YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

YABA LAGOS STATE

CIVIL AND NATURAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

TERM PAPER PROJECT TO SUMMARIZE COURSE OUTLINE

BY
1. ADEOLA ABIOLA SOLOMON F/HD/18/313/0001
2. PHILIP ANUOLUWAPO SAMUEL F/HD/18/313/0002
3. ASHIRU MUYIDEEN OLAKUNLE F/HD/18/313/0003
4. OKUNOLA DAMILARE PEACE F/HD/18/313/0004
5. AKANDE ABDULQUDUS OLAWALE F/HD/18/313/0005
6. ANIOBI IKECHUKWU INNOCENT F/HD/18/313/0006
7. NTA CHETACHI CYNTHIA F/HD/18/313/0007
8. LAWAL BOLUWATIFE SAMSON F/HD/18/313/0008
9. TIJANI OLUWAFEMI ABAYOMI F/HD/18/313/0009
10. OMOSEHIN BENJAMIN IMOLEAYO F/HD/18/313/00010

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
CEC428
SUBMITTED
TO
ENGR. PRISCILLA IROAGANACHI

JUNE 2021
 ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
Week 1
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT (CM) is a professional service that uses specialized,
project management techniques to oversee the planning, design, and construction of a project,
from its beginning to its end.
Contract management process is the process of managing contract creation, execution, and
analysis to maximize operational and financial performance at an organization, all while
reducing financial risk, also the monitoring and control of contractor performance to ensure
optimal outcomes from a contract, ensuring all deliverables are met by all parties to a contract
WHILE construction management process is the process of overseeing the planning, design,
and construction of a project, from its beginning to its end.
RECENT SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT IN MANAGEMENT;

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT: One can measure the success of an organization from the
quality of its goods and services. Quality is one of the most important factors determining the
success of a business. Customers always consider the quality of a business’s goods and services
while purchasing them. In fact, in some cases, quality gets prominence over price as well.

RISK MANAGEMENT: Risk management basically means the identification and mitigation of
losses. It is a systematic process by which an organization identifies, analyzes, prepares and
reduces losses.

CRISIS MANAGEMENT: A crisis is basically any mishap, tragedy or ill event that carries
negative effects. It causes damage to an organization, its members, its business or customers. It
can even affect an organization’s reputation and legal or financial position.

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE: Change is basically a variation in pre-existing methods, customs,

and conventions. Since all organizations function in dynamic environments, they constantly have
to change themselves to succeed.

CHANGE THROUGH MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY: It is usually the top level of a

management hierarchy that makes the most important changes in any organization. The lower
level only implements these changes. Such a hierarchy often misses out small and minute details
of planning. Managers must, hence, understand how to plan for changes under such conditions.

CONCEPT OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT: Change is often said to be the only constant in

one’s life. This statement holds true for business organizations as well. External and internal
factors almost always lead to changes in the way things happen. One of the most important tasks
of managers is to implement these changes smoothly.
GLOBAL PRACTICES/INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS: With the advent of globalization,
global business practices and international business have become common phenomena. Large
companies and MNCs often operate in more than one country. Managing such cross-border
operations requires a thorough understanding of local cultures, practices, laws and business
environments. International managers, thus, have to play several important roles in their
businesses.

ROLE OF AN INTERNATIONAL MANAGER: There are some basic functions that every
business manager has to perform routinely. These functions apply to international managers as
well. Due to the peculiar nature of international business, however, international managers have
to perform them a little differently.

Week 2
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT:
PLANNING: Planning is concerned with the determination of the objectives to be achieved and
the course of action to be followed to achieve them. Before starting any action, one has to decide
how the work will be performed and where and how it has to be performed. Thus, planning
implies decision-making as to what is to be done, how it is to be done, when it is to be done and
by whom it is to done. Planning helps in achieving the objectives efficiently and effectively.
CONTROL: Controlling is related to all other management functions. It is concerned with seeing
whether the activities have been or being performed in conformity with the plans. According to
Haimann, “Control is the process of checking to determine whether or not, proper progress is
being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary to correct any deviation.
ORGANIZATION: Organization is the structure and process by which a cooperative group of
human beings allocates its tasks among its members, identifies relationships, and integrates its
activities towards common objectives.” The term ‘organizing’ generally connotes assembling
men, money, material and technology together.
COORDINATION: Coordination is the process of synchronizing the diverse functions of
domains and securing unity of action. It is compared to chariot driven by multiple horses. The
charioteer has to drive all die horses in one direction. Similar is the case of an organization. It is
a conscious and rational process of pulling together various department of an organization and
unifying them into a team to accomplish goals in an effective manner.
MOTIVATION: The term motivation is derived from the word ‘motive’ which means a need, or
an emotion that prompts an individual into action. Motivation is the psychological process of
creating urge among the subordinates to do certain things or behave in the desired manner. It is a
very important function of management. The importance of motivation can be realized from the
fact that performance of a worker depends upon his ability and the motivation.
COMMUNICATION: Communication constitutes a very important function of management. It
is said to be the number one problem of management, today. It is an established fact that
managers spend 75 to 90 per cent of their working time in communicating with others.
Communication is the means by which the behavior of the subordinate is modified and change is
effected in their actions

PRODUCTIVITY TECHNIQUE:
OPERATIONAL TECHNIQUE: Operational research (OR) encompasses the development and
the use of a wide range of problem-solving techniques and methods applied in the pursuit of
improved decision-making and efficiency, such as simulation, mathematical
optimization, queuing theory and other stochastic-process models, Markov decision
processes, econometric methods, data envelopment analysis, neural networks, expert
systems, decision analysis, and the analytic hierarchy process.
NETWORK ANALYSIS: Network Analysis is a technique that is adopted in planning and
controlling of unique and complex projects. It is a system of planning project outline by
analyzing different activities associated with it. In network analysis, complex projects are broken
down into smaller activities or tasks, which are then organized according to a sequence.

