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POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE 5023 PERIODS 60

MODULE 1

FUELS AND COMBUSTION STEAM BOILERS STEAM ENGINE AND STEAM TURBINES

Fuels. A fuel is a substance which gives heat energy on combustion. A fuel contains carbon and hydrogen as
main combustible elements.

Calorific value of fuel: The amount of heat liberated in Kilocalorie or Kilojoules by the complete combustion of 1 Kg of
fuel.

Fuels can be divided into three main categories

1. Solid fuels

2. Liquid fuels

3. Gaseous fuels

Solid fuels: Solid fuels left some ash or residue after combustion. The solid fuels and their calorific values are given
below.

Fuel Calorific Value (Kcal/kg)

Wood 2500
Peat 3500
Lignite Coal 3000
Bituminous Coal 7500
Anthracite 8500

Liquid fuels: Most of the liquid fuels in use are the hydrocarbons which exist in the liquid phase at room temperature.
The liquid fuels and their calorific values are given below.

Fuel Calorific Value (Kcal/kg)

Gasoline 11,200
Paraffins 11,100
Diesel 11,000
Fuel oil 10,500

Gaseous fuels: Some of the gaseous fuels exist naturally at room temperature and some are made by the treatment
of coal. The gaseous fuels and their calorific values are given below.
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"Premium" or "Super unleaded" gasoline in US

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels over Solid
Fuels?
Liquid and gaseous fuels are considered better fuels than the solid fuels because of the
following reasons:
1. Liquid and gaseous fuels are easier to handle than solid fuels.
2. Liquid and gaseous fuels can be transported easily through pipelines whereas solid fuels
cannot be transports in this way.
3. Liquid and gaseous fuels do not leave any residue after burning.
4. Liquid and gaseous fuels have higher calorific values than the solid fuels. In other words, for
a given mass of the fuel, liquid and gaseous fuels produce more heat.
5. Liquid and gaseous fuels produce little or no smoke, whereas most of the solid fuels burn
with smoke.
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6. Liquid and gaseous fuels have relatively low ignition temperature and hence they burn more
easily than solid fuels.
Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels

The main disadvantages of gaseous fuels are:

1. Very large storage tanks are needed for storing gaseous fuels.
2. They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards are high in their use.
3. They are more costly than solid or liquid fuels.
Flash point

Flash point and fire point are the two important properties of petroleum fractions. Flash point is
defined as the minimum temperature at which the fuel upon heating evolves vapour which after
mixing with the air give a sudden flash when a source of fire is brought in contact with it.

Fire point

Fire point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel vapour in admixture with air will
produce a continuous fire when a fire source is brought in contact with the vapour. So, the fire
point is more than the flash point for a particular petroleum fraction. Hence, flash point is more
important than fire point in view of any fire hazard.

What is the meaning of pour point and cloud point?

During the transportation of heavy oil fractions in pipelines, there is a possibility of freezing the
oil within the pipe when it is transported at cold climate. Here pour point and cloud point are
the two properties of these oils which play important role. Pour point is the maximum
temperature, at which oil ceases to flow when it is cooled at specified condition. Pour point is
reported by adding 2.80 C or 50 F to this temperature, which is a caution to technical people.
Cloud point is the temperature at which oil becomes cloudy, when it is cooled at a specified
condition.

The Cloud Point is the temperature at which paraffin, which is naturally present in diesel fuel,
begins to form cloudy wax crystals.
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Viscosity index

Viscosity index is a property of petroleum fractions, which is defined as the rate of change of
viscosity with temperature. This is indicated by a number in an arbitrary scale ranging from 0 to
100, higher the number more is the viscosity index.

Knocking ( detonation, ) in spark-ignition engines is the pre ignition of air fuel mixture before
the spark given by the spark plug ,due to this one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode
outside the envelope of the normal combustion front.

Octane number

Octane number determines the quality of gasoline or petrol. Octane number is the
measure of the resistance of gasoline against detonation or preignition of
the fuel in the engine. It is measured relative to the mixture of iso octane
(2,2,4 trimethylpentane) and n-heptane.

Every fuel is rated between 0 to 100. (0 is for n-heptane and 100 is for iso
octane)
Higher octane fuel has a greater resistance to auto ignition under higher
pressure and heat.

If you use a lower octane no. fuel in your engine, then there are chances of
engine knocking in your engine, which in severe cases, damage your
engine.

