B.A.

Part-lll Paper-l : ‘Indian Culture”

Unit-l: Foundation of Indian Culture
Vivek Shukla, Senior Research Fellow, Department of Ancient History Culture
and Archaeology, University of Allahabad,Prayagraj,Email-
vivekmailbox4u@gmail.com
Authorized Professor-Prof.Harsh Kumar

• Sources of Study
Objective: we will try to explain them in a holistic manner by considering the source of the study.
These sources are not a separate entity but complement each other. After studying their aspect you will be
able to see the content with a proper view.

Keywords-Samhitas:consisting of mantras,hymns,prayers.,Shruti:that which is heard. Tripitakas:it’s the

earliest grouping of Buddhist teaching., Secular literature: which is not rooted in religious

Literary Sources: Amongst literary sources, we include all written records in the form of
texts, essays or descriptions. It has been mainly divided into two parts, religious and
secular as follows:

Religious Literature:

This includes religious texts of Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.

1. Hindu Religious Texts:

The first literary sources of Hindus are Samhitas which includes four Vedas — the Rig-veda,
the Sam-veda, the Yajur-veda and the Atharva-veda. Besides these are Brahmanas (the
Satapatha, the Panchavis, the Aitreya etc.), Upanishads (the Kathaka, the Isa, the
Svetasvatra etc.), Aranyakas, Vedanga (Total No. 6), Upo-veda (the Aur-veda, the Danur-
veda etc.), Sutras (the Dharam-Sutra, the Graha-Sutra etc.), Smiritis (the Manu, the Vishnu,
the Narad, the Brahaspati etc.), Puranas (the Vishnu, the Vayu etc. 18 in all) and Epics (the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata) which throw light mostly on the history and culture of
India from the Vedic up to Gupta age.

The Rig-veda provides us information about the civilization of the early Vedic Age while the
rest of the three Vedas are useful to know about the civilization of the later Vedic age.
Brahmanas provide us knowledge concerning the expansion of the Aryans towards east
India during the later Vedic age and also religious beliefs and rituals of the Aryans.

Upanishads concern the philosophical speculations and beliefs of the Aryans such as the
trans-migration of soul, Brahma, salvation of soul etc. Sutras tell us the rituals while
performing different Yajnas and the religious, social, moral and political responsibilities of
an individual. Smiritis reveal to us the social and religious conditions of the Indians between
200 B.C. to 600 A D.

2. Buddhist Religious Texts:

The original Buddhist texts are known as Tripitakas.

(i The Vinyapitaka describes rules and regulations for the guidance of the Buddhist monks
and the general management of the Church;

(ii) The Sutt-Pitaka is a collection of the religious discourses of the Buddha, and

(iii) The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains an exposition of the philosophical principles

underlying the religion.

Afterwards, the Mahayana and the Tantrika sects of Buddhism created vast religious
literature of their own and Jataka stories (nearly 549 in number) of Mahayanism describing
various life-stories of Mahatma Buddha were also written Some later written Buddhist texts
like Anuguttar-Nikay which provides us useful information concerning the political, social
and religious condition of the 6th century B.C., Mahayana-Sutra, Satsharika, etc. written by
Buddhist scholar, Nagarjuna, Mahayana-Sutra Lamkar written by Asanga, Abhidharma-
Kosha written by Vasubandhu and several other books like Milinda-Panha, Divya-dana,
Manjusrimulakalpa, Lalit- Visitar etc. written by other scholars provide us useful historical
material.

3. Jain Religious Texts:

The original Jain religious texts were called Agams, Afterwards these were compiled into 14
Purvas and further, the first ten Punas were re-arranged in 12 Angas in the fifth century
A.D. Now only 11 Angas are available. Besides, a vast literature was created by Jain scholars
afterwards, which also provide us useful knowledge concerning history, culture and
civilization of Ancient India. The Bhadrabhahu Charita refers to several events of the reign
of Chandra Gupta Maurya. The Vasudeva Hindi, the Vrahat Kalpa Sutra Bhasya, the Kalika
Purana Katha Kosh and alike other Jain religious texts also provide us useful historical
material. Among the later Jain religious texts, one of the most prominent ones is the
Parisista Parva which was prepared during the 12th century.

Secular Literature:

It includes:

(i) Writings by foreigners,

(ii) Biographical works of great historical persons and historical texts, and

(iii) Literary compositions.

The Greeks, Romans, Chinese and Muslim writers and travellers have left fairly interesting
sources of information in their accounts. Amongst Greek and Roman writers Strabo, Skylex,
Justin, Herodotus, Curtius, Diodorus, Arrian, Plutarch, Ptolemy and the anonymous author
of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea have left useful accounts of India. But the most
popular account amongst them is the Indica written by Megasthenes who lived for some
time in the court of Chandra Gupta Maurya as an ambassador of Seleucus. Amongst
Muslims, Sulaiman and Al Masudi left brief records of India while Alberuni who came to
India with Sultan Mahinud of Ghazni wrote the best foreign accounts of India. The Tahkika-
i-Hind of Al-Baruni provides us good information concerning political, social and cultural
condition of northern India in the 11th century. The Chinese travellers, Fa-hien, Hiuen
Tsang and I-tsing recorded their experiences in fairly bulky volumes which provide us with
much useful information. Their writings provide us useful information concerning social,
religious and cultural condition of contemporary India. Besides these important writers and
travellers there are many other Greek, Muslim and Chinese whose accounts also provide us
with useful information of Indian history and culture.

The contemporary biographical works also provide us with good information. The most
important of these works are the Harsha-charita of Banabhatta, the Gandavaho and the
Vikramankadeva-charita of Vakpati and Bilhana describing the exploits of Yashovarman
and Vikramaditya of the later Chalukya dynasty, the Kumarapala-charita of Jayasimha, the
Kumarapala-charita of Hemachandra, the Hammir-Kavya of Nayachandra, the
Navashasanka-charita of Padma Gupta, the Bhojaprabandha by Ballala, the Prithviraja-
charita of Chand Bardai, the Rama-charita of Sandhyakar Nandi and the Prithviraja-Vijaya
by an anonymous writer.