RESOURCE ALLOCATION: Resource allocation is the process of assigning and managing

assets in a manner that supports an organization's strategic goals. Resource allocation includes
managing tangible assets such as hardware to make the best use of softer assets such as human
capital.
LEVELING COST OPTIMIZATION:
WORK FLOW QUELLING THEORY: A workflow consists of an orchestrated and
repeatable pattern of activity, enabled by the systematic organization
of resources into processes that transform materials, provide services, or process information.
FLOW GRAPHS: is a specialized and directed graph in which nodes represent system variables,
and branches (edges, arcs, or arrows) represent functional connections between pairs of nodes.
OPTIMUM GANG SIZE: a small number of people with complementary skills who are
committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable.
WORK STUDY: Work study is a means of enhancing the production efficiency (productivity) of
the firm by elimination of waste and unnecessary operations. It is a technique to identify non-
value adding operations by investigation of all the factors affecting the job.
OBJECTIVES AND PROCEDURES OF WORK STUDY.
The main objective of work study is to improve productivity of men, machines and
materials. Objectives includes:
I. Increased efficiency
II. Better product quality
 III. To choose the fastest method to do a job
IV. To improve the working process
V. Less fatigue to operators and workers
VI. Effective labor control
VII. Effective utilization of resources
VIII. To decide equipment requirements
IX. To pay fair wages
X. To aid in calculating exact delivery
XI. To formulate realistic labor budgeting
XII. To decide the required manpower to do a job.

RECORDING TECHNIQUES: It is a systematic recording and critical examination of existing

and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more
effective methods and reducing costs.
PROCESS CHARTING AND DIAGRAMS: A chart may be a diagram, a picture or a graph
which gives an overall view of the situation, say a process, a process chart records graphically or
diagrammatically in sequence the operations connected with a process
WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES: Work measurement can be defined as the
implementation of a series of techniques which are designed to find out the work content, of a
particular task or activity, by ascertaining the actual amount of time necessary for a qualified
worker, to perform the task, at a predetermined performance level.
TIME STUDY PROCEDURES TIMING AND RATING: It is the time, which is taken by a
normal worker for a specific task or job, working under moderate conditions and includes other
allowances such as fatigue, setting of tool and job, repairing of tool, checking of job etc.
PERFORMANCE RATING is that process, during which the time study engineer compares the
performance of the operator under observation with his own concept of normal performance. The
concept of normal performance, must be such that the time standards are set from it, are within
the capacity of the majority of workers in the enterprise.
INCENTIVES: An incentive is something that motivates or drives one to do something or
behave in a certain way or something that incites or tends to incite to action or greater effort, as a
reward offered for increased productivity.
NON-FINANCIAL INCENTIVES TO PRODUCTION: Non-financial incentives are the types
of rewards that are not a part of an employee's pay. Non-financial incentives are an innovative
and cost-effective way for your company to motivate employees, show recognition and raise
their pay.

Procedure for determining targets for agreement concerning distribution of saving

Relationship between incentive payments and standard wage rate
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNIQUES: Quality control (QC) is a process through which a
business seeks to ensure that product quality is maintained or improved. Quality control requires
the company to create an environment in which both management and employees strive for
perfection.
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURES: An organizational structure is a system that outlines how
certain activities are directed in order to achieve the goals of an organization.
Staff and labor organization co-ordination and relationships
OBJECTIVE-ORIENTED PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPT: OBJECTIVE ORIENTED
PROJECT PLANNING (OOPP) is a participatory planning technique, in which all parties
involved identify and analyze the problems to be addressed in the project, and prepare a concrete
and realistic project plan together.
SEQUENCING: Sequence Activities is the process of identifying and documenting relationships
among the project activities.
SCHEDULING: Scheduling in project management is the listing of activities, deliverables, and
milestones within a project. A schedule also usually includes a planned start and finish date,
duration, and resources assigned to each activity.
PLANNING: Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to
achieve a desired goal. Planning involves the creation and maintenance of a given organizational
operation.
Week 3
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
Engineering economics, previously known as engineering economy, is a subset of economics
concerned with the use and application of economic principles in the analysis of engineering
decisions. As a discipline, it is focused on the branch of economics known as microeconomics in
that it studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation
of limited resources. Thus, it focuses on the decision making process, its context and
environment. It is pragmatic by nature, integrating economic theory with engineering practice.
But, it is also a simplified application of microeconomic theory in that it assumes elements such
as price determination, competition and demand/supply to be fixed inputs from other sources. As
a discipline though, it is closely related to others such as statistics, mathematics and cost
accounting. It draws upon the logical framework of economics but adds to that the analytical
power of mathematics and statistics.
ANNUAL WORTH
Annual worth (AW) Analysis is defined as the equivalent uniform annual worth of all estimated
receipts (income) and disbursements (costs) during the life cycle of a project. The AW of a
project is an equal annual series of dollar amounts, for a stated study period that is, equivalent to
the cash inflows and outflows at an interest rate.

