Unit I:

Physical
Geology
 Expected Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able:
• Understand the importance of Geology to Civil Engineering.
• Familiarize with the branches of Geology and its distinction from
other sciences.
• Describe Continental Drift including supporting evidence.
• Critique and interpret major types of evidence supporting the
Theory of Plate Tectonics.
• Describe different geological processes in relation to plate
tectonics.
Topics:
• Geology as Science
• Branches of Geology,
• Concepts of Earth History,
• Earth’s Structure,
• Plate Tectonics Theory
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?

Geology is a branch of science dealing with the study of the Earth. It

is also known as earth science. The study of the earth comprises of
the whole earth, its origin, structure, composition and history
(including the development of life) and the nature of the
processes.
“GEO” means earth and “LOGOS” means study of
WHY IS GEOLOGY DIFFERENT FROM OTHER SCIENCES?

❑ Often lacks experimental control

❑ Incompleteness of data
❑ Methodologies and procedures used to test problems rather than the
generation and testing of universal laws
❑ Geology is a fascinating subject.
❑ Geologists contribute their part to the nation through the discovery of
new deposits of rocks and minerals of economic value
 Two Concepts Of Earth History

1. Catastrophism
❑ Assumption: great effects require great causes
❑ Earth history dominated by violent events

2. Uniformitarianism
❑ Assumption: we can use cause and effect to determine
causes of past events
❑ Finding: Earth history dominated by small-scale events
typical of the present.
❑ Catastrophes do happen but are uncommon
 Two Kinds Of Ages

1. Relative - known order of events but not dates

❑Napoleonic wars happened before W.W.II
❑Bedrock in Scotland formed before the glaciers came

2. Absolute - known dates

❑Civil War 1803-1815
❑World War II 1939-1945
❑Glaciers finally left Scotland About 11,000 Years Ago
 Importance Of Geology To Civil Engineering
The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as
follows:

1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction

materials, their structure and properties.

2. The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by

surface water helps in soil conservation, river control, coastal and
harbor works.
 Importance Of Geology To Civil Engineering
The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as
follows:
3. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary in
tunneling, constructing roads and in determining the stability of cuts
and slopes. Thus, geology helps in civil engineering.

4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly

related with geology of the area where they are to be built.
 Importance Of Geology To Civil Engineering
The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as
follows:

5. The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with

excavation works, water supply, irrigation and many other purposes.

6.Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many

engineering projects.
 Importance Of Geology To Civil Engineering
The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as
follows:

7. If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds, solution

channels are found, they have to be suitably treated. Hence, the
stability of the structure is greatly increased.

8. Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of

engineering work.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
❑ As a branch of geology, it deals with the
“various processes of physical agents
such as wind, water, glaciers and sea
waves”, run on these agents go on
modifying the surface of the earth
continuously.
❑ Physical geology includes the study of
Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
(ETD).
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
❑The study of physical geology plays a vital role in civil engineering
thus:
(a) It reveals constructive and destructive processes of physical
agents at a particular site.
(b) It helps in selecting a suitable site for different types of project to
be under taken after studying the effects of physical agents which go
on modifying the surface of the earth physically, chemically and
mechanically.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

2. MINERALOGY
❑ As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the
study of minerals. A mineral may be
defined as a naturally occurring,
homogeneous solid, inorganically
formed, having a definite chemical
composition and ordered atomic
arrangement.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

2. MINERALOGY
❑ The study of mineralogy is most important.
(a) For a civil engineering student to identify the rocks.
(b) In industries such as cement, iron and steel, fertilizers, glass
industry and so on.
(c) In the production of atomic energy.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

3. PETROLOGY
As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the study of rocks’. A rock is
defined as “the aggregation of minerals found in the earth’s crust”.
The study of petrology is most important for a civil engineer, in the
selection of suitable rocks for building stones, road metals, etc.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
❑ As a branch of geology, it deals with
‘the study of structures found in rocks.
It is also known as tectonic geology or
simply tectonics.
❑ Structural geology is an arrangement
of rocks and plays an important role in
civil engineering in the selection of
suitable sites for all types of projects
such as dams, tunnels, multistoried
buildings, etc.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

5. PALEONTOLOGY
As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the study of fossils’ and the
ancient remains of plants and animals are referred to as fossils.
Fossils are useful in the study of evolution and migration of animals
and plants through ages, ancient geography and climate of an area.
DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

6. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
As a branch of geology, it includes “the study of both
stratigraphy and paleontology”. Its use in civil
engineering is to know about the land and seas, the
climate and the life of early times upon the earth.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

7. MINING GEOLOGY
As a branch of geology, it deals with “the study of application of
geology to mining engineering in such a way that the selection of
suitable sites for quarrying and mines can be determined”.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

8. CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

As a branch of geology, it deals with “all the geological problems that
arise in the field of civil engineering along with suitable treatments”.
Thus, it includes the construction of dams, tunnels, mountain roads,
building stones and road metals.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
9. PHOTO GEOLOGY
As a branch of Geology, it deals with “the study of minerals, rocks
and materials of economic importance like coal and petroleum”.
 DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
10. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
As a branch of Geology, it deals with “the study of minerals, rocks
and materials of economic importance like coal and petroleum”.
 EARTH’S STRUCTURE