Amongst historical writings, the most famous is the Rajatarangini. It is a history of Kashmir
written by Kalhana. After him Jonaraja, Srivara, Prajya Bhatta and Suka carried on this
work and brought the history of Kashmir till a few years after its conquest by Mughal
emperor Akbar.

Amongst them the most notable are the Arthasastra of Kautilya, the Mahabhashya of
Patanjali, the Ashtadhaya of Panini, the Mudra-Rakshasa of Visakhdatta, the Kamasutra of
Vatsyayana, the Priyadarshika, the Ratnavali and the Naganand (dramas) by emperor
Harsha Vardhana and extensive writings of Kalidas and Bhavbhuti.

The Arthasasira of Kautilya, the Muudra Rakshasa of Visakhdatta and the Kathasarit-Sagar
of Khemendra provide us useful historical information concerning the period of the
Mauryas; the Nitisara written by Kamandaka provide us information regarding the polity of
the Gupta rulers; the Mahabhashya of Patanjali and the Malvikagnimitra written by Kalidas
help us in finding out the material concerning the history of the Sungas; and the
Mrachakatika of Sudraka and the Das Kumara-Charita written by Dandin throw useful light
on the contemporary social life. Besides, a student of history should be cautious while going
through this literature, whether religious or secular, in an effort to dig out ancient Indian
history, because religious texts are no historical chronicles and the object of biographical
works was mainly the glorification of kings while the writings of foreigners are mostly based
on second-hand information. Yet, though suffering from these handicaps, the literary
sources certainly provide valuable help to students of Indian history.

Archaeological Sources:

The archaeological sources can be divided as follows:

(i) Inscriptions,

(ii) Coins, and

(iii) Monuments, remnants of cities, art-pieces, pottery, weapons and tools of stone or
metals etc.
The inscriptions, being contemporary records, have proved a source of the highest value for
reconstruction of the political history of ancient India. These are mostly engraved on stone
and metal, particularly copper Practically all of them are either commands, records of
conquests, descriptions of achievements or sale and gift of lands by different rulers. The
earliest of these inscriptions have been found on the seals of Harappa belonging to about
3,000 B.C.

But. their script has not been deciphered so far. After them are those of emperor Asoka
engraved on rocks and pillars throughout his vast empire. These inscriptions were engraved
in Brahmi script barring a few which were engraved in Kharoshthi script which was written
from right to left.

The inscriptions which were engraved after the reign of Emperor Asoka have been divided
into two categories, viz., inscriptions engraved by emperors or kings and inscriptions
engraved by certain other people or local officers.

The inscriptions which were used for the grant of lands were mostly engraved on copper-
plates. These inscriptions describe the area of land, by whom it was granted, to whom it was
granted and also the date when it was granted. Some of them also describe the achievements
of rulers who granted lands.

These inscriptions, besides many more, of private individuals or local officers, have
furnished us with the names of various kings, boundaries of their kingdoms and sometimes
useful dates and clues to many important events of history.

The inscriptions of private individuals or that of local officers are mostly engraved in
temples or images of stones or metals. These have provided us information concerning dates
of construction of temples, the development of architecture and sculpture at various places
during different times and also the growth of regional languages.

Thus, inscriptions have been found very much useful in finding different facts of the history
of ancient India. The history of Satavahana rulers has been based mostly on their
inscriptions.

The same way the inscriptions of the rulers of south India such as that of the Pallavas, the
Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas and the Pandyas have been of great help in finding
historical facts of the rule of their respective dynasties. Remnants have been found in India
even of the prehistoric age. These remnants have proved that man existed in India even
during the palaeolithic age. On the basis of remnants found at Hastnapur, Dr B.B. Lai has
expressed the opinion that the war of Mahabharat was fought in nearly 900 B.C. It has also
helped us in fixing the time of the beginning of the iron-age in India. The remnants of the
iron-age have been found in India at Baluchistan, north-west India, Ganga-Yamuna Doab,
Madya-Bharat and south India. On the basis of these remnants Dilip Kumar Chakravarty
has expressed the opinion that the iron- age began in India nearly 1100 B.C. These remnants
found at different places in India have helped us in finding out the process of social and
economic development of the Indian people at different times in different parts of India.

Conclusion: After discussing the source of the study, we will see that the complementarity
of these sources is interconnected. They can reveal only one complete fact. Literary and
archaeological evidence are two aspects of a coin. During the study of these sources ,We
absolutely need to see their historical details in totality.

Reference book :

1. Foundation of Indian Culture – G.C.Pande

2. Society and Culture in Northern India in the Twelfth Century A.D.- B.N.S.Yadava
3. Evolution of Indian Culture-B.N.Lunia
4. The Wonder That Was India-A.L.Basham
5. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India-Upinder Singh

Key Question: 1. .Analyze the different sources for the study of Indian Culture..

• Definition and Characteristics

Objective: In this Section, we will try to study the Continuity of Indian Culture by keeping it at the
center by studying the definition of Culture and its Characteristics.

Keywords:Definition:a statement of the exact meaning of a word., Religion: a belief in one or more
gods., Seasons: one of the four periods of the year,spring,summer,autumn or winter longevity: living for a
long time.
Definition of Culture -Culture has been called "the way of life for an entire society"
that are passed down from generation to generation. As such, it includes codes of
manners, dress, language, religion, rituals, art, norms of behavior, and systems of
belief.

Characteristics of Indian Culture:

1. Longevity and continuity.

2. Unity in diversity.

3. Tolerance.

4. Amalgamation of Spirituality

The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the Land
of Bharata of mythological fame. Various Muslim nations to the west of India prefer
to call it as Hind or Hindustan. Thus we find diversity in the nomenclature of the land
itself. For a better understanding on the diverse elements of Indian culture we shall
first should focus on its various aspects. Then we shall examine how among these
diverse elements there is the eternal flow of unity which is the fundamental
characteristic of Indian culture.

Physical Diversity: Geography has given India different physical diversities in its very
structure. It has vast varieties of soil, wide differences of the frontiers with four
distinct geographical divisions.

