A briefing paper authored by ASBP Director Simon

Corbey.

WHAT’S IN MY UPVC WINDOW?

ASBP Briefing Paper | November 2018

1.0 Introduction: What is uPVC and how do we make across the UK. Ineos have since opened an energy from
it? waste plant on site and in July 2016, Ineos suggested
they would be putting in thirty planning applications
As a reminder, uPVC stands for Unplasticised Polyvinyl to frack in England by the end of the year. However,
Chloride. How many consumers or indeed construction by September, these plans appear to have been
professionals know this? And have they considered downgraded, with Ineos stating it hoped to lodge just
how uPVC is manufactured? five applications by the end of 2016.
Time for some basic chemistry; Poly(vinylchloride) 2.0 The toxic history of the site in Runcorn
(PVC) is produced by the polymerisation of vinyl
chloride monomer, which is in turn derived from Friends of the Earth produced in 2016 an excellent
ethylene dichloride. Ethylene dichloride is obtained briefing on Ineos. [2]
from the reaction of ethylene with chlorine, with
the ethylene being obtained by steam cracking of Back in February 2000, the Guardian broke the news
hydrocarbons derived from fossil oil reserves. under the headline Toxic Shock that a chemical known
as HBCD had leached from a dump within the ICI
Chlorine is produced from brine (salt solution) by facility in Runcorn, Cheshire.
the chlor-alkali industry. Total chlorine production in
Europe was nearly 9.7 million tonnes in 2016, with the The village of Weston, population around 1,000, with its
largest single end use (33%) being for PVC production. good housing, good schools, good church and people, is
Demand for PVC products in Europe is close to deep in this nightmare. Ever since ICI knocked on 120
5 million tonnes per annum, with window profiles doors along Weston Road in the first week of January,
accounting for 28% or 1.4 million tonnes. the stress levels have been rising. So far, 19 out of 104
properties in the street tested near the two linked waste
The vast majority of chlorine (85%) used in UK PVC tips have proved positive for HCBD, and more than 50
manufacture and 95% of chlorine added to the UK people have been evacuated to local hotels.
drinking water supply, is manufactured in Runcorn,
Cheshire, in a plant formerly owned by ICI and now The bulk of the several million tons of waste in the two
owned by Ineos. quarries is rubble, lime, chlorinated solvents, chemical
catalysts and general industrial waste. But also known
1.1 Manufacturing chlorine is highly energy intensive to be dumped were large amounts of highly toxic
mercury, sodium, perchlorethylene, trichlorethylene,
Manufacturing chlorine is highly energy intensive carbide and lime slurry, and thousands of unmarked
as the CEO from Ineos commented in 2013. Such steel drums whose contents are unknown. The site
(energy) costs are particularly important for Ineos. made chlorine gas during the second world war, then
Its Runcorn plant, which provides the chlorine for helped make atomic bombs. More recently, it was
95% of Britain’s water, “consumes as much energy as one of the world’s largest producers of CFCs - the
Liverpool”, says Ratcliffe. “We are one of the largest propellants and coolants that destroy the ozone layer.
industrial consumers of both electricity and gas in the It is now one of Britain’s greatest producers of deadly
UK outside of the power generation sector”. [1] cancer-causing dioxins and is hounded by Friends of
Jim Ratcliffe may not be a household name. But it’s the Earth for its pollution record.
hard to find another British industrialist who, in 15 The following year in May, 2001 the Guardian ran a
years, has built a business from scratch into a global follow up article;
$43bn (£27.5bn) operation, employing 3,500 people

