BUILDING MATERIALS

Module 1 Lecture 2
Wood and Wood Properties
The use of wood extends back in time
longer than any other material. In fact, An entire theory of architecture
is encapsulated in this simple question.
wood represents both the original material
of building as well as the earliest source
of energy. Once abundant it is now, for TO USE THE WOOD TO BUILD A SMALL
the most part, a managed resource. SHELTER OR AS FIREWOOD FOR A BONFIRE
INTRODUCTION
What Is Wood?
 A material cut from a complex
living organism, called trees.
 Fibrous substance that lies
between the pith and bark that
composes the trunk and
branches of a tree.
 Grows in concentric layers
around the trunk, limbs, roots,
and other woody parts of the
tree.
ADVANTAGES OF WOOD AS A
BUILDING MATERIAL
 Wood is one of the most environmentally friendly materials
available - renewable, biodegradable, non-toxic, energy
efficient and greenhouse gas friendly. All other major
construction materials are finite. Trees can be cut down
and replanted.
 Wood can be recycled and when it reaches the end of its
life, it can be disposed of with minimal impact to the
environment because of its non-toxic nature.
 Wood is one of the best insulation materials.
o 5 times better as an insulator than concrete
o 400 times better than steel
o 1,770 times better than aluminum
 Extremely versatile and beautiful, wood is one of the oldest
and most natural construction materials known to man.
 Weight for weight, wood has probably the best engineering
properties of any material due to the microscopic layout of
its cells and cell walls - ingeniously arranged to provide a
living structure that combines both strength and flexibility.
 STRUCTURE AND GROWTH
 Wood is made up of many hollow cells held  The microfibrils are arranged in separate differently
together by natural substances (cellulose, oriented layers. The changing orientation of layers
hemicellulose, lignin, water, and extractives). within the structure gives the wood cells better
 The high strength of wood is derived primarily strength in more directions. The wood structure,
from its structure at the microscopic level. however, is still considered to be very anisotropic.
o Wood is composed of long cells in the axial
direction, and thin cells in the radial and
tangential directions.
 The size, shape, and arrangement of these cells
determine the strength, weight, and other
properties of wood.
 The smallest microstructural component of wood
is called a microfibril.
 Microfibrils are bundles of cellulose chains
covered first by hemicellulose and then by lignin.
 The pith - the spongy center of
a tree - is formed during the first
year of growth and becomes a
storage area for impurities that
are deposited during the growth
of the tree. It contains the
youngest portion of the lumber,
called juvenile wood. Juvenile
wood is the portion of wood that
contains the first 7 to 15 growth
rings. The wood cells in this
region are not well-aligned and
are, therefore, unstable when
dry.
 Tree growth takes place in the
cambium layer, which is just
inside the protective shield of
the tree called bark.
 The tree’s roots absorb water
that passes upward through the
sapwood to the leaves, where
it is combined with carbon
dioxide from the air. Sunlight
causes these materials to
change into food, which is then
carried down and distributed
toward the center of the trunk
through the medullary rays.
 As the tree grows outward from
the pith (center), the inner cells
become inactive and turn into
heartwood. This older section
is the central part of the tree
and usually is darker in color
and more durable than
sapwood. The center of the
tree has also been sought often
for fence posts due to the
resistance to rot.
 A tree grows each year by
adding new layers to its trunk.
In summer, tree growth is
slower and the wood is darker
and denser, forming distinct
rings. Because these rings are
formed each year, , they are
called annular rings.
 By counting the dark rings, the
age of a tree can be
determined. By studying the
width of the rings, periods of
abundant rainfall and sunshine
or periods of slow growth can
be discerned.
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
WOOD
 Angiosperms are flowering plants and their seeds are encased in a
protective ovary. This division contains the larger number of species
can be further subdivided into dicots and monocots.
 Dicots have two seed leaf structures and include many broadleaf
trees. Monocots have one seed leaf structure and include species
such as the palm.
 Gymnosperms, on the other hand, do not produce flowers. Their
seeds have structures such as cones, rather than a protective
ovary. Conifers (needle-leaf trees) are a major group of
gymnosperms.
WOOD CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CELL
STRUCTURE
 Open-grained wood has large,
open-ended cells that show tiny
openings or pores in the
surface.
 To obtain a smooth finish, these
pores must be filled with wood
filler paste. Examples of this
type are oak, mahogany and
walnut.
 Angiosperms are open-grained
wood.
 Close-grained wood have many
thin tubes called tracheids.
 These are lined up longitudinally in
the wood. Each tracheid is a closed
unit which joins to its neighbors by
tiny holes. Water must make a slow
steady journey through hundreds
and thousands of tracheids to get
from the roots to the leaves. Some
close-grained hardwoods are birch,
cherry, maple, and poplar.
 All softwoods, or Gymnosperms,
are close-grained.
 WOOD CLASSIFICATION BY MODE OF
GROWTH

