water

Article
A Study on the Optimal Speed Ratio of Rotating Annular Flume
Based on the OpenFOAM Simulation
Sijin Chen 1,2 , Zhonglian Jiang 1,2, * , Shijun Chen 1,3, *, Zhen Yu 4 and Hui Sun 5

1 State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430063, China; 333055@whut.edu.cn
2 National Engineering Research Center for Water Transport Safety, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430063, China
3 Zhejiang Scientific Research Institute of Transport, Hangzhou 311305, China
4 Changjiang Waterway Institute of Planning and Design, Wuhan 430040, China; chingyue@yeah.net
5 Three Gorges Navigation Authority, Yichang 443000, China; kent114514@hotmail.com
* Correspondence: z.jiang@whut.edu.cn (Z.J.); shijun27@126.com (S.C.)

Abstract: The rotating annular flume has been widely adopted to generate quasi-steady and uniform
flow, thus serving for the investigation of sediment motion characteristics. This complex flow
structure is significantly associated with the rotational speed ratio. The present study aims to explore
the optimal speed ratio based on the OpenFOAM simulation. In this paper, the physical properties
of a rotating annular flume with different speed ratios are investigated and analyzed in terms of
bottom shear stress, turbulent velocity ratio, cross-sectional secondary flow, and vector field by
interFoam, a built-in solver of the open-source CFD program OpenFOAM. The RNG k-epsilon model
has been adopted to solve multiphase flow problems. The results demonstrate that the optimal speed
ratio differs with the specific evaluation criterion. Given the uniform distribution of bottom shear
stress, the turbulence velocity ratio, and the minimum secondary flow as the evaluation criteria, the
corresponding optimal speed ratios are determined as 1.2, 1.7, and 1.7, respectively. The conclusion
is generally consistent with the results derived by other scholars. Computational fluid dynamics
programs have been proven as practical tools for investigating complex hydrodynamic characteristics.
The present study shares useful insights into the optimal rotational speed ratio of a rotating annular
flume. The OpenFOAM-based numerical model will provide guidance for experimental research
Citation: Chen, S.; Jiang, Z.; Chen, S.;
Yu, Z.; Sun, H. A Study on the
using rotating annular flumes.
Optimal Speed Ratio of Rotating
Annular Flume Based on the Keywords: rotating annular flume; optimal speed ratio; OpenFOAM; secondary flow
OpenFOAM Simulation. Water 2024,
16, 2354. https://doi.org/10.3390/
w16162354
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Roberto Gaudio
The annular flume is one of the most important experimental facilities for studying hy-
Received: 18 July 2024 drodynamic conditions and sediment movement characteristics. By adjusting the rotational
Revised: 19 August 2024 speed ratio of the flume, a quasi-steady and uniform flow field distribution can be obtained.
Accepted: 21 August 2024
However, due to the special structure and operational principles of the annular flume,
Published: 22 August 2024
a cross-sectional secondary flow occurs, which presents a great impact on the dynamic
processes of sediment initiation, settling, and flocculation. Therefore, the rotational speed
ratio adjusting strategy has been widely adopted to minimize the secondary flow and
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
facilitate the relevant studies [1]. The application of a rotating annular flume on sediment
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
motion characteristics was initially started in the 1980s. Experimental studies on different
This article is an open access article research topics were carried out by related institutes, including the Tianjin Institute of Water
distributed under the terms and Transport Engineering [2], Hohai University [3], Hangzhou University [4], the University
conditions of the Creative Commons of Palermo [5], the University of Plymouth [6], etc.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// So far, the rotating annular flume has been widely utilized in various research fields.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Tong et al. [7] used a two-way annular flume to simulate the dynamic process of water
4.0/). level and flow velocity variations and explored the characteristics of the secondary release

Water 2024, 16, 2354. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162354 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2024, 16, 2354 2 of 12

