Medical parasitology deals with the parasites, which cause

human infections and the diseases they produce.

It is broadly divided into 2 parts:
 Protozoology
 Helminthology.

The pioneer Dutch microscopist, Antonie von Leeu-

wenhoek of Holland in 1681, irst introduced single lens
microscope and obeserved Giardia in his own stools.

Louis Pastuer in 1870, irst published scientific study on

a protozoal disease leading to its control and prevention
during investigation of a epidemic silk worm disease in
South Europe.

A seminal discovery was made in 1878 by Patrick

Manson about the role of mosquitoes in Filariasis. This
was the first evidence of vector transmission.

Afterwards, Laveran in Algeria discovered the malarial

parasite (1880), and Ronald Ross in Secunderabad and
Calcutta in India, showed its transmission by mosquitoes
(1897).

A large number of vector-borne disease have

since then been identified.

By mid-twentieth century, with dramatic advances

in antibiotics and chemotherapy, insecticides and
antiparasitic drugs, and improved lifestyles, all infectious
diseases seemed amenable to control
Parasites
Parasites are living organisms, which depend on a living host for
their nourishment and survival. They multiply or undergo
development in the host.

The term 'parasite' is usually applied to

*Protozoa (unicellular organisms)
*Helminths (multicellular organisms)
Parasites are classified as:
 Ectoparasite: Ectoparasites inhabit only the body surface of the
host without penetrating the tissue.
Ex. Lice, ticks, and mites are examples of ectoparasites.

* Infestation is often employed for parasitization with ectoparasites.

 Endoparasite: A parasite, which lives within the body of the host

and is said to cause an infection is called an endoparasite. Most of
the protozoan and helminthic parasites causing human disease are
endoparasites.
 Free-living parasite: It refers to nonparasitic stages of active
existence, which live independent of the host,
e.g. cystic stage of Naegleria loweri.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) .2. Types of Parasites

A temporary parasite that visits the host only for feeding and then leaves it.
e.g. Bed
According to the nature of the host-parasite interactions and the
environmental factors, the parasite may be one of the following types;
• An obligatory parasite that is completely dependent on its host and
can’t survive without it e.g. hookworms.
• A facultative parasite that can change its life style between free-living
in the environment and parasitic according to the surrounding
conditions. e.g. Strongyloides stercoralis.
• An accidental parasite that affects an unusual host e.g. Toxocara
canis (a dog parasite) in man.
• A temporary parasite that visits the host only for feeding and then
leaves it. e.g. Bed bug visiting man for a blood meal.
• A permanent parasite that lives in or on its host without leaving it e.g.
Lice.
• An opportunistic parasite that is capable of producing disease in an
immune-deficient host (like AIDS and cancer patients). In the
immuno-competent host, it is either found in a latent form or causes
a self-limiting disease e.g. Toxoplasma gondii. • A zoonotic parasite
that primarily infects animals and is transmittable to humans
• A temporary parasite that visits the host only for feeding and then
leaves it. e.g. Bed

Types of Hosts are classified according to their role in the life

cycle of the parasite into:
• Definitive host (DH) that harbors the adult or sexually mature
stages of the parasite (or in whom sexual reproduction
occurs) e.g. man is DH for Schistosoma haematobium, while
female Anopheles mosquito is DH for Plasmodium species
(malaria parasites).

• Intermediate host (IH) that harbors larval or sexually immature

stages of the parasite (or in whom asexual reproduction
occurs) e.g. man is IH of malaria parasites. Two
intermediate hosts termed 1st and 2nd IH may be needed
for completion of a parasite's life cycle, e.g. Pirenella conica
snail is the 1st IH, while Tilapia (Bolty) fish is the 2nd IH for
Heterophyes heterophyes.

• Reservoir host (RH) harbors the same species and same stages
of the parasite as man. It maintains the life cycle of the
parasite in nature and is therefore, a reservoir source of
infection for man. e.g. sheep are RH for Fasciola hepatica.

• Paratenic or transport host in whom the parasite does not

undergo any development but remains alive and infective
to another host. Paratenic hosts bridge gap between the
intermediate and definitive hosts. For example, dogs and
pigs may carry hookworm eggs from one place to another,
but the eggs do not hatch or pass through any development
in these animals.

• Vector is an arthropod that transmits parasites from one host to

another, e.g. female sand fly transmits Leishmania
parasites

1.4. Host-Parasite Relationship

The term refers to the relationship between the host and
the parasite and the competition for supremacy that takes
 place between them. Disease should not be confused with
infection; a person may be infected without becoming
diseased. If the host has upper hand, due to increased host
resistance, it remains healthy and the parasite is either
driven away or assumes a benign relationship with the host,
but if the host loses the competition, a disease develops.

In biology, the relationship between two organisms is

mainly in the form of symbiosis, defined as "life together",
the two organisms live in an association with one another.
Three types of relationships based on whether the symbiont has
beneficial, harmful, or no effects on the other

• Mutualism is a relationship in which both partners

benefit from the association. Mutualism is usually obligatory,
since in most cases physiological dependence has evolved to
such a degree that one mutual cannot survive without the other .

