International Journal of The need of an ethics of planetary sustainability

Astrobiology
Andreas Losch
cambridge.org/ija
University of Bern, Faculty of Theology, c/o Andreas Losch, Länggassstr. 51, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland

Abstract
Research Article The concept of sustainability is widely acknowledged as a political guideline. Economic, eco-
logical, social and cultural aspects of sustainability are already under discussion. Current space
Cite this article: Losch A (2019). The need of mining efforts demand that the discussion become a broader one about ‘planetary sustainabil-
an ethics of planetary sustainability.
ity’, including the space surrounding Earth. To date, planetary sustainability has mainly been
International Journal of Astrobiology 18,
259–266. https://doi.org/10.1017/ used with reference to Earth only and I will extend it here, elaborating on a similar NASA
S1473550417000490 initiative. This article (1) sketches the contemporary economic–political initiatives which
call for a special reflection of Earth’s location in space, and then (2) discusses the meaning
Received: 11 September 2017 of the concept of sustainability in this context. Next, (3) I relate the discussion to the issue
Revised: 4 November 2017
Accepted: 14 November 2017 of planetary and environmental protection, before, (4) finally, presenting a philosophical
First published online: 10 January 2018 and theological perspective that seems particularly able to broach the issue of the multiple
dimensions of sustainability in this context. This is the concept of constructive-critical realism.
Key words: My overview of the topic concludes with (5) a summarizing outlook.
Constructive-critical realism; environmental
protection; ethics; planetary protection;
responsibility; space-mining; sustainability

Author for correspondence: Andreas Losch, The concept of sustainability is widely acknowledged as a political guideline. Economic,
E-mail: andreas.losch@theol.unibe.ch ecological, social and cultural aspects of sustainability are already under discussion. Current
space mining efforts demand that the discussion become a broader one about ‘planetary sus-
tainability’, including the space surrounding Earth1. This article (1) sketches the contemporary
economic–political initiatives which call for a special reflection of Earth’s location in space.
The Luxembourgian space mining initiative will be portrayed in some detail, to serve the pur-
pose of documenting a test case for the argumentation. The article then (2) discusses the
meaning of the concept of sustainability in this context. Next, (3) I relate the discussion to
the issue of planetary and environmental protection, before, (4) finally, presenting a philo-
sophical and theological perspective that seems particularly able to broach the issue of the
multiple dimensions of sustainability in this context. This is the concept of constructive-
critical realism (CCR). My overview of the topic concludes with (5) a summarizing outlook.
I am aware, however, that the arguments presented here can only be a start for the consid-
eration of sustainability in planetary dimensions2, or potentially even as a core element of
more general ‘astroethics’ (Peters 2014; cf. Impey et al. 2013).

Contemporary initiatives call for reflection

‘We still have the power to choose – irreversible harm has not yet reached catastrophic levels …
This planet’s sustainability calls for a new relationship, viable over time, between humankind
and our habitat, a relationship placing humanity in the forefront, precisely at the outset of a
new age that will be marked by wisdom, knowledge and information, shared globally’
(UNESCO, 2003: 5).
With these inspiring words, UNESCO, 2005–2015 the leading UN-Agency for Education
and sustainable development, has propagated a ‘planetary sustainability’. Here, I will expand
this idea and use the term in a more encompassing manner, aiming at including the space
surrounding Earth when invoking the planetary vocabulary. I am convinced, in the developing
Space Age the issue of sustainability must be reframed in this way. Obvious to the scientist,
Earth does not float in an empty void, but is part of a universe, surrounded by billions of bil-
lions of space objects. Actually, also the UN are aware of this, as their Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) had established within its Scientific and
Technical Subcommittee a Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space
Activities which addressed thematic areas, including sustainable space utilization supporting
sustainable development on Earth (UNOOSA, 2017). Additionally, the Office for Outer
Space Affairs (UNOOSA) has launched a new framework strategy called Space2030, advocating
© Cambridge University Press 2018

1
This work results from a project pursued as research fellow at the Center of Theological Inquiry (CTI) Princeton/NJ, spon-
sored by NASA grant NNX14AR81G, and within the collaboration of the COST Action TD 1308 ‘Life – ORIGINS’. Cf. the
German article Losch (2016).
2
A book on topic is the aim of a current project, cf. www.planetarysustainability.unibe.ch.

