O Level Biology627

Topica
REVISION
lNOTES
BIOLOGY
Lye Ai Fern BSc (Hons), PGDE
Includes
 Comprehensive Revision Notes
 Effective Study Guide
BIOLOGY
Lye Ai Fern BSc (Hons), PGDE

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First Published 2016
ISBN 978 981 288 018 5
Printed in Singapore
PREFACE
O Level Biology Topical Revision Notes has been written in
accordance with the latest syllabus issued by the Ministry of
Education, Singapore.
This book is divided into 16 topics, each covering a topic as laid out in the
syllabus. Important concepts are highlighted in each topic, with relevant
examples and diagrams to help students better understand the
concepts.
We believe this book will be of great help to teachers teaching the

subject and students preparing for their O Level Biology examination.
Preface iii
CONTENTS
Topic 1 Cell Structure and Organisation 1
Topic 2 Movement of Substances 6
Topic 3 Biological Molecules 11
Topic 4 Nutrition in Humans 20
Topic 5 Nutrition in Plants 27
Topic 6 Transport in Flowering Plants 32
Topic 7 Transport in Humans 39
Topic 8 Respiration in Humans 51
Topic 9 Excretion in Humans 58
Topic 10 Homeostasis 65
Topic 11 Co-ordination and Response in Humans 70
Topic 12 Reproduction 82
Topic 13 Cell Division 95
Topic 14 Molecular Genetics 106
Topic 15 Inheritance 112
Topic 16 Organisms and their Environment 124
iv Contents
TOPIC Cell Structure and Organisation
1
Objectives
Candidates should be able to:
(a) identify cell structures (including organelles) of typical plant and animal cells from
diagrams, photomicrographs and as seen under the light microscope using
prepared slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining
technique:
• chloroplasts
• cell surface membrane
• cell wall
• cytoplasm
• cell vacuoles (large, sap-filled in plant cells, small, temporary in animal cells)
• nucleus
(b) identify the following membrane systems and organelles from diagrams and electron
micrographs:
• endoplasmic reticulum
• mitochondria
• Golgi body
• ribosomes
(c) state the functions of the membrane systems and organelles identified above
(d) compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells
(e) state, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the
following:
• absorption – root hair cells
• conduction and support – xylem vessels
• transport of oxygen – red blood cells
(f) differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system
1.1 Animal cell

1. The following is a diagram of a generalised animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope:
centriole
cell cytoplas
surface m
membran
e rough endoplasmic
reticulum nucleolus
nucleu smooth endoplasmic
s reticulum free ribosomes
vesicle Golgi apparatus
vacuole
mitochondri A generalised animal cell
on Cell Structure and Organisation 1
2. The cell surface membrane or plasma membrane is a partially
permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of the cell. It
controls substances entering or leaving the cell.
3. The cytoplasm is the gel-like matrix embedded with organelles. It is
the site of most cellular activities.
4. The cell vacuoles are small fluid-filled spaces bound by a membrane.
In animal cells they store water and food substances. They are
usually not permanent.
5. The nucleus is an organelle surrounded by an envelope called the
nuclear envelope. It contains darker bodies called nucleoli (singular:
nucleolus) and thread-like structures called chromatin which are
made of DNA. The nucleus controls cellular activities such as
growth, repair, and cell division.
6. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes forming
tubes and flattened spaces. There are two types of ER:
(a) The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not have
ribosomes attached to it. It synthesises fats and steroids such
as sex hormones. It also contains enzymes that detoxify drugs
and poisons.
(b) The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is studded with
ribosomes. Ribosomes in the cell can either be free ribosomes
(i.e. they lie freely in the cytoplasm) or be attached to the
membrane of the RER. Ribosomes synthesise proteins.
7. All proteins made in the RER depart in membrane-bound vesicles to
the Golgi apparatus.
8. The Golgi apparatus resembles a stack of flattened disc-shaped
spaces surrounded by membranes. It stores, sorts and modifies
substances made by the ER, and packages them in vesicles to be
secreted out of the cell.
9. The mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are small elongated
organelles with folded inner membranes. Aerobic respiration takes
place in the mitochondria. Aerobic respiration is the process where
energy is extracted from food substances in the presence of
oxygen. This energy is used by the cell to perform cellular activities
such as growth and cell division.
10. The centrioles are a pair of barrel-shaped structures at right angles
to each other. They play a role in cell division. Centrioles are usually
absent in plants.
2 TOPIC 1
1.2 Plant cell
1. The following is a diagram of a generalised plant cell as seen under
an electron microscope:
Golgi
apparatus free ribosome
vesicle
chloroplast smooth endoplasmic reticulum