Out of the six seasons the main four seasons such as Summer, Rains, Winter and
Spring amply justify the existence of striking varieties in the climate of the country.
Similarly differences are also found in the percentage of rainfall in various parts of the
country. The rainfall varies from 7.5 cms. to 1200 cms. per year. As a result the
temperature varies from the eternal snowy mountains to the scorching heat of the
Thar desert. Racial Diversity: In the words of the prominent historian V.A. Smith:
“India is an ethnological museum.” Even the ancient Greek historian Herodotus
remarked: “Of all the nations that we know of India has the largest population.” per
the Linguistic Survey of India, India possesses 179 languages and 544 dialects. These
languages and dialects are spoken by the people of different regions and different
races. Scriptural and Literary Diversity: India being a multi-lingual country has a vast
treasure of different scripts and literatures. When the languages are many, naturally
scripts are of different types. No wonder then literatures have emerged in various
languages and dialects, both major and minor, thus contributing to the richness of a
Pan- Indian literature including Sanskrit. So far as script is concerned India has got a
good number of scripts.The major ones among them are:

1. Brahmi

2. Kharosthi

3. Devnagari

4. Persian

5. Roman

Conclusion: While discussing the definition of Culture and the main features of
Indian Culture, we see that Culture is a way of living, this meaning has been fully
assimilated in Indian Culture. That is why Indian culture is tolerant, equality, diversity ,
Unity in diversity, with liberal values like assimilation is leading the global stage.

Reference book:

1- The Meaning and Process of Culture -G.C.Pande

2- Evolution of Indian Culture-B.N.Lunia
3- A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India -Upinder Singh

Key Question:

1.Discuss the main Characteristics of Ancient Indian Culture.

2.What do you understand by ‘Culture’ bring out the fundamental features of Indian Culture.

• Harappan Civilization

Objective: The Harappan civilization, also known as the 'Indus-Saraswati Civilization', will try to

reveal specific elements of the civilization by thoroughly deliberating each side of it.

Keywords:Traditions: a long-established custom or belief that has been passed on from one genration
to another.,Chronological:arranged in the order in which the events happened.,Script a system of writing .

The Indus or Harappan culture arose in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent.
It is called Harappan civilization because this was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site
of Harappa, situated in the province of west Punjab in Pakistan.It is also called as Indus
civilization because it refers to precisely the same cultural, chronological and geographic
entity confined to the geographic bounds of the Indus valley.

Sir John Marshall was the first person to use the term ‘Indus civilization’. The Indus or the
Harappan civilization belongs to the Chalcolithic or Bronze Age since the objects of copper
and stone were found at the various sites of this civilization. Nearly, 1,400 Harappan sites
are known so far in the sub-continent.

Origin and Evolution:

The discovery of India’s first and earliest civilization posed a historical puzzle as it seemed
the Proto-Harappan (Indus) culture in its material aspects, viz, the rudiments of town
planning, provision of minimum sanitary facilities, knowledge of pictographic writing, the
introduction of trade mechanisms, the knowledge of metallurgy and the prevalence of
ceramic traditions.to have suddenly appeared on the stage of history, full grown and fully
equipped. The Harappan civilization till recently showed no definite signs of birth and
growth.

The puzzle could largely be solved after the extensive excavation work conducted at
Mehrgarh near the Bolan Pass between 1973 and 1980 by two French archaeologists
Richard H. Meadow and Jean Francoise Jarrige.According to them, Mehrgarh gives us an
archaeological record with a sequence of occupations. Archaeological research over the past
decades has established a continuous sequence of strata, showing the gradual development
to the high standard of the full-fledged Indus civilization.

The different stages of the indigenous evolution of the Indus can be documented by an
analysis of four sites which reflect the sequence of the four important stages or phases in the
pre-history and proto-history of the Indus valley region.The sequence begins with the
transition of nomadic herdsmen to settled agricultural communities as per the evidenc
found at the first site i.e. Mehrgarh near the Bolan Pass. It continues with the growth of
large villages and the rise of towns in the second stage exemplified at Amri.

The Amri people did not possess any knowledge of town-planning or of writing. The third
stage in the sequence leads to the emergence of the great cities as in Kalibangan and finally
ends with their decline, which is the fourth stage and exemplified by Lothal. Amri, Kot-
Dijian and Kalibangan cultures are stratigraphically found to be pre-Harappan.

The pre-Harappan culture of Kalibangan in Rajasthan is termed as Sothi culture by

Amalananda Ghosh, its excavator. The Harappan were owed certain elements such as the
fish scale and pipal leaf to the Sothi ware.

The characteristic pottery of the Quetta culture is the buff-ware, painted in black pigment
and decorated with geometrical designs. Apart from the painted motifs such as the pipal leaf
and sacred brazier, some pottery shapes are common to the Harappan and Kulli cultures.
All these pre-Harappan habitations preceding the phase of the Harappan civilization shows
evidences of people living in houses of stone and mud-brick.

Similarities were found in the cultural traditions of the diverse agricultural communities
living in the Indus region in the ‘early Indus period’. During the urban phase these little
traditions were fused into one great tradition.

However, even in the ‘early Indus period’, use of similar kinds of pottery terracotta mother
goddess, representation of the horned deity in many sites show the way to the emergence of
a homogenous tradition in the entire area. The people of Baluchistan had already
established trading relations with the towns of the Persian Gulf and Central Asia. Kulli,
situated on the southern foothills of the Baluchi mountains near the Makran coast, occupies
an important position on the trade route between the Persian Gulf and the Indus Valley.
Date and Extent: The Harappan culture existed between 2500 BC and 1800 BC. Its
mature phase lay between 2200 BC and 2000 BC. The advent of radiocarbon dating has
provided a new source of information in fixing the Harappan chronology. Indus civilization
was the largest cultural zone of the period – the area covered by it (about 1.3 million sq.km.)
being much greater than that of other contemporary civilization.Over 1000 sites have
discovered so far. It extends from Ropar, almost impinging upon the sub-Himalayan foot-
hills in the North to Daimabad in the Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra in the south, and
from Sutkagendor (on the sea-coast of south Baluchistan) in the west to Alamgirpur (in the
upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab, U P.)

