Pharmacognosy Short Notes

PHARMACOGNOSY
Reading Material for Pharmacy Technician Students
Part-I
Paper-I
Pharmacognosy
Reading Material
Pharmacognosy
Prepared and Reviewed by:
Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Awais (PhD, RPh.)

Associate Professor, IPS, UVAS, Lahore
Compiled by:
Ehsan Izhar
Pharmacist
Deputy Director (Training)
Punjab Pharmacy Council
PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 2

Pharmacognosy

Pharmacognosy
Index
1. Introduction and Scope of Pharmacognosy.

2. Classification of Crude Drugs.
3. Terminology used in Pharmacognosy.
4. Evaluation of Crude Drugs i.e. Organoleptic, Physical, Chemical and Biological.
5. Introduction, case history, Skin Test, Treatment and Mechanism of Allergy.
6. Enzymes obtained from Plant source (Phyto-enzymes).
7. General Introduction of poisonous plants with special reference to Pakistan.
8. Separation and Isolation of plant constitutions: An introduction to Chromatography and
Chromatographic techniques e.g.
(a) Column Chromatography.
(b) Paper Chromatography.
(c) Thin Layer Chromatography.
9. Introduction to Extraction and Extraction Techniques.
10. General Introduction, Classification and Medicinal uses of important Plant containing:
(a) Glycosides
(b) Alkaloids
(c) Volatile Oils (Essential Oils)
(d) Resins and Resin Combinations
(e) Carbohydrates
(f) Tannins
(g) Lipids (fixed oils, fats and related compounds, waxes

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 1
PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs of plant and animal origin. The American Society
of Pharmacognosy defines Pharmacognosy as;
"The study of the physical, biochemical and biological properties of natural drugs and their
chemical constituents. As well as the search for new drugs from natural sources."
Introduction of Pharmacognosy: `
The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words pharmakon “drug”, and gnosis
"knowledge”. The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician
Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by Seydler in a work.
Originally - during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century - "Pharmacognosy"
was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their crude, or
unprepared, form.
John Adam Schmidt Schmidt Cognosy

Pharmacognosy
Historical development:
The history of herbal medication is as recent as human civilization. Herbal medicines, as the
major remedy in ancient system of medicine, are employed in medical practices since antiquity.
The early medicines of Pharaohs, the Greek; Hippocratis, the Roman; Disoscorides, a Greek
physician of the first century AD was the writer of the first Materia Medica. They described 600
medicinal plants and those of Middle Ages exemplified by the Arab Physicians (Rhazes 865–
925; Avicenna 980–1037) relied mainly on plants for therapy.
India has renowned for practicing classical medicinal systems such as: Siddha, Buddha,
Ayurveda, and Unani methods of medication and treatment. These medicinal systems are found
even in the ancient Vedas and other ancient literatures and scriptures. The authentic meaning of
Ayurveda is “science of life,” because ancient Indian system of health care focused on views of
human and their sickness. It has been pointed out that the positive health means metabolically
well-balanced human beings.
Modern concept:
Higher medicinal plants have a vital role in the development of new drugs. During the years
1950–1970, nearly hundreds of new drug-based plants were introduced into the USA drug
markets, consisting on ricinin, derbipidine, reserbine, phenplastin, and phenicristine derived from
higher plants.
Scope of Pharmacognosy:
Pharmacognosy is the branch of science which deals with the biological, biochemical and
economic features of natural drugs and their constituents. It also deals with the study of;
Classification of Crude Drugs to know about the class of the Drug
 Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing, Evaluation and

adulteration of Crude Drugs.
 Plant growth hormones, for rapid & better growth of plants.
 Allergens & allergic preparations, to overcome the problems of Allergy.
 Enzymes, to cure & manage the diseases caused by Enzymatic Deficiency.

Pharmacognosy
 Poisonous Plants to prevent poison.

 Herbal drugs, used in traditional practice.
In this field of science, researcher deals with the secondary metabolites found in many plants,
animals, and microbial natural sources, for example, plant leaves, seeds, fruits, stem, roots,
rhizosphere, herbs, spices, fungus, algae, corals, star fishes, jelly fishes, sponges, sea cucumber,
sea urchins, sea weeds, snakes venom, frogs skin, cockroaches, and many more.

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Crude Drugs
A crude drug is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic
sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the
diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals.
Classification of Crude Drugs:

Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.
1) Morphological Method
2) Taxonomical Method
3) Pharmacological Method
4) Chemical Method
1. Morphological Method
In this method, drugs are classified according to their part used.

Pharmacognosy
Organized Drugs:
These are the drugs obtained from direct parts of the plant and containing cellular tissues are
called as organized drugs. For example flowers, seeds, leaves, rhizome, bark etc.
Unorganized Drugs:
The drugs which are prepared from plants by physical process such as incision, drying or
extraction with a solvent and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called unorganized
drugs. For example Latex, Tragacanth, Gum acacia.

Pharmacognosy
Table 1. Morphological Classification of Drugs

1. ORGANIZED DRUGS
Plant Part Example of drugs
Leaves Digitallis, Pudina, Senna, Squill

Hyoscyamus, Belladona
Barks Cinchona, Cinnamon, Cascara
Flowering Parts Clove, Saffron
Fruits Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel, Colocynth,

Capsicum
Seeds Bitter Almond, Cardamom,
Nux vomica, Strophanthus
Roots & Rhizomes Ginger, Glycyrrhiza, Ipecac, Rauwolfia,
Rhubarb
2. UNORGANIZED DRUGS
Dried Latex Opium, Papain
Dried Juice Aloe
Gums Acacia, Tragacanth
Resins Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam
Fixed oils Castor, Almond
Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax
Animal Products Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides
Minerals Kaolin, Talc

Pharmacognosy
Taxonomical Method:
In this method, drugs are classified according to their natural relationship and distinguishing
characteristics. They are grouped in phylum, order, family, genus and species.
Table 2. Taxonomical Classification of Drugs
Phyllum Order Family Genus Species Drugs
Angiosperms Rosales Rosaceae Prunus Amygdalus Almond
Rhodophyta Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium Cartilagineum Agar
Gymnosperms Genetales Ephedraceae Ephedra Sinica Ephedra
Taxonomical Classification

Pharmacognosy
Pharmacological Method:
In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects.
Pharmacological Class Drugs

Anticancer Cinnamon bark,
Purgative Aloe, Senna, Castor oil
Antispasmodic Belladona, Hyoscyamus
Astringent Catechu, Tannic acid
Expectorant Glycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam
Cardio tonic Digitallis, Strophanthus
Pharmacological Classification

Pharmacognosy
Chemical Method:
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents.
Sr.No. Chemical Constituents Drugs

1. Carbohydrates Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch
2. Glycosides Aloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, Digitalis
3. Volatile oils Cinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway
4. Alkaloids Belladona, Hyoscyamus
5. Resins Ginger, Asafeotida, Benzoin,
6. Tannins Black catechu
7. Proteins Papain, Bromelain, Gelatin

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 3
TERMINOLOGIES IN PHARMACOGNOSY
Following are the most frequent terminologies used in Pharmacognosy.
Acaulescent: Stem less
Acerose: Needle-shaped
Acicular: Needle-shaped, as applied to some kinds of foliage
Acute: Tapering to a sharp-pointed apex with more or less straight sides along
the tip
Angular: Having sharp angles or corners, generally used in reference to

structures such as stems to contrast them with rounded stems
Axis: The main stem
Basal: At or near the base, often describing leaves and where they attach
Basifixed: Attached by the base (compare dorsifixed, versatile)
Capillary: Very slender and hair like
Deltoid: Broadly triangular in shape
Dense: Congested, describing the disposition of flowers.
Dentate: With sharp, outward-pointing teeth on the margin

Pharmacognosy
Exudate: A substance exuded or secreted from a plant
Gall: An abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects
Glabrous: Smooth, without hairs
Gland: A depression or protuberance that exists for the purpose of secreting
Glandular: Producing tiny globules of sticky or oily substance
Glans: A dry dehiscent fruit born in a cupule, such as aco n
Habit: The overall appearance of a plant
Leaflet: One segment of a compound leaf
Ovary: The basal portion of a pistil where female germ cells develop into seeds
after germination
Poly-: Prefix meaning many
Rhizome: An underground stem capable of producing new stems or plants at its

nodes
Vaginate: Provided with or surrounded by a sheath
Xylem: The water-conducting tissue of vascular plants
Leaves: Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like,

that are attached to a stem are called leaves.
Stems: Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants. They act like
the plant's plumbing system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots

Pharmacognosy
and food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant parts. All
plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the light. The
leaves and flowers are on the stems.
Flowers: A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of

plants have always been popular in traditional medicine. Examples
include clove and chamomile flowers.
Fruit: A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily
used for medicinal purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can
be used. Many members of the carrot family have fruits that are used in
medicine including fennel fruit and anise.
Pulp: The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.
Seeds: A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed
coat, usually with some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used
for their medicinal properties. Seeds may be contained within a fruit or
are sometimes used on their own.
Roots: The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support,

typically underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of
the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The fleshy or woody roots
are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous
(stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s claw).
Bark: The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of
living cells above the wood. Active ingredients are often found in higher
concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used for medicinal
properties are quinine bark, oak bark.

Pharmacognosy
Wood: The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is
called wood. Thick stems or the wood of trees or shrubs are used for
medicinal properties.
Bulb: A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of

leaf bases otherwise known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic
bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.
Rhizomes: A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually

grows horizontally below the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves
above the ground and roots into the ground. Several medicinal plants
are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine,
and bloodroot.
Herb: Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in
temperate climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back
to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the growing season.
Gum: Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are
water-soluble and are in part digestible by humans.
Resins: Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not
soluble in water. They are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of
plants. Examples include frankincense, myrrh, and mastic.