RATE OF RETURN
A rate of return (RoR) is the net gain or loss of an investment over a specified time period,
expressed as a percentage of the investment's initial cost. When calculating the rate of return, you
are determining the percentage change from the beginning of the period until the end.
The rate of return is calculated as follows: (the investment's current value – its initial value)
divided by the initial value; all times 100. Multiplying the outcome helps to express the outcome
of the formula as a percentage.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION BASED ON THE CONCEPT OF DEPRECIATION

Depreciation is defined as decrease in the value of a physical property or asset with the passage
of time. Depreciation, thus, represents decrease in the value due to lessening in the ability to
produce these future cash flows, as a result of several causes such as wear and tear and
obsolescence.
There are several types of depreciation expense and different formulas for determining the book
value of an asset. The most common depreciation methods include:

1. Straight-line
2. Double declining balance
3. Units of production
4. Sum of years digits
Depreciation expense is used in accounting to allocate the cost of a tangible asset over its useful
life. In other words, it is the reduction in the value of an asset that occurs over time due to usage,
wear and tear, or obsolescence. The four main depreciation methods mentioned above are
explained in detail below.

PRODUCTION METHOD OF DEPRECIATION

The unit of production method is a method of calculating the depreciation of the value of an asset
over time. It becomes useful when an asset's value is more closely related to the number of units
it produces rather than the number of years it is in use. This method often results in greater
deductions being taken for depreciation in years when the asset is heavily used, which can then
offset periods when the equipment experiences less use.

INSTANCES WHERE THE PRODUCTION METHOD OF DEPRECIATION IS

PREFERRED
This method can be contrasted with time-based measures of depreciation such as straight-line or
accelerated methods.
The unit of production method for calculating depreciation considers an asset's practical usage in
the production process rather than considering its time in use.
This method is particularly utilized for assets that experience a high degree of wear and tear
based on actual use per-unit such as certain pieces of machinery or production equipment.
This method can allow companies to show higher depreciation expense in more productive years,
which can offset other increased production costs.
Depreciation expense for a given year is calculated by dividing the original cost of the equipment
less its salvage value, by the expected number of units the asset should produce given its useful
life. Then, multiply that quotient by the number of units (U) used during the current year.
DE= (Original Value − Salvage Value)
Estimated Production Capability. X u
Where:
DE=Depreciation Expense
U=Units per year

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DEPRECIATION AND AMORTIZATION

AMORTIZATION
Amortization is the practice of spreading an intangible asset's cost over that asset's useful life.
Depreciation is the expensing of a fixed asset over its useful life.The cost of business assets can
be expensed each year over the life of the asset. Amortization and depreciation are two methods
of calculating value for those business assets. The expense amounts are subsequently used as a
tax deduction reducing the tax liability for the business. In this article, we'll review amortization,
depreciation, and one more common method used by businesses to spread out the cost of an
asset. The key difference between all three methods involves the type of asset being expensed.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
1. Amortization and depreciation are two methods of calculating the value for business
assets over time.
2. A business will calculate these expense amounts in order to use them as a tax deduction
and reduce their tax liability.
3. Amortization is the practice of spreading an intangible asset's cost over that asset's useful
life.
4. Depreciation is the expensing of a fixed asset over its useful life.
5. A third method for expensing business assets is the depletion method, which is an accrual
accounting method used by businesses that extract natural resources from the earth—such
as timber, oil, and minerals.
DEPRECIATION
Depreciation is the expensing of a fixed asset over its useful life. Fixed assets are tangible assets,
meaning they are physical assets that can be touched. Some examples of fixed or tangible assets
that are commonly depreciated include:

i. Buildings
ii. Equipment
iii. Office furniture
iv. Vehicles
v. Land
vi. Machinery

Since tangible assets might have some value at the end of their life, depreciation is calculated by
subtracting the asset's salvage value or resale value from its original cost. The difference is
depreciated evenly over the years of the expected life of the asset. In other words, the depreciated
amount expensed in each year is a tax deduction for the company until the useful life of the asset
has expired.For example, an office building can be used for many years before it becomes
rundown and is sold. The cost of the building is spread out over the predicted life of the building,
with a portion of the cost being expensed in each accounting year.

STRAIGHT-LINE DEPRECIATION METHOD

Straight-line depreciation is a very common, and the simplest, method of calculating depreciation
expense. In straight-line depreciation, the expense amount is the same every year over the useful
life of the asset.

Depreciation Formula for the Straight Line Method:

Depreciation Expense = (Cost – Salvage value) / Useful life

DOUBLE DECLINING BALANCE DEPRECIATION METHOD

Compared to other depreciation methods, double-declining-balance depreciation results in a
larger amount expensed in the earlier years as opposed to the later years of an asset’s useful life.
The method reflects the fact that assets are typically more productive in their early years than in
their later years – also, the practical fact that any asset (think of buying a car) loses more of its
value in the first few years of its use. With the double-declining-balance method, the
depreciation factor is 2x that of the straight-line expense method.
METHOD OF RECORDING TRANSACTION JOURNAL AND LEDGER ENTRIES

JOURNAL AND LEDGER ENTRIES

The first thing any accountant will learn is recording a transaction in the form of a journal. This
is considered as the most basic way to record any type of transaction. In Journal and ledgers, the
accountant manually adds the debit and the credit for each transaction.
To record transactions, accounting system uses double-entry accounting. Double-entry implies
that transactions are always recorded using two sides, debit and credit. Debit refers to the left-
hand side and credit refers to the right-hand side of the journal entry or account.
Based on the exchange of cash, there are three types of accounting transactions, namely cash
transactions, non-cash transactions, and credit transactions.
An accounting journal entry is the method used to enter an accounting transaction into the
accounting records of a business. The accounting records are aggregated into the general ledger,
or the journal entries may be recorded in a variety of sub-ledgers, which are later rolled up into
the general ledger.

