculture—Kenya (1991) Cities feeding people: An

examination of urban agriculture in East Africa(1994) J.P. Madden et al. For All Generations:

Making World Agriculture More Sustainable (1997)

2.7 INTEGRATION OF URBAN AGRICULTURE INTO URBAN PLANNING

A fundamental step in order to set the right conditions for city farming is to develop an urban

agriculture plan and policy, recognising the interrelated nature of food, agriculture, health and

ecology by forming a municipal working group that can deal with food issues from a total system

perspective. This could involve, among others: the health department, planning department,

engineering, local economic development, water management and waste management. Following

this, the urban agriculture plan should be incorporated into the landuse planning system. This

implies that urban agricultural activities are recognised as major components of green zoning

14
systems, for which a dedicated policy must be formulated, developed and implemented”.

(Deelstra, Tjeerd and Herbert Girardet .1999)

Sustainable Urban Development

The discussion on sustainable development is mainly based on the 1992 UN Rio Conference and

includes urban areas. This has resulted in various programmes for sustainable urban development

like HABITAT and the Urban Management Programme (UMP). The international justification

for the integration of agriculture into urban planning is laid down in the 1992 Rio Conference

and the Local Agenda 21. Especially the land tenure aspects in poverty alleviation and the gender

perspectives of sustainable development are developed in some detail.

New Urbanism and the Urban Greening concept

The goal of “New Urbanism” is to reverse the trend of "urban sprawl" by learning from

traditional urban development patterns and thereby preserving open spaces for natural habitats,

active recreation, and productive agriculture, (Mclaughlin, Richard, 1997). While urban greening

is often understood as the re-establishment of trees in cities e.g. to reduce heat island effects and

to improve the urban microclimate, a more comprehensive understanding of the concept needs to

incorporate urban agriculture

Planners’ Support to Urban food production

The little information available on the thinking of urban planners with respect to urban

agriculture identifies at least some key issue felt to be important to them (Pothukuchi,

Kameshwari & Jerome L. Kaufman 2000), (van den Berg, Leo 2000), (Quon, Soonya, 1999).

15
• The preservation of agricultural land,

• Changing land use and zoning related to food access,

• The integration of food issues into economic development activities and

• The mitigation of the environmental impacts of the food system.

The World Bank recently tackled the question of urban agriculture within the discussion on

urban poverty. Urban agriculture can be supported with respect to planning by Baharoglu

(Kessides, Deniz & Christine, 2000):

REFERENCES

Chauca de Zaldirvar L. (1999). Proyecto Sistemas De Produccion Familiar Crianza De Cuyes

(Peru) – IDRC 93-0028. Paper Presented at IDRC Cities Feeding People Workshop on

Investigando El Desarrollo De La Agricultural Urbana En La America Latina Yel Caribe:

Balance y Optimizacion De Impactos De Proyectos (IDRC FLACSO/Alternativas Para El

Desarrollo), San Jose De Costa Rica. May, 1999.

De Zeeuw, H. 2011. Cities, climate change and urban agriculture.

Egziabber, A., Memon P. A, Mougeot L, Lee-Smith D, Maxwell D & Sawio C.(1994). Cities

Feeding People: An Examination of Urban Agriculture in East Africa. Ottawa: IDRC.

Mougeot, L. J. A. (1999). For Self-Reliance Cities: Urban Food Production in a Globalizing

South. In: Koc M, MacRae. R. Mougeot, L.J.A and Welsj, J. (Eds.). For Hunger-Proof Cities:

Sustaining Urban Food Systems (Ottawa: IDRC). pp11-25.

Smit, J. Nasr, J & Rattu, A. (1996). Urban Agriculture: A Neglected Resource for Food, Jobs and

Sustainable Cities. New York: UNDO.

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United Nations [UN], 2019. Global Issues: Population. https://www.un.org/en/globa

l-issues/population.

World development report. 1990, International capital and economic development. Oxford

University Press.

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