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 260 Andreas Losch

space as a driver for sustainable development. ‘We want to make (art. I), because they interpret the recovery of minerals needed
sure that space technology and applications are used to bring con- for space mining as a simple ‘use’. This seems to be a possible
crete benefits to all humankind, paying special attention to the interpretation, as the International Institute of Space Law5
future space-faring and developing countries while also carefully published on 20 December 2015 a statement on this topic,
considering the long-term sustainability of outer space activities which says: ‘In view of the absence of a clear prohibition of the
for current and future generations.’3 taking of resources in the Outer Space Treaty one can
All these efforts aim at working together ‘towards building bet- conclude that the use of space resources is permitted. Viewed
ter lives on Earth’ (Di Pippo 2017). Similarly, NASA launched in from this perspective, the new United States Act is a possible
2014 an initiative with the title ‘planetary sustainability’, whose interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty. Whether and to what
vision statement includes three main objectives: extent this interpretation is shared by other States remains to be
seen.’6
1. A world in which all people have access to abundant water, The Luxembourgian government shared this interpretation
food and energy, as well as protection from severe storms and has taken action. On 3 February 2016, it ‘announced a series
and climate change impacts; of measures to position Luxembourg as a European hub in the
2. Healthy and sustainable worldwide economic growth from exploration and use of space resources. Amongst the key steps
renewable products and resources; undertaken, as part of the spaceresources.lu initiative, will be the
3. A multi-planetary society, where the resources of the Solar development of a legal and regulatory framework confirming cer-
System are available to the people of Earth. (NASA 2014). tainty about the future ownership of minerals extracted in space
from Near Earth Objects (NEO’s) such as asteroids. […] Such a
legal framework will be worked out in full consideration of inter-
This vision combines the two traditional dimensions of NASA’s national law. Luxembourg is eager to engage with other countries
engagement, with space science and with Earth science, and it on this matter within a multilateral framework’ (The Government
is in this twofold manner that the idea of a planetary sustainability of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2016a). Probably it also tried
shall be explored within this paper. So in pursuing my approach, I to relate to the spirit of the Outer Space Treaty with these word-
follow NASA’s use of the term ‘planetary sustainability’ as the most ings. According to recent critics, who voiced the concern that the
encompassing one. new US law and the Luxembourg initiative are nothing but a clas-
Why is this extension of the concept important today? Following sic rendition of the ‘he who dares wins’ philosophy of the Wild
the shock of Sputnik and after NASA finally landed humans on the West7, the Luxembourgian initiative initially answered:
Moon, NASA, ESA and their competing and cooperating space ‘Luxembourg is carefully considering these discussions. While
agencies undertook exploration missions to Mars or even more dis- there may be similarities in U.S. thinking, the Luxembourg
tant areas. Today, private companies invest mainly in satellite Government prefers to liken potential legal similitudes to deep-
launches and space tourism; nevertheless, there are private enter- sea fishing in international waters: Fishermen don’t own the
prises (e.g. Elon Musk‘s SpaceX), which help to supply the oceans and they don’t own the fish, but they have the right to
International Space Station (ISS). With the current plans of com- put nets into the water and bring fish onto their ship decks.