Week 4

LAWS GOVERNING LABOR UNION

The sources of employment law in Nigeria are:
I. the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (as amended) (the
“Constitution”);

II. the Labor Act, Chapter L1, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004 (“Labour Act”);

III. federal laws enacted by the National Assembly (Nigeria’s national legislative houses) and
the State laws enacted by the House of Assembly (the state legislative authority) of each
state that relate to labor and employment, pension and workplace compensation including
the following:

a. Guidelines for the Release of Staff in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry, 2019.

b. Employees’ Compensation Act 2010.

c. Factories Act, Chapter F1, LFN 2004.

d. Finance Act, 2020.

e. Industrial Training Fund, Chapter 19, LFN 2004 (as amended).

f. National Health Insurance Scheme Act, Chapter N42, LFN 2004.

 g. National Housing Fund Act, Chapter N45, LFN 2004.

h. Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development Act 2010.

i. Pension Reform Act 2014.

j. Personal Income Tax Act, Chapter P8, LFN 2004 (as amended by the Personal
Income Tax (Amendment) Act, 2011).

k. Trade Disputes Act, Chapter T8, LFN 2004.

l. Trade Unions Act, Chapter T14, LFN 2004 as amended by the Trade Union
(Amendment) Act 2005.

NAME THREE WAYS A CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT CAN BE TERMINATED

1. TERMINATION BY AGREEMENT
A contract is able to be properly terminated when both parties to the contract either expressly or
impliedly agree to termination. An agreement as such may arise in circumstances where the
course of the construction project has gone so left that neither party will no longer benefit from
the completion. An express agreement to terminate can be made orally but for better security it is
recommended to have the agreement evidenced in writing. Establishing an implied agreement
can be difficult as it must be clearly inferred by the parties’ conduct that neither party requires
the other party to perform their contractual obligations.
2. TERMINATION FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT
A contract can be terminated on the grounds that a term of the contract has been breached.
However, for the contract to be terminated on these grounds the term must be considered an
‘essential’ term, constituting a fundamental breach. An ‘essential’ term is often a condition of the
contract. Consequently, it must be determined whether the breached clause is an ‘essential’ term
or ‘non-essential’ term before gaining a right to terminate. A condition is a promise of such
importance that the promise would not have entered the contract without an assurance of strict or
substantial performance of the promise. In construction contracts, ‘essential’ terms are usually
considered to deal with timely performance of works or payments.
3. TERMINATION FOR REPUDIATION OF CONTRACT
A contract can be terminated as a consequence of repudiation. An act of repudiation is where one
party demonstrates an intention that they are either unwilling or unable to perform their
obligation under the contract. Repudiation can be expressed or implied by the other party.
Express repudiation will obviously be when the party tells you that they will not perform their
obligations under the contract. Otherwise, if the party’s actions make it clear that they will not
perform their contractual obligations then repudiation can likely be implied.
NAME THREE TYPES OF PARTNERSHIP
1. Partnership at Will
2. Particular Partnership
3. Partnership for Fixed Term

NAME THE THREE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF BUSINESS OWNERSHIP IN

CONSTRUCTION, STATING THE LIABILITY LIMITS OF THE OWNERS IN EACH
CASE:
SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP AND ITS ADVANTAGES
In a sole proprietorship, you make all important decisions and are generally responsible for all
day-to-day activities. In exchange for assuming all this responsibility, you get all the income
earned by the business. Profits earned are taxed as personal income, so you don’t have to pay any
special federal and provincial income taxes.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLE PROPRIETORSHIPS
For many people, however, the sole proprietorship is not suitable. The flip side of enjoying
complete control is having to supply all the different talents that may be necessary to make the
business a success. And when you’re gone, the business dissolves. You also have to rely on your
own resources for financing: in effect, you are the business and any money borrowed by the
business is loaned to you personally. Even more important, the sole proprietor bears unlimited
liability for any losses incurred by the business.
PARTNERSHIP
A partnership (or general partnership) is a business owned jointly by two or more people. About
10 percent of U.S. businesses are partnerships and though the vast majority are small, some are
quite large. For example, the big four public accounting firms, Deloitte, PwC, Ernst & Young,
and KPMG, are partnerships. Setting up a partnership is more complex than setting up a sole
proprietorship, but it’s still relatively easy and inexpensive. The cost varies according to size and
complexity. It’s possible to form a simple partnership without the help of a lawyer or an
accountant, though it’s usually a good idea to get professional advice.