of nitrogen from bed load in Lake Dongting. Baar et al. [8] used the annular flume to
reveal the effect of lateral riverbed slope under riverbed flow conditions and analyzed the
influence of various parameters on the lateral slope. Chen et al. [9] investigated the impact
of bottom-bed chalk content on the scour characteristics of chalk-and-sand mixed beds
based on experiments in an annular flume and highlighted the correlation between the bed
load concentration and bottom shear stress.
With the aid of a rotating annular flume, a lot of research has been carried out on the
mechanism of sediment movement. Li et al. [10] investigated the initiation, erosion, and
deposition processes of viscous sediment using an annular flume. Zhou et al. [11] obtained
the relationship between sediment deposition rate, sediment particle size, sediment concen-
tration, and salinity through rotating annular flume experiments. Cloutier et al. [12] studied
the impact of suspended sediment concentration (SSC) on fluid turbulence in an annular
flume and explored the threshold SSC values. Wang et al. [13] collected sediment samples
from the Jiangsu coast of China and reported the relationship between bed shear stress
and suspended sediment concentration based on flume experiments. Neumeier et al. [14]
introduced biological entities into the annular flume to reveal the impact of biota on the
erosion of sediment beds. Thompson et al. [15] conducted sediment stability experiments
in UK coastal waters and demonstrated the reliability and capability of the annular flume.
The annular flume has also been applied in studies of wave generation. Toffoli
et al. [16] introduced the rotating annular flume to simulate an infinitely long straight
flume; thus, the mechanism of wind force on rogue wave generation was thoroughly
investigated, and useful insights into environmental management were provided. In
another study, Gharabaghi et al. [17] applied the computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
model Fluent to study the turbulent flow characteristics in a rotating circular flume at
the National Water Research Institute (NWRI) in Burlington, Ontario. To improve the
understanding of clayey sediment transport processes in riverine and lake environments,
Gardner et al. [18] experimentally evaluated the phase wetting mechanism of oil–water flow
and justified the effectiveness of the annular flume. Hong et al. [19] designed a cone–plate
annular flume and explored the motion patterns of non-viscous homogeneous particles
in laminar flow with the aid of CCD imaging and particle image velocimetry. Moreover,
Huang et al. [20] explored the correlation between sediment concentration and bed shear
stress through rotating annular flume experiments of sediment samples from the Yangtze
River estuary, China.
The rotating annular flume consists of a shear ring and a rotating flume, and the appa-
ratus is driven by two motors, thus yielding a generally uniform water flow field. The flow
structure in the annular flume could be visualized and observed by adding tracer particles.
An annular flume driven only by the shear ring will produce evident secondary flow, which
results in an uneven distribution of the centrifugal force and pressure gradient [21,22]. By
adjusting the rotation speed ratio of the shear ring and the annular flume, the secondary
flow of the rotating annular flume can be minimized, and the uniformly distributed bottom
shear stress can be obtained. Wang et al. [23] fitted the optimal rotational speed ratio curves
and derived the plumbline flow velocity distribution law. Cao et al. [24] discussed the
suitability of the traditional method in determining the optimal speed ratio and reported
the optimal speed ratio through numerical simulations by ANSYS Fluent. Yang et al. [25]
proposed a novel calculation formula for average bottom shear stress corresponding to the
optimal speed ratio by means of computational fluid dynamics simulations. In addition,
Yan et al. [26] explored the flow structure and shear stress distribution under different
speed ratios and summarized the underlying variation mechanism. As an open-source
CFD program with a large number of built-in solvers and unstructured meshing technology,
OpenFOAM is capable of resolving the wall problems of multiphase flows and has been
widely applied to investigate complex flow characteristics.
This paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, the specifications and model setup of
the rotating annular flume through OpenFOAM are demonstrated in detail. In Section 3,
the simulation results are presented, and discussions are provided in terms of bottom shear
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

Water 2024, 16, 2354 This paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, the specifications and model 3setup of 12
of the rotating annular flume through OpenFOAM are demonstrated in detail. In Section
3, the simulation results are presented, and discussions are provided in terms of bottom
stress, stress,
shear turbulence
turbulence velocity
velocity ratio, minimum
ratio, minimum secondary
secondary flow,velocity
flow, and and velocity
vectorvector
field. field.
The
The optimal rotation speed ratio is also determined and verified with the published
optimal rotation speed ratio is also determined and verified with the published literature. liter-
ature. Finally,
Finally, some preliminary
some preliminary conclusions
conclusions are in
are drawn drawn in Section
Section 4. 4.

2.2. Numerical
NumericalModel
Model
2.1.
2.1.Specifications
Specificationsofofthe
theRotating
RotatingAnnular
AnnularFlume
Flume
Referring
Referringtotothe published
the published literature [24],[24],
literature the annular flumeflume
the annular at Hohai University,
at Hohai China,
University,
was adopted as the research objective. The inner and outer diameters of the annular
China, was adopted as the research objective. The inner and outer diameters of the annular flume
are 240 cm and 280 cm, respectively. Both the shear ring and the annular
flume are 240 cm and 280 cm, respectively. Both the shear ring and the annular flume can flume can be
manipulated separately with different speeds and rotational directions.
be manipulated separately with different speeds and rotational directions. The water The water depth
in the flume
depth in theisflume
set constantly to 20 cm,toand
is set constantly the schematic
20 cm, diagram diagram
and the schematic of the rotating
of the annular
rotating
flume is shown
annular flume is inshown
Figure in
1. Figure 1.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofthe
therotating
rotatingannular
annularflume.
flume.

