ICE NAVIGATION

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Ice Navigation – Knowledge Of Sea
Sea ice: types and forms - Canada.ca
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 SEA ICE: TYPES AND FORMS
• Sea ice comes in a variety of types and forms, depending on the stage of development
and the meteorological, atmospheric, and other physical conditions present.
• Sea Ice Types
• There are various types of sea ice, according to its stage of development. Within each
stage below, various sub-types also exist, depending on the internal structure of the ice.
• New Ice: A general term for recently formed ice which includes frazil ice, grease ice, slush
and shuga. These types of ice are composed of ice crystals which are only weakly frozen
together and have a definite form only while they are afloat.
• Nilas: A thin elastic crust of ice, easily bending on waves and swell and under pressure
growing in a pattern of interlocking “fingers” (finger rafting). Nilas has a matte surface and
is up to 10cm in thickness and may be subdivided into dark nilas and light nilas.
• Young Ice: Ice in the transition stage between nilas and first-year ice, 10-30 cm in
thickness. May be subdivided into grey ice and grey-white ice.
 SEA ICE: TYPES AND FORMS
• First-year Ice: Sea ice of not more than one winter’s growth, developing from young ice; 30cm
or greater.
• Old Ice: Sea ice which has survived at least one summer’s melt. Topographic features
generally are smoother than first-year ice. It maybe subdivided into second-year ice and
multiyear ice.
Sea Ice can take on many forms, depending on external conditions and other physical
considerations.
• Except in sheltered waters, an even sheet of ice seldom forms immediately and the thickening
slush breaks up into separate masses under wind and wave action, The slush layer dampens
down the waves, and if freezing continues, the ‘pancakes’ will adhere together, forming a
continuous sheet.
Here are some of the more common forms of ice:
• Pancake Ice: Predominantly circular pieces of ice 30 cm to 3 m in diameter, up to 10 cm in
thickness, with raised rims due to the pieces striking against one another. It may form on a
slight swell from grease ice, shuga or slush or as a result of the breaking of ice rind, nilas or,
under severe conditions of swell or waves, of grey ice.
• Brash Ice: Accumulation of floating ice made up of fragments not more than 2m across, the
wreckage of other forms of ice.
• Ice Cake: Any relatively flat piece of ice less than 20m across.
 NAVIGATING IN ICE
• Ice is an obstacle to any ship, even an icebreaker, and the inexperienced Navigation
Officer is advised to develop a healthy respect for the latent power and strength of ice
in all its forms.
• The first principle of successful ice navigation is to maintain freedom of manoeuvre.
Once a ship becomes trapped, the vessel goes wherever the ice goes.
• The open water long way round a difficult ice area whose limits are known is often the
fastest and safest way to port, or to the open sea when leaving a port.
• in ice of higher concentrations, four basic ship handling rules apply:
• keep moving – even very slowly, but try to keep moving;
• try to work with the ice movement and weaknesses but not against them;
• excessive speed almost always results in ice damage; and
• know your ship’s manoeuvring characteristics.
 SUPERSTRUCTURE ICING – ICE ACCRETION
• Superstructure icing depends upon meteorological conditions, condition of loading,
and behaviour of the vessel in stormy weather, as well as on the size and location of
the superstructure and rigging.
• The more common cause of ice formation is the deposit on the vessel’s structure of
water droplets from spray driven from wave crests and from ship-generated spray.
• Ice formation also occurs in conditions of snowfall, sea fog, a drastic fall in ambient
temperature and from the freezing of raindrops on contact with the vessel’s structure.
• Vessel icing is a function of the ship’s course relative to the wind and seas and
generally is most severe in the following areas: stem, bulwark and bulwark rail,
windward side of the super- structure and deckhouses, hawse pipes, anchors, deck
gear, forecastle deck and upper deck, freeing ports, containers, hatches, aerials,
stays, shrouds, masts, spars, and associated rigging.
• Constant spray entering the hawse pipes may freeze solid inside the pipe and anchors
stowed in recessed pockets may freeze in place, both conditions limiting anchor use.
 ICE ACCRETION
• Superstructure icing is possible whenever air temperatures are – 2.2°C or less and
winds are 17 knots or more.
