1) Reciprocal Innervation

Reciprocal innervation describes skeletal muscles as existing in antagonistic pairs, with

contraction of one muscle producing forces opposite to those generated by contraction of the
other. For example, in the human arm, the triceps acts to extend the lower arm outward while
the hiceps acts to flex the lower arm inward. To reach optimum efficiency, contraction of
opposing muscles must be inhibited while muscles with the desired action are excited. This
reciprocal innervation occurs so that the contraction of a muscle results in the simultaneous
relaxation of its corresponding antagonist.A common example of reciprocal innervation, is the
effect of the nociceptive (or nocifensive) reflex, or defensive response to pain, otherwise
commonly known as the withdrawal rellka: a type of involuntary action of the body to remove the
body part from the vicinity of an oflending object by contracting the appropriate muscles (usually
flexor muscles), while relaxing the extensor muscles.
● How Reciprocal Inhibition Works:-
Neural Pathway:When an agonist muscle contracts, sensory neurons send signals to the spinal
cord.In the spinal cord, interneurons are activated to inhibit the motor neurons that control the
antagonist muscle.This inhibition prevents the antagonist muscle from contracting, allowing the
agonist muscle to act more effectively.Example in Action:Bicep Curl: When you perform a bicep
curl, your biceps (agonist) contract to lift the weight. Simultaneously, reciprocal inhibition
ensures that the triceps (antagonist) are relaxed to prevent them from opposing the movement.

2)EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium is a state when all parts of a hody are either at rest or moving with the same
constant velocity. II' the some of two monents acting in opposite angular direction is zero, a
state of equilibrium is said to exist. When a body is in equilibrium, there is an even adjustment
among all forces and the body is in balance. The state of this balance may he secured or
uncertain. When it is secured, the body is said to have a high degree of stability, which is
firmness of balance or the ability to remit forces that may disturb halance. An object suspended
from its center of gravity is said to be in rotational equilibrium. The term 'equilibrium" is used to
identify any condition in which the sum of moments of forces acting equals zero. Therefore, this
term can be applied to both static and dynamic condition of both linear and angular motion.
● DEFINITIONS
"Equilibrium results when the forces acting upon a body are perfectly balanced and the body
remains at its own state of rest or of motion".
"The object is said to be in equilibrium when the state of motion of the object remains
unchanged even though two or more forces are acting upon it".
“When the sum of the forces and the sum of moments acting upon a body are both equal to
zero, then the body is said to be in equilibrium."

● States of Equilibrium
Static Equilibrium:- When the body is stationary when number of forces are acting on it, it is said
to be in static equilibrium.E.g. Hand stand in gymnastics, man standing still, no movement
position in tug of war, ele. Dynamic Equilibrium:- When a body is moving with constant linear or
angular velocity and if the sum of the forces and sum of the torques acting on it is zero, it is said
to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
E.g. sky diver leaping from an airplane, a sled moving constant velocity, etc.
● Types of Equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium:-, If a body
is given an initial displacement and the forces acting upon it increase this initial displacement,
however small the later may be, the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
Stable Equilibrium:- If the forces acting upon a body at rest tend to restore to its original
position aller it has been displaced, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium. This is more
stable when the C.G. is low, the base is large and when the line of gravity falls at the center.
F.g. standing feet apart, hanging on a horizontal bar, boxer hitting the hag, etc.
Neutral Equilibrium:- If in spite of displacement of a body, the height and position of its center
of gravity
remuin the same in relation to the base, the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
F.g. A ball moving on a plain surface.
Suppose a ball is placed exactly at the crest of small hill (Point A). It may remain at rest there
briefly, but if a light breeze moves it a bit, it will rapidly accelerate down the hillside. This is
unstable
equilibrium.In the depression at B. the ball rolls back if disturbed. This is stable equilibrium.
Finally, on theflat level area, near C, there is still no balanced force even if the ball is displaced
slightly. This is neutral equilibrium.

3)Muscle contraction
Muscle contraction is a complex process where muscle fibers generate force.