nucleolus
nucleus
rough endoplasmic reticulum
large central vacuole

tonoplast
cell surface
mitochondri
membrane cell wall
on
cytoplas
A generalised plant cell
m
2. The plant cell contains most of the structures present in an animal

cell, with a few differences:
(a) Instead of many small vacuoles, plant cells have a large central
vacuole filled with cell sap, surrounded by a membrane called
the tonoplast. Cell sap is mainly made up of water, with
dissolved amino acids and mineral salts. Besides storage, the
vacuole also takes in waste products and water.
(b) Presence of a cellulose cell wall – The cell wall is non-living and
fully permeable. It protects the cell from injury and gives the
cell its shape.
(c) Presence of chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are oval membrane-
bound organelles filled with chlorophyll. They are the sites of
photosynthesis, which is the process by which plants make
food.
(d) Centrioles are absent.
Note: The structures visible under a light microscope would be: cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles, cell wall and chloroplasts.
Cell Structure and Organisation 3

1.3 Adaptation of cells to their functions
1. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the body tissues via the blood.
Adaptations to this function include:
(a) Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, an oxygen-carrying protein.
(b) Red blood cells have no nucleus, so they have a flattened
biconcave shape with a dumbbell-shaped cross section. This
enables them to have a higher surface area to volume ratio for
faster diffusion of oxygen. It also allows the cell to be more
flexible when squeezing through blood capillaries.
dumbbell-
shaped cross
section
Cross-section of a red blood cell
2. Xylem vessels are elongated hollow tubes that are made of xylem
cells linked end to end. Xylem cells are dead at maturity. They
conduct water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves of
the plant. They also play a role in mechanical support. Adaptations
to these functions include:
(a) Absence of protoplasm and cross-walls which could impede
water flow through the lumen (internal cavity)
(b) Deposition of lignin on the cell walls which strengthens
vessel walls, providing support
lumen
lume lume lumen
n n
lignin
Xylem vessels
4 TOPIC 1
3. Root hair cells are cells which extend into the soil to absorb
water and mineral salts. An adaptation to this function is a long and
narrow structure called the root hair, which extends into the soil to
absorb water. This increases the surface area to volume ratio of
the cell, resulting in faster absorption.
soil particles
cellulos
e cell
wall
root hair
nucleus
vacuole
A root hair cell
1.4 Organisation of a multicellular organism

1. The cell is the most basic unit of a living organism that can be
classified as living.
2. A group of cells of the same type that are found near each other
and carry out the same function comprises a tissue.
3. An organ is made up of different tissues working together to
perform a specific function or a group of functions within an
organism. An organ has a distinct shape which allows it to carry out
its function well.
4. A group of functionally-related organs form an organ system.
5. Many organ systems working together make up a multicellular organism.
Cell Structure and Organisation 5

TOPIC Movement of Substances
2
Objectives
(a) define diffusion and describe its role in nutrient uptake and gaseous exchange in
plants and humans
(b) define osmosis and describe the effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues
(c) define active transport and discuss its importance as an energy-consuming process by
which substances are transported against a concentration gradient, as in ion uptake
by root hairs and uptake of glucose by cells in the villi
2.1 Diffusion
1. Diffusion is the net (overall) movement of molecules from a region
of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down a
concentration gradient. Concentration refers to the number of
particles per unit volume.
2. A concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between a
region of higher concentration of a substance and a region of lower
concentration of the substance.
3. When the concentration gradient is steeper, the rate of diffusion will be
faster.
4. When a concentration gradient exists, diffusion will take place until
the particles are evenly distributed throughout the region.
2.2 Diffusion in biological systems