• In fresh water such as the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River superstructure icing
will occur at 0°C and below, and accumulate faster than in salt water conditions.
• Winds of Beaufort Force 5 may produce slight icing, Force 7 moderate icing; and
winds of above Force 8, severe icing. Under these conditions, the most intensive ice
formation takes place when wind and sea come from ahead.
• In beam and quartering winds, ice accumulates more quickly on the windward side of
the vessel thus leading to a constant list which is extremely dangerous as the deck-
immersion point could easily be reached with a loaded vessel.
• The effects of freezing spray can be minimized by slowing down in heavy seas to
reduce bow pounding, running with the sea, or seeking more sheltered sea conditions
near-shore or in sea ice
 REQUIREMENTS FOR SHIPS OPERATING IN
ICE
• The propulsion plant and steering gear of any ship intending to operate in ice must be
reliable and must be capable of a fast response to manoeuvring orders.
• The navigational and communications equipment must be equally reliable and
particular attention should be paid to maintaining radar at peak performance.
• Light and partly loaded ships should be ballasted as deeply as possible.
• Engine room suction strainers should be able to be removed easily and to be kept
clear of ice and snow.
• Good searchlights should be available to aid in visibility during night navigation with or
without icebreaker support.
• Ships navigating in ice-covered waters may experience delays and, therefore, should
carry sufficient fresh water, supplies and manoeuvring fuel, especially vessels which
use heavy bunker fuel for main propulsion.
 SIGNS OF ICE IN THE VICINITY
When steaming through open water, it may be possible to detect the approach of ice by
the following signs:
• Ice blink: this is a fairly reliable sign and may be the first indication that an ice field
is in the vicinity. It can usually be seen for some time before the ice itself is visible
and appears as a luminous reflection on the underside of the clouds above the ice.
• The sighting of small fragments of ice often indicates that larger quantities are not
far away.
• Abrupt moderation of the sea and swell occur when approaching an ice field from
leeward.
• The onset of fog often indicates the presence of ice in the vicinity.
• On a clear day there may be abnormal refraction of light causing distortion in the
appearance of features. Although the ice field will be seen at a greater distance
than would normally be possible without refraction, its characteristics may be
magnified out of all proportion – it may even appear as giant cliffs of ice in the far
distance, with breaks between them where the open water lies.
 THE FOLLOWING ARE SIGNS OF OPEN
WATER
• Water sky: dark patches on low clouds, sometimes almost black in comparison with
the clouds, indicate the presence of water below them
• Dark spots in fog give a similar indication, but are not visible for as great a distance as
the reflection on clouds.
• A dark bank on a cloud at high altitude indicates the presence of patches of open
water below, which could lead to larger areas of open water in the immediate vicinity.
 NAVIGATION IN ICE
• Non-ice-strengthened ships with an open water speed of about 12 knots can become
hopelessly beset in heavy concentrations of relatively light ice conditions.
• Ice strengthened ships with adequate power should be able to make progress through
first-year ice of 6/10 to 7/10 concentrations. Such ships are often able to proceed
without any assistance other than routing advice.
• In concentrations of 6/10 or less, most vessels should be able to steer at slow speed
around the floes in open pack ice without coming into contact with very many of them.
• The route recommended by the appropriate reporting system is based on the latest
available information and Masters are advised to adjust their course accordingly.
• Do not enter ice if an alternative, although longer, open water route is available.
• It is very easy and extremely dangerous to underestimate the hardness of ice.
• Enter the ice at low speed to receive the initial impact; once into the pack, increase
speed gradually to maintain headway and control of the ship
 NAVIGATION IN ICE
• Be prepared to go “Full Astern” at any time.
• Navigation in pack ice after dark should not be attempted without high-power
searchlights which can be controlled easily from the bridge;
• Propellers and rudders are the most vulnerable parts of the ship; ships should go
astern in ice with extreme care, and always with the rudder amidships.
• All forms of glacial ice (icebergs, bergy bits, growlers) in the pack should be given a
wide berth, as they are current-driven whereas the pack is wind-driven.
• Wherever possible, pressure ridges should be avoided and a passage through pack
ice under pressure should not be attempted. The ship may have to be stopped in the
ice until the pressure event is ended.
• When a ship navigating independently becomes beset, it usually requires icebreaker
assistance to free it.