Cetane number

Cetane rating or CN is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel

fuel and compression needed for ignition. It is an inverse of the
similar octane rating for gasoline. The CN is an important factor in
determining the quality of diesel fuel

Typical values

Generally, diesel engines operate well with a CN from 40 to 55. Fuels with
lower cetane number have longer ignition delays, providing more time for
the fuel combustion process to be completed. Hence, higher speed diesel
engines operate more effectively with higher cetane number fuels
"Premium" or "Super unleaded" gasoline in US 85-87
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BOMB CALORIMETER
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Bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used for

measuring the higher calorific value of solid and liquid fuels which can be
burned in oxygen. Four essential parts are required in any bomb
calorimeter:
1. a bomb or vessel in which the combustible charges can be burned, and
is capable of withstanding high pressure(up to 100 bar)
2. a bucket or container for holding the bomb in a measured quantity of
water, together with a stirring mechanism,
3. an insulating jacket to protect the bucket from transient thermal
stresses during the combustion process, and
4. a thermometer or other sensor for measuring temperature changes
within the bucket.
There is an ignition wire of platinum or nichrome which dips into the
crucible. It is connected to a battery kept outside and can be heated by
passing current through it.

Bomb is completely immersed in a measured quantity ofwater.yhe heat

liberated by the combustion of fuel is absorbed by this water, the bomb and
copper vessel the rise in temperature is measured by a precise thermo
meter known as Beckmann thermometer which reads up to 0.01 ᵒc
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Working :

The gas whose calorific value is to be measured is supplied through a

pipeline to the gas burner where it is burnt.
The flow rate of gas is measured by a flow meter the pressure of gas is
measured by a manometer attached to the pressure regulator.
The heat produced by combustion of gas is absorbed by the cold water
flowing through water jacket. The gases are cooled up to room temperature
as far as possible, so that entire heat released from the combustion may be
absorbed by circulating water.
The temperature of cooling water at inlet and outlet and exit gas
temperature are measured. Mass flow rate of cooling water is also
measured. Volume flow rate of gas is converted to STP condition.
Let,

T1-Cooling water inlet temp:

T2-Cooling water outlet temp:

Tg-Exit gas temperature

mw –Mass flow rate of cooling Water

m-Rate of mass of condensate collected in a pot.

hfg –Latent heat of water at atmospheric pressure

Vg- volume flow rate of gas converted into STP condition

Standard temp is 25 c 298 K and standard pressure is 1.01325 bar.

Heat released by combustion of gas=Heat gained by cooling water +Latent

heat released from condensate.

mw . cw (T 2−T 1)+ mhfg

Vg x Cv= mw.cw (T2-T1)+mhfg , CV=
vg

From this equation Cv of fuel can be calculated

Higher Calorific Value (HCV) : The higher calorific value is defined as the total heat
liberated by combustion of unit mass of fuel when the water vapour formed by
combustion is completely condensed at constant temperature releasing its latent heal.
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(2) Lower Calorific Value (LCV) : The lower calorific value of fuel is defined as the net
heat liberated by combustion of unit mass of fuel when the water vapour formed by
combustion exists completely in vapour phase.

Three Ts of Combustion: Time, Turbulence and Temperature

The process of combustion is probably the most important process taking place inside
the boiler. The purpose of combustion is to release the heat from fuel and make it
available for the further use.
The process of combustion is complex in nature and multiple parameters affect the
combustion efficiency.

Out of these several parameters, time, turbulence and temperature are referred to as 3
Ts of combustion. It is very important to control and optimise these 3 Ts to get maximum
out of the combustion process.

1. Time
when a fuel is being burned, it is important that sufficient time is available so that the
fuel burns completely. 100% combustion means that the fuel is fully oxidized and full
oxidation of the carbon, hydrogen and other combustible elements has taken place.

If fuel remains in the combustion zone for a time lesser than necessary, it will be partially
burned which increases the un-burnt losses. On the other hand, if it remains for a time
higher than the required, the power output of the boiler will drop as new fuel will not be
able to come in and get burned. Ideally, the fuel should stay for a time sufficient for the
complete combustion and then replaced by the fresh fuel. Thus, the time plays a very
important role in determining the combustion efficiency.

2. Turbulence
Oxygen makes an essential part of the process of combustion. While burning the fuel, it
is essential that it is broken down in small particles. This increases the surface area of
the fuel and ensures that sufficient air i.e. oxygen is made available. Turbulence
ensures a thorough mixing of the air and the fuel. If turbulence is not maintained,
certain part of the fuel will have excess oxygen available for the combustion while the
remaining having too little. This will result in incomplete combustion of carbon forming
carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxide. If proper turbulence is not maintained, some
part of the fuel will go out of the chimney without even getting oxidized. This will
increase the un-burnt losses.

3. Temperature
During the combustion, if the temperature is not sufficiently high, fuel will take some
time to ignite thus increasing the time of the combustion. This will affect the heat output.
Hence, it is very important to maintain correct temperature which ensures that fuel is
quickly burnt releasing the complete energy.

Benson Boiler (Supercritical Boiler)

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The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the
heat flow and steam generation as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to water
film.