THE PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT

The impact of disputes can be lessened if the partners have executed a well-planned partnership
agreement that specifies everyone’s rights and responsibilities. The agreement might provide
such details as the following:
a. Amount of cash and other contributions to be made by each partner
 b. Division of partnership income

c. Partner responsibilities—who does what

d. Conditions under which a partner can sell an interest in the company

e. Conditions for dissolving the partnership

f. Conditions for settling disputes

g. Unlimited Liability and the Partnership

A major problem with partnerships, as with sole proprietorships, is unlimited liability: in this
case, each partner is personally liable not only for his or her own actions but also for the actions
of all the partners. If your partner in an architectural firm makes a mistake that causes a structure
to collapse, the loss your business incurs impacts you just as much as it would him or her.
LIMITED PARTNERSHIPS
The law permits business owners to form a limited partnership which has two types of partners: a
single general partner who runs the business and is responsible for its liabilities, and any number
of limited partners who have limited involvement in the business and whose losses are limited to
the amount of their investment.
ADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIPS
The partnership has several advantages over the sole proprietorship. First, it brings together a
diverse group of talented individuals who share responsibility for running the business. Second,
it makes financing easier: the business can draw on the financial resources of a number of
individuals. The partners not only contribute funds to the business but can also use personal
resources to secure bank loans. Finally, continuity needn’t be an issue because partners can agree
legally to allow the partnership to survive if one or more partners
DISADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIPS
First, as discussed earlier, partners are subject to unlimited liability. Second, being a partner
means that you have to share decision making, and many people aren’t comfortable with that
situation. Not surprisingly, partners often have differences of opinion on how to run a business,
and disagreements can escalate to the point of jeopardizing the continuance of the business.
Third, in addition to sharing ideas, partners also share profits. This arrangement can work as long
as all partners feel that they’re being rewarded according to their efforts and accomplishments,
but that isn’t always the case.
CORPORATION
A corporation (sometimes called a regular or C-corporation) differs from a sole proprietorship
and a partnership because it’s a legal entity that is entirely separate from the parties who own it.
It can enter into binding contracts, buy and sell property, sue and be sued, be held responsible for
its actions, and be taxed. Once businesses reach any substantial size, it is advantageous to
organize as a corporation so that its owners can limit their liability. Corporations, then, tend to be
far larger, on average, than businesses using other forms of ownership. Most large well-known
businesses are corporations, but so are many of the smaller firms with which likely you do
business.

DESCRIBE BRIEFLY THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A

CORPORATE FORM OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AS COMPARED TO A
PARTNERSHIP
ADVANTAGES
PERSONAL LIABILITY PROTECTION
A corporation provides more personal asset liability protection to its owners than any other entity
type. For example, if a corporation is sued, the shareholders are not personally responsible for
corporate debts or legal obligations – even if the corporation doesn't have enough money in
assets for repayment. Personal liability protection is one of the main reasons businesses choose
to incorporate.

BUSINESS SECURITY AND PERPETUITY

Corporation ownership is based on percentage of stock ownership, which offers much more
flexibility than other entity types in terms of transferring ownership and perpetuating the
business for the long term. Although specific details regarding transfer of ownership depend on
the governing agreement in the bylaws and articles of incorporation, ownership of this entity
type is often easy to buy and sell. For example, if an owner wants to leave a company, they can
simply sell off their stocks. Similarly, if an owner dies, their ownership stocks can easily transfer
to someone else.
ACCESS TO CAPITAL
Since most corporations sell ownership through publicly traded stock, they can easily raise funds
by selling stock. This access to funding is a luxury that other entity types don't have. It is great
not only for growing a business, but also for saving a corporation from going bankrupt in times
of need.
TAX BENEFITS
Although some corporations (C corporations) are subject to double taxation, other corporation
structures (S corporations) have tax benefits, depending on how their income is distributed. For
example, S corporations have the luxury of splitting their income between the business and
shareholders, allowing it to be taxed at different rates. Any income designated as owner salary
will be subject to self-employment tax, whereas the remainder of the business dividends will be
taxed at its own level (no self-employment tax).
A corporation is not for everyone, and it could end up costing you more time and money than it's
worth. Before becoming a corporation, you should be aware of these potential disadvantages:
There is a lengthy application process, you must follow rigid formalities and protocols, it can be
expensive, and you may be double taxed (depending on your corporation structure).
LENGTHY APPLICATION PROCESS
Filing your articles of incorporation with your secretary of state can be quick, but the overall
process of incorporating is often a long one. You will likely have to go through extensive
paperwork to properly determine and document the details of the organization and its ownership.
For example, Sweeney said you need to draft and maintain corporate bylaws, appoint a board of
directors, create a shareholders ownership change agreement, issue stock certificates, and take
minutes during meetings.
RIGID FORMALITIES, PROTOCOLS AND STRUCTURE
Alongside the lengthy application process is the amount of time and energy necessary to properly
maintain a corporation and adhere to legal requirements. You have to follow many formalities
and heavy regulations to maintain your corporation status.

DISADVANTAGES
DOUBLE TAXATION
Most corporations (like C-corps) face double taxation, which means that the business income is
taxed at the entity level as well as the shareholder level (based on their percentage of profits
earned). The only way around this is to operate as an S corporation. S-corps eliminate this
problem by only taxing each shareholder on their individual income, not at the entity level.
However, the IRS has been known to pay closer attention to S-corps and even tax them as C-
corps if their records fail to meet the legal requirements.
EXPENSIVE
Corporations are expensive to form and operate. It might be easy for established corporations to
raise capital by selling shares, but forming and maintaining a corporation can be costly. You will
likely need a lot of startup capital to get a corporation running, in addition to paying the filing
charges, ongoing fees and larger taxes. When weighing the pros and cons to determine whether a
corporation is the right legal structure for your business, consult an attorney and an accountant
who are well versed in the implications of creating a corporation.

