KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
SST3104: Process Control and Analysis (3 CU)

Instructor: Matia Mukama, PhD. Email: mmatia@kyu.ac.ug

Course Description
The course introduces students to the main elements of process dynamics and control systems; and
gives an overview of automatic control systems, and their analysis.
Course Content
1. Introduction: Aims of process control and analysis; Overview of principles of conservation
of mass, energy and momentum; Steady state and unsteady state conditions; Systems and
processes; Causes and responses. (6 hours)
2. Mathematical tool for process control and analysis: Taylor’s theorem and system
linearization; Deviation variables; Partial fractions; Laplace transformation. (6 hours)
3. Dynamics of first order systems: Capacitative and resistive aspects, general modeling
(response) equation, fractional response, time constant, static gain, transfer function, step
change input, experimental data analysis, and time delay. (6 hours)
4. Dynamics of second order systems: General modeling (response) equation, damping
aspects, first order systems in series, (6 hours)
5. Process control systems: Objectives, major components of automated control system;
regulatory and servo control; feedback and feed forward control; block diagram
development; P-, PI-, PD-, and PID- controllers; tuning of controllers. (9 hours)
6. Stability assessment of control systems: Meaning and conditions of stability. Methods of
stability assessment; direct substitution, Routh’s test, and root locus plots. (9 hours)
Mode of Delivery
The course is taught by lectures, tutorials, assignments, and examinations.
Additional reading
1. Skogestad, S., Postlethwaite, I., (2007). Multivariable feedback control: analysis and design, Vol. 2. Wiley
New York.
2. Stankovic, J.A., Spuri, M., Ramamritham, K., Buttazzo, G.C., (1998). Introduction. In, Deadline Scheduling
for Real-Time Systems. Springer, pp. 1-11.
3. Marlin, T.E., (1995). Process Control. McGraw-Hill New York.
4. Coulson & Richardson, (1994). Chemical Engineering: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors; Process
Control, 3rd Edition, Volume 3
5. Luyben, W.L., (1989). Process modeling, simulation and control for chemical engineers. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
6. Perry H.R. and Don Green, (1984). Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook, 6th Ed. MacGraw-Hill
International.

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 1. Introduction to Process Control Systems
Industrial safety is primarily a management activity which is concerned with reducing, controlling,
and eliminating hazards from industries or industrial units. Manufactures are required to produce
quality goods with highest possible efficiency and lowest cost to meet local and international
regulations on product safety. Process control and monitoring is an essential link between quality,
safety, and cost. Effective monitoring of manufacturing process is fundamental to safe and efficient
operation of plant, equipment, and production of consistent high-quality products for the
consumer.
Process monitoring include the following:
I. The measurement and control of fundamental physical parameters e.g., temperature
pressure, total solids, sugar levels etc.
II. The ultimate parameter which is hoped to control the product/production e.g., during
pasteurization of milk, product time temp parameters are controlled and monitored. The
ultimate parameter for pasteurized milk is the remaining viable micro-organisms
Processes can be manual or automated depending on the setting in the industry. Imagine you are
sitting in front of a small fire on a cold evening. You feel uncomfortably cold, so you throw another
log on the fire. This is an example of a control loop. In the control loop, a variable (temperature)
fell below the set point (your comfort level), and you took action to bring the process back into the
desired condition by adding fuel to the fire. The control loop will now remain static until the
temperature rises above or falls below your comfort level again. Control loops in the process
control industry work in the same way, requiring three tasks to occur:
i. Measurement
ii. Comparison
iii. Adjustment

1.1. Terms commonly applied in process control

I. A Process

Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of
changing or refining raw materials to create end products.
The raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of
solids and liquids) state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled,

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filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the product. Process industries include
the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical
industry, the water treatment industry, and the power industry.
II. Process Control

Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product. For example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to another,
the temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which
the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of a product. Manufacturers control the
production process for three reasons:
1. Reduce variability
2. Increase efficiency
3. Ensure safety
Reduce Variability – Process control can reduce variability in the product, which ensures a
consistently high-quality product. Manufacturers can also save money by reducing variability. For
example, in a gasoline blending process, as many as 12 or more different components may be
blended to make a specific grade of gasoline. If the refinery does not have precise control over the
flow of the separate components, the gasoline may get too much of the high-octane components.
As a result, customers would receive a higher grade and more expensive gasoline than they paid
for, and the refinery would lose money. The opposite situation would be customers receiving a
lower grade at a higher price.
Reducing variability can also save money by reducing the need for product padding to meet
required product specifications. Padding refers to the process of making a product of higher quality
than it needs to be to meet specifications. When there is variability in the product (i.e., when
process control is poor), manufacturers are forced to pad the product to ensure that specifications
are met, which adds to the cost. With accurate, dependable process control, the setpoint (desired
or optimal point) can be moved closer to the actual product specification and thus save the
manufacturer money.
Increase Efficiency – Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
efficiency. For example, a control point might be the temperature at which a chemical reaction
takes place. Accurate control of temperature ensures process efficiency. Manufacturers save
money by minimizing the resources required to produce the product.

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Ensure Safety – A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical reaction, may
result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control of all the process variables. The
consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic. Precise process control may also be
required to ensure safety. For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the
inflow of air used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial in preventing boiler
implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of workers.
Other process control objectives include
Environmental Protection – Protection of the environment is critically important. This objective
is mostly a process design issue, i.e., the process must have the capacity to convert potentially
toxic components to benign material. Again, control can contribute to the proper operation of these
units, resulting in consistently low effluent concentrations. In addition, control systems can divert
effluent to containment vessels should any extreme disturbance occur. The stored material could
be processed later when normal operation has been restored.
Equipment Protection – Much of the equipment in a plant is expensive and difficult to replace
without costly delays. Therefore, operating conditions must be maintained within bounds to
prevent damage. The types of control strategies for equipment protection are similar to those for
personnel protection, that is, controls to maintain conditions near desired values and emergency
controls to stop operation safely when the process reaches boundary values.
III. Process variable

Process variable is a condition of the process that can change the manufacturing process in some
way. In the example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was temperature. Common
process variables include Pressure, Flow, Level, Temperature, Density, Ph (acidity or alkalinity),
Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a vessel), Mass,
Conductivity, etc.
IV. Setpoint

The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained. For example, if a
process temperature needs to be kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A
temperature sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint.
The sensor is inserted into the process, and a controller compares the temperature reading from the
sensor to the set point. If the temperature reading is 110 °C, then the controller determines that the
process is above set point and signals the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly until the process
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cools to 100 °C. Set points can also be maximum or minimum values. For example, level in tank
cannot exceed 20 feet.
A process may be controlled by measuring a variable representing the desired state of the
product and automatically adjusting. The controlled variables of the process must be those
variables that most directly indicate the desired farm/state of product or process. For example:
water-heater system (Figure 1) (TC’s – thermocouple Type s)

Figure 1 Schematic of a domestic electric water heater

The purpose of water heater is to maintain supply of hot water at set temp. The variable of the
process are:
▪ Water flow into the heater (w)
▪ Temperature of flow in water (t)
▪ Set temperature of hot water (C)
▪ Heat energy of heating agent (U)
The variable most indicator of the purpose is temperature of hot water, (C) it’s known as controlled
variable. The manipulated variable of the process is that variable which is selected for adjustment
by the automatic controller so as to maintain the controlled variable and desired value/level. For
water heater –system above, it is the heat energy of heating agent (U). The load variables of the
process are all other independent variable except the controlled or manipulated variables i.e. Water
flow into the system and the temperature of inflow system.