panies such as Planetary Resources or Deep Space Industries to And once the fish are on deck, they own the fish.’ If multiple
exploit near Earth objects (e.g. asteroids), the Space Age is on the countries follow a similar aim, ‘these countries would need to dis-
verge of entering a new phase4. The SPACE (Spurring Private cuss and find a bilateral or multilateral solution. It would be in the
Aerospace Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship) Act of 2015, as interest of all involved players. Luxembourg will encourage bilat-
signed by US President Barack Obama in November of that year, eral and multilateral agreements between the concerned countries
opened to US citizens the opportunity ‘to engage in commercial to find a way to deal with this. One solution to investigate is to
exploration for and commercial recovery of space resources” follow the example of the International Telecommunications
(§ 51302 (3)). Those space resources are abiotic resources including Union, regulating the access to the frequency spectrum and
water and minerals (§ 51301). orbital positions on the geostationary arc.’ One must know, how-
One can ask, whether these activities oppose the international ever, that these texts were published on an older version of the
Outer Space Treaty (1967), because according to this contract the
use of space is only allowed ‘for the benefit and in the interests of 5
http://www.iislweb.org/. For the apprehensive point of view of Deep Space Industries,
all countries’ (art. I). A disclaimer at the end of the SPACE Act
see Kfir (2017).
denies claims of sovereignty for celestial bodies. It is not clear 6
The statement goes on as follows: ‘This is independent from the claim of sovereign
why, in contrast, extraction rights should be unproblematic. The rights over celestial bodies, which the United States explicitly does not make (Section
USA can refer to another paragraph of the Treaty, which says 403). The purpose of the Act is to entitle its citizens to these resources if “obtained in
‘outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States’ accordance with applicable law, including the international obligations of the United
States”. The Act thus pays respect to the international legal obligations of the United
States and applicable law on which the property rights to space resources will continue
3
The Space2030 framework will be built upon four pillars: to depend.
Space accessibility: all communities using and benefiting from space technologies; It is an open question whether this legal situation is satisfactory. Whether the United
Space diplomacy: building and strengthening international cooperation in space activities; States’ interpretation of Art. II of the Outer Space Treaty is followed by other states will be
Space economy: development of space-derived economic benefits; central to the future understanding and development of the non-appropriation principle.
Space society: evolution of society and societal benefits stemming from space-related It can be a starting point for the development of international rules to be evaluated by
activities. means of an international dialogue in order to coordinate the free exploration and use
Di Pippo (2017) of outer space, including resource extraction, for the benefit and in the interests of all
4
Cf. the European Space Agency’s (ESA) description of ‘Space 4.0’: “a time when space countries.’
7
is evolving from being the preserve of the governments of a few spacefaring nations to a This was raised as a potential critique by a meeting of members of the COST Action
situation in which there is the increased number of diverse space actors around the world, TD 1308 Life-Origins’ White Paper Working Group with Luxembourgian officials on 9
including the emergence of private companies, participation with academia, industry and March 2016. Regarding the ‘Wild West scenario’, cf. the account of the cultural narrative
citizens, digitalization and global interaction.” ESA (2017). of US Spaceflight by Billings (2007).