Polity and Society:

There is no clear idea about the political organization of the Harappans. If the Harappan
cultural zone is considered identical with the political zone, the sub-continent did not
witness such a large political unit until the rise of the Maurya Empire. The Harappans
made the first ever experiment to bring about political unity of the divergent geographical
units of the civilization without the use of force.The total absence of internecine wars,
religious or political, speaks volumes about the peaceful administration of the Indus state.
It would be wrong to think that priests ruled in Harappa, as they did in the cities of lower
Mesopotamia for we have no religions structures of any kind except the Great Bath.There
are some indications of the practice of fire cult at Lothal in the later phase, but no temples
were used for the purpose. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with
commerce than with conquests, and it was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

Social set-up:

An important characteristic of the Indus civilization was its urban life. The rural areas not
only supported but often contributed to the socio-cultural development. The social
stratification is reflected in the dwellings and disposition of the dead bodies in the graves.

Dress, Hairstyles and Ornaments:

The Harappan men wore robes which left one shoulder bare, and the garments of the upper
classes were often richly patterned. Beards were worn, and men and women alike had long
hair.The elaborate head-dresses of the Mother Goddess probably had their counter-parts in
the festive attire of the richer women. The women wore a short skirt that reached upto the
knee; and it was held by a girdle-a string of beads.
Amusements: Kids played with terracotta toys such as rattles, birds shaped whistle,
bulls with movable heads, monkeys with movable arms, figures which ran down strings,
the favorite being the baked clay cart.
Dice was used in gambling, marbles of jasper and chert were played by rich children.
Music and dance were secular. Hunting and fishing was in vogue. On a few seals, hunting
of wild rhino and antelope are shown.

Religious Practices:

Except for the discovery of fire altars at Kalibangan, we have not found any cult objects,
temples at any of the Harappan sites. On the basis of the material remains discovered at
various Harappan sites we can say that the Harappan people had many features of the later
Hinduism, such as worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Siva, animal worship, tree-
worship, etc.

The chief female deity was Mother Goddess. In one terracotta figurine found at Harappa, a
plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. Probably the image represents the
goddess of earth. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and
worshipped her.

The most striking deity of the Harappan culture is the horned-deity of the seals. He is
depicted on three specimens, in two, seated on a small dais, and in the third on the ground;
in all three his posture is cross-legged (sitting posture of a yogi). On the largest of the seals,
he is surrounded by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo, and
beneath his feet appear two deer.

Marshall boldly called this god Proto-Siva, and the name has been generally accepted;
certainly the horned god has much in common with the Siva of later Hinduism, who is, in
his most important aspect a fertility deity, is known as Pasupati, the Lord of Beasts. Phallic
worship was an important element of Harappa religion.

Many cone-shaped objects have been found, which almost certainly formalized represen-
tation of the phallus are. The linga or phallic emblem in later Hinduism is the symbol of the
god Siva. The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees. The picture of a deity is
represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of the pipal tree which continues to be
worshipped to this day.
Animals were also worshipped and many of them are represented on seals. The most
important of them is the humped bull. The inhabitants of the Indus region thus worshipped
gods in the form of trees, animals and human beings. Amulets have been found in large
numbers. Probably the Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces.

Burial Practices:

Cemeteries excavated at several Indus sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal
and Ropar throws light on the burial practises of the Harappans. Three forms of burials
have been found at Mohenjo-Daro, viz., complete burials, (means the burial of the whole
body along with the grave goods) fractional burials, (burial of some bones after the exposure
of the body to wild beasts and birds) and post-cremation burials.

From the Lothal cemetery comes evidence of another burial type with several examples of
pairs of skeletons, one male and one female in each case, buried in a single grave. Bodies
were always placed in the north-south direction with the head in the north.

Economy:

The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing,
proficiency in various crafts and brisk trade both internal and external.

I. Agriculture:

The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient foodgrains
not only to feed themselves but also the town people. No hoe or ploughshare has been
discovered, but the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan show that
the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan in the Harappan period.

The Harappans probably used the wooden ploughshare. We do not know whether the
plough was drawn by men or oxen. Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the
crops. Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a feature in parts of
Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel or canal irrigation seems to have been absent.

The Indus people produced wheat, barley, rai, peas, etc. They produced two types of wheat
and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banawali. In addition to this,
they produced sesamum, mustard, dates and varieties of leguminous plants.
At Lothal and Rangpur, rice and spike- lets were found embedded in clay and pottery. The
Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. Because cotton was first produced
in this area the Greeks called it Sindon, which is derived from Sindh.

II. Domestication of Animals:

Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale. Oxen,
buffaloes, goats, sheeps and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were favoured by
the Harappans. From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets.

Cats were also domesticated. Asses and camels were used as beasts of burden. Camel bones
are reported at Kalibangan. Evidence of horse are also reported from Mohenjodaro, Lothal
and Surkotada. Elephants and rhinoceros were well known to the Harappans.

III. Technology and Crafts:

The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age. The people of Harappa used many tools
and implements of stone, but they were very well acquainted with the manufacture and use
of bronze. Bronze was made by the smiths by mixing tin with copper.

Numerous tools and weapons recovered from the Harappan sites suggest that the
bronzesmiths constituted an important group of artisans in the Harappan society. Objects of
gold are reasonably common, silver makes its earliest appearance in the Indus civilization
and was relatively more common than gold. Lead, arsenic, antimony and nickel were also
used by the Harappan people.

The axes, chisels, knives, spearheads, etc., were made of bronze and stone. They seem to
have been produced on a mass-scale in place like Sukkur. Two short copper swords found in
Mohenjodaro are of the slashing type and not cutting type.

The greatest artistic creations of the Harappans are the seals. About 2000 seals have been
found, made of stealite, these seals range in size from 1 cm to 5 cm. Two main types are
seen. First, square with a carved animal and inscription and second, rectangular with an
inscription only.

Stone sculptures and terracotta figurines have been reported from various sites. Figurines
made of fire-baked clay, commonly called terracotta which were either used as toys or
objects of worship. It was used mainly by the common people and it represented
sophisticated artistic works.

Trade:

The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is attested not only by granaries
found at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal but also by the presence of numerous seals,
uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. They did not use metal
money. Most probably they carried on all exchanges through barter.

In return for finished goods and possibly food grains, they procured metals from the
neighbouring areas by boats and bullock-carts. Inter-regional trade was carried on with
Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, parts of western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign
trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (modern Iraq) and Iran.