EXPLAIN STEPS WHICH MUST BE TAKEN TO SET UP A PARTNERSHIP

STEP ONE: MAKE DECISIONS ABOUT PARTNERS
You may be starting your partnership with one or more other owners. There are several decisions
you will need to make about the roles, responsibilities, and payments regarding these members.
Partner Contributions, How much does it cost to join this partnership? Usually, when a
partnership is formed or a new partner joins, that person contributes a specific amount of money
toward the partnership. You will need to decide how much each initial partner must contribute,
and how much new partners in the future will contribute.
Partner Types, What types of partners do you want in your partnership? Are all partners the
same, or do some have more responsibilities for day-to-day activities than others? A partnership
can have several types of partners
STEP TWO: DECIDE ON PARTNERSHIP TYPE
Based on the decisions you made in Step One, you should select a partnership type. There are
several types to choose from. A General partnership has one type of partner, and all participate in
the day-to-day decisions and the way their partnership share works are the same. A Limited
partnership has both general partners and limited partners. A Limited Liability Partnership
allows all partners to be shielded from liability for normal partnership activities.
STEP THREE: DECIDE ON A PARTNERSHIP NAME
The type of partnership you have will determine the name of your partnership. For example, if
you are starting a limited liability partnership, you would want this designation in your name.
Some states have requirements for the name of different types of businesses, so this is the time to
do research before you select that name. A business name is a key piece of information for your
business and it's difficult — and costly — to change, so make sure you are firm about your
business name before you go on to Step Four. If you aren't going on to Step Four right away, you
can just register your partnership name with your state. If you are registering soon, you don't
need to register the business name separately.
STEP FOUR: REGISTER YOUR PARTNERSHIP WITH YOUR STATE
When you have all the information you need for your partnership, go to your state's Secretary of
State Website and look for the business or corporations section. Here's where you register your
business as a partnership. Most states will allow you to complete this registration online. If your
partnership will be doing business in more than one state, you will need to complete this
registration process with each state. The main state is done first as a "domestic" partnership, then
register in other states as a "foreign" partnership.
STEP FIVE: GET AN EMPLOYER ID NUMBER
You can get an employer ID number (EIN) from the IRS after you have the business name and
type and location. Almost all businesses need an EIN, even if they don't have employees. The
process of getting an EIN is simple, and you can apply for an EIN online or by phone and get the
number immediately. Beware of fake Employer ID Number application websites. They walk you
through the process of getting an EIN, then charge you to file. The IRS NEVER charges for
these applications!
STEP SIX: CREATE A PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT
Don't skip this important step in starting your partnership. A partnership agreement sets out in
writing all the processes and decisions that the partners have agreed to. It answers all the "what
if" questions that could come up in the life of a partnership.
STEP SEVEN: GET OTHER REGISTRATIONS, LICENSES, AND PERMITS
Here's a quick list of some of the other legal and regulatory tasks you'll need to do as you start
your partnership. Register with your state taxing authority for sales taxes if you are selling
taxable products or services. Register to pay federal taxes with the EFTPS payment system. This
registration applies to the paying of employment taxes if you have employees. Finally,
depending on what type of partnership you have, you will need to register with your locality to
get business licenses and permits, depending on your business activities.

State reasons under which a partnership can be dissolved

I. Loss of profits or declaration of bankruptcy

II. Illegal activities or violations

III. Merging of a partnership with a larger entity

IV. Changes of the business’ registration status

V. Fulfillment of conditions stated in the partnership agreement

VI. Lastly, some limited partnerships may not dissolve automatically if a partner withdraws
or becomes deceased. The company may continue on, especially if the partnership still
has sufficient managerial capacity to keep up with business activities.

EXPLAIN THE NIGERIAN LEGAL SYSTEMS AS IT AFFECTS THE

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
In Nigeria, common law principles and practices govern and regulate contracts for designs and
building works. In a design or construction contract, the fundamentals of common law
agreements, parties, intention, considerations etc. must be in place. Many states in Nigeria have
laws regulating contracts and which laws are codifications of common law principles. Designs
and construction contracts due to their unique nature and technicalities, usually contain terms
that are standard and reflect the agreed construction process in standard uniform forms. There are
a number of local regulations governing designs and building construction works in Nigeria.
These regulations specify the designs and building standards which the owners/developers,
architects and building contractors must comply with when undertaking the construction works.
The Construction Industry is well regulated by laws which prescribe certain requirements for
commencement of any development. The nature of the development or construction determines
the process to be followed and the license and approval required by a building or engineering
contractor to commence work. The permits and licenses required to commence a development
construction include the following:
I. Title and right of occupancy over the land upon which the development is to be
constructed. This is mostly for private developments and may not be necessary for a
public project on state land where the state is the sponsor;

II. Relevant certifications from the appropriate statutory bodies must be obtained by the
professionals (Engineers, Architects, Surveyors, Builders, etc.) involved in the
construction process;

III. Building design approvals and development permits from the appropriate state
department/authority;

IV. Environmental Impact Assessment Clearance and Compliance permit; and

V. Relevant Fire, Health and Safety permits and licenses.

EXPLAIN ARBITRATION PROCEDURE

Arbitration is a procedure in which a dispute is submitted, by agreement of the parties, to one or
more arbitrators who make a binding decision on the dispute. In choosing arbitration, the parties
opt for a private dispute resolution procedure instead of going to court.
Its principal characteristics are:
Arbitration is consensual. Arbitration can only take place if both parties have agreed to it. In the
case of future disputes arising under a contract, the parties insert an arbitration clause in the
relevant contract. An existing dispute can be referred to arbitration by means of a submission
agreement between the parties. In contrast to mediation, a party cannot unilaterally withdraw
from arbitration.
CITE RELEVANT CASE
The United States Reports is the official reporter of the Supreme Court of the United States.
A legal citation is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or treatise
that either substantiates or contradicts a given position. Where cases are published on paper, the
citation usually contains the following information:
I. Court that issued the decision