1. Diffusion is an important mode of nutrient uptake and gaseous
exchange in cells.
2. The cell surface membrane is a partially permeable membrane that
allows gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through
freely but not some other substances.
3. In cells which undergo respiration, oxygen is continually being used
up within the cell. This creates a concentration gradient where
oxygen concentration is lower inside the cell than in the
surroundings. Thus, dissolved oxygen diffuses into the cell.
6 TOPIC 2
4. Carbon dioxide and other waste products are generated by the cell.
This sets up a concentration gradient where the concentration of
these substances is higher within the cell than outside. Thus, the
substances leave the cell by diffusion.
5. In unicellular organisms such as the amoeba, diffusion is an
important mode of nutrient uptake.
2.3 Osmosis
1. Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of
higher water potential to a region of lower water potential, through
a partially permeable membrane.
2. Water potential is a measure of the tendency of water molecules to
move from one region to another. Since water is the solvent,
forming the volume of a solution, it is not meaningful to think about
the concentration of water, i.e. the number of water molecules per
unit volume.
3. Water molecules that surround solutes causing them to dissolve are
not able to move about freely as they are bound to the solutes. The
more concentrated a solution is, the lower the number of freely
moving water molecules present, hence the lower the water
potential of the solution. As a result, a dilute solution has a higher
water potential than a concentrated solution and pure water has
the highest water potential.
Example
A U-tube filled with sucrose solutions of different concentrations was set up
as shown in Fig. (a). After a few hours, it was observed that the water
level in one arm of the U-tube had increased while the water level in the
other arm had decreased as shown in Fig. (b). Describe and explain what
had taken place in terms of the movement of the particles in the
sucrose solutions.
10% sucrose
solution 20%
sucrose
solution
H2O
partially permeable membrane

Fig. (a) Movement of Substances
Fig. (b) 7
Answer: The 20% sucrose solution is more concentrated than the 10%
sucrose solution. Hence, it has a lower water potential as
compared to the 10% sucrose solution. The partially permeable
membrane does not allow sucrose molecules to pass through
as sucrose molecules are too big; it only allows water
molecules to pass through. As a result, water will move through
the partially permeable membrane by osmosis, from the arm
with the 10% sucrose solution (higher water potential) to the
arm with the 20% sucrose solution (lower water potential), until
the water potentials of the sugar solutions in both arms are the
same. The net movement of water molecules is from left to
right, hence the right arm has a higher water level at the end
of the experiment.
2.4 Osmosis in plant cells

1. Osmosis in living systems refers to the movement of water
molecules across the partially permeable cell surface membrane.
The cell wall is fully permeable.
2. As the large central vacuole occupies most of the space in a plant
cell, the water potential of the cell sap is considered to be the water
potential of the plant cell.
3. When a plant cell is immersed in a solution of higher water
potential relative to its cell sap, water molecules enter the cell by
osmosis.
4. The vacuole increases in size and the expanded cell contents exert
pressure on the cell wall.
5. The cellulose cell wall of a plant cell is strong and rigid.
6. The cell wall exerts an opposing pressure on the cell contents,
preventing the entry of more water. This prevents the cell from
overexpanding and bursting.
7. At this point, the plant cell is very firm or turgid. Turgor pressure
provides mechanical support for many non-woody plants.
cell wall
cell membrane
A turgid plant cell
8 TOPIC 2
8 . When a plant cell is immersed in a solution with a lower water
potential relative to its cell sap, water diffuses out of the cell into
the solution by osmosis.
9. The vacuole shrinks and the cell stops exerting pressure on the cell
wall. The cell becomes limp or flaccid. If it is placed in a solution
with a high water potential at this point, turgidity can be restored.
10. If more water leaves the cell, the vacuole and cytoplasm shrink to
such an extent that the cell surface membrane pulls away from the
cell wall. The phenomenon in which the cell surface membrane pulls
away from the cell wall is called plasmolysis. This can be lethal if
the cell is not quickly transferred to a solution with a higher water
potential relative to its cell sap.
cell wall
cell membrane
A plasmolysed plant cell
2.5 Osmosis in animal cells