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Identification of a drug and determination of its quality & purity is called Evaluation of Drug.
Following methods are frequently employed for the determination of quality & purity of Crude
Drugs.
 Organoleptic Evaluation
 Physical Evaluation
 Chemical Evaluation
 Biological Evaluation.
4.1 ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION
Organoleptic Evaluation refers to evaluate the crude drug by using organ’s senses which include
its external features & morphology.
Study of Morphological Characters:
To study morphology of drug, its shape & size, color, external marking, fracture, odour and
taste are examined. The organized drugs are classified into;
 Barks e.g. Cinnamon
 Leaves e.g. Senna & Tulsi
 Flowers e.g. Clove
 Seeds e.g. Nux-Vomica
 Herbs e.g. Pudina
Morphology of plants

Pharmacognosy
The external marking can be studied on the following mentioned terms;

 Annulations.
 Nodules.
 Projections
 Wrinkles.
.
Annulations (Ipecac) Wrinkles (Cinchona)
The drugs like Ginger & capsicum have pungent taste while glycyrrhizin & honey are sweet in
taste. Crude drugs belong to class fixed oils have bland taste
Study of Microscopic Characters:

Microscope is also used for a quantitative evaluation of drugs and adulterated powders. This
is done by counting specific features such as stomatal number.
Stomatal Number:
The average number of stomata per square millimeter of epidermis is known as stomatal
number.

Pharmacognosy
Microscope Stomata
4.2 PHYSICAL EVALUATION
Physical constants are frequently applied to Alkaloids, Glycosides, Volatile Oils, Fixed oils,
Tannins & Sugar drugs to check their quality & purity.
Physical Constants such as;
 Elasticity in fibers
 Viscosity of drugs containing gums
 Swelling factor of mucilage
 Melting & Boiling point of crude drugs
Spectroscopic Analysis:
(UV, IR, NMR, and MASS) and radioimmuno assays are applied frequently to check the Physical
constants of herbal drugs. Chromatographic techniques such as Paper Chromatography, Thin
Layer chromatography, HPLC & Gas liquid Chromatography provide information about the
chemical constituents present in the Crude Drug.

Pharmacognosy
UV SPECTROPHOTOMETER
4.3 CHEMICAL EVALUATION
Chemical Evaluation involves the determination of quality; quantity & purity of Crude Drugs through
Chemical Test. Chemical test for Alkaloids, Amino Acids, Carbohydrates, Glycosides, Tannins, Volatile
Oils and Fixed oils are performed to ensure their quality.
Titrimmetric Assay, Ester Value, Saponification Value, Acid Value and Ash Value are determined in
chemical evaluation.
4.4 BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Biological Evaluation (biological assay) is a type of scientific experiment carried out on intact animals,
animal preparation, isolated living tissues or micro-organisms.
Since living organisms are used the assays are called “biological assay”.
Techniques of Biological assay:
There are basically two types of Biological evaluations, Quantal & Graded. Following are the
Techniques which are used in Biological evaluation of Crude Drugs;
 Matching Biological Assay

 Interpolation Biological Assay
 Bracketing Biological Assay
 Multiple Biological Assay

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 5
HYPERSENSITIVITY
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction) refers to undesirable (damaging,

discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by the normal immune system.
Introduction:
The term allergy was first defined by Von Pirquet in 1906. He described that a change or
altered reaction in the body is called allergy.
ALLERGY
According to British Immunological society, the allergy can be defined as;
“Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign particles usually a protein to

which a specific individual is exposed.”
OR
Allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system. Allergic reactions occur to normally
harmless environmental substances known as allergens. Strictly, allergy is one of four forms of
hypersensitivity and is called type I (or immediate) hypersensitivity.
ANTIBODY:
An antibody is a type of protein. The body's immune system produces antibodies when it detects
harmful substances, called antigens.

Pharmacognosy
5.1 SINGS & SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY:
Common symptoms of allergy
AFFECTED ORGAN
SYMPTOM
Nose Sneezing, Swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)
Sinuses Runny Nose, Allergic sinusitis
Redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic

Eyes
conjunctivitis), Red or watery eyes.
Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and
Airways dyspnoea (shortness of breath) , sometimes attacks of
asthma,
Ears Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing.
Skin Itching, Rashes, such as eczema and hives (urticaria)
Gastrointestinal tract Abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, Diarrhoea

Pharmacognosy
5.2 ALLERGEN:
The allergen (the foreign substance that provokes a reaction), it is a substance that can cause
an allergic reaction. Allergens are particle that, in some people, the immune system recognizes
as "foreign" or "dangerous" but cause no response for most people.
Common allergens include:
 Pollen
 Dust
 Chemicals
 Drugs (such as antibiotics or medications you put on your skin)
 Foods (such as milk, chocolate, strawberries, wheat)
 Perfumes
 Plants
 Smoke
 Frost
 Insects stings
 Pet dander

Pharmacognosy
5.2.1 TYPES OF ALLERGEN:
5.2.1.1 INHALANT ALLERGENS
These allergens are dispersed in air .when we inhaled air these allergen are also enter in our
Respiratory tract and cause of allergy.
 Pollens
 Dust
 Smoke
 Perfumes
Pollen:
What is pollen?
Pollen is the cells of flowering plants, including trees, grasses, and weeds. Pollen is microscopic
in size. Pollen is the most common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis, sometimes known as "hay
fever."
Dust Mites:
Dust mites are microscopic organisms that can live and thrive throughout homes and schools. The
mites and their waste products present in the following:
 Bedding and pillows

 Upholstered furniture
 Carpets
 Clothes

Pharmacognosy
Symptoms:
Sneezing, swelling of nasal cavities & eyes lacrimation
Smoke:
The allergic attack due to bad environment is termed as Environmental Allergy. If a person lives
in a smoky, or in an industrial area we can easily examine that he is allergic from smoke.

Pharmacognosy
5.2.1.2 INGESTED ALLERGENS
These allergens are present in our food stuff. When we eat that contaminated food these
allergen are also ingested with food particles
What is food allergy?
A food allergy is an abnormal response of the body to a certain food. It is important to know
that this is different than a food intolerance, which does not affect the immune system.
What foods most often cause food allergy?

Approximately 90 percent of all food allergies are caused by the following 9 foods:
 Milk
 Eggs
 Wheat
 Soya beans
 Tree nuts
 Peanuts
 Fish
 Shellfish
 Sesame

Pharmacognosy
Symptoms:
Allergic symptoms may begin within minutes to an hour after ingesting the food. The following
are the most common symptoms of food allergy.
 Vomiting
 Diarrhea
 Cramps
 Hives
 Swelling
 Eczema
 Itching or swelling of the lips, tongue, or mouth
 Itching or tightness in the throat
 Difficulty breathing
 Wheezing
 Lowered blood pressure
5.2.1.3 INJECTABLE ALLERGEN
 Injections of medication
 Insect sting
Symptoms:
 Itching and hives over most of the body

 Swelling of the throat and tongue
 Difficulty in breathing and tightness in the chest
 Dizziness
 Shock
 Loss of consciousness
 Hoarse voice or swelling of the tongue

Pharmacognosy
5.2.1.4 CONTACT ALLERGEN
 Jewellery
 Cosmetics
 Pets
Allergy by Jewellery Allergy by Cosmetic

What is an animal allergen?
Allergens found in animals are a common cause of allergic reactions.
They are caused by the protein found in an animal's:
 Skin.
 Dander.
 Saliva.
 Urine.

Pharmacognosy
5.3 TYPES OF HYPERSENSITIVITY:
The four-group classification was expounded by P. H. G. Gell and Robin Coombs in 1963.
Coombs and Gell classification:
Comparison of hypersensitivity types
Often mentioned
Type Alternative names Mediators
disorders
 Hay fever
I Allergy (immediate)  Anaphylaxis  IgE
 Asthma
 IgM or
II Cytotoxic, antibody-dependent  Erythroblastosis IgG
fetalis
 IgG
III Immune complex disease  Serum sickness
 Contact dermatitis
Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), cell-  Chronic transplant
IV mediated immune response, antibody-  T-cells
rejection
independent  Multiple sclerosis
1. Immediate Hypersensitivities.
These occur quickly after exposure to the allergen. They are usually mediated by antibodies of
the IgE class.
IgE antibodies present on the surface of the basophils, these antibodies have no effect until and
unless they encounter allergens, when this occur the mast cell discharge their granules. The
granules contain a variety of active agents including histamine etc.

Pharmacognosy
Local Anaphylaxis:
Release of these substances into the surrounding tissue causes local anaphylaxis: swelling,
redness, and itching.
Examples:
Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in which airborne allergens (pollen) react with IgE-sensitized
mast cells in the nasal mucosa and the tissues around the eyes, causing runny nose also
called “Rhinorea”
Pollen exposure Inflammation & Secretions
Bronchial Asthma in which the allergen reaches the lungs either by inhalation or in the
blood; and cause bronchoconstriction.
Hives (physicians call it urticaria) where the allergen usually enters the body by food.

Pharmacognosy
Systemic Anaphylaxis
Some allergens can cause life-threatening collapse of the circulatory and respiratory systems.
Frequent causes:
 Insect (e.g., bee) stings

 Drugs (e.g., penicillin)
 Food.
Honey Bee Penicillin allergy
2. Antibody-Mediated Cytotoxicity:
Cell damage caused by antibodies directed against cell surface antigens. In these disorders,
the person produces antibodies directed against antigens present on the surface of his or her
own cells.
Examples:
 Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh disease).