 Exogenous trees grow in width by

forming a new layer of wood under the
bark.
 Endogenous trees grow by forming new
fibers within the trunk interspersed with
the old fibers.
WOOD CLASSIFICATION BY SOURCE
 Deciduous -
o means "falling off at maturity" or "tending
to fall off“ - is typically used to refer
to trees or shrubs that lose
their leaves seasonally.
o also known as broadleaf trees because
the leaves are generally larger and wider
than those of conifers.
o larger leaf size means a greater surface
area for photosynthesis, but too fragile to
withstand winter conditions. Therefore,
most deciduous trees drop their leaves
in autumn.
o Hardwood comes from these sources.
 Coniferous trees
o keep their leaves throughout the
year, shedding only the oldest
leaves. Usually these leaves are
lower down on the tree and do not
receive as much sunlight as
newly developed leaves higher
up.
o Some of the best-known
members of the conifer family are
pines, spruces, firs, and
hemlocks. The cones of the
conifers are its flowers.
o Softwood comes from these
sources.
WOOD CLASSIFICATION BY SOURCE
 The terms Hardwood and Softwood
refer primarily to the breakdown of
groups as described and not to the fact
that one group is hard and the other is
soft.
 Softwoods are more commonly used for
framing purposes, such as studs, joists,
girders, rafters, and posts.
 Hardwoods are primarily used for
interior finishes, flooring, paneling,
cabinetry, and furniture where natural
finishes are desired.
GRAIN STRUCTURE
 As the cambium grows, it generates two types of wood cells. Most of
these are long, narrow longitudinal cells that align themselves with
the axis of the trunk, limb, or root. These are what give the wood its
grain.
 The cambium also produces a smaller number of ray cells that line
up in rays extending out from the pith, perpendicular to the axis.
 TYPES OF GRAIN
Because of the way wood grows, every board has a definite
grain direction, parallel to the length of the longitudinal cells.
The grain appears differently depending on how the board is
sawed.
 When you cut a board across the grain (perpendicular to the
grain direction and the growth rings), you reveal the end
grain
 Cut wood parallel to the grain direction and tangent to the
growth rings, and you’ll see plain grain (also
called tangential or flat grain).
 Cut it parallel to the grain direction but through the radius of
the growth rings to see a quarter grain (also referred to
as radial grain).
 Both flat grain and quarter grain are sometimes called long
grain.
FIGURED WOOD GRAIN
Wood grain isn’t always straight and even. The longitudinal
and ray cells sometimes grow in unusual patterns, many of
which are strikingly beautiful. These are known as figured
grain.

A few wood species, such as white

oak, have especially prominent
rays. When quarter-sawn, these
produce silver grain.
Crotch figure, such as this walnut
crotch, is cut from the part of a tree
where the trunk divides into smaller
limbs and branches.

Curly grain occurs when the

longitudinal cells grow in waves.
This occurs in many species but is
especially striking in maple.
Bird’s eyes like those in this
maple are caused by small dimples
in the layers of cells. These are
thought to be caused by a fungus
that affects the growth of the
longitudinal cells.

Larger dimples result in quilted

figure, like the quilting in this soft
maple. This, too, is the result of a
fungus.
The longitudinal cells of certain
species, such as mahogany,
sometimes spiral around the trunk,
reversing direction every few
growth rings. This creates ribbon
figure.