Their cities also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Discovery of many Indus seals in Mesopotamia and evidence of imitation by the Harappans
of some cosmetics used by the urban people of Mesopotamia suggests that some of the
Harappan merchants must have resided or visited Mesopotamia.

About two dozen Indus type seals were also discovered from different cities of Mesopotamia
like, Ur, Susa, Lagash, Kish and Tell Asmar. Reciprocal evidence comes from the Indus
cities also-discovery of a circular button seals which belongs to a class of Persian Gulf seals,
several bun-shaped copper ingots of Mesopotamian origin and the ‘Reserved Slip Ware’ of
the Mesopotamian type at Lothal.

All these provide conclusive proof of trade links between the two civilization’s. The
Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha,
which was the ancient name given to the Indus region, and they also speak of two
intermediate stations called ‘Dilmun’ (identified with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf) and
Makan (Makran Coast). Shortughai located near Badakhsan in north-east Afghanistan was
one of the Harappan trading outpost, beyond the high passes of the
Hindukush.
Weights and Measures: The knowledge of script must have helped the recording of
private property and accounts-keeping. Numerous articles used for weights have been
found. They show that in weighting mostly 16 or its multiples were used; for instance, 16,
64, 160, 320 and 640.
Script and Language: The Harappans invented the art of writing like the people of
ancient Mesopotamia. Although the earliest specimen of Harappan script was noticed in
1853 and the complete script discovered by 1923, it has not been deciphered so far. Unlike
the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappan did not write long inscriptions. Most
inscriptions were recorded on seals, and contain only a few words.
Problems of Decline: In the absence of any written material or historical evidence,
scholars have made various speculations regarding the causes for the decline of the
Harappan culture. Cities like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan saw a gradual
decline in urban planning. Later on some of the settlements like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa
etc. were abandoned. However, in most other sites people continued to live.

Some important features associated with the Harappan civilization, writing, uniform
weights, pottery and architectural style disappeared of. Wheeler believed that the Indus
civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. It has been pointed out that in the late
phases of Mohenjo-Daro there are evidences of a massacre. However, it has been pointed
out that Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned by about 1800 B.C., Aryans on the other hand are
said to have come to India around 1500 B.C. Thus, this theory of sudden death cannot
explain the decline. The gradual death theory is supported by several scholars.

R. Raikes, a hydrologist, has set forth a theory that due to tectonic activity, the flood plains
of the lower Indus river were raised which led to prolonged submergence of cities like
Mohenjo-Daro and Chanhudaro and hence their abandonment. But the cause for the decline
of some of the other Indus cities like Kalibangan and Banawali seems to be not the floods
but the drying up of rivers.The Harappans are also said to have suffered from several
suicidal weaknesses. The Harappans, for instance lacked plasticity of mind as seen in the
non-changing successive layers of the cities, non- adoption of the technical advancement of
the Mesopotamians (iron technology). Also the Harappans ignored defence, as suggested by
the paucity of sharp edged effective weapons.The eclipse of sea- trade might have
contributed to the decline of the Harappan civilization but it cannot be held as the main
cause. Thus, as seen above, there are several important causes for the decline of the
civilization. Also, there is enough evidence to show that the great Harappan civilization did
not come to a sudden ‘dead end’ instead it seems to have faded away gradually.

Town Planning System: The Town Planning System of Indus Valley Civilization
(Harappan Civilization) was city based. The excellent drainage and sanitation systems are
remarkable.

Urban Cities: The Indus civilization flourished around cities. The ruins of the cities, so far
unearthed, show remarkable town planning, and excellent system of drainage and sanitation of
the Indus Valley Civilization. The city was the heart of the civilization. The life in the Indus cities
gives the impression of “a democratic bourgeois economy” like that of ancient Crete.

Large cities divided into two parts: Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and also at Kalibangan,
the city was divided into two main parts. The higher and upper portion of the city was protected
by a construction which looks like a fort. The ruling class of the towns perhaps lived in the
protected area. The other part of the towns was lower in height than the former and common
men lived in this area. The lower area of the towns generally spread over one square mile.

Streets

The main streets of Indus Valley ran from north to south and east to west intersecting one
another at right angles. The streets were broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet. They ran straight
to a mile. They were suitable for wheeled traffic. Lanes were joined with the streets. Each lane
had a public welt. Street lamps were provided for welfare of public.

Systematically built Buildings and Houses

The nature of the buildings at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro shows that the town dwellers were
divided into various social classes. The rich and the ruling class lived in the multi-roomed
spacious houses and the poorer section lived in small tenements. The public building and big
houses were situated on the streets. The modest houses were situated on the lanes.
Encroachment on public roads or lanes by building houses was not permitted. The houses can
be divided into three main groups viz.

• dwelling houses,
• larger buildings,
• Public baths.

Smaller houses had two rooms, while larger houses had many rooms. There were courtyards
attached to big buildings. There was little artistic touch in the architectural design of the
buildings belonging either to the rich or the poor. They were plain, utilitarian and comfortable to
live. Some of the buildings were probably multi-storied. Most of the houses had baths, wells and
covered drains connected with street drains. Ordinary buildings had little ventilation
arrangements, as doors and windows were rarely fixed in the outer walls. Doors of entrance
were fixed not on the front wall but on the side walls. One could enter a house by the door facing
the side lanes of the house. The doors were made of wood. Large buildings had spacious doors.

Building Materials

There was no stone built house in the Indus cities. Most of the houses were built of burnt bricks.
But unburnt sun-dried bricks were also used. That portion of the buildings where contamination
with water was possible, burnt bricks were used. For other parts sun-dried bricks were used.
Most of the bricks were of equal size. The staircases of big buildings were solid; the roofs were
flat and were made of wood.
Drainage System

The elaborate drainage system was a remarkable feature of the civilization. According to D. D.
Kosambi, the drainage plans of the Indus cities definitely establish the separate identity or
independent character of the Indus civilization. No ancient civilization before the Roman
civilization had such an advanced drainage and sanitation system. Each house had horizontal
and vertical drains. There were underground drains for the streets. These drains were covered
by stone slabs. The soak pits were made of bricks. The house drains were connected with road
drains.