2.2.
2.2.Mathematical
MathematicalModel
ModelandandControl
ControlEquations
Equations
Large eddy simulation (LES)
Large eddy simulation (LES) and and Reynolds-Averaged
Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes
Navier–Stokes(RANS) are com-
(RANS) are
monly adopted
commonly in resolving
adopted turbulence
in resolving simulation
turbulence problems.
simulation TheThe
problems. basic ideaidea
basic of LES is tois
of LES
accurately solve
to accurately the motions
solve the motionsof allofturbulence on a on
all turbulence certain scale and
a certain scalecapture the unsteady
and capture the un-
state points [27]. The Reynolds time-averaged (RTA) simulation is featured
steady state points [27]. The Reynolds time-averaged (RTA) simulation is featured as a as a compu-
tationally efficientefficient
computationally and low-mesh-quality requirement
and low-mesh-quality near thenear
requirement wall the
but wall
is rarely
but utilized
is rarely
in the engineering fields [28]. The interFoam solver of OpenFOAM
utilized in the engineering fields [28]. The interFoam solver of OpenFOAM enables enables three three
flow
simulation methods, namely Laminar flow, LES, and RANS. Although
flow simulation methods, namely Laminar flow, LES, and RANS. Although accurate nu- accurate numerical
simulations could becould
merical simulations derived from anfrom
be derived LES,anit LES,
would requirerequire
it would significant computational
significant computa-
resources. RANS provides
tional resources. reasonable
RANS provides results with
reasonable lower
results computational
with costs and costs
lower computational has been
and
widely adopted in the numerical studies of flume hydrodynamics. Therefore, it is accepted
has been widely adopted in the numerical studies of flume hydrodynamics. Therefore, it
to simulate the flow structure in a rotating annular flume.
is accepted to simulate the flow structure in a rotating annular flume.
Turbulence models mainly include the k-ω model and k-epsilon model. The k-ω
Turbulence models mainly include the k-ω model and k-epsilon model. The k-ω
model has been widely utilized while the model results are always sensitive to the initial
model has been widely utilized while the model results are always sensitive to the initial
conditions. The k-epsilon model is suitable for solving the non-separated compressible
conditions. The k-epsilon model is suitable for solving the non-separated compressible
and incompressible fluids problems and is capable of simulating the internal motion of the
and incompressible fluids problems and is capable of simulating the internal motion of
complex flow field. Moreover, it can be readily implemented and has several variations for
the complex flow field. Moreover, it can be readily implemented and has several varia-
different research scenarios. In the present study, the RNG k-epsilon model is adopted and
tions for different research scenarios. In the present study, the RNG k-epsilon model is
further modified for the dissipation rate calculation [29]. The model is a renormalization
adopted and further modified for the dissipation rate calculation [29]. The model is a
(Re-Normalisation Group) of the Navier–Stokes equations and outperforms the standard k-
epsilon model for certain complex flow problems. The continuity and momentum equations
are written as follows.
The continuity equation
∂ρ ∂(ρui )
+ =0 (1)
∂t ∂xi
Water 2024, 16, 2354 4 of 12

in which ρ stands for the water density; ui represents flow velocity components; t represents
time; and xi represents the coordinates.
The momentum equations

∂(ρu1 ) ∂p
∂t + div(ρu1 u1 ) = div(µgradu1 ) − ∂x1 + Su1
∂(ρu2 ) ∂p
∂t + div(ρu2 u2 ) = div(µgradu2 ) − ∂x2 + Su2 (2)
∂(ρu3 ) ∂p
∂t + div(ρu3 u1 ) = div(µgradu3 ) − ∂x3 + Su3

in which ui represents the velocity component in different directions (i = 1, 2, 3), corre-

sponding to x, y, and z.
RNG k-epsilon model
"  #
∂(ρui k) ∂ µt ∂k
= µ+ + Pk − ρε − ρYk (3)
∂xi ∂x j σk ∂x j
" #
ε2

∂(ρξ ) ∂(ρui ε) ∂ µt ∂ε ε
+ = µ+ + Cε1 Pk − Cε2 ρ − ρεYε (4)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j σε ∂x j k k

in which k represents the turbulent kinetic energy; ε represents the dissipation rate of the
turbulent kinetic energy; µ represents the kinetic viscosity; µt represents the turbulent
viscosity; σk and σε represent turbulent shear stress and turbulent diffusion coefficient; Pk is
the turbulence generation term; Yk and Yε are the turbulence generation terms; and Cε1 and
Cε2 are empirical coefficients.
Turbulent viscosity model
K2
µt = ρCµ (5)
ε
in which Cµ is the empirical coefficient. In the present study, the coefficients are defined
as Cε1 = 1.42, Cε2 = 1.68, Cµ = 0.0845, η0 = 4.377, and β = 0.012. All the above settings are
determined within the OpenFOAM program. Detailed information can be found in the
OpenFOAM user guide, webinars, and relevant articles (e.g., [24,26]).

2.3. Boundary Conditions

In order to solve the wall flow structure of the rotating annular flume accurately, the
built-in solver interFoam of OpenFOAM is adopted. The shear ring is set as a solid domain
with a thickness of 1 cm while the annular flume is defined as a solid domain consisting
of the inner wall, outer wall, and bottom. The operation of the rotating annular flume is
regarded as the relative motion of multiple bodies, and the sliding mesh technology is
introduced in the present study. The wall rotation velocity condition is set for the shear
ring, the velocity inlet and pressure outlet conditions are set for the fluid domain, and
the pressure is set as a constant in the rotational domain. The viscosity coefficient is
set as 0.001003 kg/m·s. Moreover, default values of the bed roughness are utilized, i.e.,
Ks = 0 mm and Cs = 0.5 mm. The time step is set as 0.001 s, and the numerical simulation
is well converged with a residual of less than 1 × 10−6 . The simulation parameters and
boundary conditions are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of model parameters and boundary conditions.

