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Analytical mechanics
In theoretical physics and mathematical physics, analytical mechanics, or theoretical
mechanics is a collection of closely related formulations of classical mechanics. Analytical
mechanics uses scalar properties of motion representing the system as a whole—usually its kinetic
energy and potential energy. The equations of motion are derived from the scalar quantity by some
underlying principle about the scalar's variation.

Analytical mechanics was developed by many scientists and mathematicians during the 18th
century and onward, after Newtonian mechanics. Newtonian mechanics considers vector
quantities of motion, particularly accelerations, momenta, forces, of the constituents of the system;
it can also be called vectorial mechanics.[1] A scalar is a quantity, whereas a vector is represented
by quantity and direction. The results of these two different approaches are equivalent, but the
analytical mechanics approach has many advantages for complex problems.

Analytical mechanics takes advantage of a system's constraints to solve problems. The constraints
limit the degrees of freedom the system can have, and can be used to reduce the number of
coordinates needed to solve for the motion. The formalism is well suited to arbitrary choices of
coordinates, known in the context as generalized coordinates. The kinetic and potential energies of
the system are expressed using these generalized coordinates or momenta, and the equations of
motion can be readily set up, thus analytical mechanics allows numerous mechanical problems to
be solved with greater efficiency than fully vectorial methods. It does not always work for non-
conservative forces or dissipative forces like friction, in which case one may revert to Newtonian
mechanics.

Two dominant branches of analytical mechanics are Lagrangian mechanics (using generalized
coordinates and corresponding generalized velocities in configuration space) and Hamiltonian
mechanics (using coordinates and corresponding momenta in phase space). Both formulations are
equivalent by a Legendre transformation on the generalized coordinates, velocities and momenta;
therefore, both contain the same information for describing the dynamics of a system. There are
other formulations such as Hamilton–Jacobi theory, Routhian mechanics, and Appell's equation of
motion. All equations of motion for particles and fields, in any formalism, can be derived from the
widely applicable result called the principle of least action. One result is Noether's theorem, a
statement which connects conservation laws to their associated symmetries.

Analytical mechanics does not introduce new physics and is not more general than Newtonian
mechanics. Rather it is a collection of equivalent formalisms which have broad application. In fact
the same principles and formalisms can be used in relativistic mechanics and general relativity,
and with some modifications, quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.

Analytical mechanics is used widely, from fundamental physics to applied mathematics,

particularly chaos theory.

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The methods of analytical mechanics apply to discrete particles, each with a finite number of
degrees of freedom. They can be modified to describe continuous fields or fluids, which have
infinite degrees of freedom. The definitions and equations have a close analogy with those of
mechanics.

Motivation for analytical mechanics

The goal of mechanical theory is to solve mechanical problems, such as arise in physics and
engineering. Starting from a physical system—such as a mechanism or a star system—a
mathematical model is developed in the form of a differential equation. The model can be solved
numerically or analytically to determine the motion of the system.

Newton's vectorial approach to mechanics describes motion with the help of vector quantities such
as force, velocity, acceleration. These quantities characterise the motion of a body idealised as a
"mass point" or a "particle" understood as a single point to which a mass is attached. Newton's
method has been successfully applied to a wide range of physical problems, including the motion of
a particle in Earth's gravitational field and the motion of planets around the Sun. In this approach,
Newton's laws describe the motion by a differential equation and then the problem is reduced to
the solving of that equation.

When a mechanical system contains many particles, however (such as a complex mechanism or a
fluid), Newton's approach is difficult to apply. Using a Newtonian approach is possible, under
proper precautions, namely isolating each single particle from the others, and determining all the
forces acting on it. Such analysis is cumbersome even in relatively simple systems. Newton thought
that his third law "action equals reaction" would take care of all complications. This is false even
for such simple system as rotations of a solid body. In more complicated systems, the vectorial
approach cannot give an adequate description.

The analytical approach simplifies problems by treating mechanical systems as ensembles of

particles that interact with each other, rather considering each particle as an isolated unit. In the
vectorial approach, forces must be determined individually for each particle, whereas in the
analytical approach it is enough to know one single function which contains implicitly all the forces
acting on and in the system. Such simplification is often done using certain kinematic conditions
which are stated a priori. However, the analytical treatment does not require the knowledge of
these forces and takes these kinematic conditions for granted.

