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Biology 11e

Eldra P. Solomon
FORMER AFFILIATIONS
Hillsborough Community College, Tampa
University of South Florida

Charles E. Martin
PROFESSOR EMERITUS, Rutgers University

Diana W. Martin
PROFESSOR EMERITUS, Rutgers University

Linda R. Berg
FORMER AFFILIATIONS
University of Maryland, College Park
St. Petersburg College

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1 A View of Life

This is a very exciting time to study biology, the science of

life. Biologists are making remarkable new discoveries that
affect every aspect of our lives, including our health, food, KEY CONCEPTS
safety, relationships with humans and other organisms, and 1.1 Basic themes of biology include evolution, interactions
the environment of our planet. New knowledge provides of biological systems, inter-relationships of structure and
new insights into the human species and the millions of other function, information transfer, and energy transfer.
organisms with which we share planet Earth. Biology affects 1.2 Characteristics of life include cellular structure, growth
our personal, governmental, and societal decisions. and development, self-regulated metabolism, response to
One of the most exciting areas of current research is genetic stimuli, and reproduction.
engineering, specifically CRISPR, a breakthrough technology 1.3 Biological organization is hierarchical and includes
chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism
that allows researchers to edit genes. CRISPR (clustered regularly
levels; ecological organization includes population,
interspaced short palindromic repeats) are sections of prokaryotic
community, ecosystem, and biosphere levels.
(archaeal and bacterial) DNA that have short repeating base 1.4 Information transfer includes DNA transfer of information
sequences. Near each CRISPR there are groups of cas genes. The from one generation to the next, chemical and electrical
CRISPR/Cas system protects prokaryotes from foreign genetic signals within and among the cells of every organism,
material (which is carried and inserted into their genetic material and sensory receptors and response systems that allow
by plasmids and phages). RNA in nearby spacer sequences works organisms to communicate with one another and interact
with Cas proteins to recognize and remove the foreign DNA with their environment.
or RNA. 1.5 Individual organisms and entire ecosystems depend on a
continuous input of energy. Energy is transferred within
cells and from one organism to another.
PHOTO: CRISPR editing a genome (genetic material in a cell). 1.6 Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms
This molecular model of gene editing using CRISPR (clustered change over time, adapting to changes in their environment;
regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) shows a Cas9 protein the tree of life includes three major branches, or domains.
(purple) attached to the DNA of a cell using a guide RNA (orange) 1.7 Biologists ask questions, develop hypotheses, make
that matches a target DNA sequence (light blue). The Cas9 protein predictions, and collect data by careful observation and
separates the DNA strands of the double helix. The green area of the by performing experiments; based on their results, they
DNA identifies the location where the Cas9 protein is attached and come to conclusions and then share their work with other
“cuts” the target DNA, changing the gene sequence. Evan Oto/Science Source scientists and with the public.
1
 Researchers are now using CRISPR as a tool for editing genes blood cells, which function to transport oxygen. Similarly,
rapidly and inexpensively (see image). By “knocking out” specific on the level of organisms, the canine teeth of carnivorous
genes, scientists discover the function of these genes. CRISPR mammals are adapted for stabbing their prey and ripping
identifies the specific region of DNA that has been targeted. It flesh. In contrast, horses and other herbivorous mammals
then cuts out and removes the gene of interest. You will learn have teeth adapted for cutting off bits of vegetation and
more about CRISPR when you study genetics later in this book. grinding plant material. In each case, structure and func-
CRISPR/Cas9 technology has been used to successfully tion are inter-related.
deactivate specific human genes, modify yeasts for biofuel 3. Information must be transmitted within organisms and
production, and modify agricultural crops. Scientists are among organisms. Each organism must be able to receive
researching how CRISPR technology could produce mutant information from the surrounding environment. The
model stem cell lines for studying disease, eliminate proteins survival and function of every cell and every organism
that cause rejection in organ transplants, and selectively cut out depend on the orderly transmission of information. As
or alter any targeted human gene. CRISPR research will almost we will learn, evolution depends on the transmission of
certainly lead to more effective ways of preventing and treating genetic information from one generation to another.
cancer and HIV, and of dramatically decreasing the spread of 4. Life depends on a continuous input of energy from the
mosquito-transmitted diseases, such as Zika and malaria. sun because every activity of a living cell or organism
CRISPR technology is just one of hundreds of exciting areas of requires energy. Energy from the sun flows through indi-
biological research that bring together science, technology, and vidual organisms and through ecosystems. Within living
society. Whatever your college major or career goals, knowledge of cells energy is continuously transferred from one chemi-
biological concepts is a vital tool for understanding our world and cal compound to another.
for meeting many of the personal, societal, and global challenges 5. Evolution is the process by which populations of organ-
that confront us. Among these challenges are the expanding isms change over time. Scientists have accumulated a
human population, decreasing biological diversity, diminishing wealth of evidence showing that the diverse life-forms on
natural resources, global climate change, and prevention and cure this planet are related and that populations have evolved—
of diseases, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s that is, have changed over time—from earlier forms of life.
disease. Meeting these challenges will require the combined efforts The process of evolution is the framework for the science
of biologists and other scientists, health professionals, educators, of biology and is a major theme of this book.
politicians, and biologically informed citizens.
This book is a starting point for your exploration of biology.
The interaction of biological systems, the inter-relationship of
It will provide you with the basic knowledge and the tools to
structure and function, information transfer, energy transfer,
become a part of this fascinating science as well as a more
and the process of evolution are forces that give life its unique
informed member of society.
characteristics. You will find reference to one or more of these
unifying themes in every chapter of Biology. We begin our
study of biology by developing a more precise understanding
1.1 Major Themes of Biology of the fundamental characteristics of living systems and of the
levels of biological organization. We then take a closer look at
LEARNING OBJECTIVE some of the major themes of biology. We end Chapter 1 with
a discussion of the process of science.
1 Describe five basic themes of biology.

In this first chapter we introduce five major themes of biology.

These themes are interconnected with one another and with CHECKPOINT 1.1
almost every concept that we discuss in this book. • Why are information transmission, energy transfer, and
evolution considered basic to life?
1. Biological systems interact. Every organism is a biological
system made up of millions of other biological systems. Each • CONNE CT What are some ways in which an organism
of its cells is a biological system, as is each organ (e.g., heart is dependent on other biological systems?
and liver) and body system (e.g., cardiovascular system and
digestive system). Each of the multitude of microorgan-
isms (e.g., bacteria) that inhabit an organism is also a bio-
logical system. Making this concept even more interesting, 1.2 Characteristics of Life
an organism cannot survive on its own. Every organism is
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
a biological system that is interdependent with many other
biological systems. Clearly, scientists can study biological 2 Distinguish between living systems and nonliving things by
systems and their interactions at many different levels. describing the features that characterize living organisms.
2. Structure and function are interrelated in all biological
systems. The structure of neurons that function to trans- We easily recognize that a pine tree, a butterfly, and a horse are
mit information is very different from the structure of red living systems, whereas a rock is not. Despite their diversity,
2 / Chapter 1
the organisms that inhabit our planet share a common set of
characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things.
These features include a precise kind of organization, growth
and development, self-regulated metabolism, the ability to

Wim van Egmond/Visuals Unlimited/Getty Images

respond to stimuli, reproduction, and adaptation to environ-
mental change.

Organisms are composed of cells

Although they vary greatly in size and appearance, all organ-
isms consist of basic units called cells. New cells are formed
only by the division of previously existing cells. As will be dis-
cussed in Chapter 4, these concepts are expressed in the cell
theory, another fundamental unifying concept of biology. 250 mm
Some of the simplest life-forms, such as protozoa, are (a) Unicellular organisms consist of one cell that performs all the
unicellular organisms, meaning that each consists of a single functions essential to life. Ciliates, such as this Paramecium, move
cell (FIG. 1-1a). In contrast, the body of a maple tree or a buf- about by beating their hairlike cilia.
falo is made of billions of cells (FIG. 1-1b). In such complex
multicellular organisms, life processes depend on the coordi-
nated functions of component cells that are organized to form
tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Every cell is enveloped by a protective plasma membrane
that separates it from the surrounding external environment.
The plasma membrane regulates passage of materials between
the cell and its environment. Cells have specialized molecules—
deoxyribonucleic acid, more simply known as DNA—that
contain genetic instructions and transmit genetic information.
Cells typically have internal structures called organelles that
are specialized to perform specific functions. For example,
mitochondria, which we can think of as the power plants of the
cell, convert energy in food molecules into energy forms that
can be more conveniently used by the cell.
There are two fundamentally different types of cells: pro-

McMurray Photography
karyotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are microscopic
organisms classified in two large groups (called domains):
domain Bacteria and domain Archaea. Prokaryotic cells do
not have a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles.
All other organisms are characterized by their eukaryotic
(b) Multicellular organisms, such as this African buffalo (Syncerus
cells. These cells typically contain a variety of organelles caffer) and the plants on which it grazes, may consist of billions of
enclosed by membranes, including a nucleus, which contains cells specialized to perform specific functions.
DNA, the genetic information.
Figure 1-1 Unicellular and multicellular life-forms
Organisms grow and develop
Biological growth involves an increase in the size of individ- to the functions the organism must perform. Like many other
ual cells of an organism, in the number of cells, or in both. organisms, every human begins life as a fertilized egg that
Growth may be uniform in the various parts of an organism, or then grows and develops.
it may be greater in some parts than in others, causing the body
proportions to change as growth occurs. Some organisms— Organisms regulate their metabolic
most trees, for example—continue to grow throughout their
lives. Many animals have a defined growth period that termi-
processes
nates when a characteristic adult size is reached. An intriguing Within all organisms, chemical reactions and energy transforma-
aspect of the growth process is that each part of the organism tions occur that are essential to nutrition, the growth and repair of
typically continues to function as it grows. cells, and the conversion of energy into usable forms. The sum
Organisms develop as well as grow. Development includes of all the chemical activities of the organism is its metabolism.
all the changes that take place during an organism’s life. The Metabolic processes occur continuously in every organism,
structures and body form that develop are exquisitely adapted and they must be carefully regulated to maintain homeostasis,
A View of Life / 3
an appropriate, balanced internal environment. The term
homeostasis also refers to the automatic tendency of the organ-
ism to maintain a steady state. For example, when a particu-
lar substance is required, cell processes that produce it must
be turned on. When enough of a cell product has been made,
its manufacture must be decreased or turned off. These
homeostatic mechanisms are self-regulating control systems
that are remarkably sensitive and efficient.
The regulation of glucose (a simple sugar) concentration Flagella
in the blood of complex animals is a good example of a homeo-
static mechanism. Your cells require a constant supply of glu-
cose molecules, which they break down to obtain energy. The
circulatory system delivers glucose and other nutrients to all
the cells. When the concentration of glucose in the blood rises