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 International Journal of Astrobiology 261

website and are ‘no longer valid’8, which is an interesting develop- possible for fishing, it may not be possible for mining. The term
ment in argumentation. was first prominently used by the so-called Brundtland commission
The envisioned space mining is of course not yet in place, but in 1987. According to this commission’s official definition, which
the necessary legislation has been passed, and money is invested. shall be used here, sustainable development is a ‘development
A first action taken was the organization of a workshop on the that meets the needs of the present without compromising the abil-
topic of ‘Asteroid Science Intersections with in-Space Mine ity of future generations to meet their own needs’, while these needs
Engineering (ASIME)’ in Luxembourg on 21–22 September are ‘in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor’ (World
2016,9 before one saw on 11 November 2016 the draft of a Commission on Environment and Development 1987: 16.41).
space law which ‘guarantees private companies the right to Sustainability12 in political perspective therefore is a concept that
resources harvested in outer space in accordance with includes besides the economic–ecological dimensions also an
International Law’ (The Government of the Grand Duchy of important social dimension from the start.
Luxembourg 2016c). Luxembourg’s interest is clearly of an eco- This eco-social perspective may be a heritage of the early dis-
nomic character, as it also announced a 25 million euro invest- cussion of the theme in context of the Ecumenical Council of
ment cooperation with Planetary Resources on 3 November Churches. Already in 1974, therefore, more than a decade before
2016b (The Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg the Brundtland commission, in Bucharest an ecumenical world
2016b). conference on ‘Science and Technology for Human
I refrain from judging here on the legality of the issue, and Development’ took place. At this conference, the term ‘sustainable
want to leave these to the respective experts and legal bodies. I and just society’ was first used (Lienemann 2007:101).13 From
do report the details concerning the Luxembourgian initiative here we can understand why there is a social dimension of justice
so detailed here, because they appear as a possible issue: interest- within the concept of sustainability according to the Brundtland
ingly, Luxembourg’s quasi-second legislative chamber, the commission. According to Pope Francis’ encyclical letter
Council of State, had expressed several formal oppositions to Laudato si, we have to acknowledge, ‘that a truly ecological
the space mining project. The responsible official is even reported approach always becomes a social approach; it must integrate
‘to have confirmed his objective … to ask for a revision of the questions of justice in debates on the environment, so as to
question of property in the Outer Space Treaty. He wants the hear both the cry of the earth and the cry of the poor’ (Francis
UN to create a legal framework which would allow companies 2015: 35 (§ 49)).
worldwide to act in this domain’ (Huberty 2017; cf. Allen & Several further aspects of sustainability are discussed.
Overy 2017; Conseil d’etat du grand-duché de Luxembourg Relatively new is the idea, that there is also a cultural dimension
2017). Nevertheless, Luxembourg’s Chamber of Deputies passed of sustainability, without which there could be ‘important issues
the law on 13 July 2017 (Planetary Resources 2017). of sustainable development that are missed’ (Soini & Birkeland
Now, can space mining really present a solution for pressing 2014: 215). There are, however, different ways in dealing with
resource shortages on Earth? Or is it simply nothing but a tem- this cultural dimension. For a start, we regard it here as an add-
porary delay of the problems? This needs to be discussed. itional pillar of sustainability (Hawkes 2001). The UNESCO
Luxembourg’s initiative states that ‘its goal is to ensure that World Heritage Sites could present a concrete example for this
space resources explored under its jurisdiction serve a peaceful perspective, as they sustain human-made and natural configura-
purpose, are gathered and used in a sustainable manner compat- tions for the cultural memory of humankind. If we follow the
ible with international law and for the benefit of humankind’ (The NASA directive and include the Solar System in our account of
Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 2017). sustainability, we could therefore ask, whether the heritage sites
Can the idea of sustainability be applied on human space activ- should include the Apollo landing site as well – or Olympus
ities this way? The increasing human use of space10 certainly Mons on Mars, the highest mountain of the Solar System?14
demands reflection on its application on our space environ- This could present a conflict case for space mining, as the mount’s
ment11. Hence, the concept of sustainability shall now be analysed territory could contain precious minerals15.
further. We have, however, to keep in mind that it could also con- The basic idea included in the NASA initiative, that a sustain-
flict with other ethical principles. What about the environmental able economic activity on Earth should be thought through within
integrity of outer space, for instance (cf. Bohlmann, 2011)? How the context of the increasing space flight, shall here be developed
important, generally, is the extension of planetary sustainability further, albeit in an even broader sense. While NASA’s vision for
beyond Earth, and how far should it be extended? planetary sustainability aims at making ‘the resources of the solar
system … available to the people of Earth’ (NASA), one should
also consider, whether, e.g. the ‘biospheres’ of other planets
Dimensions of sustainability have a right to exist as they are now ‘when biospheres collide’
The term ‘sustainability’ is often used to describe an entanglement (Meltzer 2010). As they are now, they could at least have a cul-
of economic and ecological development, which means to use tural, if not scientific value. This raises the astrobiological issue
resources in such a limited way that they can recover over time of planetary and environmental protection16. It includes the
from our use and hence remain available for us. While this seems
12
‘Sustainability’ and ‘sustainable development’ are used interchangeable in the first
8
According to Paul Zenners, Conseiller de direction, Ministère de l’Économie. Email overview, which this article represents. For a suggestion how to differentiate the two,
to the author from 01.08.2017. see Niebert (2016).
9 13
For results, see the White Paper produced at the workshop: Graps (2017). Science and technology for human development (1974). For Brundtland’s reception
10
Another pressing problem in these regards is certainly space debris, which shall, of this see Niles (2002).
14
however, not be the focus of this article. Cf. the idea of a planetary park system for Mars: Cockell and Horneck (2004).
11 15
The 17 UN sustainable development goals include life on land, below water and the I want to thank Erik Persson for this example.
16
climate of our atmosphere, yet the space surrounding earth is missing United Nations Cf. the recommendations of a COSPAR Workshop for Ethical Considerations for
(2015). Planetary Protection in Space Exploration, Rummel et al. (2012).