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 1.2. Conservation of Mass and Energy
The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed. Thus, in a
processing plant, the total mass of material entering the plant must equal the total mass of material
leaving the plant, less any accumulation left in the plant. If there is no accumulation, then the
simple rule holds that "what goes in must come out". Similarly, all material entering a unit
operation must in due course leave.
For example, if milk is being fed into a centrifuge to separate it into skim milk and cream, under
the law of conservation of mass the total number of kilograms of material (milk) entering the
centrifuge per minute must equal the total number of kilograms of material (skim milk and cream)
that leave the centrifuge per minute.
Similarly, the law of conservation of mass applies to each component in the entering materials.
For example, considering the butter fat in the milk entering the centrifuge, the weight of butter fat
entering the centrifuge per minute must be equal to the weight of butter fat leaving the centrifuge
per minute. A similar relationship will hold for the other components, proteins, milk sugars and so
on.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. The
total energy in the materials entering the processing plant, plus the energy added in the plant, must
equal the total energy leaving the plant.
This is a more complex concept than the conservation of mass, as energy can take various forms
such as kinetic energy, potential energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy and so on.
During processing, some of these forms of energy can be converted from one to another.
Mechanical energy in a fluid can be converted through friction into heat energy. Chemical energy
in food is converted by the human body into mechanical energy. Note that it is the total of all these
forms of energy that is conserved.
For example, consider the pasteurizing process for milk, in which milk is pumped through a heat
exchanger and is first heated and then cooled. The energy can be considered either over the whole
plant or only as it affects the milk. For total plant energy, the balance must include: the conversion
in the pump of electrical energy to kinetic and heat energy, the kinetic and potential energies of
the milk entering and leaving the plant and the various kinds of energy in the heating and cooling
sections, as well as the exiting heat, kinetic and potential energies.

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The law of conservation of energy can also apply to part of a process. For example, considering
the heating section of the heat exchanger in the pasteurizer, the heat lost by the hot water must be
equal to the sum of the heat gained by the milk and the heat lost from the heat exchanger to its
surroundings. From these laws of conservation of mass and energy, a balance sheet for materials
and for energy can be always drawn up for a unit operation. These are called material balances
and energy balances.
1.3. The process of control system design
The process of designing a control system usually makes many demands of the engineer or
engineering team. These demands often emerge in a step-by-step design procedure as follows:
1. Study the system (plant) to be controlled and obtain initial information about the
control objectives.
2. Model the system and simplify the model, if necessary.
3. Scale the variables and analyze the resulting model; determine its properties.
4. Decide which variables are to be controlled (controlled outputs).
5. Decide on the measurements and manipulated variables: what sensors and actuators
will be used and where will they be placed?
6. Select the control configuration.
7. Decide on the type of controller to be used.
8. Decide on performance specifications, based on the overall control objectives.
9. Design a controller.
10. Analyse the resulting controlled system to see if the specifications are satisfied; and
if they are not satisfied modify the specifications or the type of controller.
11. Simulate the resulting controlled system, either on a computer or a pilot plant.
12. Repeat from step 2, if necessary.
13. Choose hardware and software and implement the controller.
14. Test and validate the control system, and tune the controller on-line, if necessary.

2. The science of manual and automatic control

Automatic process control compares feedback or measurements to setpoint values to effect
necessary adjustments. Automatic control is therefore defined as the maintenance of the desired
value of a quantity or condition by measuring the existing value comparing it with the desired

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 value and using the difference to initiate correction. In automatic control system, the automatic
controller is employed to maintain the controlled variable at the desired value.
Advantages of Automatic Control Devices/ Systems
i. Increase in quality or number of products.
ii. Improvement in uniformity of products.
iii. Savings in materials, energy and decrease of tension in human labor.
iv. Elimination of human error.

3.1. Feedback Control in Automatic Control System

In feedback control also called a Closed-loop Control System, sensors/measuring devices are
installed to measure actual values of the controlled variables. These actual values/set points are
transmitted to feedback control hardware where they are compared with desired set points of the
controlled variables. This difference between the actual and desired value is called the error.
Basing on the different errors between the measured and desired values of the controlled variable.
The feedback control hardware calculates signals that reflect the needed values of the manipulated
variable. These are then transmitted automatically to adjusting devices/typical control valves
which manipulate inputs into the process. Figure 2 shows an overview of a basic feedback control
loop (block diagram of the closed-loop system). The basic elements of the closed-loop control
system include error detector, controller, feedback elements & power plant. The desired output is
generally entered into the system through a user interface.

Figure 2 Basics of a feedback system

For example, to bake cookies, one has to preheat an electric oven to 350 °F. After setting the
desired temperature, a sensor takes a reading inside the oven. If the oven is below the set
temperature, a signal is sent to the heater to power on until the oven heats to the desired

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temperature. In this example, the variable to be controlled (oven temperature) is measured and
determines how the input variable (heat into oven) should be manipulated to reach the desired
value.
There are two types of feedback control: negative and positive. Negative feedback is the most
useful control type since it typically helps a system converge toward an equilibrium state. On the
other hand, positive feedback can lead a system away from an equilibrium state thus rendering it
unstable, even potentially producing unexpected results. Unless stated explicitly, the term
feedback control most often refers to negative feedback.
The main characteristics of Closed-loop Control can be defined as being:
• To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.
• To improve stability of an unstable system.
• To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
• To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the process.
• To produce a reliable and repeatable performance.

3.1.1. Closed Loop System summing points

For a closed-loop feedback system to regulate any control signal, it must first determine the error
between the actual output and the desired output. This is achieved using a summing point, also
referred to as a comparison element, between the feedback loop and the systems input. These
summing points compare systems set point to the actual value and produce a positive or negative
error signal which the controller responds to. where: Error = Set point – Actual.
The symbol used to represent a summing point in closed-loop systems block-diagram is that of a
circle with two crossed lines (Figure 3). The summing point can either add signals together in
which a Plus (+) symbol is used showing the device to be a “summer” (used for positive feedback),
or it can subtract signals from each other in which case a Minus (−) symbol is used showing that
the device is a “comparator” (used for negative feedback). Note that summing points can have
more than one signal as inputs either adding or subtracting but only one output which is the
algebraic sum of the inputs. Also, the arrows indicate the direction of the signals. Summing points
can be cascaded together to allow for more input variables to be summed at a given point.

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 Figure 3 Closed loop system summing points

3.1.2. Closed-Loop System Transfer Function

The Transfer Function of any electrical or electronic control system is the mathematical
relationship between the systems input and its output, and hence describes the behaviour of the
system. Note also that the ratio of the output of a particular device to its input represents its gain.
Then we can correctly say that the output is always the transfer function of the system times the
input. Consider the closed-loop system below.

Figure 4 Typical Closed-loop system representation

Where: block G represents the open-loop gains of the controller or system and is the forward path,
and block H represents the gain of the sensor, transducer, or measurement system in the feedback
path.
To find the transfer function of the closed-loop system above, we must first calculate the output
signal θo in terms of the input signal θi. To do so, we can easily write the equations of the given
block-diagram as follows.
The output from the system is equal to:
Output = G x Error
Note that the error signal, θe is also the input to the feed-forward block: G
The output from the summing point is equal to:

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 Error = Input - H x Output
If H = 1 (unity feedback) then: The output from the summing point will be:
Error (θe) = Input – Output
Eliminating the error term, the output is equal to:
Output = G x (Input - H x Output)
Therefore:
G x Input = Output + G x H x Output
Rearranging the above gives us the closed-loop transfer function of:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛳𝑜 𝐺
= =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛳𝑖 1 + 𝐺𝐻
The above equation for the transfer function of a closed-loop system shows a Plus (+) sign in the
denominator representing negative feedback. With a positive feedback system, the denominator
will have a Minus (−) sign and the equation becomes: 1 - GH.
When H = 1 (unity feedback) and G is very large, the transfer function approaches unity as:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
→1
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

3.1.3. Closed-Loop Control System Examples

There are different kinds of electronic devices that use a closed-loop control system.
The applications of closed-loop control systems include the following.
• In servo voltage stabilizer, the voltage stabilization can be attained by giving output voltage
feedback to the system
• In the water level controller, the level of water can be decided by the input water
• The AC temperature can be adjusted depending on the temperature of the room.
• The motor speed can be controlled using a tachometer or current sensor, where the sensor
detects the motor speed and sends feedback to the control system to change its speed.
• Other examples of these systems include the thermostat heater, solar system, automatic
electric iron, missile launcher, auto engine, automatic toaster, water control system using
a turbine.
Advantages
The advantages of the closed-loop control system include the following.
• These systems are very precise & less error-prone

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 • Errors can be corrected through the feedback signal
• High bandwidth
• Supports automation
• High noise margin
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the closed-loop control system include the following.
• The designing of this system is complicated
• They are very complex
• Expensive
• Huge maintenance is needed
• The control system oscillates sometimes due to feedback signals.