Nerve Stimulation: It starts with a signal from a motor neuron, which releases the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction.Action Potential: The
neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the muscle cell membrane, causing an action potential
that travels along the muscle fiber.Calcium Release: The action potential triggers the release of
calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the muscle cell's cytoplasm.Cross-Bridge
Formation: Calcium binds to troponin, causing a shift in the tropomyosin to expose binding sites
on actin filaments. Myosin heads attach to these sites, forming cross-bridges.Power Stroke:
Myosin heads pivot, pulling the actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. This is
known as the power stroke, which shortens the muscle fiber and generates force.ATP Binding:
After the power stroke, ATP binds to myosin, causing it to detach from actin. ATP is then
hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate, which re-cocks the myosin head for the next
cycle.Relaxation: When stimulation stops, calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, troponin and tropomyosin return to their resting positions, and the muscle fiber
relaxes.This sequence allows muscles to contract and generate movement.

● Types of Muscle Contraction

Isotonic (meaning same tension)
Isometric (meaning same distance or not moving)
Isokinetic (meaning same speed)

Isotonic Contractions:-
Isotonic contractions are those which cause the muscle to change length as it contracts and
causes movement of a body part. There are two types of Isotonic contraction:

Concentric:-

Concentric contractions are those which cause the muscle to shorten as it contracts. An
example is bending the elbow from straight to fully flexed, causing a concentric contruction of
the Biceps brachii muscle. Concentric contractions are the most common type of muscle
contraction and occur frequently in daily and sporting activities.

Eccentric:-

Eccentric contractions me the opposite of concentric and occur when the muscle lengthens as it
contracts. This is less common and usually involves the control or deceleration of a movement
being initiated by the occentric muscles agonist.For example, when kicking a football, the
Quadriceps muscle contracts concentrically to stnighten the knee and the Hamstrings contract
eccentrically to decelerate the motion of the lower limbs. This type on contraction puts a lot of
strain through the muscle and is commonly involved in muscle injuries.

Isometric Contractions:-

Isometric contractions occur when there is no change in the length of the contracting muscle.
This occurs when carrying an object in front of you as the weight of the object is pulling your
arms down but your muscles are contracting to hold the object at the same level. Another
example is whenyou grip something, such as a tennis racket. There is no movement in the
joints of the hand, but the muscles are contracting to provide a force sufficient enough to keep a
steady hold on the racket The amount of force a muscle is able to produce during an isometric
contraction depends on the length of the muscle at the point of contraction. Each musele has an
optimum length at which the maxumum isometric fores can be produced

Isokinetic Contractions:-

Isokinetic contractions are similar to isotonic in that the muscle changes length during the
contraction, where they differ is that Isokinetic contractions produce movements of a constant
speed. To measure this a special piece of equipment known as an Isokinetic Dynamometer is
required. Examples of using isokinetic contractions in day-to-day and sporting activites are rate.
The best example for this type of contraction is breast stroke in swimming, where the water
provides a constant, even resistance to the movement of adduction

4)JOINTS
The joint is the Junction or Articulation at which two or more bones come together. Or, it is the
place where two or more bones come together or the place where two or more hones come
together and are able to produce movements around it.
● Joints are three type

1)Fixed joints or immovable joints Synarthroses Fixed joints have seerns (Suture like joints).
These joints have a thin layer of connective tissue.These joints absorb the shock and prevent
the bones from breaking. The joints of the head (cranium) are fixed and they protect the brain.
2)Slightly Movable Joint or Amphiarthroses- This joint permits slight mobility that is more than
what is seen in a fixed joint. The binding tissue in this type of joint is cartilaginous in nature.
Example of a slightly moveable joint is those found between intervertebral discs. Cartilaginous.
These joints occur where the connection between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage
for example between vertebrae in the spine
3)Synovial or Movable Joints ,diarthrosis: Opposing bones are separated from one another by a
space, lined by a special membrane called Synovial Membrane and are lubricated by the fluid
called synovial fluid. Bones are joined together with a tough connective tissue fibres called the
ligaments. Wide range of movements are possible. e.g. All joints of limbs. These joints absorb
the shock and act as cushions at the joints.
● Types of movable Joints

