ISSN: 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res.

12(07), 928-936

Journal Homepage: - www.journalijar.com

Article DOI: 10.21474/IJAR01/19132

DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/19132

RESEARCH ARTICLE
SOILS IN FORENSIC ANALYSIS: A REVIEW

Subhadeep Karak1, Janakirama Suresh KG1, Tarik Mitran1, Sujatha G.1, Rajiv Kumar2, Sreenivas K.3 and
Umesh Thapa4
1. Soil and Land Resources Assessment Division, Soil Resources and Land Use Mapping and Monitoring Group,
National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, India.
2. Soil Resources and Land Use Mapping and Monitoring Group, National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad,
India.
3. Remote Sensing Application Area, National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, India.
4. Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal, India.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Manuscript Info Abstract
……………………. ………………………………………………………………
Manuscript History This review article highlights article highlights the crucial role of soil in
Received: 30 May 2024 forensic investigations, showcasing its ability to connect suspects,
Final Accepted: 30 June 2024 victims, and crime scenes. In the present scenario, the importance of
Published: July 2024 this work is underscored by the increasing complexity of criminal
activities and the growing need for precise forensic methods. As
Key words:-
Soil Foresnics, Crimes, Investigation, environmental conditions and land use patterns change, understanding
Soil Evidences, Trace Materials, soil characteristics and their forensic applications becomes even more
Advanced Technologies crucial. Through advanced analysis techniques like spectroscopy and
DNA profiling, soil becomes a valuable tool for solving crimes, tracing
geographical origins, and providing crucial evidence, reinforcing its
importance in modern forensic science. This review showcases soil as a
powerful, often overlooked tool in solving crimes and bringing justice,
despite challenges like soil variability and contamination.

Copy Right, IJAR, 2024,. All rights reserved.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
1. Introduction
Soil, often seen as just dirt, plays a critical role in forensic science, helping solve crimes and uncovering hidden
truths. The ubiquity and transferability of soil to objects or persons has become a powerful tool in investigations
(Dawson et al., 2010). Even though soil might seem unimportant at first glance, it holds a wealth of valuable
information about a crime scene. By examining soil samples from crime scenes, forensic scientists can connect
suspects, victims, and locations, providing crucial evidence. In Roman times, soil and rocks found in the hooves of
horses were reputedly used to trace their origins and travel paths (Murray, 2011). This ancient practice highlights
the longstanding significance of soil analysis in tracing and solving mysteries. In modern forensic science, when
investigating crime scenes or examining evidence, soil components like mixture of inorganic (geological), organic
(biological), and organo-mineral components are discovered and gathered using hand lenses or light microscopes
(Dawson et al., 2015). To ensure that soil samples are relevant during an investigation, they must be carefully
collected and handled using recognized procedures, then evaluated by a soil researcher with forensic science
knowledge (Dudley, 1975). Forensic soil science involves the use of soil science, particularly investigations
involving soil morphology, soil mapping (aided by soil texture maps and spatially stored soil data), minerals,
chemistry, geophysics, and cell biology, to solve legal issues, problems, or theories (Chaperlin, 1983).This article
explores the importance of soil in forensic investigations, detailing how scientists analyze soil to solve crimes and

Corresponding Author:- Subhadeep Karak 928

Address: Soil and Land Resources Assessment Division, Soil Resources and Land Use
Mapping and Monitoring Group, National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, India.
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bring justice. Through meticulous analysis of soil samples, forensic scientists can uncover hidden evidence, trace
geographical origins, and connect suspects to crime scenes.

2. The Foundation of Forensic Soil Analysis

Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic minerals, organic materials, and biological matter, varying greatly across
different locations. This variability makes soil a unique and powerful tool in forensic investigations. The principle
behind forensic soil analysis is based on Locard's Exchange Principle (Locard, 1930), which states that every
contact leaves a trace. When people or objects come into contact with soil, they transfer tiny particles that can be
analyzed to provide clues about where they have been.

Soil pedology, the scientific study of soils in their natural environment, is pivotal in forensic analysis. Each location
exhibits a unique soil profile characterized by distinct physical, chemical, and biological properties. Pedology
facilitates the identification of these unique soil characteristics, including color, texture, structure, and mineral
content (Correa et al., 2018). This enables the comparison of soil samples from a crime scene with those from a
suspect's clothing, shoes, or vehicle, potentially establishing a link between an individual or object and a specific
location.