3.2. Sensors and transducers in Feedback Control System

The success of a feedback control system depends on the quality of measurement of the controlled
variable. The sensors continuously measure the controlled variable and produces a change of
variable into the actual signal which is transmitted to the comparator. The transmitter produces an
output signal which has relationship with the controlled variable. Some controlled variables are
measured directly e.g., press. While others such as temperature are measured indirectly.
The transducer is the device in the control system which receives the information from the sensor,
modifies it and sends an output signal.
Sensor Dynamics
Process control is continuous and dynamic (time dependent). The time to detect changes in the
controlled variable by sensor is critical in the system. Fast sensors allow the controller to function
in a timely manner, while sensors with large time constants are slow and degrade the overall
operation of the feedback loop. Due to their influence on loop response, the dynamic characteristics
of sensors should be considered in their selection and installation. The following factors should be
considered when selecting a sensing device.
i. Cost of purchase and installation of the sensor.
ii. Range over which the controlled variables vary.
iii. The sensor dynamics and reliability required.
iv. Time constant of the sensor.

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 v. The installation requirements and problems, such as size and shape restraints, remote
transmission, corrosive fluids, explosive mixtures, etc.
vi. Accuracy, precision, and sensitivity required in the measurement
Accuracy – This is used to describe the closeness with which the measurement, approaches the
true value being measured. There are two types of accuracy, static or steady-state accuracy and
dynamic accuracy.
1. Static accuracy is the closeness of approach to the true value of the variable when that true
value is constant.
2. Dynamic accuracy is the closeness of approach of the measurement when the true value is
changing, remembering that a measurement lag occurs here, i.e. by the time the measurement
reading has been acted upon, the actual physical measured quantum may well have changed.
In addition to the term accuracy, a sub-set of terms appear, these being precision, sensitivity,
resolution, repeatability and rangeability all of which have a relationship and association with the
term error.
Precision – Is the accuracy with which repeated measurements of the same variable can be made
under identical conditions. In process control, precision is more important than accuracy, i.e., it is
usually preferable to measure a variable precisely than it is to have a high degree of absolute
accuracy. The difference between these two properties of measurement is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Accuracy vs precision related to a typical temperature measurement

Using a fluid as an example, the dashed curve represents the actual or real temperature. The upper
measurement illustrates a precise but inaccurate instrument while the lower measurement
illustrates an imprecise but more accurate instrument. The first instrument has the greater error,
the latter has the greater drift.
Sensitivity – Sensitivity can be defined into ways:

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It’s defined as the ratio of the output signal change to the change in measured variable. This is
used to select different sensors depending on the target controlled variable if the ratio is high then
the sensitivity of the sensor is high.
Sensitivity can also be defined and the smallest change in the measured variable which will
produce a change in the output signal from the sensing element of the sensor.
Resolution – Precision is related to resolution, which is defined as the smallest change of input
that results in a significant change in transducer output.
Repeatability – The closeness of agreement between several consecutive measurements of the
output for the same value of input under identical operating conditions, approaching from the same
direction.
Rangeability – This is the region between stated upper and lower range values of which the
quantity is measured. Unless otherwise stated, input range is implied. Example: If the range is
stated as 50–320 °C then the range is quoted as 50–320 °C.
Span – Span should not be confused with rangeability, although the same points of reference are
used. Span is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values. Example: If the
range is stated as 50–320 °C then the span is 320 – 50 = 270 °C.
In descending order of frequency of occurrence, the principal controlled variables in
process control systems comprise:
i) Temperature
ii) Pressure
iii) Flow rate
iv) Composition
v) Liquid level.

3.2.1. Temperature sensors

Temperature is the most common variable measured in process control. Due to the vast
temperature range that needs to be measured (from absolute zero to thousands of degrees) with
spans of just a few degrees and sensitivities down to fractions of a degree, there is a vast range of
devices that can be used for temperature measurements.
In a thermostat control system, the corrective effect is taken to maintain the temperature at the set
point. The common equipment used is the bimetallic thermostat. For example, a two position or
step controller that switches on a heater when the temperature falls below minimum like 70 °C and

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switches off when the temperature reaches 80 °C. The water in the container increases in
temperature at a rate of 5 °C /min, when the heater is off, it cools at a rate of 2 °C/min. If the lag
time in the control system is negligible, what will be the time taken from heater switching on to
off and from the heater switching off to on?
Solution
(i) When the heater is on, the temperature rises at the rate of 5 °C /min. The time taken for the
temperature to rise from 70 °C to 80 °C is given by.
Heating time = Temperature change/rate of heating
Heating time = (80 °C - 70 °C)/5 °C/min
Heating time = 10/5 =2 minutes
Heating time = 2 minutes
(ii) When the heater is off, the temperature falls at a rate of 2 °C/min. This gives the time taken for
the temperature to fall from 80 °C – 70 °C
Cooling time = Change in temperature/rate of cooling
Cooling time = (80 °C - 70 °C)/2 °C/min
Cooling time = 10/2 = 5 minutes
Cooling time = 5 minutes
Temperature is the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of any object. Any object is naturally
in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. The rise in temperature of objects is a result
of changes in the internal energy of such objects. Thus, internal energy can be measured by use of
thermometers whose properties depends on the thermal expansion, gas pressure, electrical
conductivity, and heat transfer. The fundamental temperature scale is the thermodynamic scale
i.e., Kelvin, K.
1) Bimetallic strip
Bimetallic strip is a measure of thermal expansion of different metals. Changes in the temperature
of the two metals bound together will cause a curvature or bend which is an indication of a
temperature change. Bimetallic strip consists of two metal strips of different heat properties. The
metals expand at different rates as they are heated. The different expansions force the flat strip to
bend one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The
metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the

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strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled. Different rates of change in the temperature of
the metal strips bound together will cause bend which is an indication of change in temperature.
Usually, steel and copper are used, or in some cases steel and brass. The strips are joined together
throughout their length by riveting, brazing, or welding. In some applications, the bimetal strip is
used in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped into a coil for compactness. The greater length of the
coiled version gives improved sensitivity. The coil changes the linear movement of the metal
expansion into a circular movement thanks to the helicoidal shape it draws. One end of the coil is
fixed to the housing of the device as a fix point and the other drives an indicating needle inside a
circular indicator (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Schematic of a coiled bimetallic strip thermometer

Advantages of Bimetallic strip
The main advantages of bimetallic strip thermometers include
i) Used to measure very high temperature
ii) Can operate on wide temperature range (-100-1000 °C)
iii) Very effective in temperature control systems by breaking and connecting the circuit
especially where there is need to keep the temp within a given value. It does this by
breaking and connecting the circuit.
Disadvantages
i) It is less sensitive/effective to small temp change
ii) Require frequent calibration to maintain accuracy
2) Liquid in Glass Thermometers

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Equipment that depends on the thermal expansion of the liquid under constant pressure in a
transparent glass are termed as liquid in glass thermometers. A calibrated scale is used to read off
the respective temperature that led to the corresponding thermal expansion. The common liquids
used include the following.
i) Mercury used mainly for measuring high temperatures.
ii) Alcohol used for low temperatures.
Liquids used in these thermometers (i) must not freeze at low temperatures, (ii)have sufficiently
high boiling point not to vaporize at high temperatures, (iii) must expand evenly with temperature
in the measuring range used, (iv) should not wet the glass tube.
Liquid in glass thermometers are classified into two groups.
i) Total immersion
ii) Partial immersion
In total immersion thermometers, the thermometer is totally immersed in the material (liquid)
whose temp is to be measured while partial immersion, part of the thermometer is immersed in the
material (liquid) whose temperature is to be measured.
They operate at low temperatures and are more sensitive than the bimetallic thermometers in
measuring small temperature differences.
3) Thermocouple
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming
an electrical junction. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the
Seebeck effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. The Seebeck effect is
a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical conductors or
semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two substances. Two wires of different
materials are connected through a circuit with two junctions put under different temperatures
(Figure 7).
The current produced between the two wires is measured by a meter/voltmeter and it’s an
indication of an electromotive force. The accuracy of the thermocouple depends on the temperature
difference at the junction. Its more accurate if the temperature of one of the junctions is at the triple
point of water = 0 °C (273 K).

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Thermocouples are less sensitive especially to small temperature changes. They work at high
temperatures ranges and are affected by the temperature of the surrounding environment and the
type of metal wire used.