ASBP | asbp.org.uk 1 November 2018

A further 200 homes were vacated voluntarily after Mersey.
ICI offered to buy any house in the village, even though
HCBD was detected at dangerously high levels only in the 4.0 uPVC and toxicity in fires
original 26. The chemical came from industrial waste from Because of the high chlorine content, unplasticised
ICI’s Runcorn factory which it dumped in disused quarries PVC products will self-extinguish if the source of
25 years ago. Gas was detected in boreholes in December flame is removed and they form a char rather than
1999. North Cheshire health authority tested 70 people burning droplets. In a fire situation, PVC will emit a
evacuated from the homes with high levels of HCBD; half range of toxic gases, which include carbon monoxide,
had kidney abnormalities. hydrogen chloride (HCl), dioxins, polycyclic aromatic
At this stage ICI, it seems, began an exit strategy from hydrocarbons, as well as fine particles contributing to
this site, to remove the risks of future liabilities and heavy smoke formation (Levchik and Weil 2005, Stec
connections with such a severe toxic shock. ICI sold et al. 2013).
its Runcorn chlorine plant to Ineos Chlor in 2001, but “Although the inhalation of toxic smoke is the biggest
retained a stake in the site. In July 2003, ICI and Ineos killer and the largest cause of injury in fires, it is very
agreed a deal to modernise the chlorine facility next much the neglected area of fire science and fire safety
to the Manchester Ship Canal in an attempt to make engineering. It was concluded that having toxicity data
it more environmentally friendly. The deal comprised required by the Construction Products Regulation would
£45m from Ineos, £60m from ICI and financial ensure data was available for engineering calculations. In
assistance from the Government. This was in addition the absence of toxicity labelling within the Construction
to the original £100m loan facility ICI had previously Products Regulations, cooperation between competitor
agreed to provide, as part of the sale of 85% of the organisations, such as fire test laboratories and between
business three years ago. Government support may fire safety engineering consultancies, would be the best
be explained by the fact that Ineos had cut about 400 way to secure publicly available data and hence ensure
jobs at Runcorn, since taking over from ICI in January the life safety in the event of a fire” [4]
2001.
4.1 2017 fire in Milton, Stoke on Trent
In 2004, ICI transfered its 15% stake in chlorine
producer Ineos Chlor to the Ineos group and wrote
off all its £100m loan; basically this was ICI cutting
and running.
According to the FOE 2016 report, the toxic dump
that was the source of the HBCD, now apparently has
no legal owner, according to the land registry.
3.0 Mercury
The Runcorn plant used mercury filters until very On 5th February 2017, the Mirror reported; [5]
recently and had a permit to allow 20.64 tonnes of Six crews dashed to Hanbury Plastics centre in Milton,
mercury to be emitted to the air between 1997 and the Stoke-on-Trent, at 9.30am yesterday after the service
end of 2020. At the beginning of 2005, 8.764 tonnes received 78 calls in ten minutes about the blaze.
of this allowance had been used. Graham Shaw, 63, said: “It questions whether the plastic
Up until last year, the Runcorn plant had used mercury factory should be built so close to residential properties. It
filters to produce chlorine. Now finally, the last is the most smoke I have ever seen. The question is whether
mercury filter for chlorine production on this site has it is toxic.”
ceased operations. The Environment Agency ruled a The photo of the fire above, surely answers this
while back that this process must stop across the UK question.
by the end of 2017. So no more mercury filters.
4.2 Hazards of PVC fires on fire-fighters
That said, the plant has now got to be decommissioned….
and the long term effects of the mercury that has been An excellent white paper from Perkins and Will and
dumped up until now, is a clear health hazard. It collects the US’ Healthy Building Network entitled ‘What’s new
in the sludge and silt, which is then washed away in the (and what’s not) with PVC’ (November 2015) includes