3. Tracing Origins: Soil as a Geographical Identifier

Soil serves as a powerful geographical identifier in forensic science. Soil formation, or pedogenesis, is influenced by
factors such as parent material, climate, topography, vegetation, and human activity. These factors create unique soil
profiles in different regions, making soil a "fingerprint" of the environment.

Amount of
forces and
duration of
contact
Individual Microscopic
properties Size of soil
of soil
Soil properties
that can
influence Soil
Length of Foresnics
External
time after Disturbance
contact

Nature of
contact
surfaces

Fig. 1:- Factors influencing Soil Forensic Analysis

Forensic soil analysis compares soil samples from crime scenes with reference samples from known locations. By
examining characteristics like mineral composition, organic content, texture, color (Sugita et al., 1996), and
microorganisms, scientists can infer the geographical origin of a soil sample. This helps investigators link crime
scenes to specific areas, providing crucial evidence in criminal cases. Sometimes, soil pedology considers the
influence of environmental conditions, such as moisture, temperature, and pH, which can affect the decomposition
of organic material (Speruda et al., 2022).

Technological advancements have enhanced the capabilities of forensic soil analysis. Techniques like hyperspectral
imaging, satellite imagery, and geographic information systems (GIS) allow scientists to assess soil properties over
large areas and create detailed maps (Ruffell et al., 2010). These tools help forensic scientists identify and compare
soil samples with greater accuracy.

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4. Uncovering Hidden Evidence: Soil as a Trace Material

Soil is a reservoir for trace materials, including DNA, fibers, botanical remains, and microscopic particles, that can
provide valuable insights into a crime. When individuals come into contact with soil, they leave behind traces that
forensic scientists can analyze to gather evidence. According to Grieve (2005), soil trace evidence can provide
critical information about the movements and activities of suspects and victims, often yielding insights that other
forms of evidence cannot.

Techniques such as microscopy, spectroscopy, and DNA profiling are used to examine trace materials in soil
samples. Microscopic analysis reveals particles like pollen grains, plant fragments, insect remains, and mineral
grains, which can provide clues about the environment and activities associated with a soil sample.

Spectroscopic techniques, such as infrared and Raman spectroscopy, offer insights into the chemical composition of
trace materials and help to identify organic compounds, minerals, and other substances present in soil samples
(Chauhan et al., 2018). DNA profiling, a powerful tool in forensic science, enables scientists to extract genetic
material from soil and link it to individuals or species of interest (Young et al., 2021).

Fig. 2:- Microscopic analysis of soil sample

5. Methodologies of Soil Analysis

Forensic examination of soil is not only concerned with the analysis of naturally occurring rocks, minerals,
vegetation, and animal matter but also includes the detection of such manufactured materials such as ions from
synthetic fertilizers and from different environments as environmental artifacts whose presence may impart soil with
characteristics that will make it unique to a particular location (Cengiz et al., 2003). Forensic soil analysis
encompasses a range of techniques to evaluate soil samples, from basic visual examinations to advanced chemical
and biological analyses (Fitzpatrick & Fitzpatrick, 2019). These methodologies include visual examination,
chemical analysis, mineralogical analysis, and biological analysis.

5.1 Visual Examination

Visual examination involves inspecting soil samples under a microscope to observe physical characteristics like
texture, color, and structure. Microscopic analysis provides detailed insights into the composition and morphology
of soil particles (Sugita et al., 2001), helping identify minerals, plant fragments, and other microscopic components.

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Removal of Soils from

Samples

Sample sent to laboratory for screening

(Texture, particle size, Color,
Microscopic analysis)

Mineral Composition Inorganic Analysis

(Walkey black method, (XRD, ICP-MS, ICP-OES

Spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD etc.) etc.)

ICP-MS: Inductively coupled plasma

mass spectrometry
Comparison of the results of
ICP-OES: Inductively Coupled the questioned sample and
Plasma Optical Emission reference sample with
spectroscopy database and statistics

FTIR: Fourier Transform Infrared

Spectroscopy

XRD: X-Ray Diffraction

Interpretation,
evaluation and final
report preparation

Fig.3: Flowchart of Methodologies of Forensic Soil Analysis 931

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5.2 Chemical Analysis

Chemical analysis characterizes the chemical composition and properties of soil samples. The Microwave
digestion technique followed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) helps to
determine the content of heavy metals in sediments and soils (Sandroni et al., 2003). Techniques such as wet
chemistry, elemental analysis, and spectroscopy are used to identify specific chemical constituents. For example, X-
ray fluorescene (XRF) spectroscopy determines the elemental composition, while Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy provides information about organic compounds (Pye et al., 2006).