Still, deriving the equations of motion of a complicated mechanical system requires a unifying
basis from which they follow. This is provided by various variational principles: behind each set of
equations there is a principle that expresses the meaning of the entire set. Given a fundamental
and universal quantity called action, the principle that this action be stationary under small
variation of some other mechanical quantity generates the required set of differential equations.
The statement of the principle does not require any special coordinate system, and all results are
expressed in generalized coordinates. This means that the analytical equations of motion do not
change upon a coordinate transformation, an invariance property that is lacking in the vectorial
equations of motion.[2]

It is not altogether clear what is meant by 'solving' a set of differential equations. A problem is
regarded as solved when the particles coordinates at time t are expressed as simple functions of t
and of parameters defining the initial positions and velocities. However, 'simple function' is not a
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well-defined concept: nowadays, a function f(t) is not regarded as a formal expression in t

(elementary function) as in the time of Newton but most generally as a quantity determined by t,
and it is not possible to draw a sharp line between 'simple' and 'not simple' functions. If one speaks
merely of 'functions', then every mechanical problem is solved as soon as it has been well stated in
differential equations, because given the initial conditions and t determine the coordinates at t.
This is a fact especially at present with the modern methods of computer modelling which provide
arithmetical solutions to mechanical problems to any desired degree of accuracy, the differential
equations being replaced by difference equations.

Still, though lacking precise definitions, it is obvious that the two-body problem has a simple
solution, whereas the three-body problem has not. The two-body problem is solved by formulas
involving parameters; their values can be changed to study the class of all solutions, that is, the
mathematical structure of the problem. Moreover, an accurate mental or drawn picture can be
made for the motion of two bodies, and it can be as real and accurate as the real bodies moving and
interacting. In the three-body problem, parameters can also be assigned specific values; however,
the solution at these assigned values or a collection of such solutions does not reveal the
mathematical structure of the problem. As in many other problems, the mathematical structure
can be elucidated only by examining the differential equations themselves.

Analytical mechanics aims at even more: not at understanding the mathematical structure of a
single mechanical problem, but that of a class of problems so wide that they encompass most of
mechanics. It concentrates on systems to which Lagrangian or Hamiltonian equations of motion
are applicable and that include a very wide range of problems indeed.[3]

Development of analytical mechanics has two objectives: (i) increase the range of solvable
problems by developing standard techniques with a wide range of applicability, and (ii) understand
the mathematical structure of mechanics. In the long run, however, (ii) can help (i) more than a
concentration on specific problems for which methods have already been designed.

Intrinsic motion

Generalized coordinates and constraints

In Newtonian mechanics, one customarily uses all three Cartesian coordinates, or other 3D
coordinate system, to refer to a body's position during its motion. In physical systems, however,
some structure or other system usually constrains the body's motion from taking certain directions
and pathways. So a full set of Cartesian coordinates is often unneeded, as the constraints
determine the evolving relations among the coordinates, which relations can be modeled by
equations corresponding to the constraints. In the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms, the
constraints are incorporated into the motion's geometry, reducing the number of coordinates to
the minimum needed to model the motion. These are known as generalized coordinates, denoted
qi (i = 1, 2, 3...).[4]: 231

Difference between curvillinear and generalized coordinates

Generalized coordinates incorporate constraints on the system. There is one generalized
coordinate qi for each degree of freedom (for convenience labelled by an index i = 1, 2...N), i.e. each
way the system can change its configuration; as curvilinear lengths or angles of rotation.
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Generalized coordinates are not the same as curvilinear coordinates. The number of curvilinear
coordinates equals the dimension of the position space in question (usually 3 for 3d space), while
the number of generalized coordinates is not necessarily equal to this dimension; constraints can
reduce the number of degrees of freedom (hence the number of generalized coordinates required
to define the configuration of the system), following the general rule:[5]

[dimension of position space (usually 3)] × [number of constituents of system

("particles")] − (number of constraints)
= (number of degrees of freedom) = (number of generalized coordinates)
For a system with N degrees of freedom, the generalized coordinates can be collected into an N-
tuple:

and the time derivative (here denoted by an overdot) of this tuple give the generalized velocities:

D'Alembert's principle of virtual work

D'Alembert's principle states that infinitesimal virtual work done by a force across reversible
displacements is zero, which is the work done by a force consistent with ideal constraints of the
system. The idea of a constraint is useful – since this limits what the system can do, and can
provide steps to solving for the motion of the system. The equation for D'Alembert's principle
is:[6]: 265

where

are the generalized forces (script Q instead of ordinary Q is used here to prevent conflict with
canonical transformations below) and q are the generalized coordinates. This leads to the
generalized form of Newton's laws in the language of analytical mechanics:

where T is the total kinetic energy of the system, and the notation

is a useful shorthand (see matrix calculus for this notation).