1. Hinge Joints: These joints will allow a forward and backward motion in only one plane. The
joints at the knee, elbow and fingers are the examples of hinge joints.
2. Pivot Joints: This joint gives a rotating motion such as the movement of the head from side to
side.
3. Ball and Socket Joints: The structure of one end of the bone is in the shape of ball and the
other end is in the shape of a socket. These joints permit the maximum freedom of movement.
The shoulder and hip joints are the examples of ball and socket joints.
4. Gliding joints: In gliding joints the articular surfaces glide over each other. Joints between the
carpal bones and between tarsal bones are gliding joints
5. Saddle joint: It is Saddle Shaped (Convex & Concave), and so, it is called as saddle joint.
Possible movements are, Flexion/Extension/Adduction/Abduction/Circumduction e.g. Carpal
and Metacarpal Joint of the Thumb
6. Condyloid Joint: In condyloid joint Movements in two planes at right angles to each otherare
possible. The movementsareFlexion/Extension/Adduction/Abduction/Circumduction e.g.
Wrist/Metatorsal and Metacarpal Joints.

5)Plane
A single plane divides the entire body into two parts. There are three planes of
motion in which our body moves. Most of our moments are not straight up or down
or side to side or in a single direction etc., especially in sports.

a. Sagittal plane (Median plane): - It lies vertically and divides the body into
right and left parts. Flexion and extension types of movement occur in this
plane. Example: kicking a football, chest pass in netball, walking, jumping,
and squatting.
b. Frontal plane (lateral or coronal plane): - It also lies vertically and divides
the body into anterior/ Ventral- and posterior/ Dorsal- parts. Abduction and
adduction movements occur in this plane. Example, jumping jack exercises,
raising and lowering arms and legs sideways, and cartwheel.
c. Transverse plane (horizontal plane): - It lies horizontally and divides the
body into superior and inferior parts. Rotation types of movement occur in this
plane. Example, hip rotation in a golf swing, twisting in a discus throw, pivoting
in netball, and spinning in skating.

● Axis
An axis is a point or straight line around which an object moves or moment of the body
segments occurs. There are three axes of rotation, and each axis is perpendicular to the plane.
a. Sagittal axis: - It is also called the anteroposterior axis. It passes horizontally from posterior to
anterior. It is perpendicular to the frontal plane. The
movements that occur in this axis are abduction and adduction.
b. Frontal axis (transverse axis): - It is also known as the horizontal and
mediolateral axis. It is perpendicular to the sagittal plane. It runs from side to
side. Flexion and extension are the movements taking place in this axis.
c. Vertical axis (longitudinal axis): - It is perpendicular to the transversal
plane. It passes vertically from inferior to superior. Typically, rotation types of movement take
place on this axis.

● Types of Motion
-Rotational Motion:Definition: This involves movement around an axis. In sports, this often
relates to body movements or parts of the body rotating around a fixed point.Example: In
gymnastics, a gymnast performs a somersault by rotating around the horizontal axis through
their body.
-Translational Motion:Definition: This is movement where the entire body or object shifts from
one location to another without rotating around an axis.Example: Running involves translational
motion as the entire body moves forward without rotating around an axis.
-Oscillatory Motion:Definition: This is a repetitive back-and-forth movement around a central
point.Example: The motion of a pendulum during a warm-up exercise or the swinging of legs
during certain stretches.
-Periodic Motion:Definition: This type of motion repeats at regular intervals.Example: The
regular, rhythmic motion of a swimmer’s arms during the freestyle stroke.

● Axis and Planes

In kinematics, the limbs or segments of the body are assumed to rotate about the
joints, with no translational, or sliding, movement. While this is not strictly correct, it offers a
usable approximation of the actual joint motion. The joint serves as an axis (a line around which
something can rotate), and associated with the axis is a plane, (like a sheet of paper
perpendicular to the axis), in which the rotational movement takes place.
For a better understanding of the axis and planes of movement, we must know the following
terminologies:
- Anterior/ Ventral- towards the front of the body
-Posterior/Dorsal- towards the back of the body
-Superior/Cranial- towards the head of the body or upper part of the body.
- Inferior/Caudal- towards the lower part of the body.
-Medial- towards the midline of the body (inner side).
- Lateral- away from the midline of the body (outer side).