 Myasthenia gravis
Binding of antibodies to the surface of the cell can result in:
 Phagocytosis of the cell

 Lysis of the cell

Pharmacognosy
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (Rh Disease)
Rh antigens are expressed at the surface of red blood cells. During pregnancy, there is often a
tiny leakage of the baby's red blood cells into the mother's circulation. If the baby is Rh-positive
(having inherited the trait from its father) and the mother Rh-negative, these red cells will cause
her to develop antibodies against the Rh antigen. The antibodies, usually of the IgG class, may
not develop fast enough to cause problems for that child, but can cross the placenta and attack
the red cells of a subsequent Rh+ fetus.
Myasthenia Gravis (MG):
The hallmark of this autoimmune disorder is weakness of the skeletal muscles, especially those in
the upper part of the body.
3. Immune Complex Disorders:
In this type of hypersensitivity antibodies form complexes with antigens. Damage caused by the
deposition of these complexes in the tissues.
Examples:
 Serum sickness
Serum Sickness:
Serum sickness is caused by the many proteins present in the antiserum. Being foreign to the
recipient, an active immunity develops against these proteins. The resulting antibodies bind to
them forming immune complexes. These are carried by the blood and deposited in the walls
of blood vessels as well as in the glomeruli of the kidneys.
 fever
 hives
 arthritis and
 Protein in the urine.

Pharmacognosy
4. Cell-Mediated Hypersensitivities:
Because it takes a day or two for the T cells to stimulate following exposure to the antigen, these
responses are called delayed-type hypersensitivities (DTH).
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities can occur with extrinsic antigens or with internal ("self")
antigens.
Extrinsic Antigens:
The most common example of cell-mediated hypersensitivity to external antigens is the contact
dermatitis caused in some people when their skin is exposed to a chemical to which they are
allergic. Some examples:
 The catechols found in poison ivy, poison oak

 Nickel (often used in jewelry)
 Dyes
 Organic chemicals used in industry
Intrinsic ("self") Antigens
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities to "self" cause autoimmune diseases. Examples:
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus

 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
 Organ Transplant Rejection

Pharmacognosy
Type 1 diabetes mellitus:

In this disease, T cells initiate the destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells of the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas. The chief culprits are CD8+cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) also by
CD4+ helper T cells of the Th1.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
T cells —initiates an attack that destroys the myelin sheath of neurons.
Structure of Neuron

Pharmacognosy
5.4 MECHANISM OF ALLERGY
Three players of allergy:
Allergen, Antibodies, Inflammatory mediators
First Exposure to antigen:
A. When an allergen first enters the body, the B lymphocytes produce an antibody called
immunoglobulin E (IgE).
B. The IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, large cells that are found in connective
tissue and contain histamines along with a number of other chemical substances.
2nd Exposure to Antigen:
A. The second time any given allergen enters the body, it becomes attached to the newly-
formed Y-shaped IgE antibodies.
B. These antibodies, in turn, stimulate the mast cells to discharge its histamines and other
chemical substances.
C. Mast cell will burst up, Neurotransmitters present in mast cell will enter in circulation &
causes allergy.
Inflammatory Mediators:
I. Histamine.
II. Bradykinin
III. Prostaglandin
IV. Interleukin I
V. Interleukin II
VI. Thromboxane.
VII. Leukotriene

Pharmacognosy
5.5 DIAGNOSIS OF ALLERGY
Medical Case History:
Medical Case History is the backbone of Medical Diagnosis.

In Allergy the Medical Case History can be concluded on the following lines:
General Examination:
Age, sex, type of environment where he work & live, occupation, any allergy symptoms.
Vital Signs:
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of
allergy can be diagnose.
I) B.P
II) Temperature
III) Breathing Rate
IV) Pulse Rate.
V) Cardiac output.
VI) Heart Rate.

Pharmacognosy
5.6 ALLERGY TESTING
Allergy testing measures how a person reacts to specific allergens, such as tree pollen, pet
dander, foods, medications or molds. A "positive" allergy test means that a person has a specific
allergic antibody to the substance tested. This often means that the person is allergic to the
substance.
 Skin Test
 Blood Test
5.6.1 Skin Test:
 Scratch test/ Skin Prick test

 Patch test
 Intradermal test
5.6.1.1 Scratch test or Skin Prick test:
Testing begins with a prick, puncture or scratch method, which involves the placing a drop of the
allergen on the skin. (Usually a commercially available extract of pollens, molds, foods, pet
dander,) the skin is then gently scratched through the small drop with a special sterile needle.
After the skin is scratched, the tests takes about 15 minutes to develop. If the skin reddens and,
more importantly, if it swells, then the test is read as positive and allergy to that substance is
considered probable. This test is used to diagnose hay fever allergy (house dust mite, grass
pollens).

Pharmacognosy
5.6.1.2 Patch tests (contact allergy testing):

Dermatologists apply patch tests in patients with dermatitis, to find out whether their skin
condition may be caused by a contact allergy.
5.6.1.3 Intradermal Test:
Encapture the allergen & prepared a solution in fat soluble solvent(Ether Acetone
Alcohols).Which is chemically inert & compatible with allergen. In this 0.1ml of allergen solution
is injected into the dermis or epidermis, If there is any kind of allergic reaction occur than the
patient is has +ve test for this particular Allergen.
5.6.2 BLOOD TESTING:

 RAST
 ELISA
5.6.2.1 What Is a RAST?

Radio allegro sorbent testing (RAST) involves measuring specific allergic antibodies in a person’s
blood. RAST has recently become more useful in the diagnosis and management of food
allergies. Whether a person is truly allergic to the food, RAST actually measures the amount of
allergic antibody to the food.

Pharmacognosy
5.6.2.2 ELISA:
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), also known as an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), is
a biochemical technique used mainly in immunology to detect the presence of an antibody or
an antigen in a sample. An unknown amount of antigen is affixed to a surface, and then a
specific antibody is applied over the surface so that it can bind to the antigen. This antibody is
linked to an enzyme, and in the final step a substance is added that the enzyme can convert to
some detectable signal, most commonly a Colour change in a chemical substrate.
5.7 TREATMENT OF ALLERGY
Once a person has allergies, the best way to treat allergies is to prevent them from occurring
in the first place, by avoiding the allergic triggers.
There are three general approaches to the treatment of allergic diseases that are:
 Avoidance
 Pharmacotherapy
 Immunotherapy
5.7.1 Avoidance:
 Wear a pollen mask when mowing the grass or house cleaning.

 Stay indoors in the morning (when the pollen count is at its highest) and on windy
days.
 Read and understand food labels (for people with food allergies).

Pharmacognosy
 Keep windows and doors closed during heavy pollination seasons.

 Use the air conditioner in the house and car.
 Don't allow dander-producing animals in the house.
 Change feather pillows, woolen blankets and clothing to cotton.
 Enclose mattress, and pillows in plastic barrier cloth.
 Wash sheets, mattress and blankets weekly in hot water.
 Remove carpets.
5.7.2 Pharmacotherapy:
Medication:
When avoidance or control of an allergen isn't possible, medications may be necessary. Common
allergy medications are;
1. Antihistamines:
Drugs that block the action of histamine. First-generation antihistamines include;
 Diphenhydramine (Benadryl),
 Chlorpheniramine (Piriton).
Newer antihistamines, called second-generation antihistamines, include;
 Cetirizine (Regix),
 Fexofenadine (Fexet), &
 Loratadine. New to the market and available by prescription only, is an
antihistamine nasal spray called Azelastine (Astelin).
2. Leukotrienes inhibitors:
Montelukast (Singulair) antileukotriene medication.
Leukotrienes are chemicals released from a variety of allergic and immune cells, and may cause
allergy symptoms

Pharmacognosy
5.7.3 Immunotherapy:
When avoidance, environmental control measures and medications fail to control allergy
symptoms, the doctor may suggest allergy immunotherapy ("allergy shots").
Immunotherapy involves the injections of allergen extracts to "desensitize" the person.

Duration
Typically, the treatment begins with injections of solution of allergen given one to five times a
week, with the strength gradually increasing.
It usually takes about three to four years for the patient to be free of symptoms.

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 6
ENZYMES
The enzymes can be defined as “These are the catalysts of biological system that are produced
by the living cell which are capable of catalyzing the biological reaction.
OR
The enzymes are the organic catalysts produced by the living organisms that’s why called as
Biological Catalysts.
CATALYSTS:
Catalyst is a chemical which is inorganic in nature used to boost up chemical reaction but it is
not utilized itself in the chemical reaction.
All enzymes are catalyst but all catalysts are not enzymes.
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES:
All the chemicals that contain mainly carbon are called organic substances.
INORGANIC SUBSTANCES:
All the chemicals that are not containing carbon are called inorganic substances.
SUBSTRATES:
These are the molecules on which enzymes can act.
(Enzyme Substrate Complex)

Pharmacognosy
Difference between Enzymes & Catalyst:
ENZYMES CATALYSTS
 All the enzymes are organic substances.  All the catalysts are inorganic substances.
 Enzymes mostly destroyed during the  Catalysts are not destroyed in the
reaction. chemical reaction.
 Enzymes are more specific in Nature.  Catalysts are non-specific in Nature.
 Enzymes are very complex in nature.  Catalysts are very simple compounds or
substances.
 Speed of the enzyme reaction does not  Speed of catalyst reaction will depends
depend on the concentration of upon the concentration of catalyst.
enzyme.
6.1 PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
6.1.1 Catalytic Property:
Small amount of enzymes can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in a Biological reaction.
Example:
Sucrase enzyme in its small amount easily catalyzed the hydrolytic reaction of the sucrose.
6.1.2 Solubility
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and dilute alcohol solution. The Enzymes can precipitate in
the following solvents.
1- Concentrated Alcohol
2- Ammonium Sulphate
3- Tricholro Acetic Acid.