Constraints
If the curvilinear coordinate system is defined by the standard position vector r, and if the position
vector can be written in terms of the generalized coordinates q and time t in the form:

and this relation holds for all times t, then q are called holonomic constraints.[7] Vector r is

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explicitly dependent on t in cases when the constraints vary with time, not just because of q(t). For
time-independent situations, the constraints are also called scleronomic, for time-dependent
cases they are called rheonomic.[5]

Lagrangian mechanics
The introduction of generalized coordinates and the fundamental Lagrangian function:

where T is the total kinetic energy and V is the total potential energy of the entire system, then
either following the calculus of variations or using the above formula – lead to the Euler–Lagrange
equations;

which are a set of N second-order ordinary differential equations, one for each qi(t).

This formulation identifies the actual path followed by the motion as a selection of the path over
which the time integral of kinetic energy is least, assuming the total energy to be fixed, and
imposing no conditions on the time of transit.

The Lagrangian formulation uses the configuration space of the system, the set of all possible
generalized coordinates:

where is N-dimensional real space (see also set-builder notation). The particular solution to
the Euler–Lagrange equations is called a (configuration) path or trajectory, i.e. one particular q(t)
subject to the required initial conditions. The general solutions form a set of possible
configurations as functions of time:

The configuration space can be defined more generally, and indeed more deeply, in terms of
topological manifolds and the tangent bundle.

Hamiltonian mechanics
The Legendre transformation of the Lagrangian replaces the generalized coordinates and velocities
(q, q̇) with (q, p); the generalized coordinates and the generalized momenta conjugate to the
generalized coordinates:

and introduces the Hamiltonian (which is in terms of generalized coordinates and momenta):

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where denotes the dot product, also leading to Hamilton's equations:

which are now a set of 2N first-order ordinary differential equations, one for each qi(t) and pi(t).
Another result from the Legendre transformation relates the time derivatives of the Lagrangian
and Hamiltonian:

which is often considered one of Hamilton's equations of motion additionally to the others. The
generalized momenta can be written in terms of the generalized forces in the same way as
Newton's second law:

Analogous to the configuration space, the set of all momenta is the generalized momentum
space:

("Momentum space" also refers to "k-space"; the set of all wave vectors (given by De Broglie
relations) as used in quantum mechanics and theory of waves)

The set of all positions and momenta form the phase space:

that is, the Cartesian product of the configuration space and generalized momentum space.

A particular solution to Hamilton's equations is called a phase path, a particular curve (q(t),p(t))
subject to the required initial conditions. The set of all phase paths, the general solution to the
differential equations, is the phase portrait:

The Poisson bracket

All dynamical variables can be derived from position q, momentum p, and time t, and written as a
function of these: A = A(q, p, t). If A(q, p, t) and B(q, p, t) are two scalar valued dynamical
variables, the Poisson bracket is defined by the generalized coordinates and momenta:

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Calculating the total derivative of one of these, say A, and substituting Hamilton's equations into
the result leads to the time evolution of A:

This equation in A is closely related to the equation of motion in the Heisenberg picture of
quantum mechanics, in which classical dynamical variables become quantum operators (indicated
by hats (^)), and the Poisson bracket is replaced by the commutator of operators via Dirac's
canonical quantization:

Properties of the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian

Following are overlapping properties between the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian functions.[5][8]

All the individual generalized coordinates qi(t), velocities q̇ i(t) and momenta pi(t) for every
degree of freedom are mutually independent. Explicit time-dependence of a function means the
function actually includes time t as a variable in addition to the q(t), p(t), not simply as a
parameter through q(t) and p(t), which would mean explicit time-independence.
The Lagrangian is invariant under addition of the total time derivative of any function of q' and
t, that is:

so each Lagrangian L and L describe exactly the same motion. In other words, the
Lagrangian of a system is not unique.
Analogously, the Hamiltonian is invariant under addition of the partial time derivative of any
function of q, p and t, that is:

(K is a frequently used letter in this case). This property is used in canonical transformations
(see below).
If the Lagrangian is independent of some generalized coordinates, then the generalized
momenta conjugate to those coordinates are constants of the motion, i.e. are conserved, this
immediately follows from Lagrange's equations:

Such coordinates are "cyclic" or "ignorable". It can be shown that the Hamiltonian is also cyclic
in exactly the same generalized coordinates.
If the Lagrangian is time-independent the Hamiltonian is also time-independent (i.e. both are
constant in time).
If the kinetic energy is a homogeneous function of degree 2 of the generalized velocities, and
the Lagrangian is explicitly time-independent, then:

where λ is a constant, then the Hamiltonian will be the total conserved energy, equal to the
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total kinetic and potential energies of the system:

This is the basis for the Schrödinger equation, inserting quantum operators directly obtains it.