Model Domain U P Turbulent Viscosity k Epsilon

Shear ring rotatingWallVelocity fixedFluxPressure nutUWallFunction kqRWallFunction epsilonWallFunction
Annular flume noSlip fixedFluxPressure nutUWallFunction kqRWallFunction epsilonWallFunction

2.4. Gridding
The hexahedral mesh of the computational domain is generated by applying the built-
in function module “snappyHexMesh”, and the distance from the first layer mesh point to
 Shear ring rotatingWallVelocity fixedFluxPressure nutUWallFunction kqRWallFunction
tion
epsilonWallFunc-
Annular flume noSlip fixedFluxPressure nutUWallFunction kqRWallFunction
tion

Water 2024, 16, 2354 2.4. Gridding 5 of 12

The hexahedral mesh of the computational domain is generated by applying the

built-in function module “snappyHexMesh”, and the distance from the first layer mesh
the boundary
point is set up as
to the boundary is 0.004
set upcm. The mesh
as 0.004 scale
cm. The factor
mesh in the
scale vertical
factor boundary
in the direction
vertical boundary
isdirection
set as 1.2isand the1.2
set as number
and theofnumber
mesh layers
of meshis 5.layers
The total thickness
is 5. The of the boundary
total thickness layer
of the bound-
mesh is approximately 0.03 cm, which is consistent with the published literature
ary layer mesh is approximately 0.03 cm, which is consistent with the published literature [24]. The
mesh generated by snappyHexMesh is illustrated in Figure
[24]. The mesh generated by snappyHexMesh is illustrated in Figure 2. 2.

Figure2.2.Grid
Figure Griddivision
divisionof
ofthe
therotating
rotatingannular
annularflume.
flume.

A
A grid
grid independence analysis
analysiswas wasperformed
performedtotodetermine
determine optimal
optimal grid
grid sizesize
andand
en-
ensure
sure thethe mesh
mesh quality.
quality. Three
Three different
different schemes
schemes have have
beenbeen tested
tested for afor a rotation
rotation speed speed
ratio
ratio of 2.68.
of 2.68. The vertical
The vertical averageaverage flow velocity
flow velocity was extracted
was extracted and compared
and compared with the with the
experi-
experimental
mental data in data
theinliterature
the literature
[24]. A[24]. A large
large errorerror
in theinvertical
the vertical average
average flowflow velocity
velocity was
was observed
observed for for a grid
a grid sizesize
of of
4cm.4cm.TheThe refinedgrid
refined gridsizes
sizesofof2cm
2cmand
and 1cm
1cm yielded errors
errors of
of
6.14% and 4.11%, respectively. It is worth noting that the computational expense
6.14% and 4.11%, respectively. It is worth noting that the computational expense increases increases
substantially
substantially with
with a grid size of of 1cm
1cm (i.e.,
(i.e.,Scheme
SchemeCCininTable
Table2).
2).Therefore,
Therefore,the the grid
grid size
size of
of 2cm was eventually accepted in the present study. The results of grid
2cm was eventually accepted in the present study. The results of grid independence anal- independence
analysis
ysis are are tabulated
tabulated below.
below.

Table2.2.Results
Table Resultsof
ofgrid
gridindependence
independenceanalysis.
analysis.

Scheme
Scheme Gird
GirdSize/cm
Size/cm Rotation Speed
Rotation SpeedRatio
Ratio Error
Error
A
A 44 2.68
2.68 35.71%
35.71%
B 22 2.68
2.68 6.14%
6.14%
C
C 11 2.68
2.68 4.11%
4.11%

2.5.
2.5. Model
Model Validation
Validation
Numerical
Numericalsimulations
simulationswerewerecarried out out
carried against the published
against the publishedliterature [24] for[24]
literature modelfor
verification. The rotation speeds of the shear ring and annular flume
model verification. The rotation speeds of the shear ring and annular flume were set were set as 200 rpm as
(3.86 rad/s)
200 rpm and
(3.86 124 and
rad/s) rpm124 (1.42
rpmrad/s), respectively.
(1.42 rad/s), A comparison
respectively. A comparisonof the of
tangential flow
the tangential
velocity is demonstrated
flow velocity in Figure
is demonstrated 3. The
in Figure 3. data
The datashow that that
show the OpenFOAM-based
the OpenFOAM-based simula-
sim-
tion of flow velocity distribution is basically consistent with the experimental
ulation of flow velocity distribution is basically consistent with the experimental results results [1]
and Fluent-based numerical simulations [24]. The relative error between
[1] and Fluent-based numerical simulations [24]. The relative error between the numerical the numerical
simulation
simulation results
results and
and the
the experiment
experiment datadata isis less
lessthan
than5%5%(about
(about3.16%),
3.16%),which
whichfurther
further
verifies the predictive capability of the OpenFOAM model in simulating the complex flow
structure of the rotating annular flume.
It is noted that the numerical simulation of flow velocity distribution by OpenFOAM
is basically consistent with the results of Fluent and physical experiments. The discrepancy
between the OpenFOAM numerical simulation and the experimental data is approximately
3.16%. In view of the different meshing technologies applied in OpenFOAM and Fluent,
the discrepancy in flow velocity noted in Figure 3 is considered acceptable. Owing to the
non-slip conditions at the shear ring, high flow velocities are observed in the vicinity of
the shear ring (as shown in Figure 3). The numerical simulations are carried out with
different rotation speed ratios. It is found that although large flow velocity gradients exist
in the regions near the shear ring, the flow velocity distribution in the central part of the
Water 2024, 16, 2354 6 of 12

annular flume remains relatively uniform. The distribution of dimensionless flow velocity
and curve fitting is also presented in Figure 4. U represents the flow velocity at any point
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13
on the vertical line and US represents the velocity in the central part of the shear ring. y
denotes the distance from the bottom of the annular flume at any point and h represents
the water depth. The numerical simulation of the rotating annular flume is conducted with
a rotation
verifies thespeed of 0.49
predictive m/s (1.88ofrad/s)
capability and compared
the OpenFOAM with
model in the experimental
simulating results flow
the complex from
the literature
structure [23].
of the rotating annular flume.