Pharmacognosy
6.1.3 Enzymatic Property
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increases as the concentration of the substrates increases
up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.
6.1.4 pH
Acids:
Acids deactivate those enzymes that act at alkaline PH e.g. Trypsin act at alkaline PH 8.57. At
acidic PH it will destroy. Trypsin is an enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for
proper digestion of food.
Bases:
Bases deactivate the enzymes that act at acidic PH e.g. pepsin act at acidic PH 1-2. At alkaline
PH, it will destroy.
pH Scale

Pharmacognosy
6.1.5 Temperature
Optimum temperature is 96 F-to-99F

The optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is regard between 35 centigrade to 40
centigrade.
At 0 °c ---------------- Inactive
10° c to 20° c ---------------- Very little active
35° c to 40° c ---------------- Maximum active
50° c ---------------- Inactive
60° c --------------- Destroy
In solid Condition it may be stable up to 100 ° c.
6.2 EXAMPLES OF NATURALLY OCCURRING ENZYMES
6.2.1 Bromelain
It is a protolytic and milk clotting enzyme.
Source: It is obtained from juice and stem of “Ananas comosus”.
Family: Bromeliaceae
Molecular wt.: 2800mmol
Colour; Light yellow colour Or Buff Color.
Solubility: It is very much soluble in Water, Alcohol, Chloroform.
Uses:
 It is used as supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation

and edema, used in gut health and muscle health.
 It is widely used in leather factory.
 It is used in the production of protein.
 It is very effective agent that can easily tenderize the meat.

Pharmacognosy
6.2.2 Papain
It is protolytic enxyme.
Source: Papain is dried latex obtained from green fruits and leaves of
“Carica papaya”.
Family: Caricaceae
Molecular wt.: 25710 moles
Colour; It has amorphous light whitish color powder.
Solubility: It is incompletely soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, ether
and acetone.
Uses:
 Tenderizing of meat.
 Used as protein digestant, as Antihelmintic (nematode)
 Clarification of beverages. (Soft & Hard drinks)
 It is used to remove the protein molecules from contact lenses.

Pharmacognosy
6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
1. Old Method
2. New Method
6.3.1 Old Method
By using this method, the Enzymes are named by adding Suffix “Ase” to the name of the
substrate.
Examples:
Lipase _____________ Hydrolyzing the Fats
Cellulase ____________ Hydrolyzing the Cellulose.
6.3.1.1 Esterases
It is the group of enzymes that hydrolyzed the lipids.
Examples:
Lipase: It is present in pancreatic juice of animals and human body and oily seeds. Lipase
hydrolyses the fat Molecules to fatty acids & Glycerin.
6.3.1.2 Amindases
These are the enzymes that are present in liver and intestinal mucosa. They will be catalyses the
ammonia related break down reaction.
Examples:
Arginases: It converts Arginine to Urea.
Ureases: It is found in liver cells and soyabean seeds. It converts urea into ammonia and
carbon dioxide.
6.3.1.3 Nucleases
These are the group of enzymes that act on the nucleotides.
Examples:
Ribonucleases → RNA
Deoxyribonucleases → DNA

Pharmacognosy
6.3.1.4 Carbohydrases
This class is named after those enzymes that can catalyses breakdown of sugar molecules in a
biological reaction.
Examples:
Sucrase: It is present in yeast and intestinal juice. It causes hydrolyses of sucrose into
glucose and fructose.
Maltase: It is also present in Intestinal Juice. It converts maltose to glucose.
6.3.1.5 Proteolytic Enzymes
Proteolytic enzymes are the protein digestive enzymes. These enzymes catalyses the protein
breakdown reactions.
Examples:
Pepsin: It is found in gastric juice of animals. It digests the protein by converting then into
proteases and peptone.
Rennin: It is a milk coagulating enzyme found in the mucous membrane of fresh stomach of
mammals. It curdles protein of Milk.
6.3.2 New Method

This method is also known as IEC Method (International Enzymes Commission).In new method, the
fundamental principals of giving the names to the enzymes are their basic function in addition
of “Ase”.
6.3.2.1 Dehydrogenase
It is an enzyme that acts on the substrates and remove their hydrogen molecule.
6.3.2.2 Oxidases
It is an enzyme that catalyses the oxidation reaction without any regard of the substrate.

Pharmacognosy
6.3.2.3 Hydrolases
These are the enzymes that boost up the speed of the hydrolysis reaction without any regard
of the substrate.
6.3.2.4 Ligase or Synthetase
It is an enzyme that promotes or boost up the speed of the reactions in which new bonds are
formed with the cleavage of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate.)

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 7
POISONOUS PLANTS
There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. Theses plants
have the ability to produce some drastic effects on the human body.
These drastic plants can be classified as;

 Plants Causing GIT Toxicity
 Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
 Plants Causing CVS Toxicity
 Cyanogenetic Plants
7.1 PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY
7.1.1 Mouth or, oral cavity Toxic Plants
Name of plants
(1) Arisaema triphyllum

(2) Colcasia esculanata
(3) Arum jacquemontii
Colcasia esculanata Arisaema triphyllum
Family: “Araceae”
Habitat: Sindh ,Gilget ,Swat,Ayubia and Nathiagali

Pharmacognosy
Toxicology: The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity

toxicity occour is calcium oxalate.
Symptoms:
 Intense burning sensation
 Mouth unless
 Dermatitis
 Blister on tongue
 Increase salivation
 Loss of voice is also reported
7.1.2 Plants toxic to Gastric Mucosa
Name of plants
(1) Narcissus tazeeta
(2) Amaryllus vittae
(3) Crinum asiatcum
Crinum asiatcum Amaryllus vittae Narcissus tazeeta
Family: Amaryllideacea
Habitat: Narcissus tazette is widely found in Gilgat and Swat Valley
Amarlllus vittae and crinium asiaticum both widely found in
Punjab, Sindh
Toxicology: There are various alkaloids in these plants but lycorine is the most
dangerous one, that cause multiple symptoms

Pharmacognosy
Symptoms:
 Inflammation and burning sensation in mouth
 Gastritis
 Headache
 Increase salivation nasal secretion
7.1.3 Gastro Enteric Irritant Plants
Name of plants
(1) Aseculus indica
(2) Podophyllum emodi
(3) Abrus pectorius
7.1.3.1 Aseculus indica
Aseculus indica
Family: Hippocastanaceae
Habitat: Kasmir, Ziarat, Quetta, Murree, Swat.
Toxicology: This plant contain many chemical substances from which saponin
(glycoride ) is a toxic to our GIT.
Symptoms:
 Inflammation of gastric mucosa
 Peptic ulcer
 Duodenal ulcer
 Inflammation eye. (Conjunctivitis)
 Vomiting

Pharmacognosy
 Fever
 Headache
 Sever sneezing
7.1.3.2 Podophyllum emodi
Podophyllum emodi
Family: Berberidiaceae
Habitat: Kashmir, muree, swat and Gilgit.
Toxicology: Podophyllum emodi contain many resinous compounds among
them podophyllin is the most toxic.
Symptoms:
 Abdominal or epigastric pain
 Diarrhea
 Persistent emesis
 Inflammation eye. (Conjunctivitis)
 Dermatitis
 Fever
 Headache
7.1.3.3 Abrus pectorius

Pharmacognosy
Abrus pectorius
Family: Leguminosae
Habitat: Sindh, and Kashmir. It is found at 3000-5000 altitude.
Toxicology: The toxic substance of abrus pectorious is abrin.
Symptoms:
 Even small amount of ingestion of seeds can cause cardiac Arrest

especially in children
 Severe gastroenteritis
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Trembling of hands
 Muscular weakness
7.1.4 Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth

Name of plants
(1) Datura stramonium
(2) Atropa belladona
7.1.4.1 Datura stramonium
Datura stramonium

Pharmacognosy
Family: Solanaceae
Habitat: It is widely available in 5000 to 9000 feet altitude mainly in
Swat, Gilgat, Chitral, Muree and Kashmir.
Toxicology: (1) There are different compound present in Datura stramonium
mainly hyoscine and hyosyamine if Any human ingested there raw
plants they can cause Toxicity.
(2) If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by Some animal
and their meat is used by human can Caused toxicity.
Symptoms:
 Dryness of mouth
 Dyspnea
 Fatigue
 Muscular Weakness
 Eye Sight weakness
7.1.4.2 Atropa belladona
Atropa belladona
Family: Solanaceae
Habitat: It is present at 6000-1000ft altitude. The place where It is found
widely hills of Murree, Hazara, Mansehra and Chitral.
Toxicology: The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa
belladona is atropine.
Symptoms:
 Abdominal or epigastric pain
 Diarrhea
 Persistent emesis

Pharmacognosy
 Muscular relaxation
 Fever
 Nausea
 Vomiting
7.1.5 Plants Causing Intestinal Motility.
Name of plants
(1) Conium maculatum
(2) Nicotiana tobaccum
7.1.5.1 Conium maculatum
Family: Umbelliferae
Habitat: Hazara, Abottabad and hills of muree and Chitral.
Toxicology: There are many alkaloids present in conium maculatum.
But the toxins that are harmful to humans are coniine, pseudo
conohydrine ,N.Methyl coniine.
Symptoms:
 Increase the intestinal motility
 Paralysis of motor Nerve ending
 Paralysis of spinal card
 Respiratory Depression
 Drowsiness
7.1.5.2 Nicotiana tobaccum