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 262 Andreas Losch

question, whether only an actual habitat should be protected or other celestial bodies, we compromise all future scientific experi-
also a potential habitat, understood either as a candidate for a ments on these bodies and may also damage any extant life here.
future habitat or as an unknown actual habitat. It is rather difficult By inadvertently carrying exotic organisms back to Earth on our
to exclude the potential existence of life on a celestial body totally spaceships, we risk the release of biohazardous materials into our
(Persson 2014). Maybe already on our voyages to Mars we can own ecology’ (Meltzer 2010:1). Planetary Protection is therefore
find traces of extraterrestrial life. On Earth also, life forms have necessary and is defined as a process ‘of preventing contamination
been discovered (so-called extremophiles), that flourish in envir- of planetary environments by living organisms from other pla-
onments inadequate or even deadly for human life. ‘[F]rom the nets, in accordance with Article IX of the 1967 Outer Space
data we have currently, we can say confidently that there are con- Treaty and policies maintained by the Committee on Space
ditions present on or in other Solar System bodies that do not Research (COSPAR). Nations sending missions to other planets
exclude the possibility of Earth life surviving there‘(Meltzer must ensure that Earth life does not contaminate them (forward
2010:xvi); besides Mars, especially Jupiter’s Moon Europa has to contamination), and that any samples brought to Earth do not
be mentioned, which has an ocean below its icy surface (cf. release harmful organisms into our environment (backward con-
Catling 2013: ch. 6). The concept of planetary sustainability tamination)’ (Conley 2011).
shall here be understood in such a way that to a certain extent Although the highest priority is to protect Earth, it is also valid
it also includes the protection of planets (and Moons) as potential that the protection of other planets against Earthly life has a value,
habitats in both meanings mentioned. because it safeguards our efforts for scientific research and the
This, of course, means balancing different sorts of values, search for extraterrestrial life (Conley 2011). When we look for
which may contradict the recovery of space resources. In general, simple extraterrestrial life on Mars, how can we avoid finding
the idea of sustainability is often understood as a contrast to only those microbes that we brought there from Earth? The
unlimited expansion fantasies. One should not overlook, however, ‘total sterilization of humans and machines is impossible’
that an expansion of the human habitat into space in the long run (Persson 2017). With humans, this is obvious, because a total ster-
is necessary for our survival. If sustainable development is a devel- ilization would cause our death. With machines, we can be more
opment ‘that meets the needs of the present without compromis- thoroughgoing, but in general, the same problem applies to them.
ing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’, in ‘The electronics in a rover is usually more sensitive than at least
my opinion one has to have this long-term perspective in mind. some Earth microbes. This means that we need to find a balance
A collision of an asteroid with Earth like the one that extinguished between our efforts to find life and our efforts to protect it’
the dinosaurs could happen, also the everyday heating of Earth (Persson 2017).
because of human-caused climate change in our ‘Anthropocene’ So much for ‘planetary protection’ as we know it, which is a
could force us one day to leave the Earth. This should not serve legally defined term and therefore expression of restricted use
as an excuse, of course, not to care about our planet. In less which implies distinct policies (the COSPAR guidelines) to be
than six billion years, however, expansion of the Sun will make applied to a particular category of space missions (NASA,
life on Earth impossible. Whatever the developments will be, 2011). If we one day will really find extraterrestrial life, be it on
‘without our expansion of our instruments and people into Mars or elsewhere in our Solar System, additional issues will be
space, humanity could conceivably perish’ (Pass et al. 2006: 5). raised, that I want to consider under the heading of ‘environmen-
To some extent, a truly sustainable concept of sustainability there- tal protection’. Are we allowed to bring probes back to Earth? Or
fore has to be an inter-planetary one, which makes a continuous would we risk contaminating Earth with a hazard for which we
technological development a necessity. have no resistance on Earth? Let us repeat, what is at stake;
This does not diminish the previously invoked dimensions of there are even more questions involved:
sustainability. They are even the more important to enable a
long-term technological change. On other planets that could • ‘Do we have an ethical obligation to preserve a planetary envir-
be affected by our expansion, balancing the human needs with onment to the same degree that we seek to protect our Earth’s
the protection of the respective environment needs to be dis- environment?
cussed. Meanwhile, we truly have to be cautious about the • Does this obligation hold, even if there is no life on a planet?
ideal of ‘progress’, as it ‘could easily lead us in directions that • Or, since environmental ethics seek to benefit and enhance life,
make us lose touch with human values’ (UNESCO, 2003:3). do we have an obligation to see that terrestrial life expands onto
Ethical questions within the context of a planetary sustainability lifeless planets?
therefore have not only to include all dimensions of sustainabil- • Does the type of extraterrestrial life we discover determine the
ity, but also an additional technological imperative, balanced with appropriate level of protection? In other words, are exotic
questions of responsibility regarding the acquisition of and inter- microbes deserving of the same level of protection as intelligent
vention in extraterrestrial resources, especially if they are poten- life?’ (Meltzer 2010: 111–112; cf. Rummel et al. 2012)
tial habitats.
One should think that regarding asteroids, at least, this matter
should be unproblematic. When Luxembourg‘s press release states
The importance of planetary and environmental
the aim would be ‘to open access to a wealth of previously unex-
protection – does it have to include asteroids as well?
plored mineral resources on lifeless rocks hurling through space,
Earth is isolated from other space objects by vacuum, but space without damaging natural habitats’, one can ask the question
missions can pass through this vacuum, and hence it is in human- how do we know that all these rocks do not carry any traces of
kind’s hand to protect planets from contamination. ‘From the life. This may be probable indeed, ‘because of ionizing radiation
time that humans first began sending spacecraft out from Earth, that is pervasive in space, Clark et al. expected the top meter or
the possibility has existed of forever changing the extraterrestrial so of asteroid surface to be sterile. For this reason as well as
environments that we visit. If we irrevocably alter the nature of because of the effects of high vacuum and thermal disruption