Figure 3. Comparison between numerical simulations and experiment data.

It is noted that the numerical simulation of flow velocity distribution by OpenFOAM

is basically consistent with the results of Fluent and physical experiments. The discrep-
ancy between the OpenFOAM numerical simulation and the experimental data is approx-
imately 3.16%. In view of the different meshing technologies applied in OpenFOAM and
Fluent, the discrepancy in flow velocity noted in Figure 3 is considered acceptable. Owing
to the non-slip conditions at the shear ring, high flow velocities are observed in the vicinity
of the shear ring (as shown in Figure 3). The numerical simulations are carried out with
different rotation speed ratios. It is found that although large flow velocity gradients exist
in the regions near the shear ring, the flow velocity distribution in the central part of the
annular flume remains relatively uniform. The distribution of dimensionless flow velocity
and curve fitting is also presented in Figure 4. U represents the flow velocity at any point
on the vertical line and US represents the velocity in the central part of the shear ring. y
denotes the distance from the bottom of the annular flume at any point and h represents
the water depth. The numerical simulation of the rotating annular flume is conducted with
a rotation speed of 0.49 m/s (1.88 rad/s) and compared with the experimental results from
the literature
Figure
Figure 3. [23]. between
3.Comparison
Comparison betweennumerical
numericalsimulations
simulationsand
andexperiment
experiment data.
data.

It is noted that the numerical simulation of flow velocity distribution by OpenFOAM

is basically consistent with the results of Fluent and physical experiments. The discrep-
ancy between the OpenFOAM numerical simulation and the experimental data is approx-
imately 3.16%. In view of the different meshing technologies applied in OpenFOAM and
Fluent, the discrepancy in flow velocity noted in Figure 3 is considered acceptable. Owing
to the non-slip conditions at the shear ring, high flow velocities are observed in the vicinity
of the shear ring (as shown in Figure 3). The numerical simulations are carried out with
different rotation speed ratios. It is found that although large flow velocity gradients exist
in the regions near the shear ring, the flow velocity distribution in the central part of the
annular flume remains relatively uniform. The distribution of dimensionless flow velocity
and curve fitting is also presented in Figure 4. U represents the flow velocity at any point
on the vertical line and US represents the velocity in the central part of the shear ring. y
denotes
Figure
Figure 4.4.the distanceoffrom
Distribution
Distribution thethe
of the bottom offlow
dimensionless
dimensionless the annular
velocity
flow forflume
velocity at any
numerical point and
simulations
for numerical h represents
and
simulations experiment
and experi-
the water
data.
ment data. depth. The numerical simulation of the rotating annular flume is conducted with
a rotation speed of 0.49 m/s (1.88 rad/s) and compared with the experimental results from
the literature
By adopting[23]. a polynomial fitting method, the following relationship is obtained.

U y 3 y 2 y
= a( ) + b( ) + c( ) + d (6)
US h h h

Based on the numerical simulation results and experiment data, it can be concluded
that the vertical flow velocity distributions across different rotational speed ratios and
flume sizes exhibit similar trends. The coefficients in the fitted equation are associated
with the rotational speeds of the shear ring and annular flume. In the present study, the
coefficient of determination for the numerical simulation fitting is approximately 0.95,
closely aligning with the literature [23]. Therefore, the distribution of vertical flow velocity
in a rotating annular flume can be effectively described through the means of polynomial
fitting, which validates the applicability of the OpenFOAM-based numerical model.

Figure 4. Distribution of the dimensionless flow velocity for numerical simulations and experiment
data.
 that the vertical flow velocity distributions across different rotational speed ratios and
flume sizes exhibit similar trends. The coefficients in the fitted equation are associated
with the rotational speeds of the shear ring and annular flume. In the present study, the
coefficient of determination for the numerical simulation fitting is approximately 0.95,
closely aligning with the literature [23]. Therefore, the distribution of vertical flow velocity
Water 2024, 16, 2354 in a rotating annular flume can be effectively described through the means of polynomial 7 of 12
fitting, which validates the applicability of the OpenFOAM-based numerical model.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Bottom Shear Stress Distribution
The sediment
sedimentmotion
motioncharacteristics
characteristics areare
significantly correlated
significantly with with
correlated the bottom shear
the bottom
stress
shear distribution, which is
stress distribution, caused
which by the flow
is caused velocity
by the gradientgradient
flow velocity near the near
wall. the
To facilitate
wall. To
experimental research research
facilitate experimental on sediment movement
on sediment characteristics,
movement it is generally
characteristics, necessary
it is generally nec-
to ensure the uniform distribution of bed shear stress so as to reveal the
essary to ensure the uniform distribution of bed shear stress so as to reveal the mechanismmechanism of
sediment
of sedimentmovement
movement withwith
different initial
different conditions.
initial In the
conditions. Inpresent study,study,
the present the bottom shear
the bottom
stress is calculated
shear stress and analyzed
is calculated with the
and analyzed aidthe
with of aid
a post-processing module
of a post-processing of OpenFOAM.
module of Open-
The
FOAM.shear stress
The is calculated
shear as follows
stress is calculated as follows
𝑘 /
k1/2
τw𝜏 = ρC𝜌𝐶
µ (7)
y𝑦
where ρ𝜌isisthe
where thefluid
fluiddensity andCµ𝐶is is
densityand thethe empirical
empirical constant
constant forfor turbulence
turbulence modeling;
modeling; k
𝑘 represents
represents thethe turbulent
turbulent kinetic
kinetic energy;
energy; andand 𝑦 represents
y represents the distance
the distance from from the wall.
the wall. A
A total
total number
number of 12ofsets
of 12 sets of rotational
rotational speedare
speed ratios ratios are investigated
investigated throughthrough
OpenFOAMOpenFOAM
and the
and theare
results results are illustrated
illustrated in Figurein5.Figure 5.