CAMR/A. Barry Dowsett/Science Source

above normal limits, glucose is stored in the liver and in mus-
cle cells. When you have not eaten for a few hours, the glucose
concentration begins to fall. Your body mobilizes stored glu-
cose. If necessary, the body converts other stored nutrients to
glucose, bringing the glucose concentration in the blood back
to normal levels. When the glucose concentration decreases,
you also feel hungry and can restore nutrients by eating.
1 mm
Figure 1-2 Biological movement
Organisms respond to stimuli These bacteria (Helicobacter pylori), equipped with flagella for
locomotion, have been linked to stomach ulcers. The photograph
All forms of life respond to stimuli, physical or chemical was taken using a scanning electron microscope. The bacteria are
changes in their internal or external environment. Stimuli that not really red and blue. Their color has been artificially enhanced.
evoke a response in most organisms are changes in the color,
intensity, or direction of light; changes in temperature, pres-
sure, or sound; and changes in the chemical composition of specialized cells that respond to specific types of stimuli. For
the surrounding soil, air, or water. Responding to stimuli often example, cells in the retina of the vertebrate eye respond to light.
involves movement, although not always locomotion (moving Although their responses may not be as obvious as those
from one place to another). of animals, plants do respond to light, gravity, water, touch,
In simple organisms, the entire individual may be sensitive and other stimuli. For example, plants orient their leaves to
to stimuli. Certain unicellular organisms, for example, respond to the sun and grow toward light. Many plant responses involve
bright light by retreating. In some organisms, locomotion is different growth rates of various parts of the plant body. A
achieved by the slow oozing of the cell, the process of amoeboid few plants, such as the Venus flytrap of the Carolina swamps,
movement. Other organisms move by beating tiny, hairlike are very sensitive to touch and catch insects (FIG. 1-3). Their
extensions of the cell called cilia or longer structures known as leaves are hinged along the midrib, and they have a scent
flagella (FIG. 1-2). Some bacteria
move by rotating their flagella.
Most animals move very
obviously. They wiggle, crawl,
swim, run, or fly by contracting
muscles. Sponges, corals, and
oysters have free-swimming lar-
val stages, but most are sessile as
adults, meaning that they do not
Linas T/Shutterstock.com
Linas T/Shutterstock.com

move from place to place. In fact,

they may remain firmly attached
to a surface, such as the sea bot-
tom or a rock. Many sessile
organisms have cilia or flagella
(b) The edges of the leaf come together and
that beat rhythmically, bring- (a) When hairs on the leaf surface of the Venus interlock, preventing the insect’s escape. The
flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) detect the touch
ing them food and oxygen in of an insect, the leaf responds by folding. leaf then secretes enzymes that kill and digest
the surrounding water. Complex the insect.
animals, such as grasshoppers, Figure 1-3 Plants respond to stimuli
lizards, and humans, have highly
4 / Chapter 1
that attracts insects. Trigger hairs on the leaf surface detect
the arrival of an insect and stimulate the leaf to fold. When the
edges come together, they interlock, preventing the insect’s
escape. The leaf then secretes enzymes that kill and digest the
insect. The Venus flytrap usually grows in nitrogen-deficient
soil. The plant obtains part of the nitrogen required for its

Cabisco/Visuals Unlimited, Inc.

growth from the insects it “eats.”

Organisms reproduce
At one time, people thought worms arose spontaneously from
horsehair in a water trough, maggots from decaying meat,
and frogs from the mud of the Nile. Thanks to the work of 100 mm
a great many scientists, beginning with pioneering studies
by Italian physician Francesco Redi in the 17th century and (a) Asexual reproduction. One individual gives rise to two
French chemist Louis Pasteur in the 19th century, we know or more offspring that are similar to the parent. Difflugia, a
unicellular amoeba, is shown dividing to form two amoebas.
that organisms arise only from previously existing organisms.
Simple organisms, such as amoebas, perpetuate them-
selves by asexual reproduction (FIG. 1-4a). When an amoeba
has grown to a certain size, it reproduces by splitting to form
two new amoebas. Before an amoeba divides, its hereditary
material (set of genes) is duplicated, and one complete set is
distributed to each new cell. Except for size, each new amoeba
is similar to the parent cell. The only way that variation
occurs among asexually reproducing organisms is by genetic
mutation, a permanent change in the genes.
In most plants and animals, sexual reproduction is car-
ried out by the fusion of an egg and a sperm cell to form a

iStock.com/PK6289
fertilized egg (FIG. 1-4b). The new organism develops from
the fertilized egg. Offspring produced by sexual reproduc-
tion are the product of the interaction of various genes con-
tributed by the mother and the father. Genetic variation is (b) Sexual reproduction. Typically, each of two parents
important in the vital processes of evolution and adaptation. contributes a gamete (sperm or egg). Gametes fuse to produce
the offspring, which has a combination of the traits of both
parents. A pair of cucumber beetles is shown mating.
Populations evolve and become
Figure 1-4 Asexual and sexual reproduction
adapted to the environment
The ability of a population to evolve over many generations
and adapt to its environment equips it to survive in a chang-
ing world. Adaptations are inherited characteristics that
enhance an organism’s ability to survive in a particular envi-
ronment. The long, flexible tongue of the frog is an adapta-
tion for catching insects. The feathers and lightweight bones
of birds are adaptations for flying, and their thick fur coats
allow polar bears to survive in frigid temperatures. Adapta-
McMurray Photography

tions may be structural, physiological, biochemical, behav-

ioral, or a combination of all four (FIG. 1-5). Every biologically
successful organism is a complex collection of coordinated
adaptations produced through evolutionary processes.
Figure 1-5 Adaptations
These Burchell’s zebras (Equus burchelli), photographed in Tanzania,
are behaviorally adapted to position themselves to watch for lions
CHECKPOINT 1.2 and other predators. Stripes are thought to be an adaptation for
visual protection against predators. They serve as camouflage or to
• What characteristics distinguish a living organism from a rock? break up form when spotted from a distance. The zebra stomach is
• PREDICT What would be the consequences to an organism adapted for feeding on coarse grass passed over by other grazers,
if its homeostatic mechanisms failed? Explain your answer. an adaptation that helps the animal survive when food is scarce.

A View of Life / 5
1.3 Levels of Biological roots and leaves in plants. In animals, each major group of
biological functions is performed by a coordinated group
Organization of tissues and organs called an organ system. The circulatory
and digestive systems are examples of organ systems. Func-
LEARNING OBJECTIVE tioning together with great precision, organ systems make up
a complex, multicellular organism. Again, emergent proper-
3 Construct a hierarchy of biological organization, including
levels characteristic of individual organisms and levels ties are evident. An organism is much more than its compo-
characteristic of ecological systems. nent organ systems.

Whether we study a single organism or the world of life as a Several levels of ecological
whole, we can identify a hierarchy of biological organization
organization can be identified
(FIG. 1-6). At every level, structure and function are precisely
coordinated. One way to study a particular level is by look- Organisms interact to form still more complex levels of bio-
ing at its components. Biologists can gain insights about cells logical organization. All the members of one species living
by studying atoms and molecules. Learning about a struc- in the same geographic area at the same time make up a
ture by studying its parts is called reductionism. However, population. The populations of various types of organisms
the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Each level has that inhabit a particular area and interact with one another
emergent properties, characteristics not found at lower form a community. A community can consist of hundreds of
levels. For example, populations of organisms have emergent different types of organisms. The human body, for example,
properties such as population density, age structure, and birth harbors a community of hundreds of species of microorgan-
and death rates. The individuals that make up a population isms, its microbiota, that critically affect human health.
do not have these characteristics. Consider also the human A community together with its nonliving environment is
brain. The brain is composed of billions of neurons (nerve an ecosystem. An ecosystem can be as small as a pond (or even
cells). However, we could study every one of these individual a puddle) or as vast as the Great Plains of North America or
neurons and have no clue about the functional capacities of the Arctic tundra. All Earth’s ecosystems together are known
the brain. Only when the neurons interact are the emergent as the biosphere. The biosphere includes all systems of Earth
properties, such as the capacity for thought, judgment, and that are inhabited by living organisms: the atmosphere, the
motor coordination, evident. hydrosphere (water in any form), and the lithosphere (Earth’s
crust). The study of how organisms relate to one another and
Organisms have several levels to their physical environment is called ecology (derived from
the Greek oikos, meaning “house”).
of organization
The chemical level, the most basic level of organization,
includes atoms and molecules. An atom is the smallest unit
of a chemical element that retains the characteristic proper- CHECKPOINT 1.3
ties of that element. For example, an atom of hydrogen is the • What are the levels of organization within an organism?
smallest possible amount of hydrogen. Atoms combine chem- • PREDICT At which level do you think more biological
ically to form molecules. Two atoms of hydrogen combine systems would be interacting: organism, population, or
with one atom of oxygen to form a single molecule of water. ecosystem? Justify your answer.
Although composed of two types of atoms that are gases under
conditions found on Earth, water can exist as a gas, liquid, or
solid. The properties of water are very different from those of
its hydrogen and oxygen components, an example of emer- 1.4 Information Transfer
gent properties.
At the cellular level, many types of atoms and molecules LEARNING OBJECTIVE
associate with one another to form cells. However, a cell is 4 Summarize the importance of information transfer within
much more than a heap of atoms and molecules. Its emergent and between living systems, giving specific examples.
properties make it the basic structural and functional unit of
life, the simplest component of living matter that can carry on Biological systems receive and respond to information. They
all the activities necessary for life. also store information in the form of DNA (or RNA). An
During the evolution of multicellular organisms, cells organism inherits the information it needs to grow, develop,
associated to form tissues. For example, most animals have carry on self-regulated metabolism, respond to stimuli, and
muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Plants have epidermis, a tis- reproduce. Each organism must also have precise instructions
sue that serves as a protective covering, and vascular tissues for making the molecules necessary for its cells to communi-
that move materials throughout the plant body. In most com- cate. The information an organism requires to carry on these
plex organisms, tissues organize into functional structures life processes is coded and transmitted in the form of chemi-
called organs, such as the heart and stomach in animals and cal substances and electrical impulses.
6 / Chapter 1
Organism
Organ systems
work together
in a functional
organism.
Population
A population
consists of
organisms of the
Organism same species.