Benson Boiler is a high pressure; drum less, supercritical, water tube steam boiler with
forced circulation. This boiler was invented in the year 1922 by Mark Benson. This boiler
is a super critical boiler in which the feed water is compressed to a supercritical pressure
and this prevents the formation of bubbles in the water tube surface. The bubbles do not
form because at supercritical pressure the density of water and steam becomes same. It
was Mark Benson who first proposed the idea to compress the water at supercritical
pressure before heating into boiler and due to this the latent heat of water reduces to
zero. As the latent heat of water reduces to zero the water directly changes into steam
without the formation of bubbles
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Construction or Main Parts

The main parts of Benson boiler are:

1. Air Preheater
It preheats the air before entering into the furnace. The preheated air increases the
burning efficiency of the fuel.

2. Economiser
It heats the water to a certain temperature.

3. Radiant Super heater

It is super heater which heats the water with radiation produced by the burnt fuel. It
raises the temperature to supercritical temperature. The feed water after
circulation through the economiser flows through the radiant evaporator tubes.
Water is heated up by the radiation heat from the combustion chamber. Here, part
of the water is converted to steam directly.

4. Convection Evaporator
It evaporates the superheated water and converts them into steam. It does so by the
convection mode of heat transfer to the water from the hot flue gases.

5. Convection Super heater

The steam from the convective evaporator enters the superheater tubes where it is
superheated
by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated steam then enters the
steam turbine
to develop power. It superheats the steam to the desired temperature (nearly 650
degree Celsius).
6. Furnace
It is the place where the fuel is burnt.

7. Feed Pump
It is used to supply the water inside the boiler at supercritical pressure of 225 bars.

Working Principle
It works on the principle that the pressure of the water is increased to the supercritical
pressure (i.e. above critical pressure of 225 bar). When the pressure of water is
increased to the super critical level, the latent heat of water becomes Zero and due to
this, it directly changes into steam without boiling. And this prevents the formation of
bubbles at tube surface.

Working
In Benson Boiler, the feed pump increases the pressure of the water to the supercritical
pressure and then it enters into the economiser. From economiser, the water the water
passes to the radiant heater. Here the water receives the heat through radiation and
partly gets converted into steam. The temperature raises almost to the supercritical
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temperature. After that mixture of steam and water enters into convective evaporator
where it is completely converted into steam and may superheated to some degree.
Finally it is passed through the super heater to obtain the desired superheated steam.
This superheated steam is then used by turbines or engine to produce the electricity.

Advantages
The various advantages of the boiler are

 It is a drum less boiler and hence the weight of this type of boiler is 20 % less as
compared with other.
 It is light in weight.
 Occupy smaller floor area for its erection.
 Explosion hazard is almost negligible because of use of smaller diameter tubes.
 It can be started very easily within 15 minutes.
 It avoids bubble formation due to the super critical pressure of water.
 Transportation is easy.
 This boiler may achieve thermal efficiency upto 90 %.
Disadvantages

1. As the Benson boiler operates at high pressure and temperature, special alloy
materials are required.
2. Maintenance costs are very high.
3. This is more efficient, resulting in slightly less fuel use

Application
This supercritical boiler is used in different industries to generate steam for the
production of electricity or mechanical power. The average operating pressure,
temperature and capacity of Benson boiler is 650 degree Celsius, 250 bar and 135
tones/h.

Critical point

In water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K (374 °C;) and 22.064 MPa (218 atm). It
is a condition under which a liquid and its vapor can coexist. At the critical point, defined
by a critical temperature Tc and a critical pressure pc, phase boundaries vanish.

What happens when you heat water at normal atmospheric pressure?

There are three stages.
 As you go on heating the water, the temperature of water increases till it reaches 100
deg C. This is the Sensible Heat addition.
 Further heating does not increase the temperature; instead small bubbles of steam
start to form. The temperature remains constant at 100 deg C till all the water
becomes steam. The water absorbs the heat without temperature change for
conversion to steam. At atmospheric pressure the Latent Heat of vapourisation is 2256
kJ/kg.
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 Further heating called superheating will increase the temperature of the steam. How
high one can go depends on the withstanding capacity of the vessel.
 What happens when the water is at a higher pressure, say, at 100 bar? Then the boiling
takes place at 311 deg C and the latent heat of vaporisation is 1318 kJ/kg.
If the water pressure is 200 bar then the boiling takes place at 366 deg C and the latent
heat of vaporisation is 584 kJ/kg.
As the pressure increases the boiling temperature increases and the latent heat of
vaporization decreases.
A further increase in pressure and temperature leads us to a point at which the latent
heat of vaporisation is zero, or there is no boiling. Water directly becomes steam. This is
the Critical Pressure and the Critical Temperature. For steam this occurs at 374 deg C
and 220.6 bar.
Conventional steam power plants operate at a steam pressures in the range of 170 bar.
These are Subcritical power plants. The new generation of power plants operates at
pressures higher than the critical pressure. These are Supercritical power plants. The
operating pressures are in the range of 230 to 265 bar.