1. When an animal cell is immersed in a solution with a higher water
potential relative to its cytoplasm, water diffuses into the cell by
osmosis.
2. The cell swells. As more water enters the cell, it swells to such an
extent that it bursts. This is because it does not have a cell wall.
This process is called cytolysis.
cyto
An animal cell undergoing cytolysis
Movement of Substances 9
3. When an animal cell is immersed in a solution with a lower water
potential, relative to its cytoplasm, water diffuses out of the cell by
osmosis.
4. The cell shrinks and become dehydrated. In red blood cells, little
spikes appear on the cell surface membrane, and the cell is said to
have undergone crenation. The animal cell will die if it is not
removed from the solution.
A crenated red blood cell
2.6 Active transport

1. Active transport is the process in which energy is used to transport
substances across a biological membrane against a concentration
gradient.
2. The energy used for active transport is obtained through cellular
respiration.
3. Uptake of dissolved mineral salts by root hair cells and glucose
uptake by cells in the villi of the small intestine are examples of
active transport.
10 TOPIC 2
TOPIC Biological Molecules
3
Objectives
(a) state the roles of water in living organisms
(b) list the chemical elements which make up
• carbohydrates
• fats
• proteins
(c) describe and carry out tests for
• starch (iodine in potassium iodide solution)
• reducing sugars (Benedict’s solution)
• protein (biuret test)
• fats (ethanol emulsion)
(d) state that large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units
• glycogen from glucose
• polypeptides and proteins from amino acids
• lipids such as fats from glycerol and fatty acids
(e) explain enzyme action in terms of the ‘lock and key’ hypothesis
(f) explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of an active site, enzyme-
substrate complex, lowering of activation energy and enzyme specificity
(g) investigate and explain the effects of temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme catalysed reactions
3.1 Role of water in animals

1. About 70% of the human body consists of water. Water is found in
cell cytoplasm, blood, digestive juices, tissue fluid, fluid in joints
and contained within organs
i.e. spinal cord, the brain, the eyes, gastrointestinal tract, etc.
2. Water moderates body temperature. It has a high specific heat
capacity, which means that a lot of energy is required to raise the
temperature of water by 1°C. Hence, water helps the cell resist
changes in temperature.
3. It plays a role in evaporative cooling. Water is a component of sweat,
which removes heat from the body when it evaporates.
4. Water is a reactant in certain chemical reactions in the body, such as
the
hydrolysis of food molecules during digestion.
5. Water is a component of body fluids with lubricative or protective
properties such as lubricants in joints, coating the stomach lining,
mucus in the oesophagus, and cervical mucus in the female
reproductive system. Biological Molecules 11
6. Water is an extremely versatile solvent. More things dissolve in
water than in any other solvent. Because of this property,
(a) water is the medium in which chemical reactions take place in
living organisms, and
(b) water serves as a transportation medium. It transports water-
soluble food products from the small intestine to other parts of
the body and waste materials from cells to the excretory organs
for removal. It transports hormones to the target organs or
tissues. Blood is the main transport medium in the body.
3.2 Role of water in plants