Population

Organ system Organ system

(e.g., skeletal
system) Tissues
and organs make Community
up organ systems. The populations
of different
species that
populate the
Organ Organ
same area make
(e.g., bone) up a community.
Tissues form
organs.

Tissue Community
(e.g., bone tissue)
Cells associate Tissue Bone cells
to form tissues.

Nucleus
Cellular level Cell
Ecosystem
Atoms and molecules
A community
make up the cytoplasm
together with
and form organelles,
the nonliving
such as the nucleus
environment
and mitochondria (the
forms an
site of many energy
ecosystem.
transformations). Organelle
Organelles perform Ecosystem
various functions
of the cell.

Chemical level Macromolecule Biosphere

Atoms join to Earth and all
form molecules. its communities
Biosphere
Macromolecules are constitute the
large molecules such biosphere.
as proteins and DNA. Oxygen atom
Hydrogen atoms
Molecule

Water

Figure 1-6 The hierarchy of biological organization

A View of Life / 7
DNA transmits information from
one generation to the next
Humans give birth only to human babies, not to giraffes or rose-
bushes. In organisms that reproduce sexually, each offspring is
a combination of the traits of its parents. In 1953, James Watson
and Francis Crick worked out the structure of DNA, the large
molecule that makes up the genes, units of hereditary infor-
mation (FIG. 1-7). A DNA molecule consists of two chains of
atoms twisted into a helix. As will be described in Chapter 3,
each chain is made up of a sequence of chemical subunits called
nucleotides. There are four types of nucleotides in DNA, and
each sequence of three nucleotides is part of the genetic code.
Watson and Crick’s work, building on the earlier findings of
many researchers, led to the understanding of the genetic code.
The information coded in sequences of nucleotides in DNA
transmits genetic information from generation to generation. The
code works somewhat like an alphabet of 4 letters (A, G, C, T).
The nucleotides can “spell” an amazing variety of instructions
for making organisms as diverse as bacteria, frogs, and redwood
trees. The genetic code is universal—that is, virtually identical
in all organisms—and is a dramatic example of the unity of life.

Information is transmitted by chemical

and electrical signals
Genes control the development and functioning of every
organism. As you will learn in later chapters, the information
carried by the DNA that makes up the genes has many func-
tions, including providing the “recipes” for making all the pro-
teins required by the organism. Proteins are large molecules
important in determining the structure and function of cells
and tissues. For example, brain cells differ from muscle cells in
large part because they have different types of proteins. Some
proteins are important in communication within and among
cells. Certain proteins on the surface of a cell serve as markers
so that other cells “recognize” them. Other cell-surface proteins Figure 1-7 DNA
serve as receptors that combine with chemical messengers. DNA is the hereditary material that transmits information from
Cells use proteins and many other types of molecules one generation to the next. As shown in this model, DNA is a
to communicate with one another. In a multicellular organ- macromolecule that consists of two chains of atoms twisted into
a helix. Each chain consists of subunits called nucleotides. The
ism, cells produce chemical compounds, such as hormones, sequence of nucleotides makes up the genetic code.
that signal other cells. Hormones and other chemical mes-
sengers can signal cells in distant organs to secrete a particu-
lar required substance or change some metabolic activity. In compounds known as neurotransmitters. Information trans-
this way chemical signals help regulate growth, development, mitted from one part of the body to another is important in reg-
and metabolic processes. The mechanisms involved in cell ulating life processes. In complex animals, the nervous system
signaling often involve complex biochemical processes. gives the animal information about its outside environment by
Cell signaling is currently an area of intense research. transmitting signals from sensory receptors such as the eyes
A major focus has been the transfer of information among cells and ears to the brain. Neurons in the brain make appropriate
of the immune system. A better understanding of how cells decisions and transmit signals to specific muscles or glands.
communicate promises new insights into how the body pro-
tects itself against disease organisms. Learning to manipulate Organisms also communicate
cell signaling may lead to new methods of delivering drugs
into cells and new treatments for cancer and other diseases.
information to one another
Many organisms use electrical signals to transmit infor- Organisms communicate information to other organisms by
mation. Most animals have nervous systems that transmit releasing chemicals, sounds, and visual displays. Typically, organ-
information by way of both electrical impulses and chemical isms use a combination of several types of communication
8 / Chapter 1
signals. A dog may signal aggression by growling, using a par-
ticular facial expression, and laying its ears back. Many animals

Russ Witherington/Shutterstock.com
Light
perform complex courtship rituals in which they display parts of energy
their bodies, often elaborately decorated, to attract a mate.
Seaweed algae compete with coral for light and space.
Marine biologists studying endangered coral reefs have discov-
ered that certain seaweed algae secrete chemical compounds
that kill coral. Researchers have reported that some coral can
Photosynthesis
fight back. When they come into contact with toxic seaweed, captures light energy. Oxygen
the coral release chemical compounds that signal certain spe-
cies of goby fish. In response to this chemical signal, the fish eat
the seaweed. This action helps preserve their coral reef habitat.

Energy stored in glucose

and other nutrients
CHECKPOINT 1.4 Carbon dioxide
and water
• What is the function of DNA? Oxygen
• How does a nervous system transmit information?
Energy

1.5 The Energy of Life

Cellular respiration in
LEARNING OBJECTIVE plants and animals
releases energy stored
in glucose molecules.
5 Summarize the flow of energy through ecosystems
and contrast the roles of producers, consumers, and
decomposers.
Synthesis Life Activities
of needed • Homeostasis
The sun provides most of the energy that powers life on molecules

BMJ/Shutterstock.com
• Growth and development
Earth. All life processes, including thousands of chemi- and structures • Reproduction
cal transactions that maintain life’s organization, require • Movement of materials
a continuous input of energy. Organisms can neither in and out of cells
• Movement of body
create energy nor use it with complete efficiency. During
every energy transaction, some energy is converted to Figure 1-8 Energy flow within and among organisms
heat and dispersed into the environment. Energy flows Algae and certain plant cells carry on photosynthesis, a process that uses light
through individual organisms and through ecosystems. energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. Energy is stored in the
A self-sufficient ecosystem consists of a physical chemical bonds of glucose and other nutrients produced from glucose. Through
environment inhabited by three types of organisms: the process of cellular respiration, cells of all organisms, including algae and plant
cells, then break down glucose and other nutrients. The energy released can be
producers, consumers, and decomposers. These organ- used to produce needed molecules and to fuel other life activities.
isms depend on one another and on the environment
for nutrients, energy, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
Plants, algae, and certain bacteria and archaea are producers, Recall that all of the energy transformations and chemical
or autotrophs, organisms that use simple raw materials (inor- processes that occur within an organism are referred to as its
ganic compounds) to produce organic compounds (which metabolism. Energy is necessary to carry on the metabolic activi-
may be used for food). Most of these organisms carry on ties essential for growth, repair, and maintenance. Each cell of an
photosynthesis, the process during which autotrophs use organism requires nutrients that contain energy. During cellular
carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to synthesize complex respiration, cells capture energy stored in glucose and other
molecules such as glucose and other sugars (FIG. 1-8): nutrient molecules through a series of carefully regulated chemi-
cal reactions. We can summarize these reactions as follows:
carbon dioxide + water + light energy
glucose + oxygen glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

The light energy is transformed into chemical energy, which When chemical bonds are broken during cellular respira-
is stored within the chemical bonds of the glucose and other tion, their stored energy is made available for life processes.
food molecules produced. Oxygen, which is required by the Cells use this energy to do work, including the synthesis of
cells of most organisms including plant cells, is produced as a required materials, such as new cell components. Virtually all
byproduct of photosynthesis. cells carry on cellular respiration.
A View of Life / 9
Key Point (Note that producers also carry on cellular respiration.) The
metabolism of consumers and producers helps maintain the
Energy flows from the sun to producers life-sustaining mixture of gases in the atmosphere.
Most bacteria, many archaea, and fungi are decomposers,
and then to consumers and decomposers.
heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by breaking down nonliv-
ing organic material such as wastes, dead leaves and branches,
and the bodies of dead organisms. In their process of obtaining
Light energy, decomposers make the components of these materi-
Heat energy
als available for reuse. If decomposers did not exist, nutrients
Heat Heat would remain locked up in wastes and dead bodies, and the
supply of elements required by living systems would soon be
exhausted.

Food

CHECKPOINT 1.5
• PREDICT What components do you think a forest
ecosystem might include?
Producer Primary
• CONNE CT In what ways do consumers depend
(plant) consumer on producers? on decomposers? Include energy
(caterpillar) considerations in your answer.
Dr. Morley Read/Shutterstock.com/Robert McGouey/Getty Images