Boiler piping and insulation

Steam pipes are very important in engineering application and are widely used. The
main applications include household boilers, industrial steam generating plants,
locomotives, steam engines, different building works, etc.

What is Thermal Insulation?: Insulation is defined as a material or combination of materials,

which retard the flow of heat. The materials can be adapted to any size, shape or surface. A variety
of finishes are used to protect the insulation from mechanical and environmental damage, and to
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enhance appearance.
Functions

1. Conserve energy by reducing heat loss or gain

2. Control surface temperatures for personnel protection and comfort

3. Facilitate temperature control of a process

4. Prevent vapor flow and water condensation on cold surfaces

5. Increase operating efficiency of heating/ventilating/cooling, plumbing, steam, process

and power systems found in commercial and industrial installations

Why Insulate Piping Systems?

There are numerous benefits to insulating piping in industrial facilities with fiberglass
and mineral wool insulation products including helping to keep piping systems stable and
working safely.

1. Controls Surface Temperature for Personnel Protection

Fiberglass and mineral wool insulation systems reduce the surface temperature of piping
and equipment to a safer level, reducing the risk of burns and worker downtime due to
injury.

2. Controls and Stabilizes Process Temperatures

By reducing heat loss or gain, fiberglass and mineral wool insulation help maintain
process temperature to your pre-determined value. Insulation that’s specified to proper
thickness can limit

3. Prevents Condensation and Subsequent Corrosion on Cold Surfaces

Specifying sufficient insulation thickness with the right vapor retarder is the most
effective means of controlling condensation and limiting corrosion on cold piping, ducts,
chillers, and roof drains. Sufficient thickness is needed to keep the outer most surface
temperature above the dew point temperature of the ambient air.

4. Increases Fire Protection

Fiberglass and mineral wool insulation are inherently noncombustible.
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5. Controls Noise and Vibrations

Pipe insulation materials can be used to encase piping mechanisms that cause noises or
vibrations, forming a sound and vibration barrier between the piping and external areas.

Temperature extremes can damage your pipe system and equipment leading to costly
repairs and downtime. Insulation will help keep them protected

Materials for piping insulation

Glass wool
Glass wool is a high-temperature fibrous insulation material, similar to mineral wool,
where inorganic strands of glass fiber are bound together using a binder.
As with other forms of mineral wool, glass-wool insulation can be used for thermal and
acoustic applications.
Calcium Silicate Insulation
Non-asbestos Calcium Silicate insulation board and pipe insulation feature with light
weight, low thermal conductivity, high temperature and chemical resistance.

Cellular Glass Insulation

Cellular glass insulation is composed of crushed glass combined with a cellulating agent.

These components are mixed, placed in a mold, and then heated to a temperature of
approximately 950 oF. During the heating process, the crushed glass turns to a liquid.
Decomposition of the cellulating agent will cause the mixture to expand and fill the mold.
The mixture creates millions of connected, uniform, closed-cells and form at the end a
rigid insulating material.

Cellulose Insulation
Cellulose is made from shredded recycled paper, such as newsprint or cardboard. It's
treated with chemicals to make it fire- and insect-resistant, and is applied as loose-fill or
wet-sprayed through a machine.

Fiberglass Insulation
Fiberglass is the most common type of insulation. It's made from molten glass spun into
microfibers.

Mineral Wool Insulation

Mineral wool is made from molten glass, stone, ceramic fibre or slag that is spun into a
fiber-like structure. Inorganic rock or slag are the main components (typically 98%) of
stone wool. The remaining 2% organic content is generally a thermosetting resin binder
(an adhesive) and a little oil. Mineral wools are used on all types of pipe work,
particularly industrial pipe work operating at higher temperatures.
Temperature limits for some commonly used insulation materials
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Low High

(oC) (oF) (oC) (oF)