II. Report title

III. Volume number

IV. Page, section, or paragraph number

V. Publication year

Week 5

PERT (Project Evaluation Review Technique)

In project management, the Project Evaluation Review Technique, or PERT, is used to identify
the time it takes to finish a particular task or activity. It is a system that helps in the proper
scheduling and coordination of all tasks throughout a project. It also helps in keeping track of the
progress, or lack thereof, of the overall project. In the 1950s, the Project Evaluation Review
Technique was developed by the US Navy to manage the Polaris submarine missile program of
their Special Projects Office
Knowing the time it should take to execute a project is crucial, as it helps project managers
decide on other factors such as the budget and task delegation. No matter how big or small a
project is, estimates can be too optimistic or pessimistic, but using a PERT chart will help
determine realistic estimates.

CPM (Critical Part Method)

The critical path method (CPM), also known as critical path analysis (CPA), is a scheduling
procedure that uses a network diagram to depict a project and the sequences of tasks required to
complete it, which are known as paths. Once the paths are defined, the duration of each path is
calculated by an algorithm to identify the critical path, which determines the total duration of the
project.
The critical path method (CPM) is used in project management to create project schedules and
helps project managers create a timeline on a Gantt chart for the project. The critical path method
includes:
1. Identifying every task necessary to complete the project and the dependencies between
them
2. Estimating the duration of the project tasks
3. Calculating the critical path based on the tasks’ duration and dependencies to identify the
critical activities
4. Focusing on planning, scheduling and controlling critical activities
5. Setting project milestones and deliverables
6. Setting stakeholder expectations related to deadlines
After making these considerations, you gain insight into which activities must be prioritized.
Then, you can allocate the necessary resources to get these important tasks done. Tasks you
discover that aren’t on the critical path are of a lesser priority in your project plan, and can be
delayed if they’re causing the project team to become overallocated. In project management, the
critical path is the longest sequence of tasks that must be completed to successfully conclude a
project, from start to finish.

FLOW CHART AND GANTT CHART

Flowcharts and Gantt charts are both effective tools to plan projects. However, when it comes to
project execution, both have different uses and applications. For a complex plan with a longer
duration, a Gantt chart is better, and for short term and smaller projects, a flow chart can do the
trick on its own. In some cases, Gantt charts and flowcharts are used in combination. Both types
of charts can be easily made using Creately’s online flow charting tools and Gantt tools.
Flowcharts can be used to display a stage by stage progression.
Gantt charts on the other hand allow for the effective display of task dependencies, information
flows, and relationships between different activities. They do not put any emphasis on the logic
controlling the decision making. Gantt charts are perfect for high-level plans and complex
planning. Suppose you have a complex project to plan and the project spans over several weeks.
After designing a flowchart, you should be able to see all the essential task presented in front of
you clearly. Now to create a Gantt chart, you need to know the exact duration that each task
should take. You should calculate your deadlines in mind, allocate resources accordingly, and
assign each essential task with a time frame.

HOW HISTOGRAM HELP MANAGERS MAKE BETTER CHOICES

There are many ways to analyze data in project management. One of the basic seven quality
tools (7QC) in project management is the histogram. Histograms are special types of bar chart
that are used to describe the dispersion, central tendency and shape of the statistical distribution.
Simply put, it is a way to represent the tabulated frequencies of the data.
Histogram is important in project management to use the right tools such as the histogram. It
allows the project managers to use the data to determine the profitability of a project activity,
monitor different processes and analyze the intensity of each project intensity. It can also be used
to determine acceptable limits as well as to determine which aspect of the project process should
be further analyzed for improvement.
APPLICATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
The PERT and CPM are so Important to a Civil Engineer because any Client while awarding a
Job to be done by an Engineer will definitely want the job done within a short period of time.
The beautiful tools help an Engineer to plan his works effectively and work within the time
frame. It’s also profitable for a Civil Engineer to be able to deliver a project in short time
because the more the time used, the more the money spent. Both Flow chart and Gantt chart are
also very important as they work short duration and Long duration projects respectively. The
help the Engineer monitor his progression on a job or track easily where issue(s) had come up
while he was on job. The Histogram being a analytical tool is very important in Civil
Engineering. It allows better presentation of Data in such a way that brings clarity. An Engineer
who has the ability to present properly to clients is definitely better and looks more capable than
one who can’t relate properly with the client, no matter how good He is technically.

Week 6

SITE MEETINGS AND ITS PURPOSE

Site meetings are an important part of the successful management of construction projects.
Regular site meetings between the different stakeholders on a project can help facilitate better
communication and a shared sense of purpose making it more likely that the project is completed
successfully. Project failures are often attributed to inadequate management, with a key factor
being a lack of proper communication.

Meetings should be regular and formerly scheduled, perhaps on a weekly or monthly basis
depending on the parties involved, although the size and complexity of the project may
necessitate a more regular schedule. They are used as a means of reporting progress, enabling
discussion of any problems or issues, and allowing the proposal of solutions. They provide a
good opportunity for two-way discussions of any issues that have arisen or that are anticipated.