ASBP | asbp.org.uk 2 November 2018

a quote from Richard Duffy, International Association to appear in products even though they have been
of Fire-fighters; theoretically phased out. It is not known at present how
this situation will be resolved. There is an EU derogation
“Exposure to a single PVC fire can cause permanent in place allowing for cadmium levels of 0.1% in rigid
respiratory disease. Due to its intrinsic hazards, we PVC products containing recovered PVC, which is due
support the efforts to identify and use alternative building to be reviewed at the end of 2017. No doubt the PVC
materials that do not pose as much risk as PVC to fire- industry will argue for an extension of the derogation.
fighters, building occupants and communities”. [6]
6.1 Recycling rates for uPVC
4.3 Is uPVC more toxic in fires than wood?
The PVC industry claims to recycle PVC windows
It is known that exposure to burning PVC does affect but in reality this encompasses only a tiny percentage
the respiratory system (Markowitz, 1989) mainly due according to the Scottish Civic Trust.
to the production of hydrogen chloride gas. Carroll
(2001) compared wood and PVC as sources of dioxin In reality uPVC is rarely recycled and when it is the uPVC
emissions in house fires, finding that PVC emitted degrades so that a window frame can only contain a small
about 10-20 times more dioxins than wood under percentage of recycled material. The process requires the
the same combustion conditions. This paper gives addition of yet more chemical additives and stabilisers and
references to other papers where dioxin emissions is actually more expensive than producing new uPVC. 82%
from the combustion of wood are reported. Many of of uPVC goes to landfill 15% of uPVC is incinerated. Only
the studies of PVC combustion investigate controlled 3% of uPVC is recycled. [7]
burning, which does not represent the conditions
that might occur in a real fire. ASBP is working with 7.0 uPVC Windows and the BRE Green Guide
partners to update this test. There is only one domestic uPVC window listed on the
5.0 Procurement and the Precautionary Principle BRE Green Guide, which scores A. [8] It scores badly
for Climate Change (D), Water Extraction (E), Fossil
The Healthy Building Network highlights in its 2015 Fuel Depletion (E) and Waste Disposal (C), yet is still
white paper; rewarded a Summary Rating of A. It is not clear how
this is possible? ASBP would intuitively challenge the
“Perkins+Will, an international architecture practice A+ ratings for toxicity.
with about 1,000 architects, who have included PVC in
its Precautionary List as a substance for which to seek There is one commercial PVC-U Window listed on the
alternatives.” BRE Green Guide which scores A+. [9] The functional
unit for this commercial windows is 1m2, as opposed to
5.1 The Precautionary Principle 1.82m2 for the domestic uPVC window.
In short, the meaning of the Precautionary principle It is noted that it scores an A+ for waste disposal. Ii
may be described as “better safe than sorry”. Since is also noted the GWP figure is 120 kg CO2e and so
chemicals are so infinitely difficult to assess and the proportionally much lower than the 310 kgCO2e
potential hazard may be so severe, a precautionary figure for the above. The recycled content is stated
perspective is essential. By eliminating hazardous at 15%. It is notable that the functional unit here does
substances you are also eliminating the risk for them not state that the window should be openable. And
to do any harm. The guiding principle in this approach so in this case, it is likely it has no steel reinforcing or
is called the Precautionary Principle. In 1992, the hardware, which explains the lower kg CO2e number.
United Nations adopted the following definition of the
principle: “where there are threats of serious or irreversible ASBP queried these issues with Dr Shamir Ghumra,
damage to the environment, lack of full scientific certainty BRE in February 2017 and he kindly sent back the
should not be used as a reason for postponing cost- BRE 2014 report, FB66 Environmental Impact of
effective measures to prevent environmental degradation”. Windows. [10] A few issues leapt out;
6.0 End of life issues for PVC Table 4 is quite misleading at it implies that the lowest
Green Guide rating for uPVC is A and A+. This is
The presence of cadmium and lead-based stabilisers in surely because there is only one uPVC entry for each
PVC products has resulted in concerns with respect to category.
recycling, since these ‘legacy’ stabilisers will continue