Principle of least action

Action is another quantity in analytical mechanics defined
as a functional of the Lagrangian:

A general way to find the equations of motion from the

action is the principle of least action:[10]

As the system evolves, q traces a path

through configuration space (only some
are shown). The path taken by the
where the departure t1 and arrival t2 times are fixed.[1] The system (red) has a stationary action (δS
term "path" or "trajectory" refers to the time evolution of = 0) under small changes in the
the system as a path through configuration space , in configuration of the system (δq).[9]
other words q(t) tracing out a path in . The path for which
action is least is the path taken by the system.

From this principle, all equations of motion in classical mechanics can be derived. This approach
can be extended to fields rather than a system of particles (see below), and underlies the path
integral formulation of quantum mechanics,[11][12] and is used for calculating geodesic motion in
general relativity.[13]

Hamiltonian-Jacobi mechanics
Canonical transformations

The invariance of the Hamiltonian (under addition of the partial time derivative of an arbitrary
function of p, q, and t) allows the Hamiltonian in one set of coordinates q and momenta p to be
transformed into a new set Q = Q(q, p, t) and P = P(q, p, t), in four possible ways:

With the restriction on P and Q such that the transformed Hamiltonian system is:

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the above transformations are called canonical transformations, each function Gn is called a
generating function of the "nth kind" or "type-n". The transformation of coordinates and momenta
can allow simplification for solving Hamilton's equations for a given problem.

The choice of Q and P is completely arbitrary, but not every choice leads to a canonical
transformation. One simple criterion for a transformation q → Q and p → P to be canonical is the
Poisson bracket be unity,

for all i = 1, 2,...N. If this does not hold then the transformation is not canonical.[5]

The Hamilton–Jacobi equation

By setting the canonically transformed Hamiltonian K = 0, and the type-2 generating function
equal to Hamilton's principal function (also the action ) plus an arbitrary constant C:

the generalized momenta become:

and P is constant, then the Hamiltonian-Jacobi equation (HJE) can be derived from the type-2
canonical transformation:

where H is the Hamiltonian as before:

Another related function is Hamilton's characteristic function

used to solve the HJE by additive separation of variables for a time-independent Hamiltonian H.

The study of the solutions of the Hamilton–Jacobi equations leads naturally to the study of
symplectic manifolds and symplectic topology.[14][15] In this formulation, the solutions of the
Hamilton–Jacobi equations are the integral curves of Hamiltonian vector fields.

Routhian mechanics

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Routhian mechanics is a hybrid formulation of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics, not often
used but especially useful for removing cyclic coordinates. If the Lagrangian of a system has s cyclic
coordinates q = q1, q2, ... qs with conjugate momenta p = p1, p2, ... ps, with the rest of the
coordinates non-cyclic and denoted ζ = ζ1, ζ1, ..., ζN − s, they can be removed by introducing the
Routhian:

which leads to a set of 2s Hamiltonian equations for the cyclic coordinates q,

and N − s Lagrangian equations in the non cyclic coordinates ζ.

Set up in this way, although the Routhian has the form of the Hamiltonian, it can be thought of a
Lagrangian with N − s degrees of freedom.

The coordinates q do not have to be cyclic, the partition between which coordinates enter the
Hamiltonian equations and those which enter the Lagrangian equations is arbitrary. It is simply
convenient to let the Hamiltonian equations remove the cyclic coordinates, leaving the non cyclic
coordinates to the Lagrangian equations of motion.

Appellian mechanics
Appell's equation of motion involve generalized accelerations, the second time derivatives of the
generalized coordinates:

as well as generalized forces mentioned above in D'Alembert's principle. The equations are

where

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is the acceleration of the k particle, the second time derivative of its position vector. Each
acceleration ak is expressed in terms of the generalized accelerations αr, likewise each rk are
expressed in terms the generalized coordinates qr.

Classical field theory

Lagrangian field theory

Generalized coordinates apply to discrete particles. For N scalar fields φi(r, t) where i = 1, 2, ... N,
the Lagrangian density is a function of these fields and their space and time derivatives, and
possibly the space and time coordinates themselves:

and the Euler–Lagrange equations have an analogue for fields:

where ∂μ denotes the 4-gradient and the summation convention has been used. For N scalar fields,
these Lagrangian field equations are a set of N second order partial differential equations in the
fields, which in general will be coupled and nonlinear.

This scalar field formulation can be extended to vector fields, tensor fields, and spinor fields.