Pharmacognosy
Nicotiana tobaccum
Family: Solanaceae
Habitat: It is widely available in Rural Sindh , Punjab and N.W.F.P
Toxicology: There are mainly alkaloids available in nicotiana tobaccum .But
the most effective is nicotine.
Symptoms:
 Enhance the motility of Intestine
 Diarrhea
7.2 PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES
Name of plants
1. Digitalis purpura
2. Digitalis lanata
7.2.1 Digitalis purpura

Pharmacognosy
Digitalis purpura
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Habitat: Hazara , Azad Kashmir
Toxicology: These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the
Digitalis purpura most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin and
Gitatoxin.
Symptoms:
 Ventricular tachycardia
 Vomiting
 Sinus arrythemia
 Shortness of breath
 Drowsiness
 Fatigue
7.2.2 Nerium indicum
Nerium indicum
Family: Apocynaceae

Pharmacognosy
Habitat: Chitral, Murree and Azad Kashmir

Toxicology: Root, barks and seeds contain toxins .the most active are
“nerodine” and karabin.
Symptoms:
 Hypertension
 Cardiac arrhythmia
 Ventricular tachycardia
 Increase impulse rate
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Chest Pain
7.3 PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES
Name of plants
1. Cannabis stiva
2. Cicuta virosa
7.3.1 Cannabis stiva
Cannabis stiva
Family: Cannabinacea
Habitat: Widely available in Punjab & NWFP
Toxicology: The glandular trichome of cannabis stiva is secreted a Resin which
usually a waste material called as Narcotic resin and also called
tetra hydro cannabinol.

Pharmacognosy
Symptoms:
 Shrinkage of mouth
 Dry cough
 Constipation
 Depression
 Addiction
 Vomiting
 Headache
 Hallucination
7.3.2 Cicuta virosa
Cicuta virosa
Family: Umblifeareae
Habitat: Azad Kashmir
Toxicology: In cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called
cicutoxin is a slightly alcoholic in nature the barks of the cicuta
virosa is more toxic then the seeds and leaves of this plant.
Symptoms:
 Depression
 Tremor
 Respiratory depression which ultimately leads to respiratory failure
 Increase salivation
 Nausea
 Vomiting

Pharmacognosy
7.4 CYANOGENETIC PLANTS
Name of plants
1. Manihot esulenta
2. Prunus amygdalus
7.4.1 Manihot esulenta
Manihot esulenta
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Habitat: It is easily available in the forests of Northern area
Toxicology: There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can
produce harmful effect on the living systems.
Symptoms:
 Convulsion
 Muscular Weakness
 Liver Damage
 Vomiting

Pharmacognosy
7.4.2 Prunus amygdalus
Prunus amygdalus
Family: Rosaceae
Habitat: It is easily available in Northern area of Pakistan
Toxicology: It contain a toxic chemical name amygladin.
Symptoms:
 Convulsion
 Headache
 Liver Damage
 Vomiting

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 8
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is separation technique in which mixture of different compounds is separated

on the basis of their relative polarity difference.
Difference between extraction and chromatography:

Extraction:
The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.
Chromatography:
The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.
8.1 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY:
1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular chromatography
4. Radial chromatography
TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
8.1.1. Ascending chromatography

In ascending chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components of
mixture are separated in the form of spot.

Pharmacognosy
8.1.2. Descending chromatography
In descending chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The compounds of mixture
separated in the form of spots.
8.1.3. Circular chromatography
In circular chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different
compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.
8.1.4. Radial chromatography
In radial chromatography the solvent or mobile phase tends to move in circular form and the
compounds of mixture will separate in the form of arch.
STATIONARY PHASE
This phase is a component of chromatographic procedure that is non_mobile or fixed is known

as stationary phase.
Stationary phases use is chromatography are.
1. Paper
2. Talc
3. Mg-oxide

Pharmacognosy
4. Al-oxide
5. Activated charcoal.
MOBILE PHASE
This phase is the components of chromatography procedure which has ability to move. e.g.
solvent used in paper chromatography.
The most popular mobile phase is used chromatography are.
1. Petroleum ether.
2. Propanol
3. Ethanol
4. Acetone.
RF VALUE
Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to the distance covered
by the Mobile Phase / Solvent.
Rf = Distance covered by substance

Distance covered by solvent.
8.2 TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
1. Paper chromatography
2. Thin layer chromatography
3. Column chromatography
8.2.1. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper chromatography is the technique of analytical chemistry in which different compounds

of mixture are separated by using chromatographic technique.
In this type of chromatographic technique those mixture are easily separated that have color
pigment.

Pharmacognosy
Stationary Phase:
Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper chromatography.
Mobile Phase:
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.
Rf value:

8.2.1.1 Procedure of paper chromatography:
1. First of we will take chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style of
chromatography e.g. redial , circular ascending descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side & in case of descending
the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The
distance of this baseline from the final edge is 2.5cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into mobile
phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of
sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated
4. In case of circular chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has
been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the capillary
action and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of
all the components is calculated .

Pharmacognosy
5. In case of radial chromatography the sample is applied across the center and like
wised dipped in the mobile phase and components of sample will separate in form of
arch. Finally the Rf value of the components is calculated.
8.2.1.2 Application of paper chromatography:
i. it is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API)

ii. It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given
compound.
iii. It is used in the identification of poison.
iv. It is used in the analysis of different medicine
v. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.
vi. It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose.
8.2.2 THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a chromatography technique used to separate mixtures. Thin
layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of glass, plastic, or aluminium foil, which is coated
with a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica gel, aluminium oxide, or cellulose.

Pharmacognosy
Stationary Phase:
The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase
Mobile Phase:
Rf value:

8.2.2.1 Procedure of Thin Layer chromatography (TLC):
1. First of we will take special thin layer chromatographic sheet coated with the absorbent
and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. redial , circular ascending
descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side & in the case of descending
the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The
distance of this baseline from the final edge is 2.5cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the sheet is applied into mobile phase
in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of sample will
separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated
4. In case of circular chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has
been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the capillary action
and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of all the
components is calculated.

Pharmacognosy
5. In case of radial chromatography the sample is applied across the center and like wised
dipped in the mobile phase and components of sample will separate in form of arch.
Finally the Rf value of the components is calculated.
8.2.2.2 Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC):
1. Determination of the components a plant contains.

2. Monitoring organic reactions.
3. Analyzing ceramides and fatty acids.
4. Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water.
5. Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics Sciences.
6. Identifying compounds present in a given substance.
7. Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals.
8.2.3 COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
Column chromatography in chemistry is a method used to purify individual chemical compounds

from mixtures of compounds. It is often used for preparative applications on scales from
micrograms up to kilograms.

Pharmacognosy
Stationary Phase:
The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The most common
stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, followed by alumina. Cellulose
powder has often been used.
Mobile Phase:
8.2.3.1 Procedure of Column chromatography:
1. The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter

from 50 mm and a height of 50 cm to 1 m with a tap at the bottom.
2. The stationary phase is a powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass
column. The mixture to be analyzed is loaded on top of this column.
3. The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the loaded column. The solvent
flows down the column, causing the components of the mixture to distribute
between the powdered adsorbent and the solvent, thus separating the
components of the mixture so that as the solvent flows out of the bottom of the
column, some components elute with early collections and other components elute
with late fractions.

Pharmacognosy
8.2.3.2 Application of Column Chromatography:
1. It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines.

2. It is used in the Analysis of medicine.
3. It is used for the purification of Water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical
industry.
4. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 9
EXTRACTION
It is the specialized type procedure of chemistry that involves the separation of different
compounds on the basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible solvent / liquids.
OR
The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active pharmaceutical
ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant origin) by using.
Menstrum
Any liquid that is used in the pharmacy for extractions procedure is called manstrum.
Marc
The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.
Need for extraction
With the advancement in medical treatment technologies the demand of herbal medicine
diminished. But still some glycosides alkaloids, resins, fixed oils volatile oils and tannins have
importance to us. So we use extraction process to purify them.
Advantages of extraction
i. Potency can be controlled

ii. Deterioration can be controlled
iii. Different dosage form e.g. tablets capsules, symptoms and injections can easily
synthesize.
iv. Dosage forms of purified compounds are more stable then the no purified ones.
v. The compounds that are none purified can cause infections.
vi. If the drugs are used in raw form ADRs (adverse drug reactions) can affect humans.

Pharmacognosy
Theory of extraction
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very much
common in all types of extraction.
i. Suitable size reduction of crude drug
ii. Selection of suitable solvent
iii. Penetration of solvent into the crude drug
iv. The cell should be at right position to collect to solution.
v. Supply of appropriate heat.
vi. Who apply pressing force?
vii. The separation of solvent from the raw crude drug the pressing Force becomes more
important.
viii. Separation of solvent from mark
ix. Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug.
Extraction process or extraction techniques
1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Maceration
4. Percolation
5. Digestion
6. Continuous hot extraction
Infusion
It is a method of extraction in which hot manstrum (water) is used poured on crude drug or
crushed drug and allow them for suitable time.
Decoction
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse
particles. These drug are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time.
Maceration
It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and cover up in the
porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.