Figure 5. Wall shear stress distribution

distribution for
for different
different rotational
rotational speed
speed ratios.
ratios.

As shown
shown ininFigure
Figure5,5,the
thewall
wallshear
shearstress
stressininthe middle
the middleregion of of
region thethe
flume
flumegradually
gradu-
increases
ally increases when the rotation speed ratio increases. The shear stress appears rapidly
when the rotation speed ratio increases. The shear stress appears to vary to vary
near thenear
rapidly shear ring
the duering
shear to the
dueconstraint of the near-wall
to the constraint surface.surface.
of the near-wall As the As
rotational speed
the rotational
ratio
speedofratio
the annular flume is flume
of the annular greateristhan 2.1, the
greater thanmaximum value of thevalue
2.1, the maximum bottomof shear stress
the bottom
decreases. By calculating the variance of the bottom bed shear stress for different rotational
speed ratios, the uniformity of bed shear stress distribution can be further evaluated, and
the detailed results are provided in Figure 6.
Following Figure 6, it is concluded that a minimum variance in bottom bed shear stress
appears when the rotational speed ratio is equal to 1.2. The shear stress distribution at the
bottom is relatively uniform (as shown in Figure 5). Given the uniformity of bed shear
stress distribution as the basic evaluation criterion, the optimal rotational speed ratio could
be determined as 1.2, which is generally consistent with the conclusions (1.17) drawn in the
literature [1]. It is noted that the shear stress variance decreases rapidly as the rotational
speed ratio increases from 1.0 to 1.1. This is attributed to the enhanced vortex driven by the
shear ring, which suppresses the vortex generated by the annular flume and results in a
more uniform distribution of bottom bed shear stress. This trend agrees with the results
presented by Cao et al. [24].
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

shear stress decreases. By calculating the variance of the bottom bed shear stress for dif-
Water 2024, 16, 2354 ferent rotational speed ratios, the uniformity of bed shear stress distribution can
8 of be
12 further
evaluated, and the detailed results are provided in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6.6.Variations
Variationsinin shear
shear stress
stress variance
variance for different
for different speedspeed
ratios. ratios.

3.2. Turbulent Velocity Ratio

Following Figure 6, it is concluded that a minimum variance in bottom bed shear
During the experimental operations of the annular flume, the shear ring and flume
stress appears when the rotational speed ratio is equal to 1.2. The shear stress distribution
always rotate in opposite directions. Secondary flow could be generated in the flume, the
at the bottom is relatively uniform (as shown in Figure 5). Given the uniformity of bed
presence of which would further affect the motion characteristics of sediment particles.
shear stress
Therefore, distribution
great efforts haveasbeen
the basic
devotedevaluation criterion,
to reducing the optimal
the secondary flow by rotational speed ra-
controlling
tio
the could be determined
rotational speed ratio of asthe 1.2,shear
which is and
ring generally
annular consistent
flume. Caowith the[24]
et al. conclusions
pointed (1.17)
drawn
out thatin thethe
with literature
increasing[1].speed
It is ratio
noted of that the shear
the annular stress
flume, the variance decreases
cross-sectional rapidly as
average
the rotational speed ratio increases from 1.0 to 1.1. This is attributed to the enhanced
flow velocity would increase with the rotational speed ratio. Thus, it is inappropriate to vor-
determine
tex driventhe byoptimal
the shearspeed
ring, ratio based
which on the absolute
suppresses magnitude
the vortex of the secondary
generated flow flume
by the annular
underresults
and different
in speed
a more ratios. In thedistribution
uniform present study,ofthe turbulent
bottom bedvelocity
shear ratio
stress.is introduced
This trend agrees
to represent the strength of the secondary flow, which is defined as follows.
with the results presented by Cao et al. [24].
√
max( v2 + w2 )
3.2. Turbulent Velocity Ratio Rv = (8)
max|u|
During the experimental operations of the annular flume, the shear ring and flume
where v is the radial velocity component; w is the vertical velocity component; and u is
always rotate in opposite directions. Secondary flow could be generated in the flume, the
the tangential velocity component. The turbulent velocity ratio represents the ratio of the
presence of which would further affect the motion characteristics of sediment particles.
secondary flow to the main flow within the cross-section of an annular flume. This ratio
Therefore, great efforts
reflects the intensity of thehave been devoted
cross-sectional to reducing
secondary flow for athe secondary
given rotationalflow
speed byratio.
controlling
the
The rotational speed ratio of the
results of OpenFOAM-based shear ring
numerical and annular
simulations flume.
for various Cao et al.
rotational [24]ratios
speed pointed out
that with the presented
are, therefore, increasinginspeed
Figureratio
7. of the annular flume, the cross-sectional average flow
velocity
The would increase
numerical with the
simulations rotational
based speed ratio.
on OpenFOAM showThus, it istrends
similar inappropriate
to those ofto deter-
Fluent-based
mine modeling
the optimal speed byratio
Cao based
et al. [24]. A minor
on the absolute difference is found
magnitude in the
of the rotationalflow un-
secondary
der different speed ratios. In the present study, the turbulent velocity ratioFluent:
speed ratio with regard to the minimum turbulent velocity ratio (OpenFOAM: 1.7; is introduced
1.94). This is mainly attributed to the different turbulence models and mesh partitioning
to represent the strength of the secondary flow, which is defined as follows.
schemes adopted in the numerical simulations. Although the RNG k-epsilon model was
adopted in the Fluent-based simulations, detailed 𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝑣 𝑤
information about parameter setting
was absent in the literature [24]. Moreover, 𝑅 the mesh partitioning scheme differs from the (8)
𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝑢|
present study. Overall, comparable features of turbulent velocity ratio variations have been
where
reported v is
bythe radial velocity
Gharabaghi component;
et al. [17] and Cao et w al.is[24].
the vertical velocity component; and u is the
tangential velocity component. The turbulent velocity ratio represents the ratio of the sec-
ondary flow to the main flow within the cross-section of an annular flume. This ratio re-
flects the intensity of the cross-sectional secondary flow for a given rotational speed ratio.
The results of OpenFOAM-based numerical simulations for various rotational speed ra-
tios are, therefore, presented in Figure 7.
Water 2024,
Water 16, x2354
2024, 16, FOR PEER REVIEW 9 9ofof13
12