6)Biomechanics
Biomechanics has been defined as studying the movement of living things using the science of
mechanics (Hatze, 1974).
“The area of study wherein knowledge and methods of mechanics are applied to the structure
and function of the living human system.”
“Biomechanics is the science concerned with the internal and external forces acting on a human
body and the effects produced by these forces”. James. G. Hay.Sports biomechanics is
aquantitative-based study and analysis of professional athletes, sportspersons and sports
activities in general. In simple terms, it describes the physics of sports. In this subfield of
biomechanics, the laws of mechanics are applied to sporting events through mathematical
modeling by means of computer simulation, and measurement in order to gain a greater
understanding of athletic or sporting performance.

● Importance of Biomechanics in Sports

1. Basis for analysing the efficient structure of competitive performance: Human movement
performance analysis can be done in many ways; biomechanics is essentially the science of
movement technique and tends to be most utilized in sports where technique is a dominant
factor rather than the physical structure or physiological capacities (Analysis the performance of
9.63 at the 2012 London
Olympics by Usan Bolt). Following are some of the areas where biomechanics
is applied to analyse the efficient structure of competitive performan
2. Practical organization of the process of the sport’s technical profession:
Sports professionals use technology that helps assess an athlete’s performance,
using data to track performance, health, and leveraging visual tools that can
show how athletes at all levels can improve. Knowledge of Biomechanics helps them apply such
tools and obtain data in training, treatment and achieving
optimum performances.
3. Essential for the effective organization of the development of motor abilities:
Sports and games focus on reaching maximum efficiency in motor abilities
connected to a particular sports discipline. Motor abilities can be described as relatively stable
sets of inner genetic presuppositions needed to carry out locomotive activities. They include
force, speed, endurance, coordination, and flexibility. Knowledge of biomechanics helps a coach
and teacher understand and apply systematic training for development.

● Movement
Movement or motion is the act of moving, change of place or posture, or transference,
by any means, from one situation to another. Humans can move from one place to another
through coordinated movements and postures. The movement produced by the human body
due to the contraction of muscles and bending of bone joints is called human movement.
Human movements are controlled by the nervous system.
Hence, human movement incorporates the use of muscles, ligaments, joints, and
bones.Movement is one of the things that differentiates a living thing from a non-living thing. As
referred to earlier, movement is the change in the position of an object. In the human body, it
takes place when the living organism moves a body part or a combination of parts to bring about
a change in position. We use the term locomotion to describe the movement which results in the
change of position of the whole organism. It is important to understand the difference between
the two movement and locomotion – in relation to living things.

● Types of Body Movements

1. Flexion- it is the bending of flexing a limb. Closing/ decreasing the angle at
the moving joint.
2. Extension- it is straightening or extending a limb. Opening/ increasing the angle at the joint. It
is the opposite movement of flexion.
3. Abduction: - Moving a Limb away from the body’s centreline.
4. Adduction: - Moving a Limb towards the body’s centreline is called adduction.
5. Rotation: It is the movement around the long axis.
6. Circumduction: It combines flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.
Usually this movement occurs at ball and socket joints like shoulder joint, hip
joint, etc.
7. Pronation: It means turning the palm down.
8. Supination: It means turning the palm up.

7)posture

Posture is unique to every individual and no two people have identical postures, although some
are very similar. The determinants of a good posture are linked to the structure and size of
bones, the position of body parts, injury and disease, static and dynamic living habits and the
person's psychological state,
Good posture, both statie (Standing and sitting) and dynamic (duriang movement), is important
for an attractive appearance, but more importantly, it is essential if the body is to function with
an. economy of effort. Il posture is poor, it can lead to fatigue, muscular strain and poor muscle
tone, the sagging of some parts of the body and low self esteem.
Posture is good when it allows the organic systems to function efficiently, when the body has
god balance and alignment and results in a minimum muscular strain, and contributes to
attractiveness.
● Criteria for good posture
1. It aids the functioning of the organic system.
2. It reduces strain on muscles, ligaments and tendons.
3. It increases the attractiveness of the persons.
4. It may influence a person's self concept.

● Guidelines for good posture.