Insulation Material Temperature Range

Calcium Silicate -18 0 650 1200

Cellular Glass -260 -450 480 900

Elastomeric foam -55 -70 120 250

Fiberglass -30 -20 540 1000

Mineral Wool, Ceramic fiber 1200 2200

Mineral Wool, Glass 0 32 250 480

Mineral Wool, Stone 0 32 760 1400

Phenolic foam 150 300

Polyisocyanurate, polyiso -180 -290 150 300

Polystyrene -50 -60 75 165

Polyurethane -210 -350 120 250

Boiler draught
The difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure existing in the furnace or
flue gas passage of a boiler is termed as draft. Draft can also be referred to the
difference in pressure in the combustion chamber area which results in the motion of the
flue gases and the air flow.
Drafts are produced by the rising combustion gases in the stack, flue, or by mechanical
means.
Types
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 Natural draft: When air or flue gases flow due to the difference in density of the hot
flue gases and cooler ambient gases. The difference in density creates a pressure
differential that moves the hotter flue gases into the cooler surroundings.
 Forced draft: When air or flue gases are maintained above atmospheric pressure.
Normally it is done with the help of a forced draft fan.
 Induced draft: When air or flue gases flow under the effect of a gradually
decreasing pressure below atmospheric pressure. In this case, the system is said to
operate under induced draft. The stacks (or chimneys) provide sufficient natural draft
to meet the low draft loss needs. In order to meet higher pressure differentials, the
stacks must simultaneously operate with draft fans
 Balanced draft: When the static pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, the
system is referred to as balanced draft. Draft is said to be zero in this system
Generally a modern coal fired boiler has balanced draught. Draught is maintained
inside boilers using fans.

Compare Forced and Induced Draught

Forced Draught
1. The size and power required by the F.D. fan is less.
2. Volume of gas handled is less. Water cooled bearings are not required.
3. There is no chance of air leakage pressure inside the furnace the is above
atmospheric.
4. The flow of air through the grate and furnace is uniform.
5. The heat transfer efficiency will be increased.

Induced Draught
1. The size and power required by I.D. fan is more.
2. Volume of gas handled is more. Water cooled bearings are required to withstand
high temperature flue gas.
3. Continuous air leakage is possible as as the pressure inside the furnace is less
than atmosphere.
4. Flow of air is not uniform
5. There may a chance of reduction in heat transfer efficiency.
Forced Draught
In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is
forced to pass through the furnace, flues, economizer, air-preheater and to the stack.
This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught system
because the pressure and air is forced to flow through the system.
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The arrangement of the system is shown in figure. A stack or chimney is also in this
system as shown in figure but its function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere
to prevent the contamination. It is not much significant for producing draught therefore
height of the chimney may not be very much.
Induced Draught:
In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near the
grate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the system
below atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace
and the pressure inside the furnace is reduced below atmosphere and induces the
atmospheric air to flow through the furnace. The arrangement of the system is shown
in figure.

Points to note

1. The fan or blower is placed after the grate or after the flue passages and before
chimney.
2. Pressure inside the flue passages is slightly less than atmospheric pressure.
3. Due to above reason, there is no danger of fire to come out from boiler flue
passage in case of a leakage. Hence Induced draught is more safe.
4. It sucks the hot flue gases from the combustion chamber through flue passages
and then passes on these to economizer, air pre heater and chimney. Due to this
suction, fresh air is also sucked in to combustion chamber.
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5. Induced draught fan requires more power because it has to handle hot flue
gases, the volume per unit mass of which is more.
6. Flow of flue gases is less uniform.
7. Balanced Draught:

It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced

draught instead of forced or induced draught alone.

If the forced draught is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened
either for firing or inspection because the high pressure air inside the
furnace will try to blow out suddenly and there is every chance of blowing
out the fire completely and furnace stops.
If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace cannot be
opened either for firing or inspection because the cold air will try to rush
into the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace is below atmospheric
pressure. This reduces the effective draught and dilutes the combustion.

To overcome both the difficulties mentioned above either using

forced draught or induced draught alone, a balanced draught is always
preferred. The balanced draught is a combination of forced and induced
draught. The forced draught overcomes the resistance of the fuel bed
therefore sufficient air is supplied to the fuel bed for proper and complete
combustion. The induced draught fan removes the gases from the furnace
maintaining the pressure in the furnace just below atmosphere. This helps
to prevent the blow –off of flames when the doors are opened as the
leakage of air is inwards.
The arrangement of the balanced draught is shown in figure. Also the
pressure inside the furnace is near atmospheric therefore there is no
danger of blowout or there is no danger of inrushing the air into the
furnace when the doors are opened for inspection.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a rotary type of steam engine, having a rotating wheel to which is

secured a series of buckets, blades or vanes, uniformly spaced on its periphery. Steam

from nozzles or guide passages are directed continuously against these buckets, blades

or vanes, thus causing their rotation. Expansion of steam in the nozzles or buckets

converts its heat energy into energy of motion and gives it a high velocity which is

expended on the moving wheel or buckets. The difference in the various types of steam

turbines is due to different methods of using the steam, construction and arrangement of

the nozzles and steam passages and buckets.

It is used with direct connection to electric generators, centrifugal pumps, compressors

and with geared connections to rolling mills, fans and other machinery which are run at

low speed.

ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE OVER STEAM ENGINE

The various advantages of steam turbine are as follows :

(i) It requires less space.

(ii) Absence of various links such as piston, piston rod, cross head etc. make the
mechanism simple. It is quiet and smooth in operation,

(iii) Its over-load capacity is large.

(iv) It can be designed for much greater capacities as compared to steam engine. Steam
turbines can be built in sizes ranging from a few horse powers to over 200,000 horse
power in single units.