Great Public Bath and Granary of Indus Valley Civilization

There is an impressive building which was used as a public bath. The overall dimension of the
Bath is 180 feet by 108 feet. The bathing pool is 39 feet by 23 feet with 8 feet depth. There is a
device to fill and empty the water of the bathing pool. There are galleries and rooms on all sides
of the bathing pool. Dr. Kosambi has provided an interpretation of the bathing pool and the
adjoining rooms which is ingenuous. According to him, men used to bathe in the tanks as a
ritual for the mother goddess to whom the citadel belonged. This public bath was attached to the
Mohenjo-Daro fort where upper class people lived. Among the other large buildings there was a
big hall which was perhaps used for public meeting.

There is the ruin of a great granary at Harappa measuring 169 fit x 135 fit. Attached to the
granary were two roomed tenements with a common courtyard. These tenements housed the
workers or the slaves who thrashed the corn to be preserved in the granary.

Conclusion: The Harappan Civilization is the first urban Civilization of India. After
deliberating on each side of this Civilization, we find that city planning, water management,
better trade-commerce, positive balance of payments, we get a perfect standard on all sides. If
we look at the idea of the current smart city So we need to learn a lot from this Civilization..

Reference book:

1. AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY- Amalanand Ghosh

2. The Sarasvati flows on- B.B.Lal
3. The Indus Civilization :A Contemporary Perspective- Gregory Possehl
4. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization -Jonathan Mark kenoyer
5. THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE Indus Civilization- Nayanjot Lahiri

Key Question:

1. Describe the Characteristics features of Harappan Civilization.

2. Describe the main features of religion of Indus Civilization.
3. Discuss the main Cause of Decline of Indus Civilization.

• Vedic Culture
Objective: Under this, We will try to reveal various aspects of Vedic Culture by making it a.
basis for the study of holistic approach.

Keywords: Samhitas: Consisting of mantras,hymns,prayers,litanies and benedictions.,

Brahmana’s::Attached to each samhita was a collection o explanations of religious
rites.,Migration:The process of people travelling to a new place to live,usually in large numbers. In
the evolution of the Indian society and its cultural and socio-economic tradition, the Vedic
phase is very significant one.

A prolonged debate is going on about the meaning of the term ‘Aryan’ and the original home
of the Aryans.

In spite of more than two centuries of study by different scholars from different
perspectives, nothing conclusive could be said about the original homeland of the Aryans
and meaning of the term Aryan.

Though the predominant popular view among right-wing Indian scholars is that the Aryans
are natives of India, the academic historians question this view and they are of the opinion
that the Aryans are not indigenous. The myth of the large-scale migration of Aryans into
India indulging in extensive destruction of the culture and civilization of the natives is no
longer valid. The concept of the superiority of the Aryan race with better skill in warfare and
technical expertise in comparison to the natives of the subcontinent of India is also not
accepted as historical reality.

Archaeologically, the Rig-Veda phase seems to coincide with the pre-iron phase of the
painted grey ware culture. The recently excavated sites at Bhagawanpura in Haryana and
three sites in Punjab, where painted grey ware culture has become known, was assigned to
1600 BC to 1000 BC, which is approximately the period of the composition of the later parts
of the Rig-Veda.

Before we attempt to delineate the image of the early Vedic society, let us know about the
Vedic literature. The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Vid’, which means ‘to
know’. The Vedic literature consists of 50 texts.

These are divided into four principal categories:

(a) Samhitas,

(b) Brahmanas,
(c) Aranyakas, and

(d) Upanishads.

Besides these categories, Vedangas and Upavedas also constitute the corpus of the Vedic
literature. The Samhitas are a collection of hymns and verses that refer to particular rituals
observed and the various aspects of life of those times in general. The texts of the Samhitas
are Rig-Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The Brahmanas is a group of
interpretative texts and are associated with the particular Samhitas. For example, Aitereya
and Kausitaki Brahmanas are associated with the Rig-Veda.

The last of the Aranyakas overlap with the earliest Upanishads that seem to be an even more
sustained effort towards ontological discourse. There is a difference of opinion regarding the
importance given to ritual and speculation. The whole corpus of Vedic literature had been
rearranged and reconstituted throughout the Early Historic Period and the Early Medieval
Period, when it was given the final form that exists today.

Rig-Veda is the oldest of the four Vedas. It is a compilation of hymns chanted by priestly
families at the time of sacrifices to gods. There are five recensions of the Rig-Veda. Out of
the five, the Sakala recension consisting of 1,017 or 1,028 hymns has come down to us
totally.

The rest of the corpus is considered lost. Rig-Veda is not the work of one individual or
family but a collective work of many families spanning over a considerable time. As a result,
we notice considerable variation in style and in metres. Rig-Veda is divided into 10
mandalas or sections.

Out of these six mandalas form the kernel of the Rig-veda. The above six mandalas are also
known as family mandalams. The authors of these six mandalas belong to the families of
Gristsmada, Viswamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja and Vasistha. Of the ten mandalas,
the first, the eighth and the tenth mandalas are later additions; Yaska was the first one who
attempted to arrange the verses in accordance with their contents.

He refers to 17 commentaries that existed before his time. Sayana’s commentary, written
during the Vijayanagjra period in the early 14th century AD, is the primary basis for the
understanding of Rigveda in modem times.

Puranas claim that Samaveda has a thousand Samhitas but only one Samhita has been left
to us with three recensions – the Kanthama, Jaiminiya and the Ramayania. Samaveda
contains 1,800 hymns and of them 261 are repetitions. Therefore, it is concluded that it has
only 1,549 hymns. Even among 1,549 of these, except 75, the rest variations are from the
Rigveda. Even these 75 hymns are repeated in other Samhitas and Brahmanas.

Samaveda is of immense value to a student of Indian music. It has three Brahmanas – the
Tandya, the Shadvimsa and the Jaiminiya Brahmana of these three, the first the Tandya
Mahabrahmana refers to a ceremony of Vratyasoma by which non-Aryans could be
admitted into the Aryan fold.

The mention of this ceremony indicates a process of acculturation that took place between
the Aryans and non-Aryans and refers to the accommodative process of the society of that
time. Atharvaveda is also called Atharvangirasa. It has two branches: Samnaka and
Paippataka. This has 731 Suktas.