Secondary
consumer
(bird)
1.6 Evolution: The Basic
Unifying Concept of Biology
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Plant litter, Dead
wastes bodies
6 Demonstrate the binomial system of nomenclature by
using specific examples and classify an organism (such as
Decomposers a human) in its domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
Soil (bacteria, fungi) family, genus, and species.
7 Identify the three domains and the kingdoms of living
organisms, and give examples of organisms assigned to
Figure 1-9 Energy flow through the biosphere each group.
Continuous energy input from the sun operates the biosphere. 8 Give a brief overview of the scientific theory of evolution and
During photosynthesis, producers use the energy from sunlight to explain why it is the principal unifying concept in biology.
make complex molecules from carbon dioxide and water. Primary
consumers, such as the caterpillar shown here, obtain energy, 9 Apply the concept of natural selection to any given
nutrients, and other required materials when they eat producers. adaptation and suggest a logical explanation of how
Secondary consumers, such as the bird, obtain energy, nutrients, the adaptation may have evolved.
and other required materials when they eat primary consumers
that have eaten producers. Decomposers obtain their energy and Evolution is the process by which populations of organ-
nutrients by breaking down wastes and dead organic material. isms change over time. The scientific theory of evolution
During every energy transaction, some energy is lost to biological has become the most important unifying concept of biol-
systems, dispersing into the environment as heat.
ogy. As we will discuss, evolution involves passing genes for
PREDICT How does air pollution caused by human activity affect new traits from one generation to another, leading to differ-
the balance of energy flow through the biosphere? ences in populations. The evolutionary perspective is impor-
tant in every specialized field within biology. Biologists try to
understand the structure, function, and behavior of organ-
Animals are consumers, or heterotrophs—that is, they isms and their interactions with one another by considering
are organisms that depend on producers for food, energy, them in the context of the long, continuing process of evolu-
and oxygen (FIG. 1-9). Primary consumers eat producers. tion. Although we discuss evolution in depth in Chapters 18
Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. Consumers through 22, we present a brief overview here to give you the
obtain energy by breaking down sugars and other nutrients background necessary to understand other aspects of biology.
originally produced during photosynthesis. Consumers also First, we examine how biologists organize the millions of
contribute to the balance of the ecosystem. For example, organisms that have evolved, and then we summarize some
consumers produce carbon dioxide required by producers. of the mechanisms that drive evolution.
10 / Chapter 1
Biologists use a binomial system Table 1-1 Classification of the Cat, Human, and White Oak Tree
for naming organisms Category Cat Human White Oak
Biologists have identified about 1.9 million kinds (species)
Domain Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya
of extant (currently living) organisms and estimate that
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae
several million more remain to be discovered. To study life,
Phylum Chordata Chordata Anthophyta
we need a system for organizing, naming, and classifying its
Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrata None
myriad forms. Systematics is the field of biology that studies
Class Mammalia Mammalia Eudicotyledones
the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relation-
Order Carnivora Primates Fagales
ships. Taxonomy, a subspecialty of systematics, is the science
Family Felidae Hominidae Fagaceae
of naming and classifying organisms. In the 18th century,
Genus Felis Homo Quercus
Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, developed a hierarchi-
Species Felis catus Homo sapiens Quercus alba
cal system of naming and classifying organisms. Biologists
still use this system today, with some modification.
The species is a group of organisms with similar struc- orders belong to class Mammalia (mammals). Class Mammalia
ture, function, and behavior. A species consists of one or more is grouped with several other classes that include fishes, amphib-
populations whose members are capable of breeding with one ians, reptiles, and birds in subphylum Vertebrata. The verte-
another; in nature, they do not breed with members of other brates belong to phylum Chordata, which is part of kingdom
species. Members of a population contribute to a common Animalia. Animals are assigned to domain Eukarya.
gene pool (all the genes present in the population) and share
a common ancestry. Closely related species are grouped in the Systematists classify organisms
next broader category of classification, the genus (pl., genera).
The Linnaean system of naming species is known as the
in three domains
binomial system of nomenclature because each species is Systematics itself has evolved as scientists have developed new
assigned a two-part name. The first part of the name is the genus, techniques for inferring common ancestry among groups of
and the second part, the specific epithet, designates a particular organisms. Biologists seek to classify organisms based on
species belonging to that genus. The specific epithet is often a evolutionary relationships. These relationships are based
descriptive word expressing some quality of the organism. It is on shared characteristics that distinguish a particular group.
always used together with the full or abbreviated generic name A group of organisms with a common ancestor is a clade.
preceding it. The generic name is always capitalized; the spe- Systematists have developed family trees showing proposed
cific epithet is generally not capitalized. Both names are always evolutionary relationships among organisms. These relation-
italicized or underlined. For example, the domestic dog, Canis ships are based on the patterns of traits shared by organisms
familiaris (abbreviated C. familiaris), and the timber wolf, Canis and on fossil evidence. Shared characteristics include struc-
lupus (C. lupus), belong to the same genus. The domestic cat, tural, developmental, behavioral, and molecular similarities.
Felis catus, belongs to a different genus. The scientific name of FIGURE 1-11 is a cladogram, a branching diagram that depicts
the American white oak is Quercus alba, whereas the name the three domains and several kingdoms of domain Eukarya.
of the European white oak is Quercus robur. Another tree, the As researchers report new findings, the classification of organ-
white willow, Salix alba, belongs to a different genus. The sci- isms changes and the branches of cladograms are redrawn.
entific name for our own species is Homo sapiens (“wise man”). Although the “tree of life” is a work in progress, most
biologists now assign organisms to three domains and to sev-
eral kingdoms or clades. The late microbiologist Carl Woese
Taxonomic classification is hierarchical (pronounced “woes”) was a pioneer in developing molecular
Just as closely related species may be grouped in a common genus, approaches to systematics. Woese and his colleagues selected
related genera can be grouped in a more inclusive group, a family. a molecule known as small subunit ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Families are grouped into orders, orders into classes, and classes that functions in the process of manufacturing proteins in all
into phyla (sing., phylum). Phyla can be assigned to kingdoms, organisms. Because its molecular structure differs somewhat
and kingdoms are grouped in domains. Each formal grouping at in various organisms, Woese hypothesized that the molecular
any given level is a taxon (pl., taxa). Note that each taxon is more composition of rRNA in closely related organisms would be
inclusive than the taxon below it. Together they form a hierarchy more similar than in distantly related organisms.
ranging from species to domain TABLE 1-1 and FIG. 1-10. Bacteria have long been recognized as unicellular prokary-
Consider a specific example. The family Canidae, which otic cells; they are referred to as prokaryotes. Woese’s find-
includes all doglike carnivores (animals that eat mainly meat), ings showed that there are two distinct groups of prokaryotes.
consists of 12 genera and about 35 living species. Family He established the domain level of taxonomy and assigned
Canidae, along with family Ursidae (bears), family Felidae (cat- the prokaryotes to two domains: Bacteria and Archaea
like animals), and several other families that eat mainly meat, are (ar’-key-ah). The eukaryotes, organisms with eukaryotic
all placed in order Carnivora. Order Carnivora, order Primates cells, are classified in domain Eukarya. Woese’s work became
(to which chimpanzees and humans belong), and several other widely accepted in the mid-1990s.
A View of Life / 11
Key Point
In the traditional system of classification, biologists classify organisms in a hierarchy of taxonomic categories
from species to domain; each category is more general and more inclusive than the one below it.

DOMAIN
Eukarya

KINGDOM
Animalia

PHYLUM
Chordata

CLASS
Mammalia

ORDER
Primates

FAMILY
Pongidae

Figure 1-10 Traditional classification

of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) GENUS
Many biologists are moving away from this Pan
traditional Linnaean system of classification.
CO N N EC T Examine Figure 1-11. If you were
going to classify the mushroom in part (f), which of SPECIES
the categories shown in Figure 1-10 could you use? Pan troglodytes
Explain your answer.

12 / Chapter 1
Key Point
This cladogram illustrates the evolutionary relationships among the three
domains and among major groups of organisms that belong to these domains.

Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya

Henk Bentlage/Shutterstock.com
David M. Phillips/Visuals Unltd.
Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unltd./

McMurray Photography
CNRI/Science Source

Getty Images

John Arnaldi
1 mm 5 mm 10 mm

(a) These large, rod- (b) These archaea (c) These unicellular (d) Plants include (e) Among the (f) Mushrooms, such
shaped bacteria (Methanosarcina protozoa many beautiful and fiercest animals, lions as these fly agaric
(Bacillus anthracis) mazei ) produce (Tetrahymena ) are diverse forms, such (Panthera leo) are mushrooms (Amanita
cause anthrax, a methane. classified in one of as the lady’s slipper also among the most muscaria), are fungi.
disease of cattle the many protist (Phragmipedium sociable. The largest The fly agaric is
and sheep that can clades. caricinum ). of the big cats, lions poisonous.
infect humans. live in prides (groups).
Bacteria Archaea Protists Plants Animals Fungi

Figure 1-11 A survey of the three

domains of life
Biologists assign organisms to three domains
and to several kingdoms and other groups.
The protists do not form a clade and are
no longer considered a kingdom. They are
assigned to several groups (not shown).
Common
C O N N EC T Why are the protists no longer ancestor of
all organisms
considered a kingdom?

In the classification system used in this book, each and ciliates) are unicellular, colonial, or simple multicellular
organism is assigned to a domain and to a kingdom or to a organisms that have a eukaryotic cell organization. The word
“supergroup.” Two kingdoms correspond to the prokaryotic protist, from the Greek for “the very first,” reflects the idea
domains: kingdom Archaea corresponds to domain Archaea, that protists were the first eukaryotes to evolve. Protists are
and kingdom Bacteria corresponds to domain Bacteria. primarily aquatic organisms with diverse body forms, types
Archaea and bacteria are single-celled microscopic organ- of reproduction, modes of nutrition, and lifestyles. Some pro-
isms that have inhabited Earth for more than 3.5 billion years. tists are adapted to carry out photosynthesis. Based mainly
Through evolution, their modes of nutrition and metabolism on molecular data that have clarified many evolutionary rela-
have greatly diversified. tionships among eukaryotes, the protists are no longer con-
The remaining kingdoms and groups are assigned to sidered a kingdom. As we will learn in Chapter 26, several
domain Eukarya. Protists (e.g., algae, slime molds, amoebas, clades of protists have been identified.
A View of Life / 13
 Members of kingdom Plantae are complex multicellu- provided much additional evidence that evolution is respon-
lar organisms adapted to carry out photosynthesis. Among sible for the great diversity of organisms on our planet. Even
characteristic plant features are the cuticle (a waxy covering today, the details of evolutionary processes are a major focus
over aerial parts that reduces water loss) and stomata (tiny of investigation and discussion.
openings in stems and leaves for gas exchange); many plants Darwin based his concept of natural selection on the follow-
have multicellular gametangia (organs that protect developing ing four observations:
reproductive cells). Kingdom Plantae includes both nonvas- 1. Individual members of a species show some variation from
cular plants (mosses) and vascular plants (ferns, conifers, and one another.
flowering plants), those that have tissues specialized for trans- 2. Organisms produce many more offspring than will survive
porting materials throughout the plant body. Most plants are to reproduce (FIG. 1-12).
adapted to terrestrial environments. 3. Because more individuals are produced than the environ-
Kingdom Fungi is composed of the yeasts, mildews, ment can support, organisms must compete for necessary,
molds, and mushrooms. Fungi do not photosynthesize. They but limited, resources such as food, sunlight, and space.
obtain their nutrients by secreting digestive enzymes into Also, some organisms are killed by predators, disease organ-
food and then absorbing the predigested food. isms, or unfavorable natural conditions, such as weather
Kingdom Animalia is made up of multicellular organisms changes. Which organisms are more likely to survive?
that obtain their nutrition by eating other organisms. Most 4. Individuals with adaptations that enable them to obtain
animals exhibit considerable cell and tissue specialization and use resources, escape predators, resist disease organ-
and body organization. These characters have evolved along isms, and withstand changes in the environment are more
with complex sense organs, nervous systems, and muscular likely to survive to reproductive maturity than those with-
systems. Most animals reproduce sexually; they have large, out these characteristics. The survivors that reproduce pass
nonmotile (do not move from place to place) eggs and small their adaptations for survival on to their offspring. Thus,
sperm with flagella that propel them in their journey to find the best-adapted individuals of a population produce,
the egg. on average, more offspring than do other individuals.
We have provided an introduction here to the groups of Because of this differential reproduction, a greater propor-
organisms that make up the tree of life. We will refer to them tion of the population becomes adapted to the prevailing
throughout this book as we consider the many kinds of chal-
lenges organisms face and the various adaptations that have
evolved in response to them. We discuss the diversity of life in
more detail in Chapters 23 through 32.