(v) The internal lubrication is not required in steam turbine. This reduces to the cost of
lubrication.

(vi) In steam turbine the steam consumption does not increase with increase in years of
service.

(vii) In steam turbine power is generated at uniform rate, therefore, flywheel is not
needed.

(viii) It can be designed for much higher speed and greater range of speed.

(ix) The thermodynamic efficiency of steam turbine is higher.

(X) Exhaust steam is free of oil contamination as no internal lubrication is needed and
high efficiency over a wide range of load conditions.
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Demerits:
• For low speed application reduction gears are require.
• The steam turbine cannot be made reversible.
• The efficiency of small simple steam turbines is poor.
Application
• Power generation
• Petrochemical Refinery, Petrochemical.
• Pharmaceutical processing
• Food processing,
• Petroleum/Gas processing,
• Pulp & Paper mills,
• Waste-to-energy processing

Classifications of Steam Turbines

(A) On the Basis of Principle of Operation(or mode of action of steam):

(i) Impulse turbine:

(ii) Reaction turbine
(iii)Impulse-Reaction Turbine
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(i)Impulse Turbine: If the flow of steam throughout the nozzles and moving blades of a
turbine takes place in such a way that the steam is expanded only in nozzles and
pressure at the outlet sides of the blades is equivalent to that at inlet side; such a
turbine is termed as impulse turbine because it works on the principle of impulse. In
other words, in impulse turbine, the fall in pressure of steam takes place only in the
nozzles and not in moving blades.
(ii) Reaction turbine
In the reaction turbine the steam expanded continuously as it
passes over the blades and thus there is gradually fall in the pressure
during expansion below the atmospheric pressure. There is a gradual
pressure drop and takes place continuously over the fixed and moving
blades.

(ii) Impulse-Reaction Turbine: In this turbine, the fall in pressure of steam takes place
in fixed (nozzles) as well as moving blades. The pressure drop suffered by steam while
passing through the moving blades causes an extra generation of kinetic energy within
the moving blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to the propelling force, which is
applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft. Because this turbine works on the
principle of impulse and reaction both, so it is called as impulse-reaction turbine.
(B) On the basis of “Direction of Flow’’ :
(i) Axial flow turbine, (ii) Radial flow turbine, (iii) Tangential flow turbine.
(i) Axial Flow Turbine. In these turbines, Steam enters radially to rotor shaft & flows in
a direction parallel to the axis of the turbine rotor (SHAFT).

(ii) Radial Flow Turbine. In this turbine, the steam flow in the radial direction. It
integrates two shafts end to end, each driving a separate generator. A disc is set to each
shaft. Rings of 50% reaction radial-flow bladings are fixed to both disks. The two sets of
bladings rotate oppose to each other.

According to the number of shafts:

Single shaft turbines
Tandem shaft Turbines
Multi-shaft turbine – HP, IP, LP turbine rotors placed face to face
Cross Compound – Two parallel shafts
According to the exhaust condition:
Condensing turbines
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These turbines exhaust directly to condensers that maintains vacuum condition at

discharge of steam turbine .In these turbines, all of the steam produced by boiler
passed through the steam turbine, pressure drop occurred, spine the rotor then the low
pressure & temp steam is directed to the condenser.
Extraction turbines: An extraction turbine has one or more openings in its casing for
extraction of portion of steam at some intermediate pressure. The extracted steam may
be used for process purpose.
In these turbines, the steam is withdrawn (extracted) from intermediate stages at a
certain pressure for plant processing like process heating purposes.

Back pressure turbines: This type of steam turbine also called a non-condensing
turbine; Back-pressure turbines can be used when a large quantity of process steam is
required. The turbine exhaust steam is supplied to the process or to the electric
generator on the demand. The terms back pressure refers to steam turbine that
exhausts steam above atmospheric pressure.

Back pressure turbine Topping or re heat steam turbine

Topping turbines: Also called as Reheat steam turbine. This is a technique where
the steam passes through the HP steam turbine, then returned to the boiler and re-
heated. After reheating, the steam is sent back to the LP steam turbine for additional
expansion.
 40

According to the steam conditions at inlet to turbine:

Low pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure of 1.2 to 2 Kg /cm²
Medium pressure turbines: These turbines use steam up to a pressure of 40 Kg /cm².
High pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure above 40 Kg /cm².
Very high pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure of 170 Kg /cm²
and higher and temperatures of 550°C and higher.
Super critical pressure turbines: These turbines use steam at a pressure of 225 Kg /
cm² and higher

De Laval's Steam Impulse Turbine

.
Working
The working of the De Laval turbine is as follows: The steam is blown through stationary
divergent nozzles where it is allowed to expand to the pressure of the exhaust chamber.
Each particle of steam, which moves very rapidly, strikes against a concave vane or
plate which projects from the drum like a spoke. This causes the wheel to move rapidly.
The outer end of the buckets is covered by a ring which prevents the centrifugal escape
of the steam. The nozzles vary in number and can be closed independently of each
other, so that the number in use may be made to suit conditions of running.