Pharmacognosy
Percolation
It is the extraction technique in which the fine powder of drugs are packed in to the column are
packed in to the column after suitable menstrum selection are allow the menstrum to percolate
through the column of packed drug.
Digestion
It is the extraction technique which resemble with the maceration in fact it is a maceration
procedure in the presence of gentle heat.
Continues hot extraction
It is the technique of extraction in which soxhelt apparatus is used .the drug is always used in
hot condition.
9.1 INFUSION
Infusion is a process or technique of extraction which is usually used for soft natured drugs. So
that the menstrum (which is water) can easily diffuse into the drug b/c of these drugs easily
release their active constituents in the menstrum.
The extracts that are formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours so. It
is recommended to use these kinds of extracts freshly.
Apparatus use in infusion
The main apparatus in infusion procedure is infusion pot . a simple beaker can also be used
instead of infusion pot.
 Burner (heat burner)

 Filter paper
 Beaker

Pharmacognosy
Procedure
 First of all the nature of the drug is checked

 If the nature of the drug is soft you would not cut it into pieces.
 Although if drug has little harder nature then we cut in to pieces.
 If the drug is the soft nature of drugs are bound with the thread and we suspend it into
the infusion pot. If the drug is of harder nature then their pieces will be place into the
infusion pot.
 Now the menstrum will be warm to 200c to 250c.
 After that the hot menstrum will poured on the drug and allow is 15 minutes
 Finely filter it and the extract is ready to use
9.2 DECOCTION
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse
particles. These drug are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time.
 Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as menstrum.

 The drug that have to undergo decoction should be heat stable
 The drug that are selected for decoction procedure should be hard
 The drug is cut into small pieces.
 Now put all the pieces of the drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the menstrum
on the drug as mentioned in the monograph.
 The heat burner should be opened and heat the drug and menstrum mixture to boil.
 After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the mixture to
cool down.
 After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
 The filter mixture is now ready to use as a extract.
 Due to evaporation a certain quantity of water is lost so final adjustment of volume is
very necessary
 Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is only 24 hours.
 There is no official example of decoction in I.P and B.P.
9.3 MACERATION
It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and cover up in the
porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.

Pharmacognosy
 It is the process in which drugs are communicated to fine powders

 Now these powders will encaptured into pouch.
 A suitable menstrum is selected.
 After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the menstrum for 2 to 14
days b/c it is the demand of the procedure to soften the cellular structures of all drug.
 The pouch is removed after the definite the extract if required.
 Finely adjust the volume as required.
Types of maceration
1. Maceration of organized drugs.

2. Maceration of unorganized drugs.
3. Multiple maceration
9.3.1 Maceration of Organized Drugs
Simple maceration involves the following steps.
1. Communication of the crude drug. The drug is converted into coarse powder rather then
fine.
2. Take a pouch of suitable material and captured the coarse particles of drug into it.
3. Selected the suitable menstrum according to the whole menstrum of drug.
4. Take a whole menstrum in a tank.
5. Suspended the pouch with the help of thread for at least 7 day.
6. Occasionally shake the pouch.
7. After 7 days the manstrum is separated.
8. Now combine the menstrum with the pressed solution/ liquid.
9. If required filter it and finally adjust the volume according to the requirement.
9.3.2 Maceration of Unorganized Drug
1. First of all the unorganized drug is selected.

2. Communication the drug into fine powder.
3. If the drug in the form of gum are aloe gum resin, their should be no need for communication.
4. Enclosed the communicated or raw drug in a pouch.
5. The ¾ th volume of menstrum.
6. Dip the pouch in this volume of menstrum for at least 2-7 days.
7. After the specific time period the volume of menstrum is separated and filters it if required.
8. Do not press the marc
9. Adjust the volume by using remaining ¼ th part of menstrum.
9.3.3. Multiple maceration (repeated maceration)

Pharmacognosy
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as for as its accuracy is concern.
The basis aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to menstrum
In multiple maceration we prefer the alcohol as menstrum on other menstrum like wise water.
9.3.3.1 Double maceration
 Firstly selection of drug is done. After selection the drug is communicated.

 Enclosed the communicated drug into a pouch
 According to the nature of crude drug a suitable menstrum is selected
 The menstrum is divided into two portions A and B.
 The crude drug pouch is dipped into menstrum A for specific period of time.
 After that time the menstrum A is separated and preserved the Marc is pressed.
 The marc is again dipped into the menstrum B. for specific period of time.
 After that time the marc is pressed and menstrum B is separated
 The menstrum A and B is unite again and adjust the vol. to get the desire product.
9.3.3.2 Triple Maceration
 First of all the selection of drug is done.

 Then the drug is communicated to fine powder
 Now enclose the powder drug in a pouch
 Now suitable menstrum is selected and divide the menstrum into Three parts A, B, C
 A for specified period of time after that time the marc is pressed and menstrum is
labeled and preserved
 The marc again dipped into menstrum B for particular time after the specific time.
 The marc is pressed and manstrum is pressed after labeling.
 The marc again dipped in menstrum C for specific time after that time the marc is
pressed and menstrum is preserved after labeling.
 Combine the menstrum A, B, and C and adjust their vol. to get your desire product.
9.4 PERCOLATION
It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed in a vessel known as

percolator and menstrum is allowed to pass through the communicated drug. The extract that
we obtained from the percolation and procedure is called percolate. The percolation procedure
can be properly explained under following heading.

Pharmacognosy
Communication of the Drug
The drug is subjected to a suitable size reduction by using technique usually the drug is crushed
moderately to fine powder depending upon the nature of drug.
Advantages
The basic advantages of size reduction in percolation are.

● To enhance the surface area of drug.
● Because of size reduction uniform packing of drug in percolation become possible.
● Because of size reduction (powder form drug) the movement of menstrum become slow.
Moistening of drug (imbibitions)
The moistening of crude drug is called imbibitions. The powdered drug is place with little amount
of menstrum for at least 4hours in a close container.
Advantages
The fundamental advantages of moistening the drug are as following

The dry powder may be swell up when it firstly have a contact with menstrum. This can be
overcome by moistening the powder drug.
Due to imbibitions of powder drug the entrapment of air can be minimized.
Open percolator
The upper surface of this percolator is open it mainly use for mainly non-volatile solvent.
Close percolator
The upper surface of this percolator is close and it mainly used for volatile menstrum e.g. alcohol.

Pharmacognosy
Packing
After imbibitions of powdered crude drug it would be evenly packed in suitable percolation.
9.5 DIGESTION
This is an extraction method that involves the use of moderate heat during extraction process.
The solvent of extraction is poured into a clean container followed by powdered drug material.
The mixture is placed over water bath or in an oven at a temperature about 50Co. Heat was
applied throughout the extraction process to decrease the viscosity of extraction solvent and
enhance the removal of secondary metabolites. This method is suitable for plant materials that
are readily soluble]
9.6 CONTINUOUS HOT EXTRACTION
In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Menstrum is placed in
lower flask. A reflex condenser place at the upper portion. When heat is applied to the
Menstrum, it convert it self into vapours these vapours are condensed by reflux condenser. The
drops of Menstrum tickle down on the drug chamber and purified extract is obtained from
collection point.

Pharmacognosy
CHAPTER 10
GLYCOSIDES
These are organic compounds, abundantly present in plants; on hydrolysis they yield a sugar
component called Glycogen and non-sugar component called A-glycogen.
Classes:
The glycosides are classified as follows;
1. Anthra-quinone Glycosides (example: Senna, Aloe, rhubarb)
2. Cardio tonic Glycosides (Example: Digitalis , Strophanthus)
3. Saponin Glycoside
Medicinally Important Glycoside Plants
1) Drug; Senna
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Synonym; Alexandrian Senna
Tinnevelly Senna
Biological Source;
It consist of dried leaflets of “Cassia acutifolia” (Alexandrian
Senna) and “Cassia angustifolia” (Tinnevelly Senna).
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent;
Sennosides A, B, C, D
Aloe-emodine glycosides
Medicinal Uses;
 Cathartic
 Laxative
 Purgative

Pharmacognosy
2) Drug; Cassia
Botanical Name: Cassia fistula
Family: Leguminosae
Sennosides
Medicinal Uses;
 Cathartic
 Anti Gout. (Cassia fistula)
3) Drug; Aloe
Synonym; Gwar Gandal
Biological source; It is dried juice obtained from leaves of “Aloe barbadensis” (Aloe
vera).
Family: Liliaceae
Collection: V-shaped leaves contain spines on the margins. For collection of
juice the leaves are cut in March & April transversally and put a
vessel below it and then heat the juice in copper vessel on open
fire. Poured the juice in canes and tins and solidify it.
Chemical Constituent ; Aloin, Barbaloin, Emodine
Medicinal Uses ;
 Purgative
 Skin diseases
 Burns by heat, radiation &sun
 Wound
 Hair tonic
4) Drug; Glycyrrhiza
Chemical Class; Glycoside
Synonym; Liquorice, Mulethi

Pharmacognosy
Biological source; It is dried root and rhizome of “Glycyrrhiza glabra”

Family ; Leguminoseae
Collection; It is 1m high herb. It is cultivated by planting rhizome in well moist

sandy soil in March. It grows better near the bank of river under
sun shine. Drug is collected from 3-4 years old plant. Roots and
rhizome are dug out and washed with water and packed.
Chemical Constituent; Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhizic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 Demulcent
 Expectorant
 Diuretic
 Emollient
 Flavoring agent
 In Food Industry
5) Drug; Digitalis
Chemical Class; Glycosides
Synonym; Foxglove, Purple Foxglove
Biological source; Dried leaves of “Digitalis purpurea” and “Digitalis lanata”.

Pharmacognosy
Family; Scrophulariaceae
Collection; For its cultivation stained seeds are sown into equal parts of clean
sand are garden soil. When seedlings arise they are transferred
to the fields. The leaves are collected from September to
November in afternoon. The leaves are dried immediately at 60
centigrade after collection. If drying is rapid it will retain it green
colour. Dried leaves are packed in air tight container having a
desiccating substance that is silica gel or calcium oxide.
Chemical Constituent; Digitoxin, Gitoxin & Gitaloxin
Medicinal Uses;
 As cardiac stimulant
 In CHF (Congestive Heart Failure)
6) Drug: Strophanthus
Chemical Class; Glycosides
Biological source; It is dried ripe seeds of “Strophanthus kombe” and “Strophanthus
hispidus”
Family; Apocynaceae
Collection; It is obtained from wild plants. Fruits are many seeded and consist
of two follicles. Mature fruit are collected in June and July Epicarp
and Mesocarp are separated and seeds are removed. The seeds
are washed and then dried.