Figure 7 Schematic of a thermocouple

Advantages
i) Thermocouples have a short delay time – react quickly to temperature changes
ii) They are mechanically robust
iii) Measure a wide temperature range -250 °C to +2000 °C
iv) Reach hard to reach locations due to space saving design
v) Small measuring tips allow measurement of temperatures of very small objects, for
example fruit.
Disadvantages
i) Are affected by the temperature of the surrounding environment and the type of metal wire
used.
4) Radiation pyrometers
At the other end of the scale is the requirement to measure high temperatures up to 4000 °C or
more. Total radiation pyrometers operate by measuring the total amount of energy radiated by a
hot body. Their temperature range is 0–3890 °C. The infrared (IR) pyrometer is rapidly replacing
this older type of measurement, and these work by measuring the dominant wavelength radiated
by a hot body. The basis of this is in the fact that as temperature increases the dominant wavelength
of hot body radiation gets shorter.
Developments in infrared optical pyrometry

18
Two recent developments in the world of pyrometry that should be mentioned are the utilization
of lasers and fibre optics. Lasers are used to automatically correct errors occurring due to changes
in surface emissivity as the object’s temperature changes. Fibre optics can focus the temperature
measurements on inaccessible or unfriendly areas. Some of these units are capable of very high
accuracy, typically 0.1% at 1000 °C and can operate from 500 up to 2000 °C. Multi-plexing of the
optics is also possible, reducing costs in multi-measuring environments.

3.2.2. Pressure measurements

Pressure is probably the second most used and important measurement in process control. Pressure
refers to the force acting per unit area. The most familiar pressure measuring devices are
manometers and dial gauges, but these require a manual operator. For use in process control, a
pressure measuring device needs a pressure transmitter that will produce an output signal for
transmission, e.g., an electric current proportional to the pressure being measured. A number of
equipment are designed and used in the measurement of pressure during process control. They
include the following
1. Bellows Gauge
Bellows pressure gauges are devices used to measure absolute and differential pressure (Figure 8).
The main element, the bellows, is a flexible membrane in the gauge whose expansion and
contraction support the measurement of pressure difference in the system. It is the diameter of the
bellows that determines what force can be transmitted to the transmission mechanism. To have
sufficient surface area for the pressure to act on, a larger diameter is selected for the measurement
of very low pressures.

19
 Figure 8 Schematic of the Bellows gauge
The main component of the bellow pressure gauge is a bellow, which is a convoluted, elastic, thin-
walled metallic cylinder (A) which moves axially when there is a change in pressure. Most bellows
are spring-loaded which helps in preventing the full expansion of the bellow. The limit in
expansion prevents bellows from damage and improves its service life. The bellows are connected
to the pressure inlet (C) and the linkage which is attached to the pointer (B).
When the pressure to be measured is applied to one side of the bellow (inner or outer layer), the
pressure results in the movement of the bellow. This linear movement of the bellow is then
transmitted to the linkage. The displacement is then indicated by the pointer that is in contact with
the linkage to display the accurate pressure measurement in the system.
2. Coiled Tube Method
This type of pressure equipment responds to the change in pressure by either coiling or uncoiling.
This type of sensor may be used for various ranges of pressure using different tube materials and
thickness so that the method can fit for both small and high pressure changes. When high pressure
enters the coil, the coil begins to uncoil/coil so that the pointer deflects corresponding to the
amount of pressure inside the coil and value read directly from the scale.
NB. This method is not widely used in automation, because of the challenges in converting the
coiling and uncoiling into electrical signals needed in automatic control systems.

20
 Figure 9 Schematic of a coiled tube pressure sensor
3. Aneroid Barometer
Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible
metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper.
The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is
prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell
to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drive mechanical levers such that the tiny
movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer.

Figure 10 Schematic of an Aneroid Barometer

4. Liquid Pressure Measurements
Pressure in a liquid can be measured by use of manometers. There are different types of
manometers that are available for use. However, the well-type manometer is the simple type which
can be employed in measuring the pressure differences in fluids. The well-type manometers consist

21
of a connection of a well and a column (Figure 11). Inside the column is filled with a fluid of
higher density than the fluid whose pressure is to be measured in this type of manometer. The main
difference between a U-tube manometer and a well-type manometer is that the U-tube is
substituted by a large well such that the variation in the level in the well will be negligible and
instead of measuring a differential height, a single height in the remaining column is measured.
The increase in level of the measuring column is due to pressure exerted by the liquid whose
pressure is to be determined. The quantity of the liquid expelled from the well equal to the quantity
pushed into that column.

Figure 11 Schematic of a well-type manometer

3.2.3. Flow measurements

Most flow meters is that in which the fluid is either accelerated or retarded at the measuring section.
The change in kinetic energy is measured by recording the pressure difference produced.
1. Orifice Meter
An orifice meter is a piece of equipment used to measure the flow rate of a gas or a fluid. It mainly
consists of an orifice plate, an orifice plate housing, and a meter tube (Figure 12). The orifice
consists of a drilled plate mounted inside the pipe with an opening concentric with the pipe centre.
Pressure measuring equipment are fit before and after the orifice. It works on the Differential
Pressure Measurement principle. The liquid or gas whose flow rate is to be determined is passed
through the orifice plate. This creates a pressure drop across the orifice plate which varies with the
flow rate, resulting in a differential pressure between the outlet and inlet segments. This pressure
drop is measured and is used to calculate the flow rate of the fluid or gas.

22
 Figure 12 Schematic of the orifice meter
Advantages of an Orifice Meter
• It is cost-effective and quite easy to use.
• It occupies less space, making it ideal for space-constrained applications.
• It can also be used to determine flow rates in large pipes.
• It can be installed in the horizontal or vertical positions.

2. Impingement Force Method

As shown in Figure 13, a bent tube is inserted into a flowing stream of fluid and orientated so that
the mouth of the tube faces directly into the flow. The pressure in the tube will give a measure of
velocity head due to the flow. Such a tube is called a Pitot tube.
The pressure exerted by the flowing fluid on the mouth of the tube is balanced by the manometric
head of fluid in the tube. In equilibrium, when there is no movement of fluid in the tube, Bernoulli’s
equation can be applied to calculate the velocity of the fluid. The rise in the fluid level in the Pitot
tube to a height (h) represents the pressure developed at the point. The flow rate of fluid can be
calculated by using the equation below.

23
 Figure 13 Flow measurement using a pitot tube
(h2 -h1) = h
V = √2gh
Where, h = height of the liquid in the Pitot tube, g = gravitational force, and V = Velocity of flow.
Velocity =Flow rate/Cross sectional area.

3.2.4. Measurement of fluid level

The sight glass is the oldest and simplest industrial level measurement device. Sight glasses have
always had restrictions because they are a manual solution to measurement. The material employed
for its transparency can suffer catastrophic failure, with hazardous conditions for users, fire and
explosion and harm to the environment. Seals often leak, and if buildup is present, this obscures
the visible level. Conventional sight glasses are the weakest link of any installation. They are
consequently being quickly replaced by modern technologies.
Some other level-detection devices are based on specific gravity, the physical attribute most often
used to sense the level surface. A simple float having a specific gravity between those of the
headspace vapor and the process fluid floats at the surface, precisely following its ups and downs.
Hydrostatic head measurements are also widely used to understand level.
1. Floats.
Floats operate on the simple principle of positioning a buoyant object with a specific gravity
intermediate between those of the process fluid and the headspace vapor into the tank, then
attaching a mechanical device to record its position.
The float sits on top of the process fluid and sinks to the bottom of the headspace vapor. The float
itself is a basic solution to the problem of locating a liquid’s surface, but calculating a floats

24
position (i.e., making an actual level measurement) is still difficult. Magnet-equipped floats are
popular today.
2. Glass Level Gauge.
Glass gauges have been used for over 200 years as a simple method to measure liquid level.
Available in a variety of designs, both unprotected and armored. The downside is the risk of glass
breakage resulting in spills or harm to personnel. The benefit of this design is the ability to observe
the true level through the clear glass.
3. Hydrostatics measurement devices
Differential Pressure Transmitters, Bubblers and Displacers are examples of hydrostatic
measurement devices. Differential pressure transmitters can be used to determine fluid levels by
determining the difference in head pressure between the low pressure port and the high pressure
port in its usual configuration. The difference in pressure becomes an output signal which is
calibrated to indicate a fluid level.
The unit in Figure 14 uses atmospheric pressure as a reference. A vent at the top keeps headspace
pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure. The hydrostatic pressure difference equals the height
of fluid in the vessel multiplied by the process fluid density.