The smaller types of De Laval turbines run at about 30,000 R. P. M., and are geared
down to about 3000. The larger sizes run at about 10,000 R. P. M. under gear. Even with
 41

all the disadvantages of gearing, the turbine is used extensively in units ranging from 1
1/2 to 200 H. P.
Its principal parts are the shaft, drum, cylindrical case inside of which the drum revolves,
vanes on the drum and cylindrical part, balance pistons.
De Laval nozzle (not in syllabus)
What is De-Laval nozzle?

A De Laval nozzle is a mechanical device used to convert the thermal and pressure
energy into useful kinetic energy. It is a tube that is pinched in the middle, making a
carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass-shape. It is a converging-diverging type of
nozzle, generally employed to provide supersonic jet velocity at the exit of the nozzle. It
was invented by Gustaf De Laval in 1888, a Swedish inventor for use on a steam turbine.

Working of De-Laval Nozzle

In a converging-diverging nozzle a large fraction of the thermal energy of the gases in

the chamber is converted into kinetic energy.

How does thermal and pressure energy gets converted into K.E.?

High-pressure gas coming from the combustion chamber enters the nozzle and flows into
a region where the nozzle cross section decreases, dA/dx < 0. So flow velocity should
increase. Hence the thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy of the flow, and the
flow goes through a sonic point at the critical point where the nozzle cross section
narrows to its minimum (dA/dx=0). At that point the flow speed reaches the sound
velocity. The cross section increases again after the critical point, and the gas is further
accelerating to supersonic speeds.

You can see from figure gas pressure and temperature drop dramatically and the gas
velocity increases. This is a reversible, essentially isentropic flow process. Mach number
should increase from M=0 near the inlet and M>1 at the exit. It is clear that the nozzle
must converge in the subsonic portion and diverge in the supersonic portion. M=1 can
occur only at the throat and no where else, and this happens only when the discharge is
maximum. When M = 1, the discharge is maximum and the nozzle is said to be
choked. The properties at the throat are termed as critical properties
 42

Mach number(M) is the ratio of the speed of the body to the speed of the sound.

Reaction Turbine – Parsons Turbine

The reaction turbine is composed of moving blades (nozzles)
alternating with fixed nozzles. In the reaction turbine, the steam is
expanded in fixed nozzles and also in the moving nozzles. In other words,
the steam is continually expanding as it flows over the blades. There is
pressure and velocity loss in the moving blades. The moving blades have a
converging steam nozzle. Hence when the steam passes over the fixed
blades, it expands with decrease in steam pressure and increase in kinetic
energy.

In reaction turbines, the steam expands through the fixed nozzle,

where the pressure and potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The
high-velocity steam from fixed nozzles impacts the blades (nozzles),
changes its direction and undergo further expansion. The change in its
direction and the steam acceleration applies a force. The resulting
impulse drives the blades forward, causing the rotor to turn. There is no net
change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both
pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of
the rotor. In this type of turbine the pressure drops take place in a number
of stages, because the pressure drop in a single stage is limited.

The main feature of this type of turbine is that in contrast to the impulse
turbine, the pressure drop per stage is lower, so the blades become
smaller and the number of stages increases. On the other hand, reaction
turbines are usually more efficient, i.e. they have higher “isentropic
turbine efficiency”. The reaction turbine was invented by Sir Charles
Parsons and is known as the Parsons turbine.
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Compounding of steam turbines

The disadvantage of De Laval type of turbine is that it’s extremely high
speed, of the order of 30,000 rpm, cannot be employed for practical
purposes. To reduce the high speed, more than one set of blades are used.
This is called “compounding of impulse turbine”.

The method in which energy from steam is extracted in more than

single stage is called Compounding. A multi-stage turbine i.e. having more
than one set of rotors and nozzles is called compounded turbine.
The compounding is the way of reducing the wheel or rotor speed
of the turbine to optimum value.

Different methods of compounding are: 1.Velocity compounding 2.Pressure

compounding 3.Pressure Velocity Compounding. When “steam velocity” is
absorbed in stages, it is called “Velocity compound impulse turbine”. When “steam
pressure” is absorbed in stages it is known as “pressure compound impulse turbine”. In
a Reaction turbine compounding can be achieved only by Pressure
compounding.