Figure
Figure7.
7.Comparison
Comparisonof
ofturbulent
turbulentvelocity
velocityratio
ratiobetween
betweenOpenFOAM
OpenFOAMand
and Fluent
Fluent simulations.
simulations.

3.3. Secondary Flow simulations based on OpenFOAM show similar trends to those of Flu-
The numerical
ent-based
Whenmodeling by Caospeed
the rotational et al. [24].
ratioAofminor difference
the annular is found
flume in thethe
is fixed, rotational
magnitudespeedof
the cross-sectional
ratio with regard to secondary
the minimum flow can be calculated.
turbulent velocity ratioBy(OpenFOAM:
comparing the 1.7;magnitude of
Fluent: 1.94).
the secondary
This is mainly flow for different
attributed to the rotational
different speed ratios,models
turbulence the evolutional
and mesh features of the
partitioning
secondary
schemes flow can
adopted in be
thefurther identified
numerical and discussed.
simulations. AlthoughThe theminimum secondary
RNG k-epsilon modelflow
wasis
defined as follows:
adopted in the Fluent-based simulations, detailed p information about parameter setting
Vf = minthe
was absent in the literature [24]. Moreover, v2 + wpartitioning
( mesh 2)
scheme differs from the (9)
present
where v study. Overall,
represents comparable
the tangential features
velocity of turbulent
component and wvelocity ratio
represents thevariations have
vertical velocity
been reported by Gharabaghi et al. [17] and Cao et al. [24].
component. The results of the minimum secondary flow calculation based on OpenFOAM
numerical simulations are shown in Figure 8. It is noted that the minimum cross-sectional
3.3. Secondary
secondary flowFlow
occurs at a rotational speed ratio of 1.7, which agrees with the conclusion
drawnWhen
fromthe rotational
the turbulentspeed ratio
velocity of the
ratio (as annular
shown in flume
Figureis fixed,
7). Thethe magnitude
results of the
demonstrate
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWcross-sectional secondary
that the cross-sectional flow canflow
secondary be calculated.
is relativelyBysmall,
comparing
and the the magnitude
turbulent 10 of of the
13
kinetic sec-
energy
ondary flow
intensity forbe
could different rotational
minimized as the speed ratios,
rotational theratio
speed evolutional
is equalfeatures
to 1.7 in of
thethe secondary
present study.
flow can be further identified and discussed. The minimum secondary flow is defined as
follows:

𝑉 min 𝑣 𝑤 (9)

where v represents the tangential velocity component and w represents the vertical veloc-
ity component. The results of the minimum secondary flow calculation based on Open-
FOAM numerical simulations are shown in Figure 8. It is noted that the minimum cross-
sectional secondary flow occurs at a rotational speed ratio of 1.7, which agrees with the
conclusion drawn from the turbulent velocity ratio (as shown in Figure 7). The results
demonstrate that the cross-sectional secondary flow is relatively small, and the turbulent
kinetic energy intensity could be minimized as the rotational speed ratio is equal to 1.7 in
the present study.

Figure
Figure8.8.Variations
Variationsin cross-sectional secondary
in cross-sectional flow for
secondary different
flow speed ratios.
for different speed ratios.