Sometimes a tree produces a large

growth on the side of the trunk or a
branch. The cells seem to swirl
around each other inside these
growths. When sliced, these
produce a burl figure such as this
elm burl.
PREPARATION OF LUMBER
MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER
 When logs arrive at the sawmill, the bark is removed first. A huge
handsaw slices the log into large planks, which are passed through a
series of saws. The saws slice, edge, and trim them into various
dimensions, and the pieces become lumber.
 The long, narrow surface of a piece of lumber is called its edge; the
long, wide surface is termed as its side; its extremities are called
ends. The distance across the edge is its thickness, across its side
is its width, and from end to end is called its length. The best-
appearing side is its face side, its best-appearing edge is its face
edge.
LUMBER SURFACING
TERMS DEFINITION

S1S Surfaced one side

S2S Surfaced two sides
S4S Surfaced on all sides
S1S1E Surfaced one side, one edge
S1S2E Surfaced one side, two edges

T&G Tongue and grooved

Surfaced or dressed lumber Planed lumber having at least
one smooth side
CUTTING OF LUMBER
 A common way of cutting lumber is called the plain-sawed method,
in which the log is cut tangent to the annular rings. This method
produces a distinctive grain pattern on the wide surface. It is the
least expensive and produces greater widths. However, plain-sawed
lumber shrinks more during drying and warps easily. Plain-sawed
lumber is sometimes called slash-sawed lumber.
 Another method of cutting the log, called
quarter-sawing, produces pieces in which
the annular rings are at or almost at right
angles or perpendicular to the wide surface.
 Quarter-sawed lumber has less tendency
to warp and shrinks less and more evenly
when dried.
 This type of lumber is durable because the wear
is on the edge of the annular rings.
 Quarter-sawed lumber is
frequently used for flooring. A
distinctive and desirable grain
pattern is produced in some
wood because the lumber is
sawed along the length of the
medullary rays.
 Quarter-sawed lumber is
sometimes called vertical-grain
or edge-grain.
 Most logs are cut into a combination of plain-sawed and quarter-
sawed lumber. With computers and laser-guided equipment, the
sawyer determines how to cut the log with as little waste as possible
in the shortest amount of time to get the desired amount and the
kinds of lumber.
 On special request, a sawyer
will live saw a log for a
woodworker, gang-sawing the
entire log. (This is sometimes
called sawing through and
through.) Live sawing produces
much wider boards than other
methods, and these boards
show mostly mixed grain — flat
grain near the center of the face
and quarter grain near the
edges.
COMPARISON OF PLAIN-SAWN and
QUARTER-SAWN LUMBER SECTION
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
Although it’s constantly expanding  Wood is fairly stable along
its longitudinal direction, parallel to
and contracting, wood does not the grain. Green lumber shrinks only
move equally in all directions. 0.01 percent of its length as it dries.
 The grain structure causes it An 8-foot-long board will move only
3/32 inch.
to move differently in three  Wood moves much more across the
different directions. grain, tangent to the growth rings.
Green lumber shrinks as much as 8
percent in this direction.
 But it shrinks only half as much (4 percent)
in the radial direction, extending out from
the pith along the radius of the growth
rings. For this reason, quarter-
sawn lumber is more stable than plain-
sawn lumber. Quarter-sawn lumber is cut
radially and moves only half as much
across its width as plain-sawn lumber,
which is cut tangentially.
SEASONING OF LUMBER
 Lumber must be dried first to a suitable degree before it can be
surfaced and used.
 Green lumber, or lumber freshly-cut from a log, is heavy because
most of its weight is water. It shrinks as it dries to the same moisture
content as the surrounding air. When it shrinks, it usually warps, and
the use of it in construction results in cracked ceilings and walls,
squeaking floors, sticking doors, etc.
 Green lumber has water in the hollow part of the wood cells as well
as in the cell walls. When wood starts to dry, the water in the cell
cavities, called free water, is first removed. When all of the free
water is gone, the wood has reached its fiber saturation point.
 Green lumber is also subject to decay caused by fungi. A decay
commonly known as dry rot is usually not found out until the lumber
has dried. Wet rot takes place sometimes in the growth of the tree
caused by water saturation.
 Lumber is either air-dried, kiln-dried, or a combination of both.
In air-drying method, also called
natural drying, the lumber is
stacked in piles with spacers
placed between each layer to
permit air to circulate through the
pile. Spacers are also intended to
prevent various insects and worms
from living in between the wood
piles. Lumber can also be piled
vertically, inclined at about 10
degrees.
 In kiln-drying, lumber is dried
in buildings called kilns, which
are like huge ovens. Kilns
provide carefully controlled
temperatures, humidity, and air
circulation to remove moisture.