1. Water is a key reactant in photosynthetic processes.
2. It provides physical support to the plant in the form of turgor pressure.
3. Water is required to transport dissolved mineral salts from the roots
to other parts of the plant through xylem vessels.
4. Water is required to transport sugars made in the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
3.3 Simple carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen with the general formula for most carbohydrates being
CnH2nOn.
2. Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main groups: monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides depending on the number of basic
sugar units they have.
3. Monosaccharides are the most basic unit of carbohydrates and are
the simplest form of sugars. Common examples are glucose,
fructose and galactose.
4. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides undergo a
condensation reaction. Common examples are maltose (formed by
2 glucose units), sucrose (1 glucose, 1 fructose) and lactose (1
galactose, 1 glucose).
5. A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction when two molecules
combine together to form a single molecule with the elimination of
a water molecule.
6. A disaccharide can be split into its component monosaccharides by
undergoing hydrolysis in which a water molecule is added to the
disaccharide to break it down into its component monosaccharides.
Enzymes are usually required for this process.
12 TOPIC 3
3.4 Test for reducing sugars
1. The test for reducing sugars is known as the Benedict’s test.
2. The main reagent is Benedict’s solution which contains copper(II) sulfate.
3. Reducing sugars can reduce copper(II) ions in Benedict’s solution to
copper(I) in the form of copper(I) oxide, a brick-red precipitate.
4. Reducing sugars are glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose and
lactose. Sucrose is not a reducing sugar.
5. Procedure: Add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution to 2 cm 3 of sample
solution and mix the contents thoroughly. Heat the test tube in a
boiling water bath for 5 minutes. If the sample is an insoluble solid,
crush it or cut it into small pieces before adding 2 cm3 of water and
2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution.
6. The colour of the solution changes from green to orange to brick-
red with increasing amounts of reducing sugars present.
3.5 Complex carbohydrates

1. Polysaccharides include starch, glycogen and cellulose. They are
long chains of glucose molecules linked together in condensation
reactions. Each chain may contain thousands of glucose molecules.
2. In starch, the glucose molecules are linked together in long straight
chains or branched chains. It is a storage molecule in plants.
A starch molecule
3. In glycogen, the glucose molecules are linked together in highly

branched chains. It is a storage molecule in animals and fungi.
A glycogen molecule
Biological Molecules13
4. In cellulose, the glucose molecules are linked in long straight
chains. The linkage between the glucose molecules is not the same
as that in starch. Cellulose is the tough material found in cell walls
of plants. Cellulose is the fibre necessary in a healthy diet.
A cellulose molecule
5. Glycogen and starch are the storage forms of glucose in animal and
plant cells respectively. This is because
(a) they are insoluble in water and do not affect water potential in cells,
(b) they are too large to diffuse out of the cells and thus remain
within the cells,
(c) they have compact shapes, and
(d) they can be easily hydrolysed into glucose for cellular respiration.
3.6 Test for starch

1. The test for starch is called the iodine test. Iodine is added to the
sample and the colour change (if any) is observed.
2. Procedure: Add a few drops of iodine solution to the sample. If the
sample contains starch, it will turn blue-black in colour.
3.7 Fats
1. Fats (lipids) are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. There is no general formula for fats. The ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen is much higher in fats than in carbohydrates,
where the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2 : 1.
2. Fats are made from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and
fatty acids. Each fat molecule contains a glycerol molecule and 3
fatty acids. Each fatty acid is linked to the glycerol backbone in a
condensation reaction.
fatty acid
glycer
fatty acid
ol
fatty acid
A fat molecule
3. When 3 water molecules are added to a fat molecule with the help
of enzymes in a hydrolysis reaction, the fat molecule breaks down
into fatty acids and glycerol.
14 TOPIC 3
4. Fats are storage molecules that can store a large amount of energy.
5. They are also an important component of cell membranes.
6. Fats are used to make steroids and certain hormones.
7. Fats are also used as insulating material to prevent the loss of body
heat.
8. Fat is also a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins.
3.8 Test for fats

1. The test for fats is known as the ethanol emulsion test.
2. Ethanol is added to the sample to allow the fats present in it to
dissolve. Water is then added to the ethanolic mixture. Since fats
do not dissolve in water, they precipitate out of the solution to give
a cloudy white emulsion.
3. Procedure: Add 2 cm3 of ethanol to the sample in a test tube and
shake the contents thoroughly. Add 2 cm 3 of water and mix the
contents. If fats are present, a white emulsion will be observed.
3.9 Proteins
1. Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They may also contain sulfur.
2. In the form of enzymes, proteins participate in all cellular processes
and are responsible for almost everything living organisms do.
3. There are tens of thousands of different proteins, each serving a
different function and having a unique structure.
4. Proteins are made up of amino acids.
5. An amino acid is a molecule with the general structure:
R
side
chai
n
amino
group COOH acidic
(carboxyl)
NH2 CH group
An amino
acid
6. There are about 20 different naturally-occurring amino acids which