Given the rotational speed ratio equal to 1.0, a large vortex would be generated by
the annular flume and result in great turbulent kinetic energy and maximum secondary
flow (as shown in Figures 7 and 8). The vortex in the vicinity of the outer wall is reduced
as the rotational speed ratio increases. Both turbulent kinetic energy and maximum sec-
Water 2024, 16, 2354 10 of 12

Given the rotational speed ratio equal to 1.0, a large vortex would be generated by the
annular flume and result in great turbulent kinetic energy and maximum secondary flow
(as shown in Figures 7 and 8). The vortex in the vicinity of the outer wall is reduced as the
rotational speed ratio increases. Both turbulent kinetic energy and maximum secondary
flow would decrease. An optimal rotational speed ratio is thus obtained as 1.7. The flow
velocity would increase as the rotational speed ratio keeps increasing. As a result, both
turbulent kinetic energy and maximum secondary flow increase. It should be emphasized
that the hydrodynamic features (e.g., turbulent kinetic energy and secondary flow) are
associated with the flume properties and operating conditions.

3.4. Cross-Sectional Velocity Vector Field

The two-dimensional velocity vector field is extracted with the aid of ParaView and
presented for different rotational speed ratios in Figure 9. As the rotational speed ratio
increases, different vortex patterns can be observed in the annular flume. When the
rotational speed ratio is equal to 1.3, the upper vortex moves outward while the lower
vortex is reduced. The flow velocity distribution at the bottom of the flume becomes
relatively uniform. Given that the rotational speed ratio increases gradually, the vortex
generated by the shear ring would be further enhanced. The cross-sectional flow patterns
(as shown in Figure 9) would exert a significant impact on the motion characteristics of
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWsediment particles. A detailed flow velocity field for a speed ratio of 1.3 is presented
11 of 13 in
Figure 10.

Figure 9. Cross-sectional
Figure 9.velocity vector field
Cross-sectional for different
velocity speed
vector field for ratios.
different speed ratios.
Figure 9. Cross-sectional velocity vector field for different speed ratios.

Figure 10. Cross-sectional velocity vector field for speed ratio 1.3.
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional velocity
velocityvector
vectorfield
fieldfor
forspeed
speedratio
ratio1.3.
1.3.
As shown
As shown in Figure 10, theinflow
Figure 10, the flow
circulation maycirculation may push
push the sediment the sediment
outward outward first
first and
then bring it backward. The lower circulation is distributed more
then bring it backward. The lower circulation is distributed more uniformly at the flume uniformly at the fl
bottom, leading to a relatively uniform sedimentation. Given
bottom, leading to a relatively uniform sedimentation. Given a rotational speed ratio a rotational speed
larger than 1.3, the vortex generated by the rotating shear ring will
larger than 1.3, the vortex generated by the rotating shear ring will dominate the cross- dominate the c
Water 2024, 16, 2354 11 of 12

As shown in Figure 10, the flow circulation may push the sediment outward first
and then bring it backward. The lower circulation is distributed more uniformly at the
flume bottom, leading to a relatively uniform sedimentation. Given a rotational speed
ratio larger than 1.3, the vortex generated by the rotating shear ring will dominate the
cross-sectional flow field and more sediment particles would be expected to settle along the
inner wall. Therefore, a rational speed control strategy needs to be developed to minimize
the secondary flow and unify the cross-sectional flow field.

4. Conclusions
The rotating annular flume is one of the commonly used experimental instruments of
sediment movement characteristics. However, the flow structure differs with its operational
modes (i.e., rotational speed ratio) and flume properties. In this paper, the computational
fluid dynamics software OpenFOAM has been introduced to model flow structure and
obtain the optimal speed ratios corresponding to different evaluation criteria. Some prelim-
inary conclusions are provided as follows:
1. OpenFOAM has highly customizable attributes, diversified built-in solvers, and com-
plete post-processing function modules. OpenFOAM-based numerical simulations
of flow structure have been compared with the published literature and experimen-
tal data, which further validate the capability of OpenFOAM in solving complex
flow problems.
2. The rotational speed ratio is identified as a key factor influencing the cross-sectional
velocity vector field of rotating annular flumes. With regard to the uniform distribu-
tion of bottom shear stress, turbulent velocity ratio, and minimum secondary flow, the
optimal speed ratios are determined as 1.2, 1.7, and 1.7, respectively. This conclusion
is generally consistent with the published literature and experiment data.
3. The present study highlighted the predictive capability of OpenFOAM. The optimal ro-
tational speed ratios determined by numerical simulations would provide a reference
for the implementation of a rotating annular flume. Moreover, the OpenFOAM-based
numerical model could be extended by incorporating a material transport module
(e.g., Lagrangian particle method); thus, the sediment motion characteristics could be
further investigated.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.C. (Sijin Chen) and Z.J.; methodology, S.C. (Sijin Chen);
validation, S.C. (Sijin Chen); formal analysis, S.C. (Shijun Chen) and Z.J.; investigation, S.C. (Shijun
Chen), Z.Y. and Z.J.; data curation, S.C. (Shijun Chen) and H.S.; writing—original draft preparation,
S.C. (Sijin Chen); writing—review and editing, S.C. (Sijin Chen) and Z.J.; supervision, Z.J.; funding
acquisition, Z.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
numbers 52071250 and 51709220).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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