Figure 14 Differential pressure sensors monitor for the process fluid level by measuring the total pressure
difference between the fluid at the bottom of the tank and the vessel pressure

4. Magnetic Level Gauges.

25
These are similar to float devices, but they communicate the liquid surface location magnetically.
They are the preferred replacement for the sight glasses. Carrying a set of strong permanent
magnets, the float rides in an auxiliary column (float chamber) attached to the vessel by means of
two process connections. This column confines the float laterally so that it is consistently close to
the chamber’s side wall. A magnetized shuttle or bar graph indication moves with the float as it
rides up and down the fluid level, showing the position of the float and thereby providing the level
indication. The chamber walls and auxiliary column are constructed of material that is non-
magnetic for the system to work.

Figure 15 Magnetic level gauges use a magnetically coupled shuttle to locate a float’s position in the
chamber.

5. Laser Level Transmitters.

Designed for slurries, bulk solids, and opaque liquids such as liquid styrene, dirty sumps, and milk,
the lasers run on the principle of ultrasonic level sensors. However, instead of using the speed of
sound to detect the level, they use the speed of light (Figure 16). A laser transmitter at the top of a
vessel fires a short pulse of light down to the process liquid surface, which reflects it back to the
detector. A timing circuit calculates the elapsed time (TOF) and measures the distance. The key is
that lasers have no false echoes and virtually no beam spread (0.2 degree beam divergence). They
are precise, even in vapor and foam and can be directed through spaces.

Lasers are ideal for use in vessels with obstructions and can measure distances up to 1500 ft. For
high-pressure or high-temperature applications, such as in reactor vessels, lasers must be used in
conjunction with specialized sight windows to isolate the transmitter from the process. These glass
windows pass the laser beam with minimal diffusion and attenuation.

26
 Figure 16 A laser transmitter uses a short burst of laser energy to measure level.

3.3. Controllers in automatic control

Industrial controllers are classified based on control action as
1. ON - OFF controller
2. Proportional controller (P)
3. Integral controller (I)
4. Proportional + Integral controller (PI)
5. Proportional +Derivative Controller (PD)
6. Proportional +Integral + Derivative Controller (PID)

3.3.1. ON and OFF Control (Two Step Mechanism)

An on-off control method is the simplest type of device used for process control. The device output
may be ON/OFF through no center state. In the ON/OFF type controller, simply two conditions
are obtainable to manage the system. Once the process value is lower than the fixed point, then it
will turn ON. Similarly, it will turn OFF once the value is higher than a fixed value. Example is a
bi metallic thermometer that controls temp change. When the temperature is above the set point of
the controlled variable, the thermostat is in OFF position and the heater is switched off. If the
temperature falls below the set point the thermostat moves in ON position and the heater is
switched on. Here the action is discontinuous i.e., it’s either on or off without intermediate.
The output is not stable in this kind of controller, and it will swing frequently in the region of the
fixed point. It is used for a limited control applications where these two control states are enough

27
for the control objective. However oscillating nature of this control limits its usage and hence it is
being replaced by PID controllers.

Figure 17 Schematic showing ON/OFF temperature management

3.3.2. Proportional, integral, and derivative control modes

Most closed loop controllers are capable of controlling with three control modes, which can be
used separately or together. PID controllers are found in a wide range of applications for industrial
process control for variables like pressure, flow, temperature, and speed in industrial applications.
Approximately 95% of the closed-loop operations of the industrial automation sector use PID
controllers. These three controllers are combined in such a way that it produces a control signal.
PID controllers maintain the output such that there is zero error between the process variable and
setpoint/desired output by closed-loop operations. For example, in water heating, The PID
controller will reduce the normal power which is supplied to the heater once the temperature
reaches the fixed point. This controller has one feature to control the heater so that it will not
exceed the fixed point however it will reach the fixed point to maintain a steady temperature.
The purpose of each of these control modes is as follows:
Proportional control - This is the main and principal method of control. Proportional or P-
controller gives an output that is proportional to current error e (t). It compares the desired or set
point with the actual value or feedback process value. The resulting error is multiplied with a
proportional constant to get the output. If the error value is zero, then this controller output is zero.

28
This controller requires biasing or manual reset when used alone. This is because it never reaches
the steady-state condition. It provides stable operation but always maintains the steady-state error.
The speed of the response is increased when the proportional constant Kp increases.

It calculates a control action proportional to the ERROR. Proportional control cannot eliminate the
ERROR completely. There is a continuous relationship between the output of the controller (M)
(Manipulated Variable) and Actuating Error Signal E (deviation).
𝑀(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸(𝑡)
Where Kp is is proportional gain and proportional sensitivity.
Integral control (reset) - This is the means to eliminate the remaining ERROR or OFFSET value,
left from the proportional action, completely. Due to the limitation of p-controller where there
always exists an offset between the process variable and setpoint, I-controller is needed, which
provides necessary action to eliminate the steady-state error. It integrates the error over a period
of time until the error value reaches zero. It holds the value to the final control device at which
error becomes zero.

Integral control decreases its output when a negative error takes place. It limits the speed of
response and affects the stability of the system. The speed of the response is increased by
decreasing integral gain, Ki. The output of the controller is changed at a rate which is proportional
to the actuating error signal E (t).

𝑀(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑀(𝑂)

Ki =constant, M(O) = control output at which t = 0.

Derivative control (rate) - This is sometimes added to introduce dynamic stability to the control
LOOP. I-controller doesn’t have the capability to predict the future behaviour of error. So, it reacts
normally once the setpoint is changed. D-controller overcomes this problem by anticipating the
future behaviour of the error. Its output depends on the rate of change of error with respect to time,
multiplied by derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the output thereby increasing system
response.
In controller with derivative control action, the output of the controller depends on the rate of
change of the e(t)

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 𝑑
𝑀(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Where Kd is derivative control action.

Figure 18 Working of PID controller

Tuning Methods
Before the working of the PID controller, it must be tuned to suit with dynamics of the process to
be controlled. Designers give the default values for P, I, and D terms, and these values do not give
the desired performance and sometimes lead to instability and slow control performances. There
are different types of tuning methods and require much attention from the operator to select the
best values of proportional, integral, and derivative gains. Tuning is the procedure of receiving an
ideal reply from the controller through setting best proportional gains, integral & derivative
factors.
There are different techniques available to get the required output from the controller.

30
1. Trial and Error Method: It is a simple method of PID controller tuning. While the system
or controller is working, the controller is tuned. In this method, first, the Ki and Kd values are
set to zero and the proportional term (Kp) is increased until the system reaches oscillating
behaviour. Once it is oscillating, the Ki (Integral term) is adjusted so that oscillations stop and
finally the D is adjusted to get a fast response.
2. Process Reaction Curve Technique: It is an open-loop tuning technique. It produces a
response when a step input is applied to the system. Initially, some control output is applied to
the system manually and a response curve is recorded. The slope of the curve is then calculated,
dead time, the rise time of the curve, and finally these values are substituted in P, I, and D
equations to get the gain values of PID terms.

Figure 19 Process reaction curve

3. Zeigler-Nichols method: Zeigler-Nichols proposed closed-loop methods for tuning the
PID controller. These are the continuous cycling method and damped oscillation method.
Procedures for both methods are the same, but oscillation behaviour is different. In this, first,
the p-controller constant, Kp is set to a particular value while Ki and Kd values are zero.
Proportional gain is increased till the system oscillates at a constant amplitude.
Gain at which system produces constant oscillations is called ultimate gain (Ku) and the period
of oscillations is called the ultimate period (Pc). Once it is reached, the values of P, I, and D in
the PID controller.