 Other seasoning methods are:

– Forced air drying – fans are used to booster the circulation of air, which is a
preparatory process to kiln drying.
– Radio frequency dielectric drying – a very fast method of seasoning using
radio frequency dielectric heat. Drying through this process may only last for
24 hours as compared to that of the natural air seasoning and other methods.
THE EFFECTS OF DRYING TIMBER
When timber is dried, a number of benefits are achieved as
follows:
 greater dimensional stability with the timber less prone to distortion
and smaller shrinkage gaps in applications such as flooring.
 less susceptible to insect attack and prevention from fungal attack
provided the timber remains dry
 improved strength and stiffness properties enabling the timber to take
higher loads with less deflection.
 reduced weight making it lighter to handle better machining
characteristics providing a smoother machined surface
 acceptance of a wider range of glues and finishes
 ability to accept preservative and other treatments
MOISTURE CONTENT
 The moisture content (MC) of lumber is expressed as a percentage,
and indicates how much of the weight of a wood sample is actually
water.
 It is derived by determining the difference in the weight of a sample
before and after it has been dried and dividing that number by the dry
weight.
 Lumber used for framing and exterior finish should have an MC that
does not exceed 19 %, preferably 15 %. For interior finish, an MC of
10-12 % is recommended.
 When the moisture content of lumber reaches that of the surrounding
air (about 10-12 %), it is said to have reached its equilibrium
moisture content. At this point, lumber shrinks or swell only slightly
with changes in the moisture content of the air.
CHANGING SHAPE
The difference in tangential and radial movement has other
important consequences. Depending on how it’s cut from the
tree, a board may change shape as it dries.
 If the annual rings run side to
side in square stock, the stock
will shrink to a rectangle.
 If the rings run diagonally from
corner to corner, the stock will
become diamond-shaped.
 Round stock becomes oval as
the tangential diameter shrinks
more than the radial diameter.
 In quarter-sawn lumber, both
faces shrink equally and the
board remains flat.
 Plain-sawn lumber tends to cup
in the opposite direction of the
growth rings because the
outside face (the face farthest
from the pith) shrinks a little
faster than the inside face.
TIMBER DEFECTS
A DEFECT is an irregularity
or abnormality occurring in or
on wood which is responsible
for its:
o Strength reduction
o Lowering of durability
o Lowering of utility
o Poor appearance
o Decay
COMMON LUMBER DEFECTS
 One type of defect is called warp. Warps are caused by drying
lumber too fast, careless handling and storage, or surfacing the
lumber before it is thoroughly dry. Warps are classified as crooks,
bows, cups, and twists.
 Splits in the end of lumber running lengthwise and across the annular
rings are called checks. Checks are caused by faster drying of the
end than of the rest of the stock. Checks can be prevented to a
degree by sealing the ends of lumber with paint.
 Knots are cross-sections of branches in the trunk of a tree. They
usually occur at the starting point of a limb or branch of a wood.
Knots are not necessarily defects unless they are loose or weaken
the piece.
COMMON LUMBER DEFECTS
 Pitch pockets are small cavities that hold pitch, which sometimes
oozes out.
 A wane is bark on the edge of lumber or the surface from which the
bark has fallen.
 Pecky wood has small grooves or channels running with the grain.
They are often used as an interior wall paneling when that effect is
desired.
 Shakes are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibers of
wood. They are classified as:
o Cup shakes – caused by the rupture of tissue in a perpendicular direction
o Heart shakes – these cracks occur in the center of cross- sectional of tree and
they extend from pith to sap wood in the direction of modularly rays. These
cracks occur due to shrinkage of interior part of tree. Heart shakes divide the
tree cross sectional into two to four parts.
o Ring shakes – when cup shakes cover the entire ring, they are known as ring
shakes.
o Star shakes – are cracks which extend from bark towards the sap wood. They
are usually confined up to the place of sap wood. They are usually formed due
to extreme heat or frost.
o Radial shakes – are similar to star shakes, but they are fine, irregular and
numerous. They usually occur when tree exposed to sun for seasoning after
being felled down. They run for a short distance from bark towards the center.
o Wind shakes – If wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior
surface shrinks. Such a shrinkage results into cracks.