Species adapt in response to changes

in their environment
Every organism is the product of numerous interactions
between environmental conditions and the genes inherited
from its ancestors. If all individuals of a species were exactly
alike, any change in the environment might be disastrous to all,
and the species would become extinct. Adaptations to changes
in the environment occur as a result of evolutionary processes
that take place over time and involve many generations.

Natural selection is an important

mechanism by which evolution proceeds
J. Serrao/Science Source

Although philosophers and naturalists discussed the concept

of evolution for centuries, Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
first brought a scientific theory of evolution to general atten-
tion and suggested a plausible mechanism, natural selection,
to explain it. In his book On the Origin of Species by Natural Figure 1-12 Egg masses of the wood frog (Rana sylvatica)
Selection, published in 1859, Darwin synthesized many new Many more eggs are produced than can develop into adult frogs.
findings in geology and biology. He presented a wealth of Random events are largely responsible for determining which of
evidence supporting his hypothesis that present forms of life these developing frogs will hatch, reach adulthood, and reproduce.
However, certain traits of each organism also contribute to the
descended, with modifications, from previously existing forms. probability for success in its environment. Not all organisms are
Darwin’s scientific theory of evolution has helped shape as prolific as the frog, but the generalization that more organisms
the biological sciences to the present day. His work generated are produced than survive is true throughout the living world.
a great wave of scientific observation and research that has
14 / Chapter 1
 Sami Sarkis/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
Douglas Peebles Photography/Alamy Stock Photo

Danita Delimont/Alamy Stock Photo

(a) The bill of this ‘Akiapola’au male (b) ‘I’iwi (Vestiaria cocciniea) in ‘ohi’a (c) Palila (Loxiodes bailleui) in mamane tree.
(Hemignathus munroi ) is adapted for blossoms. The bill is adapted for feeding This finch-billed honeycreeper feeds on
extracting insect larvae from bark. The on nectar in tubular flowers. immature seeds in pods of the mamane tree.
lower mandible (jaw) is used to peck at It also eats insects, berries, and young leaves.
and pull off bark, whereas the maxilla
(upper jaw) and tongue remove the prey.

Figure 1-13 Adaptation and diversification in Hawaiian honeycreepers

All three species shown here are endangered, mainly because their habitats have been destroyed by humans
or species introduced by humans.

environmental conditions and challenges. The environ- among honeycreepers allowed some to move into different
ment selects the best-adapted organisms for survival. Note food zones, and over time, species with various types of bills
that adaptation involves changes in populations rather than evolved (FIG. 1-13; see also Chapter 20 and Fig. 20-18). Some
in individual organisms. honeycreepers now have long, curved bills, adapted for feed-
ing on nectar from tubular flowers. Others have short, thick
Darwin did not know about DNA or understand the
bills for foraging for insects, and still others are adapted for
mechanisms of inheritance. Scientists now understand that
eating seeds.
most variations among individuals are a result of different
varieties of genes that code for each characteristic. The ulti-
mate source of these variations is random mutations, chemical
or physical changes in DNA that persist and can be inherited. CHECKPOINT 1.6
Mutations modify genes and by this process provide the raw
material for evolution. • The scientific name for the African rock python is Python
sebae. Which name indicates its genus?
Populations evolve as a result of • PREDICT Why might biologists modify the tree showing
the major forms of life?
selective pressures from changes
• CONNE CT How might you explain the sharp claws and
in their environment teeth of tigers in terms of natural selection?
All the genes present in a population make up its gene
pool. By virtue of its gene pool, a population is a reservoir
of variation. Natural selection acts on individuals within a
population. Selection favors individuals with genes specify- 1.7 The Process of Science
ing traits that allow them to respond effectively to pressures
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
exerted by the environment. These organisms are most likely
to survive and produce offspring. As successful organisms 10 Design a study to test a given hypothesis, using the
pass on their genetic recipe for survival, their traits become procedure and terminology of the scientific method.
more widely distributed in the population. Over time, as pop- 11 Compare the reductionist and systems approaches to
ulations continue to change (and as the environment itself biological research.
changes, bringing different selective pressures), the members
of the population become better adapted to their environment Biology is a science. The word science comes from a Latin word
and less like their ancestors. meaning “to know.” Science is a way of thinking and a method
As a population adapts to environmental pressures and of investigating the natural world in a systematic manner.
exploits new opportunities for finding food, maintaining We test ideas, and based on our findings, we modify or reject
safety, and avoiding predators, the population diversifies these ideas. The process of science is investigative, dynamic,
and new species may evolve. The Hawaiian honeycreepers, and often controversial. The observations made, the range of
a group of related birds, are a good example. When honey- questions asked, and the design of experiments depend on the
creeper ancestors first reached Hawaii, few other birds were creativity of the individual scientist. Science is influenced by
present, so there was little competition. Genetic variation cultural, social, historical, and technological contexts.
A View of Life / 15
 The scientific method involves a series of ordered steps. Science requires systematic thought
Using the scientific method, scientists make careful observa- processes
tions, ask critical questions, and develop hypotheses, which
are testable explanations. Using their hypotheses, scientists Science is systematic. Scientists organize and often quantify
make predictions that can be tested by making further obser- knowledge, making it readily accessible to all who wish to build
vations or by performing experiments. They gather data, on its foundation. In this way, science is both a personal and a
information that they can analyze, often using computers and social endeavor. Science is not mysterious. Anyone who under-
sophisticated statistical methods. They interpret the results of stands its rules and procedures can take on its challenges. What
their experiments and draw conclusions from them. As we distinguishes science is its insistence on rigorous methods to
will discuss, scientists develop many hypotheses that cannot examine a problem. Science seeks to give precise knowledge
be tested by using all of the steps of the scientific method in a about the natural world; the supernatural is not accessible to
rigid way. Scientists use the scientific method as a generalized scientific methods of inquiry. Science is not a replacement for
framework or guide. philosophy, religion, or art. Being a scientist does not prevent
Biologists explore every imaginable aspect of life from one from participating in other fields of human endeavor, just
the structure of viruses and bacteria to the interactions of the as being an artist does not prevent one from practicing science.
communities of our biosphere. Some biologists work mainly Deductive reasoning begins with general principles
in laboratories, and others do their work in the field (FIG. 1-14). Scientists use two types of systematic thought processes:
Perhaps you will decide to become a research biologist and deduction and induction. With deductive reasoning, we
help unravel the complexities of the human brain, discover begin with supplied information, called premises, and draw
new hormones that stimulate plants to flower, identify new conclusions on the basis of that information. Deduction pro-
species of animals or bacteria, or develop new stem cell strat- ceeds from general principles to specific conclusions. For
egies to treat cancer, AIDS, or heart disease. Applications of example, if you accept the premise that all birds have wings
basic biological research have provided the technology to and the second premise that sparrows are birds, you can con-
transplant kidneys, livers, and hearts; manipulate genes; treat clude deductively that sparrows have wings. Deduction helps
many diseases; and increase world food production. Biology us discover relationships among known facts. A fact is infor-
has been a powerful force in providing the quality of life that mation or knowledge based on evidence.
most of us enjoy. You may choose to enter an applied field of
biology, such as environmental science, dentistry, medicine, Inductive reasoning begins with specific obser–
pharmacology, or veterinary medicine. vations Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deduction. We
begin with specific observations and draw a conclusion or dis-
cover a general principle. For example, you know that sparrows
have wings, can fly, and are birds. You also know that robins,
eagles, pigeons, and hawks have wings, can fly, and are birds.
Considering these facts, you might induce that all birds have
wings and fly. In this way, you can use the inductive method to
organize raw data into manageable categories by answering this
question: What do all these facts have in common?
A weakness of inductive reasoning is that conclusions gen-
eralize the facts to all possible examples. When we formulate the
general principle, we go from many observed examples to all
possible examples. This is known as an inductive leap. Without
it, we could not arrive at generalizations. However, we must be
sensitive to exceptions and to the possibility that the conclusion
Mark Moffett/Minden Pictures/Getty Images

is not valid. For example, the kiwi bird of New Zealand does
not have functional wings (FIG. 1-15). We can never conclusively
prove a universal generalization. The generalizations in induc-
tive conclusions come from the creative insight of the human
mind, and creativity, however admirable, is not infallible.

Scientists make careful observations

and ask critical questions
Figure 1-14 Biologist at work
In 1928, British biologist Alexander Fleming observed that a
This biologist studying the rainforest canopy in Costa Rica is
part of an international effort to study and preserve tropical rain blue mold had invaded one of his bacterial cultures. He almost
forests. Researchers study the interactions of organisms and the discarded it, but then he noticed that the area contaminated
effects of human activities on the rain forests. by the mold was surrounded by a zone where bacterial colo-
nies did not grow well. The bacteria were disease organisms
16 / Chapter 1
 for observations or phenomena. A hypothesis is an abstract
idea, but based on their hypotheses, scientists can make pre-
dictions that can be tested. For example, we might predict that
biology students who study for ten hours will do better on an
exam than students who study for one hour. As used here, a
prediction is a deductive, logical consequence of a hypothesis.
Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo