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 International Journal of Astrobiology 263

(which, among other impacts, cause outgassing of water vapour reality (Niebuhr 1963), acknowledging that ‘we are men, not
from regoliths), Clark et al. suggested that sample return missions God; we are responsible for making choices between greater and
excavating asteroidal material only to shallow depths should not lesser evils’ (Niebuhr 1968: 56)18. In theological interpretation,
require back contamination protection such as quarantining’ sustainable development means to take responsibility for the
(Meltzer 2010: 334) with reference to (Clark et al. 1999). ‘preservation’ of creation. With ‘creation’, a fundamentally posi-
Now, mining certainly goes beyond ‘shallow depths’. Hence, a tive evaluation of nature is meant that is nevertheless aware of a
scientific control of space mining missions is of the essence. We serious discrepancy in the relationship between humans and
also know too little how life originates to exclude the possibility their world environment.
of traces of life on asteroids even though it might be in the Realism is the philosophical stance that is particularly suitable
shape of remaining micro fossils (cf. Losch, 2017). There could to illustrate these interconnections, because it mirrors the
also be many more scientific reasons why a space object could entanglement of humankind with the given reality of their sur-
be interesting for science to study and why it should be protected rounding environment (Losch 2011: 252). A critical realism can
from exploitation. A regulation of space mining would indeed be additionally grasp the fragmentary aspect of this relation, and
of high significance, and Luxembourg would do very well to also qualify the moral realism associated here with the epistemo-
establish it quickly, and, as intended, in an internationally logical concept. The further attribution of this realism as a
agreed-on manner. Only this way, the concept of sustainability constructive-critical one attributes due credit to the facilitating
could be applied on these questions as well, while the respective powers of humans. I will hence describe these relations here
meaning of each of the dimensions of sustainability in these with the term CCR and try to apply the concept on the issue of
regards certainly still would have to be thought through. sustainability. This version of realism emphasizes the constructive-
One day Mars will be in reach for space mining. A follow-up critical role of the subject, which mirrors two essential capacities
question would be, if we are also responsible for protecting Mars’ of the human mind, the abilities to believe and to doubt. CCR is
‘biosphere’ (Peters 2014:454). Not long ago, human expansion originally an epistemology that orientates its form at the respect-
and exploration was combined with an imperialistic attitude in rela- ive research field. It is nevertheless open for an ethical or theo-
tion to local life and local culture. In this context, it would maybe logical interpretation of the matter described. Epistemologically,
help studying the history of human colonialism and what we can CCR agrees with a critical view of the subject’s role in the natural
learn from it. The economic advantage to be the first to act in sciences; here, the subject’s influence on research needs to be
space, does summon the dangers of imperialism regarding the eliminated as much as possible, even if this is never totally the
ownership of resources (Capova 2016). ‘Examining the history case. A realism best expresses the experience of discovery and per-
of spaceflight advocacy reveals an ideology of spaceflight that sistence of reality that scientists have. In cultural sciences and
draws deeply on a durable American narrative – a national humanities, the contribution of the subject, however, is crucial