The Lagrangian is the volume integral of the Lagrangian density:[12][16]

Originally developed for classical fields, the above formulation is applicable to all physical fields in
classical, quantum, and relativistic situations: such as Newtonian gravity, classical
electromagnetism, general relativity, and quantum field theory. It is a question of determining the
correct Lagrangian density to generate the correct field equation.

Hamiltonian field theory

The corresponding "momentum" field densities conjugate to the N scalar fields φi(r, t) are:[12]

where in this context the overdot denotes a partial time derivative, not a total time derivative. The
Hamiltonian density is defined by analogy with mechanics:

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The equations of motion are:

where the variational derivative

must be used instead of merely partial derivatives. For N fields, these Hamiltonian field equations
are a set of 2N first order partial differential equations, which in general will be coupled and
nonlinear.

Again, the volume integral of the Hamiltonian density is the Hamiltonian

Symmetry, conservation, and Noether's theorem

Symmetry transformations in classical space and time

Each transformation can be described by an operator (i.e. function acting on the position r or
momentum p variables to change them). The following are the cases when the operator does not
change r or p, i.e. symmetries.[11]

Transformation Operator Position Momentum

Translational symmetry

Time translation

Rotational invariance

Galilean transformations

Parity

T-symmetry

where R(n̂, θ) is the rotation matrix about an axis defined by the unit vector n̂ and angle θ.

Noether's theorem

Noether's theorem states that a continuous symmetry transformation of the action corresponds to
a conservation law, i.e. the action (and hence the Lagrangian) does not change under a
transformation parameterized by a parameter s:

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the Lagrangian describes the same motion independent of s, which can be length, angle of rotation,
or time. The corresponding momenta to q will be conserved.[5]

See also
Lagrangian mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics
Theoretical mechanics
Classical mechanics
Dynamics
Hamilton–Jacobi equation
Hamilton's principle
Kinematics
Kinetics (physics)
Non-autonomous mechanics
Udwadia–Kalaba equation

References and notes

1. Lanczos, Cornelius (1970). The variational principles of mechanics (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC&pg=PR4) (4th ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. Introduction,
pp. xxi–xxix. ISBN 0-486-65067-7.
2. Lanczos, Cornelius (1970). The variational principles of mechanics (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC&pg=PR4) (4th ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 3–6.
ISBN 978-0-486-65067-8.
3. Synge, J. L. (1960). "Classical dynamics". In Flügge, S. (ed.). Principles of Classical
Mechanics and Field Theory / Prinzipien der Klassischen Mechanik und Feldtheorie (http://link.
springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-45943-6). Encyclopedia of Physics / Handbuch der Physik.
Vol. 2 / 3 / 1. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45943-6 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-45943-6). ISBN 978-3-540-02547-4. OCLC 165699220 (h
ttps://search.worldcat.org/oclc/165699220).
4. Kibble, Tom, and Berkshire, Frank H. "Classical Mechanics" (5th Edition). Singapore, World
Scientific Publishing Company, 2004.
5. Analytical Mechanics, L.N. Hand, J.D. Finch, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-
521-57572-0
6. Torby, Bruce (1984). "Energy Methods". Advanced Dynamics for Engineers. HRW Series in
Mechanical Engineering. United States of America: CBS College Publishing. ISBN 0-03-
063366-4.
7. McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), C.B. Parker, 1994, ISBN 0-07-051400-3
8. Classical Mechanics, T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics Series, McGraw-Hill (UK), 1973,
ISBN 0-07-084018-0
9. Penrose, R. (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage books. p. 474. ISBN 978-0-679-77631-4.
10. Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN
(Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, ISBN (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3
11. Quantum Mechanics, E. Abers, Pearson Ed., Addison Wesley, Prentice Hall Inc, 2004,
ISBN 978-0-13-146100-0
12. Quantum Field Theory, D. McMahon, Mc Graw Hill (US), 2008, ISBN 978-0-07-154382-8

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13. Relativity, Gravitation, and Cosmology, R.J.A. Lambourne, Open University, Cambridge
University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-13138-4
14. Arnolʹd, VI (1989). Mathematical methods of classical mechanics (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=Pd8-s6rOt_cC) (2nd ed.). Springer. Chapter 8. ISBN 978-0-387-96890-2.
15. Doran, C; Lasenby, A (2003). Geometric algebra for physicists (http://www.worldcat.org/searc
h?q=9780521715959&qt=owc_search). Cambridge University Press. p. §12.3, pp. 432–439.
ISBN 978-0-521-71595-9.
16. Gravitation, J.A. Wheeler, C. Misner, K.S. Thorne, W.H. Freeman & Co, 1973, ISBN 0-7167-
0344-0

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