ASBP | asbp.org.uk 3 November 2018

In 4.4 it claims that BPF have provided evidence to The relative activity of one or another chromophore
BRE that the UK has achieved a recycling rate of 50%. in initiating PVC photodegradation is determined
The authors have been unable to locate a breakdown of primarily by two factors: their ability to absorb UV light
recycling rates in the UK, but this rate seems high. The in the wavelength range under consideration and their
BPF has no up to date UK figures. The Green Guide participation in the formation of active particles (radicals)
assumes 15%. The Scottish Civil Trust suggest 3%. which cause degradation of the polymer chains. The alkene
unsaturated (C C) bonds (both internal and terminal)
8.0 Conclusions and next steps cannot be the primary initiators of PVC photodegradation
On a positive note, we are pleased that the team from under the action of sunlight with (l > 250) nm because
the Royal College of Physicians and the authors of they absorb only the UV light at (l < 200) nm. The
Every Breath We Take in 2016, are now following up with absorption by conjugated (C C) bonds (dienes, trienes,
a report on indoor air quality, which will push forwards etc.) shifts toward the longer wavelengths. The color
the whole subject of good indoor air quality. Healthy changes from white to yellow, brown, and finally to black
products that contribute to indoor air quality, is a major while the properties of the material deteriorate.
theme of work for ASBP. The question here is does this degradation lead to any
It is clear from the above that the ramifications of the offgassing?
selection of uPVC windows are considerable. Friends Our academic review found little testing in this area
of the Earth must be commended for their excellent but no reported effects on IAQ. ASBP has within its
briefing. We will contact them to see if we might network, a range of experts in the field of indoor air
collaborate on some monitoring. quality testing. It is proposed that ASBP will send this
With advances in timber window science and in report to the following experts. We will ask them for
particular thermally modified wood extending the life comment on the following:
of timber windows, the choice is clear. 1. Are they aware of any such testing?
We now intend to do the following: 2. What would be the process and parameters for
testing?
8.1 Investigate methodologies and costs to conduct 3. What would be the likely costs for 1,2 and 5 tests?
an accelerated ageing chamber study for uPVC 4. For UV coatings, what is their life time; do they
window(s), to monitor and measure any off-gassing degrade?
into the indoor environment. 5. Propose a range of sample tests; different sources/
The following is abstracted from Photostabilization of grades/coatings;
poly(vinyl chloride) – Still on the run by Emad Yousif,
Ali Hasan, 2015. [11] • Dr Derrick Crump, IEH Consulting
• Tim Robinson, Waverton Analytics
Long term exposure to sunlight leads to the degradation • Les Keeper, CEO, Prism Analytical Technologies
of plastic materials. UV energy absorbed by plastics can • Dr Volker Gutzeit, Head of Technology, Sentinel
excite photons, which then create free radicals. While many Haus Institute
pure plastics cannot absorb UV radiation, the presence of
catalyst residues and other impurities will often act as free 8.2 Investigate methodologies and costs for an
radical receptors, and degradation occurs. It only takes uncontrolled burn test to monitor and measure off-
a very small amount of impurity for the degradation to gassing into the indoor environment.
occur. In the presence of oxygen, the free radicals form In a fire situation, PVC will emit a range of toxic gases
oxygen hydroperoxides that can break the double bonds which include carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride
of the backbone chain leading to a brittle structure. This (HCl), dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
process is often called photo-oxidation. However, in the as well as fine particles contributing to heavy smoke
absence of oxygen there will still be degradation due to the formation (Levchik and Weil 2005, Stec et al. 2013).
cross-linking process.
It is proposed that the above experts, as well as TRADA,
Poly(vinyl chloride) has poor light stability in the comment and responses are collated on:
wavelength range of 253–310 nm, presumably due to
the presence of unsaturated (C C) bonds, carbonyl, • Are they aware of any such testing?
hydroperoxide, and hydroxyl groups in polymer chains.
ASBP | asbp.org.uk 4 November 2018
• What would be the process and parameters be for References
such testing?
1. Alistair Osborne, Business Editor. (Sep 2013). Britain
• What would be the costs for 1,2 and 5 tests? is not an attractive place to manufacture, says Ineos
chief Jim Ratcliffe. Available: https://www.telegraph.
8.3 IAQ testing and surface testing; uPVC related co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/10292664/
fire incidence Britain-is-not-an-attractive-place-to-manufacture-
Tim Robinson at Waverton Analytics calibrated says-Ineos-chief-Jim-Ratcliffe.html.
markers for IAQ and surface tests to use after the 2. Friends of the Earth. (Sep 2016). INEOS Briefing.
Milton, Stoke on Trent fire. We were too late to carry Available: https://friendsoftheearth.uk/sites/default/
out tests for this fire but aim to respond to the next files/downloads/ineos-briefing-101850.pdf.
one.
3. The Guardian. (Feb 2000). Toxic Shock. Available:
8.4 Kent Fire and Rescue https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2000/
Simon Corbey, Director, ASBP has contacted Graham feb/11/features11.g2.
Day at Kent Fire and Rescue, to understand from their 4. Anna Stec, Richard Hull (Mar 2010). Fire Toxicity.
experience the implications of fire and uPVC windows. Woodhead Publishing. Available: https://www.elsevier.
They are running a contaminants project looking at com/books/fire-toxicity/stec/978-1-84569-502-6
exposure to toxins for Firefighters and a collaboration
with the Kent Fire and Rescue Service can be explored. 5. Bradley Jolly. (Feb 2017). Huge fire at UK recycling
centre sends blast of black toxic smoke billowing into
8.5 BRE Green Guide and EPD the air that can seen for miles. Available: https://www.
Although it is now widely accepted that the Green mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/huge-fire-uk-recycling-
Guide has many failings, it is still widely referenced in centre-9761204.
planning and used within BREEAM. Jane Anderson is 6. Healthy Building Network, Perkins+Will (Nov 2015).
an ASBP board member and Life Cycle Analysis expert Healthy Environments: What’s New (and What’s Not)
and co-author of the Green Guide. It is proposed With PVC. Available: https://perkinswill.com/sites/
that Jane will review this output and then lend some default/files/PerkinsWill_PVC_2015_Whitepaper.pdf.
comment.
7. Tom Woolley (Sep 2016). Building Materials, Health
For regular updates on our work, please sign up to our and Indoor Air Quality. Routledge.
monthly newsletter on our website - http://www.asbp.
org.uk. 8. BRE Green Guide. PVC-U window with steel
reinforcement, double glazed. Available: https://www.
bregroup.com/greenguide/ggelement2.
9. BRE Green Guide. (2008). PVC-U window with
steel reinforcement, double glazed. Available: https://
www.bregroup.com/greenguide/ggelement2.
10. Owen Abbe (Apr 2014). Environmental impact of
windows. BRE.
11. Emad Yousif, Ali Hasan. (Oct 2015).
Photostabilization of poly(vinyl chloride) – Still on the
run. Journal of Taibah University for Science. Volume
9 (Issue 4), Pages 421-448.

ASBP | asbp.org.uk 5 November 2018