mythology – of frontier pioneering, continual progress, manifest to the research field, which approximates a constructivism. CCR
destiny, free enterprise, ragged individualism, and a right to life therefore is a form of realism that allows for some constructivism,
without limits‘(Billings 2007: 483). Already one commercial mis- especially regarding cultural research objects (Losch 2011: 252).
sion with contaminating effect could suffice to undermine dec- The combination of the two attributes has an additional evalu-
ades of work on planetary protection, for instance. ating meaning and hence hints at the relation of research and eth-
ics; in scientific research processes, cultural construction involving
ethical decisions takes place, and therefore no attempt to know is
What is going on? A constructive-critical realist innocent. When we have to admit that the knower is part of the
interpretation process of knowledge, his or her values do matter in research. In
theological interpretation of this setting, we are on the one hand
We therefore have the responsibility to shape our exploration of responsible stewards of the creation and have to be careful regard-
celestial bodies with as much wisdom as possible and to consider ing our actions. We do not own the Earth. On the other hand, we
future generations’ needs as much as possible.(Meltzer 2010: 2) are maybe more than just stewards. All ‘beings of the universe’
This might simply mean being committed to our children’s and (Francis 2014) that are created in God’s image19, are in some
their children’s generations, not willing to sacrifice their future sense co-creative. One can even speak of humans as ‘created
on the altar of our short-term well-being. Religious traditions co-creators’. This nominalization, however, appears too strong
can maybe help balancing the economic interests with other, to me, because of biblical reservations to safeguard the word for
more moral values17. From a distinctively Christian theological ‘creation’ to God alone, and hence I want to translate the respect-
perspective, accepting something superior to one’s own interests ive deliberations by Philipp Hefner (Hefner 1995) here in that
– as I would understand the ‘fear of God’ – is ‘the beginning of way, that it is humankind’s purpose to shape nature in creative
wisdom’ (Psalm 111, 10). This also means in my view that we and responsible participation in God’s creation and with the
humans must be aware that we are never grasping the whole means of culture towards increasing realization of freedom in
story of what is going on, cannot employ a God’s-eye view and relationship (Losch 2005: 285). We human images of God, how-
hence the fragmentary character of our perception needs to be ever, do not only participate co-creatively in shaping our habitat,
clear and conscious, while we are responsible to the whole of but we also destroy it20, which is illustrated theologically by the
concept of sin – this is why Christian theology has contributed
17
What is undertaken here for Christian belief needs to be pursued for other traditions to the ideas of environmental protection and of sustainability
as well, I am convinced. The results, however, could be divergent, and could make an
intercultural dialogue necessary. Even within the Christian theological tradition, the situ-
18
ation regarding the awareness of sustainability quite varies. While Vogt (2009) presents Cf. Lovin (2009). The common traits in both Niebuhr brother’s ethics sketches
an encompassing catholic approach on the ‘principle of sustainability’, from a protestant Ottati (2009).
19
perspective the topic of sustainability still needs to be dealt with more deeply, cf. Meireis Cf. the discussion in Losch and Krebs (2015).
(2016). 20
Cf. Sigurd Martin Daecke’s description of humans as ‘co-destroyers’, Daecke (1993).