The composers of this Atharvaveda appear to have a wider geographical knowledge than the
authors of Rig-Veda. Further, social life as reflected in Rig-Veda is different from that of the
Atharvanaveda. This Veda refers to charms, magic and spells by which one can overcome
enemies and gain success in worldly matters. The Yajurveda is divided into two parts –
Sukla or white and Krishna or black.

While Sukla Yajurveda has only one branch – the Vajasaneya Samhita, the latter has four
branches – Kautaka, Kapisthada, Katha, Taittariya and Maitrayani Samhitas. Vajasaneya
Samhita has two recensions, the Kanva and the Madhyandina. Yajurveda has two
Brahmanas – Taittariya and Satapatha. While Taittariya belongs to Krishna (black)
Yajurveda, Satapatha belongs to Sukla (white) Yajurveda.

Next in importance to the Samhitas are the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas are the texts of the
rituals to be performed at various ceremonies. It is believed that, the objective of the
Brahmanas is to mystify the sacrifices. Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the
Brahmanas, which deal with mysticism and symbolism. Aranyakas may also be regarded as
the natural transition to the Upanishads. The Upanishads are taught at the end of Vedic
learning as they contain the ultimate philosophy of Vedic knowledge.

The word Upanishad means sitting at the feet of the guru and acquiring knowledge through
question and answer method or clearing of doubts of the Sishya by the guru.Besides the
above texts forming part of the Vedic tradition, we have ‘sutras’ texts closely associated with
the Vedic tradition: Srauta, Dharma and Grihya sutra literature. Srauta means sacrifices.
These texts describe the rituals involving the services of the Purohits. Rigveda has two
Srauta sutras – Asvalayana and Samkhyayana.
These describe the ritual duties of the Hotri or priest in a systematic fashion. While
Asvalayana sutra is associated with Aitareya Brahmana, Sakhyayana sutra is affiliated to
Kaushithaki Brahmana. Samaveda has two Srauta sutras: Latyayana and Drahyayana.
Interestingly, while the Vedic Tradition looks down on the Sudras, Nishadas and Vratyas as
cursed; Latyayana Srautasutra differs in its treatment of these social groups from the Vedic
tradition. Even if it is a solitary reference or instance, it needs to be noticed, as it happens to
record a dissenting voice from the existing Vedic tradition.

Krishna Yajurveda has two Srauta sutras: Apasthambha and Baudhyayana. Sukla Yajurveda
has Katyayana Srauta sutras. Sometime after the composition of Srauta sutras, Grihya and
Dharma sutras were composed. While Grihya sutras relate to domestic religious ritual or
Karmakanda to be performed by an individual in his four stages of life (Chaturasrama), the
Dharma sutras stipulate social relations.

These Dharma sutras are the earliest sources of the later day Hindu law. Gautama, Vasista
and Apastambha are some of the most important writers of the Dharma sutras. Besides
these three; Srauta, Grihya and Dharma, we come across another category: Sulva sutras:
attached to Srauta sutras. They deal with the rules and regulations regarding the
measurement and construction of fire altars, which occupy an important place in the Vedic
ritual. Generally, all these four sutras are known as Kalpa sutras.

The composition of these sutras is assigned from 6th century to 2nd century BC. As a part of
Vedic literature, we have a separate category called Vedanga literature. Siksha or phonetics,
Kalpa or Vyakarana or grammar, Nirukta or etymology, Chandas or metres and Jyothisha or
astrology are called Vedangas. Along with Vedangas, there also exist Upavedas-Ayurveda,
Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda and Arthasastra. While the Vedas are considered to be of
divine origin, the rest of the literature is agreed to have been composed and interpreted by
human beings. A detailed survey of the Vedic literature is necessary because even today the
Vedic literature has significant impact on the minds of the Indians.

Whatever new philosophy or new instrument is invented anywhere in the world, there is a
tendency among Hindus to believe that it has its origin in the Vedas. The Vedic tradition
was so deep rooted, that it has become a way of life, knowingly or unknowingly of a large
section of the populace. What is needed is not a blind admiration of the Vedic literature and
thought; but a proper understanding and critical appreciation of the Vedic knowledge by all
those who are concerned with the value of the Vedas.
No doubt, the Vedic literature is the repository of all forms of early knowledge, skills, and
speculations of the people of India from that of brewing wine to the highest abstract
cosmos- logical theories.In course of time, the basic content of the Vedic knowledge became
spiritual in outlook. This knowledge in turn paved way for emergence of the Indian way of
life. Even today, the Vedic concepts of transmigration of soul, karma and rebirth continue to
retain their strong hold on the minds of many Indians. To sum up, every aspect of our
social, cultural and legal system is influenced by Vedic thought and tradition.

Rig-Veda provides some information regarding the geographical knowledge of the Vedic
people and this helps us to ascertain the area known to them. Rig-Veda refers to the Muja
ant peak of the Himalayas and twenty-four rivers. Of these, Rig-Veda frequently refers to
the Sarsavati River, which they worshipped.

The Ganges does not appear to be an important river at that time. Their knowledge of sea is
debatable. While A.B. Keith is of the view that they were not aware of the sea, Max Muller
believes that they had a definite knowledge of the sea. We may safely conclude that they
knew the present areas of Afghanistan, the Punjab, parts of Sindh and Rajputana, the north-
western frontier province, Kashmir and eastern India up to the Sarayu River.

The data available from the archaeological sources and Rig-Veda provides the necessary
clues to paint a picture of the society. The Rig-Veda society can be characterized as simple
with small settlements of cultivators and cattle raisers. They lived in wattle and daub huts
with rammed earth floors, which gradually gave way to brick structures.

As Rig-Veda refers to a number of tribes living in specific regions by name, it is inferred that
their society was based on tribal organizational set-up. This phase appears to be a transitory
period, from tribe to lineage. Rig-Veda refers to non-Vedic tribes also like Kikatas, Kiratas
and Dasyus. It was a period of constant skirmishes among the Vedic tribes and the Vedic
and the non-Vedic tribes for economic gains.