It does not have to be a future event. Hypotheses are typically

stated in the form of predictions.
In the early stages of an investigation, a scientist typically
thinks of many possible hypotheses. A good hypothesis exhib-
its the following characteristics. (1) It is reasonably consistent
with well-established facts. (2) It generates predictions that
can be tested (whether the results are positive or negative).
(3) Test results should be repeatable by independent observ-
Figure 1-15 Is this animal a bird? ers. (4) It is falsifiable, which means that it can be proven false,
The kiwi bird of New Zealand is about the size of a chicken. Its tiny as we will discuss in the next section.
2-inch wings cannot be used for flight. The survivor of an ancient After generating hypotheses, the scientist decides which,
order of birds, the kiwi has bristly, hairlike feathers and other if any, could and should be subjected to experimental test.
characteristics that qualify it as a bird. Why not test them all? Time and money are important con-
siderations in conducting research. Scientists must establish
priority among the hypotheses to decide which to test first.
of the genus Staphylococcus, which can cause boils and skin
A falsifiable hypothesis can be tested In science, a
infections. Anything that could kill them was interesting!
well-stated hypothesis can be tested. If no evidence is found
Fleming saved the mold, a variety of Penicillium (blue bread
to support it, the hypothesis is rejected. The hypothesis can
mold), and isolated the antibiotic penicillin from it. However,
be shown to be false. Even results that do not support the
he had difficulty culturing it.
hypothesis may be valuable and may lead to new hypotheses.
Even though Fleming recognized the potential practical
If the results do support a hypothesis, a scientist may use them
benefit of penicillin, he did not develop the chemical techniques
to generate related hypotheses.
needed to purify it, and more than ten years passed before the
A hypothesis is not true just because some of its predic-
drug was put to significant use. In 1939, Sir Howard Florey and
tions (the ones people happen to have thought of or have thus
Ernst Boris Chain developed chemical procedures to extract
far been able to test) have been shown to be true. After all,
and produce the active agent penicillin from the mold. Florey
they could be true by coincidence. In fact, a hypothesis can be
took the process to laboratories in the United States, and peni-
supported by data, but it cannot really be proven true.
cillin was first produced to treat wounded soldiers in World
An unfalsifiable hypothesis cannot be proven false; in
War II. In recognition of their work, Fleming, Florey, and Chain
fact, it cannot be scientifically investigated. Belief in an unfal-
shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
sifiable hypothesis, such as the existence of invisible and
undetectable elves, must be rationalized on grounds other
Chance often plays a role in scientific than scientific ones.
discovery
Models are important in developing and testing
Fleming did not set out to discover penicillin. He benefited hypotheses Hypotheses have many potential sources,
from the chance growth of a mold in one of his culture dishes. including direct observations or even computer simulations.
However, we may wonder how many times the same type of Increasingly in biology, hypotheses may be derived from
mold grew on the cultures of other biologists who failed to models that scientists have developed to provide a comprehen-
make the connection and simply threw away their contami- sive explanation for a large number of observations. Examples
nated cultures. Fleming benefited from chance, but his mind of such testable models include the model of the structure of
was prepared to make observations and formulate critical DNA and the model of the structure of the plasma membrane
questions, and his pen was prepared to publish them. Sig- (discussed in Chapter 5).
nificant discoveries are usually made by those who are in the The best design for an experiment can sometimes be
habit of looking critically at nature and recognizing a phe- established by performing computer simulations. Virtual test-
nomenon or problem. Of course, the technology necessary for ing and evaluation are undertaken before the experiment is
investigating the problem must also be available. performed in the laboratory or field. Modeling and computer
simulation save time and money.
A hypothesis is a testable statement Many hypotheses can be tested by experiment Many
Scientists make careful observations, ask critical questions, hypotheses can be tested by controlled experiments. Early
and develop hypotheses. A hypothesis is a testable explanation biologists observed that the nucleus was the most prominent
A View of Life / 17
part of the cell, and they hypothesized that Key Experiment
cells would be adversely affected if they lost
their nuclei. Biologists predicted that if the Is the nucleus essential for the well being of the cell?
nucleus were removed from the cell, the cell
would die. They then experimented by sur- DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS : Cells will be adversely affected if they lose their nuclei.
gically removing the nucleus of a unicellu- PERFORM EXPERIMENTS : Using a microloop, researchers removed the nucleus from
lar amoeba. The amoeba continued to live each amoeba in the experimental group. Amoebas in the control group were subjected to the
and move, but it did not grow, and after a same surgical procedure, but their nuclei were not removed.
few days it died. These results suggested that
the nucleus is necessary for the metabolic
processes that provide for growth and cell
reproduction.
But, the investigators asked, what if the
operation itself, not the loss of the nucleus,
caused the amoeba to die? They performed
Amoeba
a controlled experiment, subjecting two dies.
groups of amoebas to the same operative
trauma (FIG. 1-16). Ideally, an experimen-
tal group differs from a control group only (a) Experimental group. When its nucleus is surgically
removed with a microloop, the amoeba dies.
with respect to the variable being studied. In
the control group, the researcher inserted a
microloop into each amoeba and pushed it
around inside the cell to simulate removal
of the nucleus; then the instrument was
withdrawn, leaving the nucleus inside. In
the experimental group, the nucleus was Amoeba
removed; in the control group, it was not. lives.
Amoebas treated with such a sham
operation recovered and subsequently grew (b) Control group. A control amoeba subjected to similar
and divided. This experiment showed that surgical procedures (including insertion of a microloop),
but without actual removal of the nucleus, does not die.
the removal of the nucleus, not simply the
operation, caused the death of the amoebas. RESULTS : Amoebas without nuclei died. Amoebas in the control group lived.
The conclusion is that amoebas cannot live
CONCLUSION : Amoebas cannot live without their nuclei. The hypothesis is supported.
without their nuclei. The results supported
the hypothesis that if cells lose their nuclei, SOURCE: Classic enucleation studies are discussed in J. Brachet, “Nucleocytoplasmic
Interactions in Unicellular Organisms,” in The Cell, Vol. 2, eds. J. Brachet and A.E. Mirsky
they are adversely affected. We can conclude (New York: Academic Press, 1961), 771–841.
that the nucleus is essential for the survival
of the amoeba. Figure 1-16 An experiment testing the importance of the nucleus
Scientists observed that the nucleus was the most prominent part of the cell. They asked
Researchers must avoid bias critical questions about their observation and developed the hypothesis that cells would
be adversely affected if they lost their nuclei. Based on their hypothesis, investigators
In scientific studies, researchers must do performed experiments on amoebas. Their results supported the hypothesis.
their best to avoid bias or preconceived PREDICT Could a cell without a nucleus survive if a nucleus of a different species
notions of what should happen. For example, is placed into the cell?
to prevent bias, most medical experiments
are carried out in a double-blind fashion.
When a drug is tested, one group of patients receives the new Scientists interpret the results
medication, and a control group of matched patients receives
a placebo (a harmless starch pill similar in size, shape, color,
of experiments and draw conclusions
and taste to the pill being tested). This method is called a Scientists gather data in an experiment, interpret their results,
double-blind study because neither the patient nor the physi- and then draw conclusions from them. In the amoeba exper-
cian knows who is getting the experimental drug and who is iment described earlier, investigators concluded that the data
getting the placebo. The pills or treatments are coded in some supported the hypothesis that the nucleus is essential for the
way, and the code is broken only after the experiment is over survival of the cell. When the results do support a hypoth-
and the results are recorded. Not all experiments can be so esis, scientists may use them to generate related hypotheses.
neatly designed; for example, it is often difficult to establish Even results that do not support the hypothesis may be valu-
appropriate controls. able and may lead to new hypotheses.
18 / Chapter 1
Key Experiment
Can chimpanzees learn how to use tools by observing one another?

DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS : Chimpanzees can learn particular ways to use tools by observing other chimps.
PERFORM EXPERIMENTS : One female in each of two groups of 16 chimps was educated in a specific way to use a stick to obtain food.
The two educated chimps were then returned to their respective groups. Chimpanzees in a control group were not taught how to use a stick.

12

Number of chimps
8

0
Control group Group 1 Group 2

(a) Number of chimpanzees who successfully employed

specific method of tool use.

12
Number of chimps

8
David Bygott

RESULTS: Chimpanzees in each experimental group observed the use of

the stick by the educated chimp, and a majority began to use the stick in the
same way. When tested two months later, many of the chimps in each group 0
Control group Group 1 Group 2
continued to use the stick. The results presented here have been simplified
and are based on the number of chimps observed to use the learned method (b) Number of chimpanzees who successfully employed
at least ten times. All but one chimp in each group learned the technology, but learned method of tool use two months later.
a few used it only a few times. Some chimps taught themselves the alternative
method and used that alternative. However, most conformed to the group’s Figure 1-17 An experiment testing learning in chimpanzee
use of the method that the investigator taught to the educated chimp. populations
CONCLUSION : Chimpanzees learn specific ways to use tools by In the photo, wild chimpanzees are shown observing a member of
observing other chimps. The hypothesis was supported. their group using a tool.
SOURCE: Whiten, A., Horner, V., and F.B.M. de Waal, “Conformity to Cul- PREDICT If you repeated this experiment, how do you think
tural Norms of Tool Use in Chimpanzees,” Nature, Vol. 437 (Sept. 29, 2005). your results would compare with those shown here?

Let us discuss another experiment. Research teams study- Biologists have asked critical questions about whether
ing chimpanzee populations in Africa have reported that chimpanzees learned how to use tools by observing one
chimpanzees appear to learn specific ways to use tools from another. Investigators at Yerkes National Primate Research
one another. Behavior that is learned from others in a popula- Center in Atlanta developed a hypothesis that chimpanzees
tion and passed to future generations is what we call “culture.” can learn particular ways to use tools by observing other
In the past, most biologists have thought that only humans chimps. They predicted that if they taught one chimp to use
had culture. It has been difficult to test this type of learning a stick to obtain food from a dispenser, other chimps would
in the field, and the idea has been controversial. learn the technique from the educated one (FIG. 1-17).
A View of Life / 19
 These researchers divided chimpanzees into two experi- Curtain
mental groups with 16 in each group. Then they taught a
high-ranking female in each group to use a stick to obtain
food from an apparatus. The two chimps were taught different
methods. One chimp was taught to poke the stick inside the
device to free the food. The other was taught to use the stick
to lift a hook that removed a blockage, allowing the food to
roll forward out of the device. Single selection
Marbles
A third group served as a control group. The chimps in the
control group were given access to the sticks and the appara-
produces
tus with the food inside, but none were taught how to use the
sticks. All the control-group chimps manipulated the appara-
tus with the stick, but none succeeded in releasing food. Assumption
When the chimps were returned to their groups, other
chimps observed how the educated chimps used the stick,
and a large majority began to use sticks in the same way. The 100% blue
Actual ratio
chimps in each experimental group (Group 1 and Group 2 20% blue
in Fig. 1-17) learned the specific style of using the stick that 80% white
their educated chimp had been taught. Most used the stick to (a) Taking a single selection can result in sampling error. If the only
obtain food at least ten times. Two months later, the apparatus marble selected is blue, we might assume all the marbles are blue.
was reintroduced to the chimps. Again, most of the chimps
used the learned technique for obtaining food. The results Curtain
of the experiment supported the hypothesis. The researchers
concluded that chimpanzees are capable of culturally trans-
mitting learned technology.