Cup shake Heart shake

Ring shake
Star shake

Radial shake Wind shake

PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION OF
SOFTWOOD LUMBER
 Yard lumber – comprises the material less than 5” thick used for
general building purposes. It is the lumber found most commonly in
retail lumber yards. It includes boards and sidings less than 2” thick,
flooring, laths, shingles, pickets, finishing material, planks < 4” thick,
and joists 4” or less in thickness. Studs and the common sizes of
joists and rafters are included in this classification.
 Structural material – includes lumber 5” or more in thickness and
width. Material in this group is generally referred to as timbers. In
general, structural material is used to support loads and is graded on
the basis of strength and on use of the entire piece.
 Factory and shop lumber – includes factory plank graded for doors,
sashes, and cuttings 1-1/4” or more thick and 5” or more wide. It is
used for general millwork and other industrial commodities.
PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION
THICKNESS WIDTH
(in inches) (in inches)
Board lumber 1” 2” or more
Light framing 2” to 4” 2” to 4”
Studs 2” to 4” 2” to 6”, 10 feet and
shorter
Joists and planks 2” to 4” 5” and wider
Beams and stringers 5” and thicker More than 2” greater
than thickness
Posts and timbers 5” x 5” and larger Not more than 2”
greater than thickness
Decking 2” to 4” 4” to 12” wide
Siding Thickness expressed by dimension of butt edge
Mouldings Size at the thickest and widest points
LUMBER OR TIMBER?
 Pieces of wood that are smaller than 5 inches wide by 5
inches thick (regardless of length) are generally referred to
as lumber. These pieces are machine-planed and sawn to
fit certain dimensional specifications (e.g., 2x4", 2x8", etc.)
and are primarily used in residential construction.
 Pieces of wood over 5 inches wide by 5 inches thick
(regardless of length) are referred to as timber, and any
timber pieces that exceed 8" wide by 8" thick are referred to
as beams. As timber pieces are larger in dimension, they
are often used to construct the frames of large structures
such as buildings and bridges. Timber is also commonly
utilized in large quantities for railroad ties, mine shaft
supports and crossbeams on utility poles.
COMMON MARKET FORMS OF WOOD

Log Balk

The trunk of a dead tree obtained after Balk is a roughly square-shaped piece of
removal of branches is called log. It can be timber obtained by removing the bark and
converted into any other or required form of sapwood from the timber log. The general
timber. cross-sectional dimensions of balk are greater
than 50 mm x 50 mm and its length may be
greater than 200 mm.
Board Batten

A timber is called board when its thickness is Batten is a piece of timber which is
less than 50 mm and breadth is greater than rectangular in its cross-section. Its thickness
150 mm. lies between 50 to 100 mm and breadth
varies from 125 mm to 175 mm.
Plank Pole

A plank is a piece of timber whose thickness is A pole is a round-shaped long piece of timber.
less than 50 mm and breadth is greater than The maximum diameter of a pole is about 200
50 mm. mm. It is also called as a spar.
BOARD MEASURE
 A method of purchasing lumber is by specifying the total number of
board foot. A board foot is a measure of lumber volume. It is
defined as the volume of wood equal to a piece of wood measuring
1” thick by 1’ wide by 1’ long.
 It is derived by multiplying the number of pieces of lumber by the
thickness in inches by the width in inches by the length in feet and
divided by 12.
REMEMBER THIS!