1. The weight bearing segments should be correctly aligned, so that the line of gravity passes
through them. This reduces unnecessary muscle strain and contributes to attractiveness.
2. The weight bearing joints should be easy and should not be accompanied by strain, tension
or execssive gravity.
3. The feet should be placed far apart to from the base of support over which the body can be
balanced easily without excessive muscle use.
● Causes of Postural Deformities:
-Muscle Imbalance: Weak or tight muscles can pull the body out of alignment. For example, tight
chest muscles and weak upper back muscles can lead to rounded shoulders.
-Sedentary Lifestyle: Prolonged sitting, especially with poor ergonomics, can weaken postural
muscles and lead to slouching or other misalignments.
-Improper Ergonomics: Poor setup of workstations, such as computer screens being too high or
low, can contribute to poor posture.Injuries or Pain: Previous injuries or chronic pain can alter
movement patterns and lead to compensatory postural changes.
-Footwear: Wearing improper or unsupportive footwear can affect overall body alignment and
posture.
-Habitual Behaviors: Regular habits like carrying a heavy bag on one side or slouching can
contribute to poor posture over time.
-Genetics and Structural Issues: Some people may have structural abnormalities or conditions
that affect their posture, such as scoliosis or kyphosis.
-Emotional and Psychological Factors: Stress and anxiety can lead to muscle tension and poor
posture, such as hunching shoulders.

8) Knock knees
Knock knees meaning - Knock knees or Genu Velgum is a postural
deformity in which the legs are bent inward and knees strike each other while
walking or running. Between birth and 18 months, an outward-turning alignment from hip to
knee to ankle is normal. Between about 18 and 24 months, this alignment normally becomes
neutral. When the child is between 2 and 5 years old, an inward-turning alignment is normal.
The alignment returns to neutral as the child grow

● Knock knees causes:

Rickets. Obesity during childhood.
Muscular or ligaments weakness at early age. Fractures and injuries involving the knee joint.
Lack of Balanced diet. Flat foot.
● Precautions of Knock knees:
Balanced diet should be taken.
Babies should not be forced to walk at very early age.
Perform proper exercises.
● Knock knees exercise and Knock knees Remedies:
Keep a pillow between the knees and stand erect for some time.
Use cod liver oil. Horse riding.
Use walking calipers.

10)Meaning of Kinesiology in Sports

Kinesiology is derived from the Greek word kinesis, which means movement, and logos which
means to study. Thus, kinesiology is a discipline that studies movements. It is a study of human
movement and muscular function. The study of kinesiology seeks to understand the impact of
muscle function on health. It draws upon the concepts for several sciences, including
biomechanics, anatomy, physiology, and neuroscience. The study of Kinesiology seeks to
understand the mechanism of human
movement and pinpoint the specific muscle involved in a particular movement. The science of
kinesiology views the human body as a machine that functions in a very purposeful way.
Kinesiology, or human kinetics, is a scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology addresses
physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applying kinesiology to human
health includes strength and coordination, sports psychology,
methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy, and sports and

● Importance of Kinesiology in Sports

1. Analysing human motion: The knowledge of kinesiology offers future coaches/trainers/
physical education teachers a clear insight into the analysis of human movement and helps
them understand how motor skills and techniques can be improved to ensure successful
participation in various physical activities. Example: analysing fundamental movements with
reference to sports skills performed.
2. Learning and improvement of motor skills: With the knowledge of kinesiology,
a coach or teacher learns the nature and effects of each physical activity.
This enables him to select intelligently the exercise which will contribute to
achieving the targeted aims for an individual, thereby improving the motor
skills to the level of perfection. Example: Teaching and applying correct walking
3. Applying anatomic background will help to prevent injuries: With the
knowledge of kinesiology, one can understand the nature and mechanism of most common
musculoskeletal injuries. The appropriate preventive conditioning
flexibility and muscle-strengthening exercises help prevent athletic injuries.
Applying kinesiological principles to the acts of landing, falling, catching, etc.,
also, to some extent, prevents injuries on the sports fields. Similar know-how
of the muscles will help design appropriate activities and exercises for re-educating the weak
muscles during the treatment and rehabilitation of the
injuries.
4. Ensuring economy of movement: Kinesiology helps analyse the physiological relation, energy
utilization, and muscular contraction timing of the physical activity and exercises. The structure
and mechanics of human performance are also not ignored in the financial world. Example:
minimizing the body movement to regulate energy utilization and improve timing in long-duration
activities.