Sampling error can lead to inaccurate conclusions

One reason for inaccurate conclusions is sampling error.
Because not all cases of what is being studied can be observed Multiple selections
Marbles
or tested (scientists cannot study every amoeba or every
chimpanzee population), scientists must be content with a
produce
sample. How can scientists know whether that sample is truly
representative of whatever they are studying? If the sample
is too small, it may not be representative because of random Assumption
factors. A study with only two, or even nine, amoebas may
not yield reliable data that can be generalized to other amoe-
bas. If researchers test a large number of subjects, they are 30% blue
Actual ratio
more likely to draw accurate scientific conclusions (FIG. 1-18). 20% blue
70% white
The scientist seeks to state with some level of confidence that 80% white
any specific conclusion has a certain statistical probability of (b) The greater the number of selections we take of an unknown,
being correct. the more likely we can make valid assumptions about it.

Figure 1-18 Statistical probability

Experiments must be repeatable After scientists con-
duct research and draw conclusions, they share their stud-
ies and conclusions with other scientists and with the public. A scientific theory is supported
Typically, they do this by sharing their work at conferences
and by submitting articles describing their research to the
by tested hypotheses
editors of scientific journals. Reputable journals have a peer Nonscientists often use the word theory incorrectly to refer
review process during which other scientists review and to a hypothesis or even to some untestable idea they wish to
evaluate the study. If the article and the research described promote. A scientific theory is actually an integrated expla-
meet the criteria for a research study, the article is accepted nation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a
for publication. number of hypotheses, each supported by consistent results
When researchers publish their findings in a scientific from many observations or experiments. A scientific theory
journal, they typically describe their methods and proce- relates data that previously appeared unrelated. A good scien-
dures in sufficient detail so that other scientists can repeat the tific theory grows, building on additional facts as they become
experiments. When the findings are replicated, the conclu- known. It predicts new facts and suggests new relationships
sions are, of course, strengthened. among phenomena. It may even suggest practical applications.
20 / Chapter 1
 A scientific theory, by showing the relationships among Systems biology integrates different
classes of facts, simplifies and clarifies our understanding of levels of information
the natural world. As Albert Einstein wrote, “In the whole
history of science from Greek philosophy to modern phys- In the reductionist approach to biology, researchers study the
ics, there have been constant attempts to reduce the appar- simplest components of biological processes. Their goal is
ent complexity of natural phenomena to simple, fundamental to synthesize their knowledge of many small parts to under-
ideas and relations.” Developing scientific theories is indeed a stand the whole. Reductionism has been (and continues to
major goal of science. be) important in biological research. However, as biologists
and their tools have become increasingly sophisticated, huge
Many hypotheses cannot be tested amounts of data have been generated, bringing the science of
biology to a different level.
by direct experiment Systems biology is a field of biology that builds on infor-
Some well-accepted scientific theories do not lend themselves mation provided by the reductionist approach and develops
to hypothesis testing by ordinary experiments. Often, these large data sets, typically analyzed by computers. Systems biol-
scientific theories describe events that occurred in the distant ogy is also referred to as integrative biology. Reductionism and
past. We cannot directly observe the origin of the universe from systems biology are complementary approaches. Using reduc-
a very hot, dense state about 13.7 billion years ago (the Big tionism, biologists have discovered basic information about
Bang theory). However, physicists and cosmologists have been components, such as molecules, genes, cells, and organs.
able to formulate many hypotheses related to the Big Bang and Systems biologists, who focus on systems as a whole rather
to test many of the predictions derived from these hypotheses. than on individual components, need this basic knowledge to
Similarly, humans did not observe the evolution of major study, for example, the interactions among various parts and
groups of organisms because that process took place over mil- levels of an organism.
lions of years and occurred before humans had evolved. How- Systems biologists integrate data from various levels of
ever, many hypotheses about evolution have been posed, and complexity with the goal of understanding the big picture—
predictions based on them have been tested. For example, if how biological systems function. For example, systems biolo-
complex organisms evolved from simple life-forms, we would gists are developing models of different aspects of cell function.
find the fossils of the simplest organisms in the oldest strata Normal cell function depends on the precise actions of hun-
(rock layers). As we explore more recent strata, we would dreds of proteins that relay signals received from other cells.
expect to find increasingly complex organisms. Indeed, scien- Proteins also relay signals from one part of the cell to another.
tists have found this progression of simple to complex fossils. Researchers are producing detailed maps of the molecular
In addition to fossils, evidence for evolution comes from pathways that maintain cell function (FIG. 1-19).
many sources, including physical and molecular similarities One group of researchers has developed a model consist-
between organisms. Evidence also comes from recent and ing of nearly 8000 chemical signals involved in a molecular
current studies of evolution in action. Many aspects of ongo- network that leads to programmed cell death. By under-
ing evolution can, in fact, be studied in the laboratory or in standing cell communication, the interactions of genes and
the field. The evidence for evolution is so compelling that proteins in metabolic pathways, and physiological processes,
virtually all scientists today accept evolutionary theory as an systems biologists hope to eventually develop a model of the
integral part of biology. whole organism. Systems biology is increasingly used to study
disease processes. For example, the interactions between the
Paradigm shifts accommodate pathogen and the host cell can be mapped.
The development of systems biology was fueled by the
new discoveries huge amount of data generated by the Human Genome
A paradigm is a set of assumptions or concepts that constitute Project. Researchers working on this and related projects
a way of thinking about reality. For example, from the time have identified the DNA sequences that make up the human
of Aristotle to the mid-19th century, biologists thought that genome, the complete set of human genetic material. Com-
organisms were either plants (kingdom Plantae) or animals puter software developed for the Human Genome Project can
(kingdom Animalia). This concept was deeply entrenched. analyze very large data sets. These programs are being used
However, with the development of microscopes, investigators to integrate data about protein interactions and many other
discovered tiny life-forms—bacteria and protists—that were aspects of molecular biology. Systems biologists view biology
neither plant nor animal. Biologists had to make a paradigm in terms of information systems. Increasingly, they depend on
shift—that is, they changed their view of reality—to accom- mathematics, statistics, and engineering principles.
modate this new knowledge. They assigned these newly
discovered organisms to new kingdoms. In a more recent
paradigm shift, biologists have revised their idea that we are
Science has ethical dimensions
born with all the brain cells we will ever have. We now under- Scientific investigation depends on a commitment to practical
stand that certain areas of the brain continue to produce new ideals, such as truthfulness and the obligation to communicate
neurons throughout life. results. Honesty is particularly important in science. Consider
A View of Life / 21
 diversity be affected or would the impact of the changed
organism impact other organisms?
Policies to regulate genetic editing technology vary from
country to country as they continue to be discussed by experts
Artavanis-Tsakonas group, Harvard Medical School. Cell, Vol. 147, no. 3 (2011): 690–703.
Guruharsha, K.G., et al., 2011 Cell, Elsevier Limited; Image provided by Dr. Guruharsha,

in science, engineering, medicine, and special interest groups

to facilitate legislation. Lack of international consensus to
regulate genetic engineering remains a serious threat to the
future of humans and other species.
Scientists must be ethically responsible and must help
educate people about their work, including its benefits rela-
tive to its risks. It is significant that at the very beginning of
the Human Genome Project, part of its budget was allocated
for research on the ethical, legal, and social implications of
its findings.

Science, technology, and society

interact
Science and technology continuously interact. As scientists
doing basic research report new findings, engineers and other
Figure 1-19 Map illustrating interactions among inventors develop new products. Many of those products con-
thousands of proteins in a cell of the fruit fly tribute to our quality of life. New technology also provides
(Drosophila melanogaster) scientists with more powerful tools for their research and
Researchers gain insight into the cell as an integrated system by increases the potential for new discoveries. For example, a few
studying the interaction of its proteins. Because humans and many years ago determining the genome of any eukaryote required
other animals share a common ancestor with fruit flies, similar
cellular mechanisms operate in all of them. Understanding protein
several rooms filled with machines that could sequence the
interactions and functions helps scientists understand cellular genes. This endeavor also cost millions of dollars. New tech-
changes in health and disease. Each dot represents one protein. nologies have revolutionized gene sequencing, allowing com-
plex genomes to be determined quickly, with less equipment,
and at far less expense. Scientists are in the process of deter-
the great (although temporary) damage done whenever an mining the genomes of thousands of species.
unprincipled or even desperate researcher, whose career may Science and technology continue to change society, and
depend on the publication of a research study, knowingly dis- society continues to drive changes in scientific and techno-
seminates false data. Until the deception is uncovered, other logical research; these changes present new challenges. In
researchers may devote thousands of dollars and hours of addition to being ethical about their own work, scientists face
precious professional labor to futile lines of research inspired many societal and political issues surrounding areas such as
by erroneous reports. Deception can also be dangerous, espe- genetic engineering research, stem cell research, cloning, cli-
cially in medical research. Fortunately, science tends to correct mate change, and human and animal experimentation. Scien-
itself through consistent use of the scientific process. Sooner tists, and the larger society, will need to determine whether the
or later, someone’s experimental results are sure to cast doubt potential benefits of any research outweigh its ethical risks.
on false data.
Research in such areas as CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing
and stem cell therapy brings with it many ethical concerns
and responsibilities. For example, should people be allowed CHECKPOINT 1.7
to alter genetic information that would be inherited by future
generations? Imagine that a genetic engineer could elimi- • What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?
nate any part, or sequence, of an embryo’s DNA. Suppose the • Describe a “controlled” experiment.
“typos” or errors in DNA sequencing were clipped out of each • CONNE CT In what ways does systems biology depend
gene. How could anyone be sure that the removed material on reductionism?
would have no future evolutionary impact? Would species