Pharmacognosy
Chemical Constituent; Strophanthin K, Choline, Kombic acid

Medicinal Uses;
 Cardio tonic
 Diuretic
 Arrow poison
ALKALOIDS
Alkaloids are naturally occurring, nitrogen containing compound. These are basic
in nature and are physiologically active.
Groups:
1. Pyridine-piperidine (Example: areca nut )
2. Tropane alkaloids (Example: Hyoscyamus leafs)
3. Quinoline alkaloids (Example: Cinchona bark)
4. Iso-quinoline alkaloids (Example: Ipecac, Opium)
5. Indole alkaloids (Example: Nux-vomica)
6. Alkaloidal amine (Example: Ephedra)
7. Steroidal alkaloids (Example: veratrum)
8. Purine alkaloids (Example: Tea , Coffee)

Pharmacognosy
Medically Important Alkaloid Plants;
1) Drug; Rauwolfia
Synonym; Snake root, Chota chandan
(Rauwolfia serpentina)
Chemical Class: Alkaloids

Biological source; It is dried roots of “Rauwolfia serpentine”.
Family ; Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent; Reserpine, Ajmaline (Rauwolfine), Ajmalicine (Yohimbine),
Serpentine, Serpentinine.
Medicinal Uses;
 Sedative
 Hypnotic
 As hypertensive
2) Drug; Catharanthus
Synonym; Rattanjot
Chemical Class; Alkaloids
Botanical Name; It is dried whole plant of “Catharanthus roseus”
Family; Apocynaceae

Pharmacognosy
Chemical Constituent; Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vindoline & Catharanthine

Medicinal Uses;
 Anti Neoplastic
 Used in Leukemia
3) Drug; Ephedra
Biological source; It consist of whole aerial parts of “Ephedra sinica”
Family; Ephederacae
Chemical Constituent; Ephedrine, Pseudo-ephedrine
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti asthmatic
 Bronchodilator
 Vasodilator
 Used in flu, fever and allergic conditions
 CNS stimulant

Pharmacognosy
4) Drug; Opium
Synonym; Post, Afim, Heroin, Poppy plant
Biological source; It is the air dried milky latex obtained by incision from the unripe
capsules of “Papaver somniferum”.
Family; Papaveraceae
Chemical Constituent; Morphine, Codeine, Narcotine, Thebaine, noscapine, Papaverine
Poppy Plant Capsule
Medicinal Uses;
 Narcotic
 Analgesic
 Sedative
 Antispasmodic
 Codeine is used as anti tussive
 Papaverine is smooth muscle relaxant
5) Drug; Nux-Vomica
Synonym; Kuchla, Poison nut, Vomit nut
Biological source; It is the dried ripe seeds of “Strychnus nux-vomica”.

Pharmacognosy
Family; Loganiaceae
Chemical Constituent; Strychnine, Brucine, Vomicine, Novacine, Colubrine
Medicinal Uses;
 Circulatory stimulant
 Bitter tonic
 Increase tone of intestine
 Used in alcohol poisoning
 Improve appetite and digestion
6) Drug; Cinchona bark
Synonym; Jesuit's bark, Peruvian bark

Biological source; It is dried bark of stem and roots of “Cinchona succirubra.
Family; Rubiaceae
Chemical Constituent; Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine

Pharmacognosy
Medicinal Uses;
 Antimalarial
 Anti pyretic
 Analgesic
 Arrythmia
 Dyspepsia
 Hay fever
 Tonsillitis
7) Drug; Hyoscyamus leaf

Synonym; Khurasani-ajvayan
Biological source; It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of “Hyoscyamus
niger”
Family; Solanaceae
Chemical Constituent; Hyoscyamine (Atropine), Hyoscine (Scopolamine)
Hyoscyamus

Pharmacognosy
Medicinal Uses;
 Smooth muscle relaxant
 Sedative
 Narcotic
 Mydriatic
 Used in Asthma
 CNS stimulant
8) Drug; Belladonna
Synonym; Death herb
Biological source; It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of “Atropa
belladonna”
Family; Solanaceae
Chemical Constituent; Atropine, Hyoscyamine, Asparagaline
Medicinal Uses;
 Muscle relaxant of respiratory tract

 Narcotic
 Sedative
 Antispasmodic

Pharmacognosy
VOLATILE OIL
Rapidly evaporating oil, especially an essential oil that does not leave a stain.
OR
Any organic oil present in plants, usually containing terpenes and esters and having the odour
or flavour of the plant from which they are extracted.
Medically Important Volatile Oil Plants
1) Drug; Fennel
Synonym; Saunf
Chemical Class; Volatile oil
Biological source; It is obtain from ripe fruit of “Foeniculum vulgare”

Pharmacognosy
Family; Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent; Anethol, Fenchone, Phellandrene, Chavicol
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Stomachic
 Expectorant
 Stimulant
2) Drug; Caraway
Synonym; Zira
Biological source; It is obtain from dried ripe food of “Carum carvi”
Family; Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent; Carvone, Carveol, Limonene
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Expectorant
3) Drug; Peppermint
Synonym; Pudina
Biological source; It is obtain from dried leaves & flowering tops of “Mentha
piperita”
Family; Labiateae
Chemical Constituent; Menthol, Menthone, Jasmine, Limonene, Phellandrene
Medicinal Uses

Pharmacognosy
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Stomachic
 Expectorant
 Stimulant
4) Drug; Cinnamon
Synonym; Darchini
Biological source; It is obtained from dried bark of”Cinnamomum zeylanicum”
Family; Lauraceae
Chemical Constituent; Eugenol, Phellandrene, Pinene
Medicinal Uses
 Vomiting
 Carminative
 Flavoring Agent
 Astringent
 Stimulant

Pharmacognosy
5) Drug; Cardamom
Synonym; Ilayachi
Biological source; It is dried ripe seed of “Elettaria cardamomum”
Family; Zingiberaceae
Chemical Constituent; Cineol, Borneol, Limonene
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent
 Diuretic
 Stomachic
 Stimulant
6) Drug; Clove
Synonym; Long
Biological source; It is dried flower buds of “Eugenia caryophyllus”
Family; Myrtaceae
Chemical Constituent; Eugenin, Chromone, Vanillin

Pharmacognosy
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Anti-Septic
 Dental Preparation
7) Drug; Curcuma
Botanical Synonym; Curcuma longa
Biological source; It is dried roots of Curcuma longa.
Chemical Constituent; Curcumin
Medicinal Uses
 Anti Inflammatory
 Use in Jaundice
 Use in Gall Stones

Pharmacognosy
(Turmeric)
RESINS
Resins are solid or semisolid plant exudates formed in schizogenous cavities.They are complex
mixtures of compounds like resin alcohols (resinols), resin acids, resinophenols.
Natural resins are usually transparent yellow to brown and can melt and burn. Most are exuded
from trees, especially pines.
Classification of Resins:
Resins are classified on the basis of their occurrence in combination with other compounds as:
Balsams:
Balsams are resinous substances which contain large proportion of benzoic acid
or cinnamic acid either free or in combination with their esters. Examples are Tolu
balsam, Benzoin and Peru balsam.
Oleoresin:
When resin occurs with volatile oils the mixture is called Oleoresin. Examples are;
Ginger, Capsicum etc.

Pharmacognosy
Gum Resins:
When resins are found in combination with gums then such resins are known as
gum resins. Examples include; Asafeotida.
Oleo-gum Resins:
These are associated with gums and volatile oils both. The volatile oil is removed
by steam distillation and gum is separated by dissolving in water. Examples are;
Myrrh, Ipomoea
1) Drug; Tolu balsam

Chemical Class; Resins
Biological source; It is obtain from by incision of stem of “Myroxylon balsamum”
Family; Leguminoseae
Chemical Constituent; Ferulic acid, Styrene, Vanillin
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent in Pharmaceuticals

 Anti-Septic
 Expectorant
2) Drug; Sumatra Benzoin

Synonym; Benjamin, Luban (Hindi)
Biological source; It is obtain from by incision of stem of “Styrax benzoin”

Pharmacognosy
Family; Styraceae
Chemical Constituent; Balsamic acid, Benzoin acid, Cinnamic acid
Medicinal Uses
 Carminative
 Anti-Septic
 Expectorant
 Diuretic
 In Cosmetic Industry
 Compound benzoin tincture
2) Drug; Colocynth
Synonym; Bitter apple, Bitter cucumber, Bitter gourd, Korh tuma (Punjabi)
Biological source; It is obtain from dried pulp of unripe but fully grown fruit of
“Citrullus colocynthis”
Family; Cucurbitaceae
Chemical Constituent; Cucurbitacin-E

Pharmacognosy
Medicinal Uses
 In Cathartic
 Anti-cancer
4) Drug; Asafeotida
Synonym; Food of god, Hing
Biological source; It is obtain from Oleo-gum-resin from exudation by incision on
roots & rhizome “Ferula Asafeotida”
Family; Umbellifereae
Chemical Constituent; Ferulic acid, Umbelliferone
Medicinal Uses
 Carminative
 Anti-spasmodic(muscle relaxant)
 Expectorant
 Laxative
 Hysteria & epilepsy (mental disorder)