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 3.4. Transmission Systems in Feedback Control
In automatic control, values measured by sensor must be transmitted to the controller (feedback)
control hardware) in the shortest time possible so that corrective action may be initiated, and the
controlled output must be transmitted to the final control element.
Often sensors are at distant location from the controller. Therefore, it’s necessary to have a
transmission system from the sensor to the controller and from the controller to the controlled
element. This is done through the following ways:
i. Pneumatic systems
This uses change in pressure. The working range is 3-15 KPa and have reasonable speed of signal
of about 107 m/s. Pressure changes are transmitted in tubes made from copper aluminum or plastic
of less than 25 mm in diameter. The length should be less than 300m, above 300m there is high
pressure drop which affects the delivery of signals.

ii. Hydraulic system

Here liquid pressure is used. Liquid is used instead of air in pneumatic signal system. The
transmission tubes are filled with liquid. The hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor
that uses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an
output in terms of linear, rotatory or oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly impossible to
compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited
acceleration.

The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide. The
term single acting is used when the fluid pressure is applied to just one side of the piston. The
piston can move in only one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a return
stroke. The term double acting is used when pressure is applied on each side of the piston; any
difference in force between the two sides of the piston moves the piston to one side or the other

iii. Electric systems

Electric signals in form of voltage, current or electromagnetic waves and electrons are used for
signal transmission. These signals are faster than the pneumatic and hydraulic systems. They can
easily be transduced into signals used to manipulate control element.

iv. Mechanical systems

32
These are due to mechanical movements which are transmitted through levers. The movements
can be increased or amplified by a system which uses a multiplier factor. The hydraulics systems,
pneumatic systems, or analog electronics were used to realize the controllers, but nowadays, these
are almost fully substituted by digital processors.

3.5. Stability of control systems

A system is said to be stable if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable. A
stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input. Types of Systems based on
Stability

Systems can be classified based on stability as follows.

• Absolutely stable system
• Conditionally stable system
• Marginally stable system
1. Absolutely Stable System - If the system is stable for all the range of system component
values, then it is known as the absolutely stable system.
2. Conditionally Stable System - If the system is stable for a certain range of system
component values, then it is known as conditionally stable system.
3. Marginally Stable System - If the system is stable by producing an output signal with
constant amplitude and constant frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known
as marginally stable system. The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of
the open loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control
system is marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the
imaginary axis.

3.6. Performance measures in control design

The purpose of the feedback control loop is to maintain a small deviation between the controlled
variable and the set point by adjusting the manipulated variable. Control performance is the ability
of a control system to achieve the desired dynamic responses, as indicated by the control
performance measures, over an expected range of operating conditions. Many measures of control
performance are possible, and each is appropriate in particular circumstances. The important
measures are listed here,

33
 i. Integral error (IAE, ISE, etc.) - These indicate the cumulative deviation of the controlled
variable from its set point during the transient response. A small integral error measure is desired.
ii. Maximum deviation of controlled variable - maximum deviation of the controlled variable
from the set point is an important measure of the process degradation experienced due to the
disturbance; for example, the deviation in pressure must remain below a specified value. Usually,
a small value is desirable so that the process variable remains close to its set point.
iii. Maximum overshoot of manipulated variable - This quantity is of concern because the
manipulated variable is also a process variable that influences performance. There are often
reasons to prevent large variations in the manipulated variable. Some large manipulations can
cause long-term degradation in equipment performance; an example is the fuel flow to a furnace
or boiler, where frequent, large manipulations can cause undue thermal stresses. In other cases
manipulations can disturb an integrated process, as when the manipulated stream is supplied by
another process. On the other hand, some manipulated variables can be adjusted without concern,
such as cooling water flow. We will use the overshoot of the manipulated variable as an
indication of how aggressively it has been adjusted. The overshoot is the maximum amount that
the manipulated variable exceeds its final steady-state value and is usually expressed as a percent
of the change in manipulated variable from its initial to its final value. Some overshoot is
acceptable in many cases; little or no overshoot may be the best policy in some cases.
iv. Decay ratio - decay ratio is the ratio of neighbouring peaks in an underdamped controlled-
variable response. Usually, periodic behaviour with large amplitudes is avoided in process
variables; therefore, a small decay ratio is usually desired, and an overdamped response is
sometimes desired.
v. Rise time - This is the time from the step change in the set point until the controlled variable
reaches the new set point. A short rise time is usually desired.
vi. Settling time - Settling time is the time the system takes to attain a "nearly constant" value,
usually ±5 percent of its final value. This measure is related to the rise time and decay ratio. A
short settling time is usually favoured.
vii. Offset - Offset is a difference between final, steady-state values of the set point and of the
controlled variable. In most cases, a zero steady-state offset is highly desired, because the control
system should achieve the desired value, at least after a very long time.

34
viii. Maximum deviation - The maximum deviation of the controlled variable from the set point is
an important measure of the process degradation experienced due to the disturbance; for
example, the deviation in pressure must remain below a specified value. Usually, a small value
is desirable so that the process variable remains close to its set point.
ix. Standard deviation of controlled and manipulated variables - The major control performance
measure is the variance or standard deviation of the controlled variable, Since the goal is usually
to maintain controlled variables close to their set points, a small value of the variance is desired.
In addition, the variance of the manipulated variable is often of interest, because too large a
variance could cause long-term damage to equipment or cause upsets in plant sections providing
the manipulated stream (steam-generating boilers).
x. Magnitude of the controlled variable in response to a sine disturbance – an important aspect
of stochastic systems in plants is that the disturbances can be thought of as the sum of many sine
waves with different amplitudes and frequencies. In many cases the disturbance is composed
predominantly of one or a few sine waves. Therefore, the behaviour of the control system in
response to sine inputs is of great practical importance, because through this analysis we learn
how the frequency of the disturbances influences the control performance.

3.7. Internal Model Control (IMC)

The IMC controller is based on the general predictive control structure. In the subject area of
control theory, an internal model is a process that simulates the response of the system in order to
estimate the outcome of a system disturbance. The controller design method adheres to criteria
that ensures zero offset for steplike disturbances, and it employs a factorization approach to obtain
a realizable approximate inverse that gives good feedback control performance. An adjustable
filter (tuning parameter) was introduced to enable the engineer to moderate the feedback action to
maintain good performance of the controller and manipulated variables in the presence of
measurement noise and model error.
The IMC controller eliminates all elements in the process model Gm (s) that lead to an unrealizable
controller by taking the inverse of only the invertible factor to give
− (𝑠)]−1
𝐺𝑐𝑝 (𝑠) = [𝐺𝑚
This design equation ensures that the controller is realizable, and that the system is internally stable
(at least with a perfect model), but it does not explicitly guarantee that the behavior of the control

35
system is acceptable. However, the performance of such controllers will be seen to be acceptable
in many cases.

3.8. Multivariable control concept

Multivariable control involves the objective of maintaining several controlled variables at
independent set points. It occurs in nearly all processes, because production rate (flow), inventory
(level and pressure), process environment (temperature), and product quality are normally
controlled simultaneously. The control objectives depend on the goals of the entire plant and of
the design of associated equipment, but typical objectives would be to control the level,
temperature, and outlet concentration at independent set points, which would be achieved by
adjusting selected manipulated variables in the process.
Control of multivariable systems requires more complex analysis than that of single-variable
systems. Multivariable systems have new characteristics due to interaction that must be
considered. Interaction results from process relationships that cause a manipulated variable to
affect more than one controlled variable. For example, a heating oil valve position influences both
the temperature and, through the reaction rate constant, the concentration.
The multiloop approach, using multiple single-loop controllers, was the first approach used for
multivariable control in the process industries. Through decades of research and experience, many
successful multiloop strategies have been developed and continue to be used.
Advantages of multiloop control.
i) Use of simple algorithms, which is especially important when the control calculations are
implemented with analog computing equipment.
ii) Ease of understanding by plant operating personnel, which results from the simplicity of
the control structure. Since each controller uses only one measured controlled variable and
adjusts only one manipulated variable, the actions of the controllers are relatively easy to
monitor.
iii) Standard control designs have been developed for the common unit operations, such as
furnaces, boilers, compressors, and simple distillation towers.
This does not mean that a single control design functions well for all unit operations of the same
type. However, several general structures are in common use, and selection among alternatives
can be based on analysis and experience. Considering these advantages, one could conclude that
multiloop designs will continue to be used extensively, although not exclusively.