The pictures show the components, parts and systems of the

Earth. In this lesson, we will discuss the importance of each
parts and components.
 EARTH SYSTEMS
1. ATMOSPHERE
❑Blanket of gases surrounding the Earth’s
surface
❑Protection from Sun’s heat & UV rays
❑Weather: due to exchange of energy
❑between Earth’s surface & atmosphere
❑between atmosphere & outer space
❑Strongly interacts water/ surface
 EARTH SYSTEMS
2. HYDROSPHERE

❑ Water portion of the Earth

❑ Oceans (most prominent) 71% of
surface of Earth
❑ Streams, lakes, glaciers, underground
water
❑ Atmosphere
 EARTH SYSTEMS

3. CRYOSPHERE

❑ Icy portion of the Earth

❑ Glaciers
❑ Permafrost and ground ice
❑ Polar ice caps
❑ Frozen polar seas
 EARTH SYSTEMS
4. BIOSPHERE
❑ Earth’s Ecosystem
❑ Earth’s surface and subsurface to
depths of a few kilometers 
❑ Life occupies an extreme range of
environments 
❑ Life strongly interacts with the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere and
the solid earth (these interactions
are called ecology!)
EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE
THREE DISTINCT DIVISIONS:
1. CRUST
❑ Outer part of the Earth
❑ Oceanic (0-6 kilometers)
❑ Continental (0-34 kilometers)
2. MANTLE
❑ Middle layer of the Earth (between crust and core)
❑ Upper (34-670 kilometers)
❑ Lower (670-2900 kilometers)
3. CORE
❑ Innermost layer of the Earth
❑ Outer – liquid
❑ Inner - solid
CONTINENTAL CRUST
❑underlies the continents
❑Avg. rock density about 2.7
g/cm3.
❑Avg. thickness 35-40 km.
❑Felsic composition. Avg. rock
type = Granite’
 OCEANIC CRUST

❑Underlies the ocean basins

❑Density about 3.0 g/cm3.
❑Avg. thickness 7-10 km.
❑Mafic composition
❑Avg. rock type =Basalt/Gabbro
 Geologic
Concepts And
Plate
Tectonics
Theory
 PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics, theory dealing with the dynamics of Earth’s outer
shell, the lithosphere, that revolutionized Earth sciences by
providing a uniform context for understanding mountain-building
processes, volcanoes, and earthquakes, as well as understanding
the evolution of Earth’s surface and reconstructing its past
continental and oceanic configurations
 PLATE TECTONICS

Describing in detail the processes that make up the

Earth's fundamental surface features, «The definition of
lithospheric separation of rigid plates moving on the
asthenosphere» (Alfred Wegener 1915) forms the basis
of the plate tectonics theory.
PLATE TECTONICS
 Data That Indicates That Plates Separate From Each
Other
❑Coastal forms and continents match each other
❑Similarity of sediment deposits; The continuation of
the vegetation and geological structure of Africa,
India, Australia, Madagascar, South America which
make up Gondwana,
❑Similarity of mountain ranges; When the continents
are brought side by side, the mountain lines form a
single continuous mountain line in the same age
and deformation style.
 Data That Indicates That Plates Separate From Each
Other

❑ The glaciation that began in Gondwana was also experienced at

the same time (carboniferous) by parts separated from
Gondwana
❑The remains of the reptile family which is impossible to swim the
ocean were found only in South West Africa and Brazil
❑ Paleomagnetism
❑ Propagation of the sea floor
Data That Indicates That Plates Separate From Each
Other
Data That Indicates That Plates Separate From Each
Other
Data That Indicates That Plates Separate From Each
Other
A. CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

❑Subduction event occurs

❑Colliding with Oceanic/oceanic or
oceanic/continental plate generated a
deep ocean trench
❑Crust melting and magma generation
occur
 A. CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

❑Volcanism and volcanic island arcs occur,

volcanic island arcs arranged like a barrier
can form inner seas between continents
and the oceans
❑Events of metamorphism occur
❑Two continental or continental and an
oceanic plate collides to form a curved
mountain line
B. DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

❑ Mid-ocean ridge (2500 m high ridge in the Atlantic Ocean)

❑ Volcanic islands
❑ New crust formation
❑ Basaltic lavas are solidified and added to the continental
margins, the ocean floor expands and the continents move
away from each other
❑ Magma is emerged from the fractures generated by divergent
event and volcanic events occur
❑ Best example of that is Atlas Ocean
C. TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

❑ Transform Plate Boundaries are locations

where two plates slide past one another.
❑ The fracture zone that forms a transform plate
boundary is known as a transform fault.
❑ Most transform faults are found in the ocean
basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean
ridges.
 C. TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

❑ A smaller number connect mid-ocean ridges

and subduction zones.
❑ The most famous example of this is the San
Andreas Fault Zone of western North America.
❑ Another example of a transform boundary on
land is the Alpine Fault of New Zealand.
 THE MOST COMMON AREAS OF TECTONIC
EARTHQUAKE IN THE WORLD

❑Great Oceanic boulders (Pacific waters): Kamchatka in the east

of Asia, Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Aleut Islands in the
west of America, California, Mexico, Chile, Peru.
❑Mediterranean Himalayan Belts: Spain, Italy, North Africa,
Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, Iran, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
East Indian islands.
❑Central part of Atlantic Ocean: Asor Islands and Iceland Island
 THE LEAST COMMON AREAS OF TECTONIC
EARTHQUAKES IN THE WORLD

❑The Western of Australian, The Eastern of USA and Canada

❑Iceland of N.West European-Grönland, İskandinav peninsula,
❑Eastern Europe
❑Northern of Asia
❑Sourthern and Middlest of Africa