22 / Chapter 1
 Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
1.1 Major Themes of Biology (page 2)
1 Describe five basic themes of biology.
Organ
• (1) Every organism is a biological system made up of
many other biological systems, and every organism is
interdependent with many other biological systems.
Bone cells
(2) Structure and function are inter-related in all
Tissue
biological systems. (3) Information must be transferred Nucleus
within organisms and among organisms, and organisms
must be able to receive information from the nonliving
environment. (4) All life processes require a continuous
input of energy. (5) Evolution results in populations Cell
changing over time.
1.2 Characteristics of Life (page 2)
2 Distinguish between living systems and nonliving things by
describing the features that characterize living organisms.
Organelle
• Every living organism is composed of one or more cells.
Living things grow by increasing the size and/or number
of their cells.
• Metabolism includes all the chemical activities that take
place in the organism, including the chemical reactions 1.4 Information Transfer (page 6)
essential to nutrition, growth and repair, and conversion 4 Summarize the importance of information transfer within
of energy to usable forms. Homeostasis refers to the and between living systems, giving specific examples.
appropriate, balanced internal environment, and the • Organisms transmit information chemically, electrically,
organized tendency of the organism to maintain such and behaviorally.
a steady state.
• DNA, which makes up the genes, is the hereditary
• Organisms respond to stimuli, physical or chemical material. Information encoded in DNA is transmitted from
changes in their external or internal environment. one generation to the next. DNA contains the instructions
Responses often involve movement. for the development of an organism and for carrying out
• In asexual reproduction, offspring are typically identical life processes. Among its many functions, DNA codes for
to the single parent, except for size. In most plants and proteins, which are important in determining the structure
animals sexual reproduction involves the fusion of an and function of cells and tissues.
egg and sperm. Genes are typically contributed by two • Hormones, chemical messengers that transmit messages
parents, and there is variation in the offspring. from one part of an organism to another, are important in
• As populations evolve, they become adapted to their cell signaling.
environment. Adaptations are traits that increase an
• Many organisms use electrical signals to transmit
organism’s ability to survive in its environment.
information; most animals have nervous systems that
1.3 Levels of Biological Organization (page 6) transmit electrical impulses and release neurotransmitters.
3 Construct a hierarchy of biological organization, including
levels characteristic of individual organisms and levels
1.5 The Energy of Life (page 9)
characteristic of ecological systems. 5 Summarize the flow of energy through ecosystems and
contrast the roles of producers, consumers, and decomposers.
• Biological organization is hierarchical. In a complex
organism, cells associate to form tissues (e.g., muscle • Activities of living cells require energy. Almost all life
and connective tissues) that carry out specific functions. depends on continuous energy input from the sun. During
In most multicellular organisms tissues organize to form photosynthesis, plants, algae, and certain bacteria use
functional structures called organs (e.g., heart or brain). the energy of sunlight to synthesize complex molecules
An organized group of tissues and organs form an organ from carbon dioxide and water.
system (e.g., the nervous system). Functioning together, • Virtually all cells carry on cellular respiration, a biochemical
organ systems make up a complex, multicellular organism. process in which they capture the energy stored in nutrients
• The basic unit of ecological organization is the by producers. Some of that energy is then used to synthesize
population. Various populations form communities, required materials or to carry out other cell activities.
a community and its physical environment are an • A self-sufficient ecosystem includes producers, or
ecosystem, and all Earth’s ecosystems together make autotrophs, which make their own food; primary
up the biosphere. consumers, which eat producers, and typically

A View of Life / 23
 secondary consumers that eat primary consumers; 9 Apply the concept of natural selection to any given adaptation
and decomposers, which obtain energy by breaking and suggest a logical explanation of how the adaptation may
down wastes and dead organisms. Consumers and have evolved.
decomposers are heterotrophs, organisms that • When the ancestors of Hawaiian honeycreepers first
depend on producers as an energy source and for reached Hawaii, few other birds were present, so there
food and oxygen. was little competition for food. Through many generations,
honeycreepers with longer, more curved bills became
1.6 Evolution: The Basic Unifying Concept adapted for feeding on nectar from tubular flowers.
of Biology (page 10) Perhaps those with the longest, most curved bills were
6 Demonstrate the binomial system of nomenclature by using best able to survive in this food zone and lived to transmit
specific examples and classify an organism (such as a human) their genes to their offspring. Those with shorter, thicker
in its domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, bills were more successful foraging for insects and passed
and species.
their genes to new generations of offspring. Eventually,
• Millions of species have evolved. A species is a group of different species evolved that were adapted to specific
organisms with similar structure, function, and behavior food zones.
that, in nature, breed only with one another. Members of
a species contribute to a common gene pool and share a 1.7 The Process of Science (page 15)
common ancestry. 10 Design a study to test a given hypothesis, using the procedure
and terminology of the scientific method.
• Biologists use a binomial system of nomenclature in
which the name of each species includes a genus name • The process of science is a dynamic approach to
and a specific epithet. Traditional taxonomic classification investigation. The scientific method is a general
is hierarchical; it includes species, genus, family, order, framework that scientists use in their work; it includes
class, phylum, kingdom, and domain. Each grouping observing, recognizing a problem or stating a critical
is referred to as a taxon. A group of organisms with a question, developing a hypothesis, making a prediction
common ancestor is a clade. that can be tested, making further observations,
7 Identify the three domains and the kingdoms of living performing experiments, interpreting results, and drawing
organisms, and give examples of organisms assigned to each conclusions that support or falsify the hypothesis.
group. • Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning are two
• Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes; all other organisms categories of systematic thought used in the scientific
are eukaryotes. Prokaryotes make up two of the three method. Deductive reasoning proceeds from general
domains. principles to specific conclusions and helps us discover
• Organisms are classified in three domains: Archaea, relationships among known facts. Inductive reasoning
Bacteria, and Eukarya and several kingdoms or clades: begins with specific observations and draws conclusions
Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi (e.g., molds and yeasts), from them. Inductive reasoning helps us discover general
Plantae, and Animalia. Protists (e.g., algae, water molds, principles.
slime molds, and amoebas) are now assigned to several • A hypothesis is a testable explanation for observations
clades. or phenomena. If no evidence is found to support it, the
8 Give a brief overview of the scientific theory of evolution and hypothesis is rejected.
explain why it is the principal unifying concept in biology. • A well-designed scientific experiment typically includes
• Evolution is the process by which populations change both a control group and an experimental group, and
over time in response to changes in the environment. must be as free as possible from bias. The control group
The scientific theory of evolution explains how millions of should be as closely matched to the experimental group
species came to be and helps us understand the structure, as possible. Ideally, the experimental group differs from
function, behavior, and relationships of organisms. the control group only with respect to the variable being
• Natural selection, the major mechanism by which studied.
evolution proceeds, favors individuals with traits that • A scientific theory is an integrated explanation of some
enable them to cope with environmental changes. aspect of the natural world that is based on a number of
Charles Darwin based his scientific theory of natural hypotheses, each supported by consistent results from
selection on his observations that individuals of a species many observations or experiments.
vary, organisms produce more offspring than survive to 11 Compare the reductionist and systems approaches to
reproduce, organisms must compete for limited resources, biological research.
and individuals that are best adapted to their environment • Using reductionism, researchers study the simplest
are more likely to survive and reproduce, thereby passing components of biological processes such as molecules
on their hereditary information. Their traits become more or cells. Systems biology uses knowledge provided by
widely distributed in the population. reductionism. Systems biologists integrate data from
• The source of variation in a population is random various levels of complexity with the goal of understanding
mutation. how biological systems function.

24 / Chapter 1
Test Your Understanding
Know and Comprehend 10. PREDICT What would happen if a homeostatic
1. Cells (a) are not found among the bacteria (b) always have mechanism failed? Give an example using a homeostatic
nuclei (c) are the building blocks of living organisms (d) are mechanism at work in your body (other than the regulation
made up of tissues (e) a and b are true of glucose cited in the chapter).
2. DNA (a) is produced during cellular respiration (b) functions 11. What are some characteristics of a good hypothesis?
mainly to transmit information from one species to another Give an example.
(c) cannot be changed (d) is a good example of a biological 12. P R E D I C T Make a prediction and devise a suitably
system (e) makes up the genes controlled experiment to test each of the following
3. Cellular respiration (a) is a process whereby sunlight is used hypotheses: (a) A type of mold found in your garden
to synthesize cell components with the release of energy produces an effective antibiotic. (b) The growth rate of
(b) occurs in heterotrophs only (c) is carried on by both a bean seedling is affected by temperature. (c) Estrogen
autotrophs and heterotrophs (d) causes chemical changes alleviates symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease in elderly
in DNA (e) occurs in response to environmental changes women.
4. Fungi are assigned to domain (a) Protista (b) Archaea 13. Contrast the reductionist approach with systems biology.
(c) Bacteria (d) Eukarya (e) Plantae How are the two approaches complementary? Which
5. The scientific name for corn is Zea mays. Zea is the approach is more likely to consider emergent properties?
(a) specific epithet (b) genus (c) class (d) kingdom (e) phylum
6. Darwin suggested that evolution takes place by (a) mutation Evaluate and Synthesize
(b) changes in the individuals of a species (c) natural 14. I NT E RP RE T DATA Compare the two graphs in
selection (d) interaction of hormones during competition Figure 1-17. What information does the second graph
for resources (e) homeostatic responses to each change in illustrate? What possible explanation can you give for the
the environment differences shown in the two graphs?
7. Ideally, an experimental group differs from a control 15. E V OL U T I ON L I NK In what ways does evolution depend
group (a) only with respect to the hypothesis being tested on transfer of information? In what ways does transfer of
(b) because its subjects are more reliable (c) in that it is less information depend on evolution?
subject to bias (d) in that it is less vulnerable to sampling 16. E V OL U T I ON L I NK How might an understanding of
error (e) only with respect to the variable being studied evolutionary processes help a biologist doing research in
(a) the development of a new antibiotic to replace one to
Apply and Analyze which bacteria have become resistant? (b) conservation of
8. Which of the following is a correct sequence of levels a specific plant in a rain forest?
of biological organization? 1. organ system 2. chemical 17. SCIENCE , TECHNOLOGY , AND SOCIETY In the
3. tissue 4. organ 5. cell (a) 2, 3, 5, 4, 1 (b) 5, 3, 4, 1, 2 future, gene technology may make it possible for parents to
(c) 2, 5, 3, 1, 4 (d) 2, 5, 3, 4, 1 (e) 5, 2, 3, 4, 1 produce children with athletic ability, artistic talent, or high IQ.
9. V I SU A L I ZE Draw a simple cladogram illustrating the Do you have any ethical concerns about these possibilities?
relationships among the following: Common ancestor of If so, where and how would you draw the line?
all organisms, domain Eukarya, domain Bacteria, domain
Archaea. To which domain do the organisms informally
known as protists belong? To which domain do you belong? For access to MindTap and additional study materials visit
Refer to Figure 1-11 to check your answer. www.cengagebrain.com.

A View of Life / 25