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 264 Andreas Losch

(see, for instance, Moltmann, 1985; Barbour, 1994). The dark side Reality is not only there to be discovered, but it is also our task
of the cultural narrative behind spaceflight and space mining may how to shape it. Each discovery bears the potential for change.
be greed and egocentrism thriving, or at least self-righteousness. NASA’s courageous initiative, for instance, could even change a
To avoid lasting damage to our planet’s eco systems, we have whole world, Mars. What would it mean in this context, to care
to take care for the sustainability of our actions. Therefore, the for sustainability? CCR acknowledges the reality changing
idea of a CCR shall now be employed on the concept of sustain- power of the acting human mind and hence calls for a necessarily
ability, under consideration of not only ecological (that is to say transparent research agenda. It also reminds us to choose sustain-
nature-orientated) sustainability, but also of economic, social able developmental goals, considering the interplay of the differ-
and cultural dimensions. In this context, the cultural aspect will ent aspects of sustainability. Such a cultivation of Earth and its
therefore not only be regarded as an additional pillar of sustain- surrounding space shall be envisioned that allows for long-term
ability, but to some extent also as the means through which the use of existing resources, but also a technological development
topic is approached and framed. ‘[E]nvironmental problems, that makes us one day hopefully independent from Earth. In eth-
like other problems, are socially constructed, building on expert ical perspective, such a presentation takes on anew the contem-
language and concepts, research practices, and available technol- porary challenge of a sustainable development of humankind
ogy’ (Soini & Birkeland 2014: 215). According to this social con- and reconsiders it in the extended framework of the Solar
structivist approach, to see a natural disposition as a ‘problem’ System. Philosophically and theologically, it involves reflections
already implies a cultural aspect, an ethical evaluation of it. The on the moral status of life in the universe, be it earthbound or
idea of CCR allows for such a degree of constructivism and is extraterrestrial.
able to keep this cultural dimension present, without losing the Because Asian countries are now pushing into space as well,
natural-realistic conditions of the one reality by which we are the space race is accelerating. A settlement on the Moon is a
bound and of which we are part of out of sight. It therefore very concrete vision. Mars is the next step. Even more, after a
seems particularly able to broach the issue of the multiple dimen- multiplicity of inhabited worlds has been for centuries fiction
sions of sustainability in this context. and imagination only (Crowe 1999), in our days thousands of pla-
What does this all mean for human interplanetary research? nets outside of our Solar System are to be categorized. We may
Let us take the example of Mars: What do we want to achieve expect that at least every tenth star has its own planet; even the
with our voyages to Mars? Is it sheer curiosity or is it intended closest Solar System Proxima Centauri has a planet in the habit-
to ‘show, what is possible’, when the human habitat is expanded able zone. Facing at least 300 billion stars in our Galaxy alone, and
into the ‘final frontier’ space? Is it indeed a necessary step to safe- hundreds of billions of galaxies in the universe, the existence of
guard humankind’s survival? Which sort of environmental ethics extraterrestrial life seems at least to be possible. What if we dis-
one would have to apply on a lifeless Mars? And if there would be cover a ‘second Earth’ one day which proves to be inhabited?
microbial life on Mars, would it be allowed to ‘sacrifice’ it when We should be prepared for the potential discovery or one day
‘terraforming’ Mars one distant day (cf. McKay, 2009; Smith, even contact with extraterrestrial life. At least Christian theology
2009)? Which agenda and which research aims are behind the should consider it22, as it does believe in one creator God of
diverse Mars programmes? Is Martian life to be protected for everything, who may have allowed life to sprout multiple times
its own sake or only as means for our research goals? Would (Losch & Krebs 2015). Or does all life in the universe stem
extraterrestrial life in general have a dignity of its own, or only from one source, as ‘panspermia’ propagators are convinced?
if it would somehow prove intelligent? And what if extraterrestrial One day, we will hopefully know.
life would be malevolent or simply damaging to humankind? So These considerations exceed what is possible to be sketched
far, the ethical considerations mentioned had all been more or within an article, which presents arguments for the need of an
less anthropocentric. Within a truly intercultural and universal ethics of planetary sustainability, and is scarcely already a devel-
framework, one would maybe need to reconsider this approach. opment of that ethics itself.

Conclusion and outlook

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