1. Velocity Compounding of Impulse Turbine: The velocity

compounded impulse turbine has moving and fixed blades. The moving
blades are keyed to turbine shaft and fixed blades are fitted to casing. The
high pressure steam from boiler is expander in nozzle where pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy.
The high velocity steam is directed on first set of moving blades and as
steam flows over the blade it imparts some of its momentum to blades and
loses some velocity. Some part of high K.E is absorbed by blades and there
is no change in velocity of steam as it passes through fixed blades. The
steam then goes to next set of moving blades and this process is repeated
until all the energy of steam is absorbed. The figure below shows the
velocity compounding of impulse turbine.
 44

Here: Pi and Po are pressure of steam at inlet and outlet and

Vi and Vo are velocities of steam at inlet.

2. Pressure Compounding of Impulse Turbine (Rateau turbine):

This is used to solve the problem of high blade velocity in the single-stage
impulse turbine.
It consists of alternate rings of nozzles and turbine blades. The nozzles are
fitted to the casing and the blades are keyed to the turbine shaft. In this
type of compounding, steam is expanded more than once (as in velocity
compounding).

Here the high pressure steam is fed to nozzle where it is partially expanded
i.e pressure decreased velocity increased and when this steam is passed
over the set of blades, where almost all its velocity is absorbed and
pressure remains constant during this period and this process is repeated
until condenser pressure is achieved.
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Fig :Pressure compounding impulse turbine

3.Pressure velocity compounding:
This method of compounding is the combination of two previously
discussed methods. The total drop in steam pressure is divided into stages
and the velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded. The rings of
nozzles are fixed at the beginning of each stage and pressure remains
constant during each stage as shown in figure. The turbine employing this
method of compounding may be said to combine many of the advantages of
both pressure and velocity staging By allowing a bigger pressure drop in
each stage, less number stages are necessary and hence a shorter turbine
will be obtained for a given pressure drop.
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Fig: Pressure velocity compounding

REHEATING

Modern steam power plants are usually operated not only with single but
with double steam reheating. Steam reheating used in steam power plants
as a means for raising the thermal efficiency of the plant, is similar to the
two-stage heat addition in gas-turbine plants. The main practical advantage
of reheat (and of superheating) is the decrease in moisture content in the
turbine because most of the heat addition in the cycle occurs in the
vaporization part of the heat addition process.
In order to maintain the steam quality of nearly 0.84(good dryness
fraction),reheat has to be adopted with maximum steam pressure at turbine
inlet. In that case ,the steam after partial expansion in high pressure turbine
(small in size) is returned back to boiler for reheating at constant pressure
and then fed back to low pressure turbine(large in size).In case of two
reheats, steam is super-heated twice at different constant temperatures. A
high reheat pressure increases the moisture content at turbine exhaust
which results in scaling and it should be optimized. Thus the work produced
is increased
there by efficiency increases.
 47

Advantages of Re-heating:

 Due to reheating, net workdone increases

 Heat supply increases
 Thermal efficiency increases
 Due to reheating, the turbine exit dryness fraction increases so
moisture decreases - so blade erosion becomes minimum - so life of
the turbine will be increased.

What is meant by cycles of regeneration?

One of the more common ways to improve the efficiency of a steam cycle is
to use regeneration, a process where heat is taken from steam between
turbine stages and used to heat water as it goes through pump stages.
To increase the efficiency various methods are adopted to heat the feed
water entering in boiler by interchanging the heat with in the system. This
heating of feed water and in steps is called regenerative feed heat method
and the cycle is called regenerative cycle.

Principle of Regenerative power cycle:

The principle is to extract the steam from the turbine at several locations
and supplying the steam to the regenerative feed water heaters. This cycle
is also called as bleeding cycle.
According the capacity of the turbines the heater arrangements for
effective efficiency is derived as follows:

 Medium capacity turbines – not more than 3 feed heater

 High pressure high capacity – not more than 5 to 7 feed heaters
 48

 Super-critical turbines – 8 to 9 heaters.

Advantages of regenerative power cycle:

The heating process in the boiler tends to become reversible.


 The thermal stresses in the boiler are minimized. This is due to the
inlet temperature is increased so that the temperature difference is
less in the boiler.
 The thermal efficiency is improved because average temperature of
heat addition to the cycle is increased.
 The Heating rate is reduced.
 The LP turbine blade height can be reduced because steam flow at
lower stage is reduced.
 The steam condenser size can be reduced.
 The turbine efficiency increases and damage to the turbine is less.
Disadvantages of regenerative power cycle:

 The plant becomes more complicated and cost.

 The added heater in the circuit increases the maintenance is required.
 For a given power a large capacity of boiler is required.

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Asst: 2.
1. Explain the working of compounding of steam engines wit sketch?
2. Junkers, Gas calorie meter
3. Explain Re heating with sketches and its advantages.
4. What is regeneration? State advantages and disadvantages?
5. Explain with sketches Forced draught and induced draught cooling towers.
6. Explain Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) boiler
7. Explain factors affecting combustion –(3 T)
To be submitted on 8-8-17
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