Blood-sucking leeches cannot digest blood, and overcome that by

harboring certain intestinal bacterial species to do the digestion
for their hosts. At least 20% of insect species, as well as many
mites, spiders, crustaceans, and nematodes, are mutually
infected with bacteria of genus Wolbachia.

Also, filarial nematodes such Wuchereria bancrofti and

Onchocerca volvulus which cause serious human diseases, are
mutually infected with Wolbachia, and they can be cured of their
bacterial infections by treating patients with antibiotics, but the
worms die too .

• Commensalism: in which one partner benefits from the

association, but the host is neither helped nor harmed.
Commensalism may be facultative, in the sense that the
commensal may not be required to participate in an association
to survive. Humans harbor several species of commensal
protozoans, that colonize in the intestinal tract such as
Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba hartmanni, Entamoeba
moshkovskii, Entamoeba polecki, Endolimax nana, Iodomoeba
butschlii .
 • Parasitism: in which one of the participants, the parasite,
either harms or lives at the expense of the host. Parasites may
cause mechanical injury, such as boring a hole into the host or
digging into its skin or other tissues, stimulate a damaging
inflammatory or immune response.
Most parasites inflict a combination of these conditions on
their hosts. Parasites are different from predators and parasitoids
(which also derive benefits from certain interspecific interactions
while harming the other participant) in that the host of a parasite
is not necessarily killed. Instead, parasites derive benefits from
their hosts, most often nutritional resources and shelter, over a
longer period of time. It is in fact advantageous to parasites if
they do not harm their hosts too badly, because that prolongs the
period during which parasites can obtain benefits from hosts.
However, in some cases, the impact of parasites on a host is
great enough to cause disease, and in extreme cases, the death
of the host may also occur.

Classification and General Characters of Human Parasites.

The classification of parasites is controversial as there is no
universally accepted system. Parasites form part of the animal
kingdom which comprises about 800,000 identified species
categorized into 33 phyla.
The most acceptable taxonomic classification of human
parasites includes Endoparasites and
Ectoparasites.
Endoparasites are sub-classified into
Helminthic parasites (multicellular organisms)
Protozoan parasites (unicellular organisms).

Helminthic parasites are either flat worms (Trematodes),

Segmented ribbon like worms (Cestodes) or cylindrical
worms (Nematodes).

Parasites are diagnosed through various methods, depending on

the type of parasite and the infection. Here are some common
diagnostic approaches:
1. Microscopy: This involves examining samples (such as blood,
stool, urine, or tissue) under a microscope to identify parasites.
For example:

Stool examination: Detects intestinal parasites like Giardia,

Entamoeba histolytica, and helminths.

Blood smears: Used for malaria (Plasmodium spp.) and other

blood-borne parasites.

Urine sediment examination: Detects Schistosoma

haematobium eggs.

2. Serological tests: These detect antibodies produced in response

to parasitic infections. Examples include ELISA (enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay) and Western blot.

3. Molecular methods:

PCR (polymerase chain reaction): Amplifies parasite DNA/RNA

for identification.

LAMP (loop-mediated isothermal amplification): Rapid,

sensitive method for detecting specific parasite genes.

4. Imaging techniques:

Ultrasound: Visualizes organs affected by parasites (e.g., liver

flukes).

X-rays: Detects calcified cysts (e.g., in neurocysticercosis).

5. Skin tests:

Mantoux test: Used for tuberculosis (Mycobacterium

tuberculosis).

Intradermal tests: Detect leishmaniasis and other skin

parasites.

6. Culture: Growing parasites in the lab (e.g., for Leishmania spp.).

 Remember, accurate diagnosis often requires a combination of
these methods, and consultation with a healthcare professional is
crucial.
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Certainly! Preventing parasitic infections involves several

strategies:
1. Hygiene and Sanitation:

Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after using the
restroom, handling soil, or touching animals.

Cook food properly to kill parasites (especially meat and fish).

Avoid drinking untreated water from questionable sources.

2. Vector Control:

Use insect repellents to prevent bites from mosquitoes, ticks, and

fleas.

Eliminate breeding sites for mosquitoes (stagnant water).

Use bed nets treated with insecticides to prevent malaria and

other vector-borne diseases.

3. Avoiding Contact with Infected Animals:

Avoid contact with stray animals or wildlife.

Deworm pets regularly and maintain their hygiene.

4. Safe Travel Practices:

Research endemic areas and take preventive measures (e.g.,

antimalarial medication).

Avoid swimming in freshwater bodies in areas with

schistosomiasis.

5. Personal Protection:
Wear shoes to prevent hookworm infection.

Use gloves when handling soil or gardening.

Education and Awareness:

Educate communities about parasite transmission and prevention.

Promote safe practices in schools and households.

Remember, consulting a healthcare professional is essential for

personalized advice based on your specific circumstances.