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Example of a multiloop control system
Let us consider the behaviour of a flash system when the feed flow rate increases (Fig. 20). An
initial effect is an increase in the amount of vapor in the drum, although the percentage feed
vaporized decreases because of a slight decrease in inlet temperature. The pressure in the drum
increases because of the additional vapor; therefore, the pressure controller PC-1 acts by increasing
the percent opening of the valve in the vapor line. Another effect is a decrease in the temperature
after the heat exchanger, which is sensed by TC-3. This feedback controller increases the steam
flow to the exchanger, which returns the temperature to its set point and causes even more feed to
be vaporized. This additional vapor causes the pressure to increase, and the pressure controller has
to respond to this change as well. The increase in feed rate and changes in percent vaporized
introduce changes in the liquid rate into the liquid inventory in the drum. The level controller
increases the opening of the valve in the liquid product line to maintain the level near its set point.
Two important features of this system become clear when observing its dynamic behaviour:
1. The single-loop controllers are completely independent algorithms that do not communicate
directly among themselves.
2. The manipulations made by one controller can influence other controlled variables; that is, there
can be interaction through the process among the individual control loops.

Figure 20 Example of a multiloop control system in a flash process

37
 3.9. Actuators and Control valves
The final control element carries out the implementing action in process control. An actuator is a
device that produces a motion by converting energy and signals going into the system. Upon
receiving a signal, the control element will adjust. The energy source may be an electric current,
hydraulic pressure, or pneumatic pressure. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds
by converting the source's energy into mechanical motion. The most common control element used
in the food industry is some form of valve. The control valve is a valve that manipulates a flowing
fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds to compensate for the load disturbance
and keeps the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.
An actuator is the part of a valve assembly that responds to the output signal of the process
controller, causing a mechanical motion to occur which, in turn, results in modification of fluid
motion through the valve. An actuator has to be able to perform two basic functions:
1. To respond to an external signal and cause a valve to move accordingly and with correct
selection, other functions can be integrated into this assembly, such as desired fail-safe actions.
2. To provide support (if required) for accessories such as positioners, limit switches, solenoid
valves and local controllers.

3.9.1. Types of Control Valves

1. Ball valves
The rotary ball valve, which used to be considered as an on–off shut-off valve is now used quite
extensively as a flow control device. Some of the advantages include lower cost and weight, high
flow capacity, tight shut-off and fire-safe designs. The ball valve contains a spherical plug that
controls the flow of fluid through the valve body. Ball and cage valves are close to linear in terms
of percent of flow to percent of stem or ball rotation. The three basic types of ball valves include
• Conventional: 1/4 turn pierced ball type (Figure 21)
• Characterized: V and U notched along with a parabolic ball type (Figure 21 bottom)
• Cage: Positioning a ball by means of a cage in relation to a seat ring and discharge port is
used for control.

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 Figure 21 Cross-sectional views of conventional and characterized ball valves

2. Butterfly valves
This is one of the oldest types of valves still in use, dating back from the 1920s. It acts as a damper
or as a throttle valve in a pipe and consists of a disk turning on a diametral axis (Fig. 22). Like the
ball valve its actuation rotation from fully closed to fully open is 90°. Due to the fact that the disk
can act like an airfoil in the mainstream flow it is controlling, care must be exercised to ensure that
any resultant increase in torque can be absorbed by the control actuator being used.

Figure 22 Vane positions of butterfly valve

3. Digital valves
Digital valves comprise a group of valve elements, or ports, assembled into a common manifold
(Fig. 23). Each element has a binary relationship with its neighbour which means that starting with
the smallest port, the next port is twice the size of the previous one. The main advantages of this

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type of valve are their high speed, high precision and practically unlimited rangeability. Their
biggest disadvantage is their high cost.

Figure 23 In a digital valve, each valve element is twice the size of its smaller neighbor

4. Globe valves
Globe type throttling control valves are characterized by linear plug movements and actuated by
spring/diaphragm operators. The main advantages of the globe valve include the simplicity of the
spring/diaphragm actuator, a wide range of characteristics, low cavitation and noise, a wide range
of designs for corrosive, abrasive, high temperature and high pressure applications, a linear
relationship between the control signal and valve stem movements and relative small amounts of
dead band and hysteresis values (Fig. 24). The flow characteristics are determined by the valve
plug profile: Equal percentage, Linear, or Quick opening.

Figure 24 Cross section of a single ported globe valve

5. Pinch valves
These type of valves are called either pinch or clamp valves (Fig. 25) depending on the
configuration of the flexible tube and the means used for tube compression. They are also
manufactured from a large range of materials such as teflon, PVC, neoprene, and polyurethane,

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each type of elastomer or plastic having its own particular application use. This type of control
valve, if carefully selected, has many advantages like high abrasion and corrosion resistance,
packless construction, reasonable flow control rangeability, smooth flow, low replacement costs
and a longer life than metal valves where abrasion and corrosion are present.
As in all things, though this valve has limitations such as pressure and temperature restraints due
to the nature of the material used for the sleeves, and the number of operations, or flexing, that a
particular type of liner can cope with, although a life span of >50 000 opening and closing cycles
should be considered as the minimum.

Figure 25 Pinch valve with ‘accurate closure’

6. Sliding gate valves

In this type of valve, the flow rate is controlled by sliding a plate with a hole in it past a stationary
plate, usually placed at 90° to the line of flow, with a corresponding hole in it. These holes can be
round or shaped to profile the flow characteristic of the valve. This valve is sometimes used in
automatic control but is not really considered a control valve. However, this type of valve can
operate with pressures up to 70 MPa (Fig. 26).

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 Figure 26 Typical sliding gate valve with ‘V’ Insert

7. Plug valves
Plug valves are probably the oldest type of valve in existence, being used in water distribution
systems in ancient Rome and they probably pre-date the butterfly valve. Consisting of a tapered
vertical cylinder with a horizontal opening or flow-way inserted into the cavity of the valve body
and due to the taper and lubricating system they use and are virtually leak proof to both gases and
liquids (Fig. 27). A very common use for this type of valve is in the tapping of beer barrels. They
afford quick opening and closing action with tight leakproof closures under working pressures
from vacuum to as high as 70 MPa. They can be used for liquids, gases and non-abrasive slurries,
and eccentric and can be styled with lift plugs for use with sticky fluids. Again, like the butterfly
and ball valves, they operate through an actuator having angular motion of 90°.

Figure 27 Typical sectional view of a plug valve

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8. Saunders diaphragm valves
The Saunders or diaphragm valve is sometimes also referred to as a weir valve (Fig. 28). This
valve operates by moving a flexible diaphragm toward or away from a weir. This valve can be
considered as a half pinch valve as only one diaphragm is used, moving relative to a fixed weir;
because of this however their flow characteristics are similar. The normal Saunders valve has a
body with side section in the form of an inverted U shape, with the diaphragm closing the orifice
at the top. A full-bore type is also available that has, when fully open, a fully rounded bore which
is an important feature for ball-brush cleaning as required in applications like the food industry. It
should be noted that mechanical damage can occur when opening this type of valve against a
process vacuum.

Figure 28 Main positions of weir-type Saunders control valve

3.9.2. Diaphragm actuators

Diaphragm actuators are pneumatically operated, and they use an air supply from the control
system or other sources. Diaphragm actuators are normally used for control valves, which are a
type of globe valve that is typically used to regulate the fluid to adjust some process variables,
such as pressure, temperature, or flow rate. The most common styles for diaphragm actuators are
known as “direct-acting” and “reverse-acting.” Fig. 29 compares direct-acting (right side) and
reverse-acting (left side) diaphragm actuators used for the control valves.
In direct-acting actuators, the air enters the top area of the diaphragm and pushes the
diaphragm down. The air pressure, which is transferred to the diaphragm, overcomes the spring
torque located under the diaphragm, so it pushes the valve stem down and closes the valve. Any
failure in air supply leads to movement of the stem in an upward direction and the valve opens.
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Thus direct-acting diaphragm actuators are suitable for air-to-close (ATC) and fail-open (FO)
applications.
Most of the control valve actuators are reverse-acting, thereby providing a fail-closed (FC)
mode of failure. In reverse port diaphragm actuators, the air supply port is located under the
diaphragm, so the air supply opens the valve, and a stoppage of the air supply leads to closure of
the valve. The amount of force produced in this type of actuator depends on three main parameters:
air pressure, diaphragm diameter, and spring force.
Pneumatically operated control valve actuators are the most popular type in use, but
electric, hydraulic, and manual actuators are also widely used. The spring-and diaphragm
pneumatic actuator is most specified due to its dependability and simplicity of design.
Pneumatically operated piston actuators provide high stem force output for demanding service
conditions. Adaptations of both spring-and-diaphragm and pneumatic piston actuators are
available for direct installation on rotary-shaft control valves. Electric and electro-hydraulic
actuators are more complex and more expensive than pneumatic actuators. They offer advantages
where no air supply source is available, where low ambient temperatures could freeze condensed
water in pneumatic supply lines, or where unusually large stem forces are needed.