5.3 Mineralogical Analysis

Mineralogical analysis focuses on identifying and characterizing mineral phases in soil samples. Techniques like X-
ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyze the crystalline structure and mineral
composition, revealing information about the geological origin and environmental conditions associated with the
soil (Pye et al., 2007)

5.4 Biological Analysis

Biological analysis identifies microorganisms, plant material, and other biological components in soil samples.
Techniques such as DNA sequencing, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microscopy analyze the biological
content, helping trace sources of contamination and assess microbial activity (Young et al., 2014). This analysis
provides insights into the ecological context and potential sources of biological evidence.

6. Case Studies: Soil's Role in Criminal Investigations

6.1 The Atlanta Child Murders: A Case Study
(As reported by FBI News, February 7, 2014 https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/-serial-killers-part-5-wayne-
williams-and-the-atlanta-child-murders )

Background: In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Atlanta, Georgia, was gripped by a series of tragic murders
primarily targeting African-American children and young adults. The victims were often found in remote areas,
making it difficult for investigators to establish clear links between the crime scenes and the perpetrator.

Forensic Soil Analysis: Soil analysis emerged as a pivotal tool in these investigations. Forensic soil scientists
collected soil samples from various crime scenes and examined their geological characteristics, such as mineral
content, color, texture, and composition. The analysis revealed that several samples from different crime scenes
shared unique and distinct geological traits, suggesting a common origin.

Linking Crime Scenes: By comparing the soil samples from the crime scenes with reference samples from different
locations, investigators could narrow down potential sites where the perpetrator might have disposed of the bodies.
This process involved detailed mapping of the geological landscape around Atlanta and identifying specific areas
with matching soil profiles.

Arrest and Conviction: The forensic evidence eventually led investigators to focus on Wayne Williams, a local
man who was later linked to several of the murders. Soil samples taken from Williams' car, home, and other
belongings matched the distinct soil profiles found at the crime scenes. This evidence, combined with other
investigative findings, led to Williams' arrest and conviction for two of the murders. Although Williams was only
convicted of two murders, the evidence suggested his involvement in many more, providing closure to numerous
grieving families.

6.2 The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case: A Case Study

(As reported by FBI News on their “History of famous cases and criminals
https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/lindbergh-kidnapping )

Background: In 1932, the kidnapping of Charles Lindbergh Jr., the infant son of famous aviator Charles Lindbergh,
became a national sensation. The baby was taken from the Lindbergh home, and a ransom note was left behind.
Despite the payment of the ransom, the child was found dead weeks later.
Forensic Soil Analysis: During the investigation, forensic scientists turned to soil analysis to track the kidnapper's
movements and identify the ransom drop site. Soil samples from the ransom drop site were collected and analyzed

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for their mineral and organic content. These samples were then compared to reference soil samples from various
locations.

Identifying the Ransom Drop Site: The detailed analysis allowed scientists to pinpoint the specific location where
the ransom money had been buried. The soil characteristics at the ransom site matched those found on the
kidnapper's belongings and the areas he frequented.

Conviction: The forensic evidence, combined with other investigative efforts, led to the identification and arrest of
Bruno Hauptmann. Soil analysis played a crucial role in corroborating the evidence against Hauptmann, including
the ransom money found in his possession. Hauptmann was ultimately convicted of the kidnapping and murder of
Charles Lindbergh Jr., highlighting the importance of forensic soil analysis in solving the case.