Holding meetings on site enables the stakeholders to see progress for themselves (rather than
relying on a report for another party), and to look at problem areas, discuss quality issues, assess
mock-ups, and so on.

Construction progress meetings are a specific sort of site meeting during which the contract
administrator receives progress reports from the contractor and consultant team, cost reports
from the cost consultant and other more specific information such as sub-contractor reports,
progress photos, and so on.

In order to be able to provide the correct information at construction progress meetings, the
contractor may previously hold a progress meeting with sub-contractors sometimes called a
production meeting.
Meeting minutes should be prepared, with a requirement that any disagreement with the items
recorded in the minutes is raised within a pre-defined period (perhaps one week). Progress
meetings may also result in the preparation of a construction progress report for the client.

On construction management projects, the construction manager holds regular construction

progress meetings with trade contractors to discuss on and off-site progress against the
programme and to co-ordinate the release of information. It may sometimes be appropriate for
these meetings to take place at the trade contractor's premises. On large projects the construction
manager may hold a daily logistic meeting on site with trade contractor foremen to organize,
schedule and co-ordinate on-site shared services such as deliveries and off-loading, hoists and
carnage, scaffolding, safety issues, rubbish clearance etc.

Similar meetings may be held on management contract projects between the management
contractor and the works contractors.

CONSTRUCTION ENGINEER RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES

Coordinate with project manager and administer efficient working of construction process and
monitor lifecycle of all projects and prepare all project controls and update as per requirement
and document all processes.

Provide technical support to all management processes and maintain and update all logs and
document all estimates and change orders for vendors and perform quantity survey with help of
different software and maintain compliance to an efficient project schedule.

Prepare physical layout for all construction projects and coordinate with project manager to
administer and maintain all contracts and purchase orders and prepare an effective work
schedule.

Oversee all engineering processes in construction projects and provide subject matter expertise
as per requirement and perform regular tests on procedure to ensure compliance to all regulations
and evaluate all designs and drawings before implementation.
Identify and resolve all technical issues in construction process prepare an effective schedule and
prepare appraisal reports to be submitted to construction manager and procure materials to
prepare an effective construction schedule.

Manage and ensure all materials in compliance with required quality for all projects and prepare
reports for all final project turn over and maintain records of all construction procedures and
prepare progress reports for same.

Design and maintain all construction technical catalogs and prepare supplier data and interpret
all contract plans and specification and coordinate with all contractors to resolve issues in
processes.

Maintain knowledge on all contract terms and legal requirements for all construction projects to
avoid any delay in projects and provide support to all work groups and participate in various
actively to ensure completion for all projects.

Evaluate all projects and recommend various cost savings methods for same and organize and
attend various staff meetings on weekly basis.

SPECIFIC ROLES AND DUTIES OF A BUILDING CONTRACTOR

As mentioned before, a building contractor has multiple responsibilities, which may vary
depending on the contract. There are many roles a contractor can assume during different stages
of a project, and this section covers the most common ones.

PROJECT PLANNING

Every project has a master schedule that describes all activities, along with their time distribution
and planned budget. This schedule has a completion date that contractors must meet, and hefty
penalties normally apply for missing the deadline. A late completion can only be justified if the
project was delayed by external factors beyond the contractor’s control, such as extreme weather.

The first duty of a building contractor is creating a project plan to deliver it on time. Some
responsibilities include:

I. Planning all crucial project development and implementation details.

II. Determining the material and equipment requirements, and planning their procurement.
III. Predicting possible changes and creating risk mitigation strategies.
IV. Meeting any legal and regulatory issues.
V. Establishing effective communication among all project participants.
VI. The building contractor must establish a budget for the construction project, and follow it
as closely as possible. The budget is a useful tool to track project costs, since contractors
can detect waste by comparing their actual expenses with the planned budget.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The contractor needs to complete the project on time, and this involves many construction
management activities:

I. Ensuring funds are available to keep the project moving

II. Purchasing materials with enough anticipation for them to reach the site when needed
III. Purchasing or renting the construction equipment required for the project
IV. Interviewing and hiring subcontractors to complete specialized work
V. Creating progress reports to justify intermediate payments
VI. Building contractors are also responsible for their personnel, making sure their staff has
the right size and technical skills. Contractors also manage payroll for their own
employees, and subcontractor payments.

PROJECT TRACKING

Project tracking is fundamental to complete the work according to contract specifications and
schedules. In addition to tracking progress, contractors must prevent disruption. This involves
several complementary activities:
QUALITY CONTROL
I. Using cost-effective construction methods
II. Ensuring a constant supply of materials, and scheduling purchases well in advance
III. Construction site safety
IV. During the construction process, the building contractor is responsible for tracking
progress and managing any necessary changes. Of course, contractors must always have
the project scope, time and budget in mind when making decisions.

LEGAL AND REGULATORY ISSUES

Contractors have a handful of responsibilities in terms of legal and regulatory issues. They must
acquire all the necessary permits and licenses before starting the project, while covering any fees
and taxes that apply. Also, the entire construction process must follow local legislation and
building codes.
Being unaware of legal requirements is not a valid excuse in construction projects, which means
that contractors must have updated knowledge. With the right construction permits and
contractor licenses, the project can progress without disruption.

HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES

The contractor must guarantee health and safety in the construction site, by implementing
adequate procedures and raising awareness among workers. The contractor is also responsible
for the proper operation of equipment and preventing any accidents from misuse.
The contractor deals with any emergencies and unforeseen issues at the project site, and must
report them to the client’s supervision staff.
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