The most important politically significant event appears to be a battle between ten kings or
Dasaraja Yuddha. Trutsu-Bharata tribes fought against a confederacy of tribes comprising
forces of Puru, Yadu, Turvasu, Anu and Drhyu and many others and defeated them. The
fight between the tribes was for cattle, as it was considered wealth and conferred power and
prestige. Each tribe attempted to enhance its cattle holding by raiding the other tribes
besides cattle breeding. Even today in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh, cattle is called
Sommulu meaning wealth.
The Rig-Veda society was, though primarily pastoral, dependent on agriculture to sustain
itself as pastoralism and agriculture are complementary to each other. In the promotion of
agriculture, we notice both Vedic and non-Vedic people cooperating and helping each other.

The Samiti may be the representative body of the Vedic tribes and the Sabha a body of the
elected or chosen representatives of the tribes. R.S. Sarma is of the opinion that these
assemblies performed both civil and military functions. It is not easy to explain or define
what those civil and military functions were. The Rig-Veda Rajan appears to be a warrior,
who was empowered to protect people as well as cattle. In return, the people offered him,
‘Bali’ or tribute to show their gratitude, loyalty and obedience for making their lives secure.

We do not know whether Bali was offered voluntarily or fixed by the Rajan. We do not know
how the Rajan and other functionaries maintained themselves. Rig-Veda refers to chariots
drawn by horses and these chariots may have been used by Rajan. Bows and arrows, swords,
spears, lances and axes are the weapons known to them.

Rig-Veda refers to moving forts and Purapatis are said to be heads of these forts. It is also
subjected that the army was divided into Sardhavaha, Vrata and Gana. It is very difficult to
believe the above view as the maintenance of army with division involves vast resources.
The exact extent of the territorial hold of the Rajan is not known. Rigveda refers to the term
Jana 275 times and to Vis 170 times.

The food habits of the Rig-Veda people were very simple. Generally, they ate parched grain,
apupa or cakes, milk products, fruits and vegetables. They also ate meat and on
celebrations, beef they knew Sura and Soma as drinks. Their favorite pastime was hunting
and they hunted wild animals as well as deer and birds. The other pastimes were dancing
and chariot racing. Women also took active part in dancing and music.

The Aryan society was lineage and kinship based. The Varnasrama model did not take shape
yet. The conquered indigenous people were referred to as Dasas or Dasyus and there is
reason to believe that the victorious Vedic people felt themselves superior. Though there
was no caste system as such in that society, it witnessed social and economic inequalities
due to the special place given to Rajanya and Purohita groups in the social, political and
cultural spheres.

Their religious ideology was primitive animism. As the Aryan society revolved around war,
they created an image of Indra as the god of strength, who could destroy enemies. As their
Chief was more of a warlord, they conceived of Indra as a warlord. Indra was also conceived
as god of thunder and the rainmaker.
It could be so because rain provided water that is essential for the survival of men, cattle the
plant and animal kingdom, and for agriculture. There appears to be hierar chical grading of
the divine elements. Next in importance to Indra was Agni Each family had a separate
Agnistuti. Agni was considered very pure, the destroyer of dirt and germs that created
diseases.

The ritual of marriage was solemnized in the presence of Agni was also given primacy in the
performance of the ritual of Yajna or sacrifice. Next in order, they worshipped Varuna, the
water god. Next came Yama, the god of death, Surya, Soma, Savitru, Rudra and 100 Maruts
were worshipped. They also worshipped weapons of war, drums and mortar. The Rigvedic
worship centred on sacrificial rites.

Hymns to various deities were recited, and animals were offered at the sacrificial altar –
calling gods to bless them and provide all the material benefits that will enable them to lead
a comfortable life on earth. The Rig-Veda ritual of sacrifice was conducted by a social group
of Purohits who acted as intermediaries between the worshippers and the gods. This
enabled the priestly class group to become a crucial element of society, as they were capable
of performing an act that made life sustainable on this earth. It is also suggested that animal
sacrifice was a way for this pastoral society to get rid of old and useless cattle by endowing it
with a religious significance and gave them ostensible justification on religious ground. At
the time of sacrifice, the Rig-Veda religion appears to be a patriarchal reflection of the
pastoral warrior society.

The Rigvedic religious philosophy never advocated devotees to surrender themselves to God
as in the later Bhaktimarga or the path of devotion. An examination and study of the Vedic
religious philosophical thought reveals a kind of progress from crude to more refined ideas
and broader views. They also reflect the first principles of abstract, ritualistic, theistic,
physiological and psychological foundations of the Rig-Veda culture. Studies of the Rig-
Veda religious practices make us think of people who blended spiritual and materialistic
approaches to life.

The Rigveda does not refer to Nagara or city but refers to Pura or seasonal fortification. This
society was more or less pastoral and tribal with rudimentary agriculture not producing the
surplus necessary for the growth of cities. These people domesticated the horse, the draught
ox, the goat, the sheep and the dog.

An interesting feature of this society was that the grasslands were held in common and this
established the fact that the society was definitely pastoral and not agrarian. The Panis or
non-Aryans controlled trade that was based on barter. The standard unit of exchange was
the cow.

The Rig-Veda refers to a gold coin Nishka and golden Mana, which has been identified with
the old Babylonian weight. Chariots or Rathas and wagons or Ahas were the chief means of
transport. Horses drew the Rathas and oxen drew the wagons. Thus, a study of the Rig
Vedic society and culture reveals that it was a dynamic society constantly evolving and
willing to adapt to changes in socio-economic cultural spheres.

Conclusion: Vedic Culture has contributed immensely in enriching Indian Culture and
making it longevity. After discussing each aspect of it, we see how the Knowledge tradition
developed in a gradual manner, social system, Political system, Cultural tradition, it
provided the foundation on which each Indian Culture flourished. Vedic culture is very
useful in understanding the society and life of that time.

Reference book:
1. Foundation of Indian Culture -G.C.Pande
2. The Dawn of Indian Civilization Upto 600 B.C.-G.C.Pande
3. VEDIC CULTURE AND ITS CONTINUITY- Sitaram Dubey
4. Ancient History of Vedic Culture-Stephen knapp
5. Proof of Vedic Culture Global Existence -Stephen knapp
6. The History And Culture of the Indian People ,Volume 1 ‘THE VEDIC AGE’-R.C.Majumdar

Key Question:
1. Discuss the Salient features of Vedic Culture.
2. Discuss the Rigvedic Religion.
3. Discuss the different aspects of Vedic Religion.
4. Give an Account of Socio-Economic life of the later Vedic Period.