 MANOEUVRES IN DIFFERENT ICE
CONDITIONS
• For an unstrengthened ship, or for a ship whose structural capability does not match
the prevailing ice conditions, it is preferable and safer to take any alternative open
water route around the ice even if it is considerably longer. The following conditions
must be met before a vessel enters an ice field:
• Follow the route recommended by the Ice Navigator.
• Post extra lookouts and increase the bridge watch depending on the visibility.
• There must be sufficient light to complete the transit of the ice field in daylight or the
vessel must be equipped with sufficient high-powered and reliable searchlights for use
after dark.
• Reduce speed to a minimum to receive the initial impact of the ice.
• The vessel should be at right angles to the edge of the pack ice at entry to avoid
glancing blows and the point of entering the ice must be chosen carefully
 PRECAUTIONS WHEN ENTERING ICE FIELD
• The engine room personnel should be briefed fully as to the situation and what may be
required of them
• The ship should be ballasted down to ice draft, if appropriate, or to such a draft that
would offer protection to a bulbous bow, rudder, or propeller
• The ship should be fitted with an internal cooling system for use in the event that the
main engine cooling water intake becomes clogged with slush ice.
• Once the ice is entered, speed of the vessel should be increased slowly, according to
the prevailing ice conditions and the vulnerability of the ship.
• If visibility decreases while the vessel is in the ice, speed should be reduced until the
vessel can be stopped within the distance of visibility.
• If the vessel is stopped, the propeller(s) should be kept turning at low revolutions to
prevent ice from building up around the stern.
 GENERAL RULES WHEN NAVIGATING IN ICE
• Use the pack to its best advantage. Follow open water patches and lighter ice areas
even if initially it involves large deviations of course.
• In limited visibility, beware following an open water lead at excessive speed, it may be
the trail of an iceberg.
• Do not allow the speed to increase to dangerous levels when in leads or open pools
within an ice field, or when navigating open pack conditions.
• Changes in course will be necessary when the vessel is in ice.
• As turning in ice requires substantially more power than turning in water, course
changes should be carried out in an area of open water or in relatively light ice.
 BACKING IN ICE

• Backing in ice is a dangerous manoeuvre as it exposes the most vulnerable

parts of the ship, the rudder and propeller, to the ice.
• The ship should move at dead slow astern and the rudder must be amidships
• If ice starts to build up under the stern, a short burst of power ahead should be
used to clear away the ice.
 THE DANGER OF BEING ‘BESET’
• Avoid areas of ice under pressure – this is the easiest way to avoid being beset.
• The most common pressure situation occurs when open pack ice closes because of
prevailing winds.
• Pack ice that has been under pressure for some time will deform, overriding as rafts or
piling up as ridges or hummocks.
• The danger from becoming beset is increased greatly in the presence of old or glacial
ice
• Frequent checks should be made for any signs of the track closing behind the ship
when in pack ice.
• Watch for a change in the wind direction or tide when proceeding along an open water
lead between ice and shore, or ice in motion and fast ice, as the lead can close
quickly.
 HOW TO FREE A BESET VESSEL
• To free a beset vessel, it is necessary to loosen the grip of ice on the hull, which may
be accomplished in several ways, or it may be necessary to wait for conditions to
improve.
• Go ahead and astern at full power while alternating the helm from port to starboard,
which has the effect of levering the ice aside.
• Alternate the ballast to port and to starboard to list the ship and change the
underwater shape.
• Changes in trim may have the desired effect but this is usually slower and less
effective than transverse motion induced by changes in list.
 BERTHING IN ICE
• Berthing in ice-covered waters is usually a long process particularly if there are
normally no tugs available.
• There are a multitude of considerations depending on ship size and berth type, but the
aim should be to bring the ship alongside with as little ice as possible trapped between
the ship and the dock face.
• Once the ship is secured, all efforts must be made to keep the ship alongside and not
to allow ice to force its way between the ship and the dock.
• If the dock is in a river or in a strong tidal area there is nothing that will keep the ship
alongside if the ice is moving and the safest thing to do is to move the ship off the
dock before the situation deteriorates.
• The ice conditions can change quickly when alongside a wharf and it is best to keep
the engine(s) on standby at all times.