Figure 29 Comparing direct-acting and reverse-acting diaphragm actuators.

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 3. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Manufacturing products requires that the quality of the product or process are monitored in order
to maintain or satisfy consumer demand. Quality is defined as fitness for use or the degree of
excellence of a product. Quality is inversely proportional to variability. Quality improvement
relates to reduction in variability in a process and products. The ultimate objective of a process
control system is to keep the product, the final result as produced by the process, always within all
the pre-defined limits set by the products description. SPC is the use of statistically based tools
and techniques principally for the management and improvement of processes.

4.1. The Data for Statistical Process Control

To understand the basics of Statistical Process Control (SPC), there are several statistical concepts
to consider. These concepts are used to provide basic analytical descriptions of data. These
statistical calculations include sample median, sample mean, sample variance, sample range, and
sample standard deviations. There are also many different types of charts that help to describe data
in different ways to achieve quality control. Some examples include Run Charts, Frequency
Distribution Tables, Histograms, Stem and Leaf Plots, Box Plots, Scatter Plots and Control
Charts. The main tool associated with SPC is the control chart. A control chart is a plot of a process
characteristic, usually through time with statistically determined limits (Fig. 30). When used for
process monitoring, it helps the user to determine the appropriate type of action to take on the
process.

4.2. Process control chart

The control chart provides a visual display of recent process data of a single measurement along
with limits representing the typical, common-cause variability. The limits are determined
empirically from "good" process operation and are typically set to include 99.7% of the data; if the
data is normally distributed about its mean, the limits are located ± three standard deviations from
the mean. The limits are referred to as the upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL).
Comparing a measured value with these limits is essentially a statistical hypothesis test on whether
the mean of the variable has changed; this test could be calculated in a standard manner, although
the clarity provided by the visual display of data with the limits increases the appreciation of the
effects of variability.

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When the process is experiencing typical variability, a situation often referred to as "in the state of
statistical control," most data will be within the limits. Although there is variation of the
measurement within these limits, this variation is accepted as inevitable and no action is taken,
whereas automatic process control makes a feedback compensation for any nonzero error. If the
measured value exceeds the limits, the SPC approach requires a diagnosis to determine the special
or assignable cause and requires the implementation of the appropriate corrective action.

Figure 30 Illustration of a typical process control chart

Most processes do not operate in a state of statistical control, routine use of control charts will
identify assignable cause. If these causes can be eliminated from the process, variability will be
reduced, and process will be improved. However, control charts only detect assignable causes,
management, operators, and engineering actions/inactions will be necessary.
Therefore, SPC plays the following roles
i) Proven techniques for improving productivity
ii) Effective in defects prevention
iii) Prevent unnecessary process adjustments
iv) Provides diagnostic information about the process

4.3. Types of Variation

With any process there are two types of variation: variation that is inherent to the process and
variation that is not inherent to the process. Consider two process control charts (Fig. 31).
Assuming that the graphs are from the same piece of equipment, but on two different days.

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 Figure 31 Process control charts of a food manufacture process on day 1 and day 2
The control chart on day 1 is “in control” and the variation seen is expected because it has been
statistically determined that this is the variability inherent to the process. This variation is referred
to as “common cause variation”. However, the control chart on day 2 has two points outside of
the dashed lines. These points represent variation that is neither predictable nor inherent to the
system. This type of variation is due to an “assignable cause” that can be known, or most often is
unknown. Such variation is referred to as “assignable cause variation” or “special cause
variation”. A problem solving team should be able to determine the cause of this variation and
eliminate it from the process. As seen from this example, control charts used in SPC help determine
which type of variation (common or special cause) is present. As a result, control charts can help
determine the best course of action. The corrective action may be as simple as adjusting a final
control element, or it might be as involved as changing the source of feed material or catalyst to
prevent the cause of the disturbance.

4.4. Automatic Process Control Vs Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Automatic process control (APC) using feedforward and feedback principles identifies a deviation
from desired operation (i.e., from the set point or points) and makes an immediate adjustment in a
manipulated variable. Thus, automatic process control does not eliminate the cause of poor
operation (i.e., the disturbance); the adjustment is selected to compensate for the effects of the
disturbance and maintain the controlled variable at its desired value. Since the sources of
disturbances have not been affected, the APC approach leaves the process susceptible to future
disturbances from the same source. In contrast, statistical process control (SPC) has as a goal of
identification and elimination of disturbances. By this approach of removing the source of
disturbances, the long-term effect of SPC is to reduce variability in process operation and improve
product quality. Since some variability in process operations is inevitable, statistical process
control alone cannot adequately control most process operations. Fortunately, SPC and APC can
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provide complementary improvements and can be applied to the same process to improve the
overall performance.

4.5. Analysis of Patterns of Control Charts

During analysis of control charts, you look for runs. Runs is defined as the sequence of
observations of the same type all about the centerline. Run up, a series of observations that are
increasing. Run down, a series of observations are decreasing. Runs of 8 observations or more
could indicate an out of control situation. The out-of-control conditions, or signals, in a control
chart not only warn us that something unusual is going on in the process, but they can also give
clues as to what is going on, and so help us identify problems. Each organization will build up its
own specific list with experience, but a few general pointers are given in Table below.

Table 1 Possible causes of control chart signals

Signal Possible causes
Single point outside the control limits Measurement or recording error Temporary
followed by data showing no abnormalities event such as stand-in personnel/sickness
Sudden jump in values Sudden change in process (e.g. damaged
equipment, new staff, manager, procedure,
supplier, target, bonus payments)
Gradual drifting of data Wear and tear on machinery or measuring
equipment
Cycling high/low The output of more than one process is being
monitored examples include: two shifts, two
machines, two suppliers, two people.
Over control (tampering): after a high value
the process is being adjusted and then
providing a low value, etc.
Repeating pattern Same as cycling but with more than two
processes involved, (e.g., several
machines, shifts)
Too many points near specification or target Measurements being “adjusted” so that they
limits, but few if any over the limit fall within the specification or target
Substantially more than two-thirds of the data Measurements from different processes with
lie within 1 standard deviation either side of different average are being grouped and
the mean averaged thereby removing the more extreme
values. Data have been “manipulated” (i.e.,
more extreme values are not being recorded
or recorded incorrectly)
Substantially less than two-thirds of the data Over control (tampering): after a high value
lie within 1 standard deviation either side of the process is being adjusted and then
the mean providing a low value, etc.

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 Measurements are being taken from
different subgroups with very different
averages. For example, different shifts,
groups of people or suppliers
In daily, weekly, or monthly data, recurring Often difficult to spot, and usually worth
patterns checking anyway:
– Time of day trend (values change in a
systematic way throughout the day)
– Day trend (e.g., Mondays always
high, Fridays low)
– End of week/month values high/low in
order to meet targets
Single point outside the control limit (charts An increase in variation could indicate:
monitoring variability) – a change in process average
– for an X or S chart, depending on the
makeup of the sample, it could indicate
that one stream or source has changed

In Statistical Process Control, although variation reduction is the goal for consistency, variation
can also be a valuable source of information. For example,
i. variation provides signals that can be used to assure us that whatever is being observed or
measured is behaving (varying) as expected (naturally) or to warn us that it is not.
ii. variation can provide an assessment of ongoing process predictability.
iii. the monitoring of variation provides early information that may prevent deficiencies from
occurring at all.
iv. variation can provide an assessment of process capability by showing how consistently a
process will produce a product within any ideal target range.
v. understanding the process variations provides a deeper understanding of the product.
With this improved understanding of what causes variation and how to control it, the developer is
in an improved position to develop new, improved versions of the product and improved
manufacturing processes.

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