Pharmacognosy
4) Drug; Ginger
Synonym; Zingiber, Saunth (Hindi), Adrak (Urdu)
Biological source; It is obtain from dried rhizomes of “Zingiber officinale”
Chemical Constituent; Resins constituents are;
Gingerol, Shogaols, Gingediols
Volatile oils are;
Zingerone, Zingiberene
The pungency of ginger is due to Gingerol. Dehydration of
Gingerol produces shogaol which is not present in fresh rhizome.
Ferulic acid, Umbelliferone
(Fresh Ginger) (Dry Ginger)

Medicinal Uses:
 Carminative
 Stimulant
 Condiment
 Used in Cold & Cough
 Used in Asthma

Pharmacognosy
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are pollyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone, with at least three carbon atoms. These
compounds are produced by photosynthetic plants and contain only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, usually in the ratio 1:2:1.
Example:
Glucose, sucrose and starch.
Source:
The source of carbohydrates is plants. They are widely distributed in plants.
Classification:
Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main classes.
1. Monosaccharides or simple sugars
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
1. Monosaccharides:
These are the simple sugars and can not be hydrolyzed. Chemical formula is (C.H2o) n.
For example:
Glucose (C6H12O6) Blood Sugar
Fructose (C6H12O6) Fruit Sugar

Pharmacognosy
Pentose (C5H10O5)
2. Oligosaccharide:
They contain the carbohydrates which formed by the combination of 2 or 3 monosaccharide

units. And the range is (C1 to C10)
Such as;
o Disaccharides
o Tri-saccharides and so on….
2.1 Disaccharide:
In which 2 monosaccharide combine to form disaccharide with a linkage called
Glycosidic linkage.
For example;
Sucrose (Table Sugar) it forms by the combination of D-glucose and D-fructose
2.2 Polysaccharides:
In which large no. of monosaccharide combine to form polysaccharide and they are
very complex in structure and these are called non-sugar
For example: Starch, Agar, Pectin etc.
Medically Important Carbohydrate Plants:

1) Drug: Acacia
Synonym: Gum Acacia, Gum Arabica
Chemical Class: Carbohydrates
Biological source: It is dried gum obtain from the stem and branches of “Acacia
senegal” and “Acacia arabica”
Family: Leguminoseae
Collection: Acacia tree is 6 m high when we cut stem transversely phloem
cells come out and by bacterial attack (Bacterium acaciae) the

Pharmacognosy
flume cells convert into gum and then it is stored in lathery bags
for 2-3 months.
Character:
Colour: Dark brown
Shape: 1-3 in diameter and round
Odour: Odourless
Chemical Constituent:
Arabin (Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium salts of Arabic acid.
Medicinal Uses:
 As emulsifying agent
 As binder
 As demulcent
 As thickner in juices
2) Drug; Tragacanth
Synonym; Gondkatera
Chemical Class; Carbohydrate
Biological source; It is dried gum obtain from exudates of the stem of “Astragallus
gummifer”
Collection; The tree is 1 m high and thorny branches of shrubs and obtains
from plant when plant is 1-2 year old by a process called
gummosis
When plant is injured the internal layer pith is converted into gum then
the plant absorbed water and swells up and throws the gum on the
outer surface and by the reaction with air it become hard due to the
evaporation of water.

Pharmacognosy
Character:
Colour: Pale yellow and off white
Shape: Depend upon the type of incision
Odour: Odourless
Tragacanthin and bassorin.
Medicinal Uses:
 As emulsifying
 As suspending agent
 As demulcent
 In cosmetics
 In food industry
3) Drug; Agar
Synonym; Japan agar
Chemical Class; Carbohydrates
Biological source; It is dried hydrophilic complex obtain from of “Gelidium
cartilagineum”
Family; Gelidiaceae
Collection; Algae is cultivated on coast and washed for 24 hours in running
water then beaten and shaken to remove sand and shells. Then it
is moved in steam heated digester for 30 hours to extract

Pharmacognosy
chemical then a gel like material is obtain. To remove water gel

is freezes, ice block of agar is obtained crush and melt it and
filter through a vacuum rotary sieve agar flack is obtain.
Character:
Colour: Transparent
Shape: Flattened (tough when damp and brittle when dry)
Odour: Odourless
Agarose and Agaropectin.
Medicinal Uses:
 As cathartic
 As demulcent
 As nutrient media for bacterial culture
 As laxative
4) Drug; Starch
Chemical Class; Carbohydrates
Biological source; It is a polysaccharide obtains from seed like grains of plants
Corn Starch B.O: Zea mays
Family: Gramineae

Pharmacognosy
Wheat Starch B.O: Triticum aestrivum

Family: Gramineae
Rice Starch B.O: Oriza sativa
Family: Gramineae
Potato starch B.O: Solanum tuberosum
Family: Solanaceae
Collection and Preparation;
1. Preparation of maize starch:
Firstly the grains are softened by soaking in the aqueous solution of

sulphuric acid at 500 c temperature for 3-4 days then the grains are
crush to separate the embryo and germ milky fluid is obtained (which
have starch and protein). To separate starch the dilute Alkali solution
is added which absorb protein. Starch is dried by flash dryer.
2. Preparation of rice starch:
Firstly broken rice are softened by adding in the aqueous solution of

NaOH then crushed it and mixed with water and to separate starch the
solution is kept on standing position then dried at the 50-60 c temp.
3. Preparation of wheat starch;
Firstly take wheat and add water to make dough. After that make small
bolls and add in water and shake it. Liquid starch is obtained then
centrifuges it and dried.

Pharmacognosy
4. Preparation of potato starch:
Firstly potatoes are washed, crushed and separate cellular debris by

rotary sieves then add water and keep on standing position starch is
separated and then dried it.
Character:
Solubility: Insoluble in cold water and forms a colloidal solution on boiling
Colour: White mass
Shape: Irregular
Amylose and Amylopectin
Medicinal Uses:
 As binder
 As nutritive
 As anti-dote in iodine poisoning
 In dusting powder
 As a filler in tablets

Pharmacognosy
TANNINS
These are complex organic, non-nitrogenous, pale yellow to light brown amorphous substances
widely distributed in plants and used chiefly in tanning leather, dyeing fabric, and making ink.
Their solutions are acid and have an astringent taste.
Medically Important Tannin Plants
1) Drug; Catechu
Synonym; Katha
Chemical Class; Tannin

Botanical Name: It is dried aqueous extract prepared from “Acacia catechu”
Acacatechin, Quercitin, Tannic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 As Astringent, applied to boils and skin ulcers

 Digestive
 In cough
 In Diarrhoea

Pharmacognosy
2) Drug; Nut gall
Botanical Name; Quercus infectoria

Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Fagaceae
Gallic acid (Quercus infectoria)
Medicinal Uses;
 Astringent
 Used in Burns.
FIXED OILS
These are esters of glycerol with long chain fatty acids. They are nonvolatile in nature obtained
from plants (Castor oil, Almond oil) or animals (Cod liver oil).
OR
Fixed Oils are most commonly used in aromatherapy oil blends, toiletries, food and industry.
Fixed Oils are not volatile, they do not evaporate.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FIXED OIL PLANTS
1) Drug; Almond Oil
Chemical Class;
Lipids (Fixed Oil)
(Prunus amygdalus)
Biological source; It is dried ripe seeds of “Prunus amygdalus”

Pharmacognosy
Family; Rosaceae
Chemical Constituent; Sphingolipid
Medicinal Uses;
 Used for moisturizing skin

 Used in eczema
 As flavouring agent in the preparation of toilet articles
 As vehicle for oily injection
 Mild laxative

Pharmacognosy Short Notes

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Reading Material for Pharmacy Technician Students

Prepared and Reviewed by:

Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Awais (PhD, RPh.)

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 2

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 3

1. Introduction and Scope of Pharmacognosy.

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 4

John Adam Schmidt Schmidt Cognosy

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 5

Classification of Crude Drugs to know about the class of the Drug

 Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing, Evaluation and

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 6

 Poisonous Plants to prevent poison.

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 7

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Classification of Crude Drugs:

In this method, drugs are classified according to their part used.

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 8

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 9

Table 1. Morphological Classification of Drugs

Plant Part Example of drugs

Leaves Digitallis, Pudina, Senna, Squill

Flowering Parts Clove, Saffron

Fruits Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel, Colocynth,

Dried Latex Opium, Papain

Dried Juice Aloe

Gums Acacia, Tragacanth

Resins Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam

Fixed oils Castor, Almond

Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax

Animal Products Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides

Minerals Kaolin, Talc

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 10

Table 2. Taxonomical Classification of Drugs

Phyllum Order Family Genus Species Drugs

Angiosperms Rosales Rosaceae Prunus Amygdalus Almond

Rhodophyta Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium Cartilagineum Agar

Gymnosperms Genetales Ephedraceae Ephedra Sinica Ephedra

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 11

Pharmacological Class Drugs

Expectorant Glycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam

Cardio tonic Digitallis, Strophanthus

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 12

Sr.No. Chemical Constituents Drugs

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 13

Following are the most frequent terminologies used in Pharmacognosy.

Acaulescent: Stem less

Acicular: Needle-shaped, as applied to some kinds of foliage

Angular: Having sharp angles or corners, generally used in reference to

Axis: The main stem

Basifixed: Attached by the base (compare dorsifixed, versatile)

Capillary: Very slender and hair like

Deltoid: Broadly triangular in shape

Dense: Congested, describing the disposition of flowers.

Dentate: With sharp, outward-pointing teeth on the margin

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL – READING MATERIAL 14

Exudate: A substance exuded or secreted from a plant

Gall: An abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects

Glabrous: Smooth, without hairs