Fig. 4: Prime accused with the letter of FBI Fig 5: Missing advertisement of the child
Source: https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindbergh_ki
dnapping

6.3 The Yorkshire Ripper Case: A Case Study

(As reported by BBC News, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-34972009)
Background: In the late 1970s and early 1980s, northern England was terrorized by the Yorkshire Ripper, who
committed a series of brutal murders. The perpetrator targeted women, and the police struggled to catch him due to
the random nature of the attacks and the lack of clear evidence.
Forensic Soil Analysis: Forensic soil analysis became a critical component of the investigation. Soil samples were
collected from various crime scenes and examined for their unique profiles. The analysis focused on identifying
specific soil characteristics such as particle size, composition, and the presence of unique minerals or organic
materials.
Linking the Perpetrator to the Crime Scenes: Soil samples taken from Peter Sutcliffe's clothing, footwear, and
vehicle were compared to the samples from the crime scenes. The unique soil profiles associated with Sutcliffe's
movements provided crucial evidence. For instance, soil found on Sutcliffe's vehicle matched the soil from the
locations where several victims had been found.
Conviction: The soil evidence, along with witness testimonies and other forensic findings, established Sutcliffe's
presence at multiple crime scenes. This evidence played a significant role in his arrest and subsequent conviction for
the murders. Sutcliffe was convicted of murdering 13 women and attempting to murder 7 others, bringing an end to
his reign of terror.

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7. Challenges and Limitations

While soil analysis is invaluable in forensic investigations, it faces several challenges and limitations. Understanding
these hurdles is crucial for ensuring the accurate interpretation and application of soil analysis in criminal
investigations.

Soil Variability
Soil properties vary significantly even within small areas, complicating the comparison of samples. This variability
can make it difficult to establish distinct soil profiles, especially in regions with complex soil compositions.

Lack of Standardization
There is a lack of standardized protocols for soil analysis in forensic investigations. Different laboratories may use
varying methods, leading to inconsistencies in sample collection, analysis, and interpretation. Standardized protocols
are needed to ensure reliable and reproducible results.

Reference Databases
Comprehensive reference databases containing soil profiles from various locations are essential for comparison.
However, these databases may be lacking or incomplete, limiting their utility for forensic analysis.

Contamination and Preservation

Soil samples collected from crime scenes are susceptible to contamination from various sources, compromising their
integrity as forensic evidence (Croft et al., 2004). Proper collection, handling, and preservation are crucial to
minimize contamination and maintain evidentiary value.

8. Future Directions and Innovations

The future of forensic soil analysis holds great promise, driven by advancements in technology and interdisciplinary
collaboration. Martínez et al. (2017) highlighted current trends and future prospects in forensic soil analysis,
emphasizing the integration of new technologies and methodologies to improve accuracy and reliability.

Advances in Analytical Techniques

Emerging techniques like isotopic analysis, nanoparticle tracking, and hyperspectral imaging are revolutionizing soil
analysis (Edelman et al., 2012). Isotopic analysis provides insights into the geographic origin and environmental
history of soil samples, while nanoparticle tracking detects trace materials at the nanoscale. Hyperspectral imaging
offers enhanced capabilities for identifying soil properties.

Integration of Big Data and Machine Learning

Big data analytics and machine learning algorithms are transforming soil analysis. These tools process large
datasets, identify patterns, and extract meaningful insights. Machine learning helps forensic scientists make
informed decisions and uncover hidden correlations within soil data.

Portable and Field-Deployable Technologies

Portable instruments like XRF analyzers, handheld Raman spectrometers, and mobile DNA sequencers enable rapid
on-site analysis of soil samples (Woods et al., 2014). These technologies provide real-time data, supporting field
operations and investigative decisions.
Forensic Geo-informatics and Spatial Analysis
Geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing technologies, and spatial statistics enhance the spatial
representation of soil data. These tools create detailed maps and models of crime scenes, soil distributions, and
environmental contexts, providing valuable insights for forensic analysis (Krekeler et al., 2023)

Interdisciplinary Research and Collaboration

Collaboration between scientists, law enforcement agencies, and legal professionals drives innovation in forensic
soil analysis. Interdisciplinary research fosters the development of advanced techniques and methodologies,
enhancing the field's capabilities.

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Conclusion:-
Soil plays a crucial role in forensic science, helping solve crimes and bring justice. Through meticulous analysis of
soil samples, forensic scientists can uncover hidden evidence, trace geographical origins, and connect suspects to
crime scenes. Despite challenges like soil variability and contamination, advancements in technology and
interdisciplinary collaboration continue to enhance the capabilities of forensic soil analysis. By integrating soil
science with forensic methodologies, this work not only advances the field but also reinforces the importance of soil
as a vital component of forensic investigations, paving the way for more precise and reliable criminal justice
outcomes.

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