have different side chains (also known as R groups).
7. 15
Biological Molecules Amino acids are combined in many different ways to form
different protein molecules.
8. Amino acids link up in a condensation reaction to form a polypeptide
chain. The bonds between the amino acids are known as peptide
bonds.
9. Proteins are made of one or more polypeptide chains twisted, folded
and coiled into a unique 3-dimensional structure.
10. The bonds between the amino acids, peptide bonds, are strong but
the bonds that hold the 3-dimensional coiled structures together
are weak and can easily be broken by heat or by changes in pH.
Examples of such bonds are hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions and
van der Waals interactions.
weak bonds
polypepti
de
backbone
A protein molecule
11. When these bonds are broken, the protein loses its 3-dimensional
conformation. This process is called denaturation. Proteins can be
denatured if they are heated or placed in an environment with
unsuitable pH. Denaturation usually leads to loss of function as
proteins require their 3-dimensional shape to function. Denaturation
can also cause proteins to lose their solubility and precipitate out of
the solution.
12. Many proteins are enzymes, which catalyse chemical reactions within our
body.
13. Structural proteins found in muscle cells play a role in movement.
14. Other proteins take part in cell growth, repair and reproduction.
15. Antibodies are proteins in our body that help us fight diseases.
3.10 Test for proteins

1. The test for proteins is known as the biuret test.
2. The main reagents are sodium hydroxide and copper(II) sulfate.
3. Procedure: Add 1 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution to 1 cm3 of
sample solution in a test tube and mix thoroughly. Add a few drops
of 1% copper(II) sulfate solution dropwise into the mixture, shaking
16 TOPIC 3after each drop. Allow the mixture to stand for 5 minutes.
4. If proteins are present, a violet colouration will be observed.
3.11 Enzymes
1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical
reactions without being altered in the reaction. They are made of
proteins.
2. Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of a chemical
reaction. Activation energy is the amount of energy needed for a
reaction to take place.
3. Enzymes allow biochemical reactions to take place without drastic
conditions such as high temperatures because less heat energy is
required to start a reaction.
4. Enzymes can break down or build up biological molecules.
5. Enzymes are required in small amounts because they remain
unchanged in the chemical reactions they catalyse and can be
reused.
6. They are substrate-specific. Substrates are the reactants that an
enzyme acts on. Each enzyme can only act on the particular
substrate of the reaction they are supposed to catalyse. For
example, amylase can only digest starch and not cellulose even
though they are both polymers of glucose.
7. Therefore, each enzyme catalyses a different reaction. This is due
to its unique 3-dimensional structure.
3.12 ‘Lock and key’ hypothesis

1. The ‘lock and key’ hypothesis relates enzyme specificity to the
presence of active sites. An active site is the region on an enzyme
molecule that the substrate binds to. It is usually a pocket or groove
on the surface of the enzyme that is part of the enzyme’s unique 3-
dimensional structure.
2. The shape of the active site conforms to the substrate. Only the
correct substrate is able to fit into the active site.
3. The process begins when the substrate molecule binds to the active
site of the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate complex.
4. The reaction is then catalysed at the active sites to convert the
substrate into product molecules.
5. The product molecules depart from the active site, leaving the
enzyme free to catalyse another reaction.
6. The diagram below illustrates the ‘lock and key’ hypothesis for a
reaction in which an enzyme breaks down a substrate molecule into
2 product molecules:
products
substrate
active site
enzyme
enzyme + enzyme- enzyme- enzyme +
substrate substrate products products
entering active complex complex leaving active
site site
Process of an enzyme-catalysed reaction
3.13 Effects of temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions

1 . The effects of temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalysed
reactions is shown in the graph below:
at optimum temperature
reaction
rate of
0 temperature
Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction
2. At low temperatures, enzymes are inactive and the rate of

reaction is very low. Substrate and enzyme molecules have little
kinetic energy, hence the frequency of collision is low. In addition,
most substrate molecules do not contain sufficient energy to
overcome the activation energy required to start a reaction.
3. As temperature increases, the rate of enzyme activity increases.
Enzyme activity doubles with every 10°C rise in temperature. This is
18 TOPIC 3because the reactants have higher levels of energy, and the
substrate molecules are able to collide with active sites more
frequently.
4. At the optimum temperature, enzyme activity is the highest.
5. As the temperature increases beyond the optimum temperature,
enzyme activity drops sharply. This is because enzymes are made
of proteins, which are denatured at high temperatures. The enzyme
loses its 3-dimensional structure and active site conformation due
to the breaking of the weak bonds that hold the structure together.
6. At extremely high temperatures, the enzyme is completely
denatured and the rate of reaction drops to zero.
3.14 Effects of pH on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions

1. The graph showing the effects of pH on the rate of enzyme-
catalysed reactions is shown in the graph below:
at
optim
um
pH
reaction
rate of
4 5 6 7 8 9 pH
Effect of pH on the rate of reaction of amylase
2. Enzyme activity is the highest at the optimum pH of the enzyme.

3. As the pH increases or decreases from the optimum, enzyme
activity sharply decreases. This is because the hydrogen bonds and
ionic bonds that hold the 3-dimensional structure are disrupted. The
shape of the active site is changed as the enzyme is denatured.
4. At extreme pH levels, the enzyme is completely denatured and the
rate of reaction drops to zero.
5. The optimum pH for each enzyme differs. For example, pepsin
works best under the acidic conditions in the stomach, while
intestinal enzymes work best under alkaline conditions.
TOPIC Nutrition in Humans
4
Objectives
(a) describe the functions of main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated
organs: mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall
bladder, liver, ileum, colon, rectum, anus, in relation to ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and egestion of food, as appropriate
(b) describe peristalsis in terms of rhythmic wave-like contractions of the muscles to
mix and propel the contents of the alimentary canal
(c) describe the functions of enzymes (e.g. amylase, maltase, protease, lipase) in
digestion, listing the substrates and end-products
(d) describe the structure of a villus and its role, including the role of capillaries and
lacteals in absorption
(e) state the function of the hepatic portal vein as the transport of blood rich in
absorbed nutrients from the small intestine to the liver
(f) state the role of the liver in
• carbohydrate metabolism
• fat digestion
• breakdown of red blood cells
• metabolism of amino acids and the formation of urea
• breakdown of alcohol
(g) describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control,
depressant, effect on reaction times, damage to liver and social implications
20 TOPIC 4
4.1 Overview of the digestive system
salivary gland
tongu
salivary duct
e salivary
buccal cavity (mouth cavity)
gland pharynx
epiglottis
oesophagus
diaphragm stomac
live h
r gall spleen
bladder
pyloric sphincter
bile duct
pancreas
duodenu
pancreatic duct
m colon
jejunu
m
caecu
m
appendi ileum
x
rectu
m The human digestive system
anu
s
1. Human digestion takes place in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.
2. The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, the oesophagus, the
stomach, the small and large intestines and the anus.
3. Other organs associated with digestion include the liver, pancreas,
gall bladder and salivary glands.
Nutrition in Humans21
4.2 The mouth
1. Food enters the body through the mouth, or buccal cavity. Physical
and chemical digestion takes place in the mouth. In the mouth:
(a) Teeth start to break the food into smaller pieces. This makes
food easier to swallow and also increases the surface area to
volume ratio of the food for the digestive enzymes to work on
more efficiently.
(b) Salivary glands secrete saliva which moistens the food and
makes it easier to swallow. Saliva also contains salivary
amylase, an enzyme which breaks down starch into maltose.
The optimum pH of salivary amylase is 7.
(c) The tongue rolls the food into a bolus, which is then swallowed.
4.3 The oesophagus

1. The food passes through the pharynx and enters the oesophagus.
The oesophagus is a muscular tube that leads to the stomach.
2. It is made up of two layers of smooth muscle. The external layer is
the longitudinal muscle and the inner layer is the circular muscle.
These muscles found along much of the entire length of the
alimentary canal.
3. These muscles contract and relax alternately to cause wave-like
contractions known as peristalsis.
4. Food moves along the oesophagus due to peristalsis.
5. Digestion of starch by salivary amylase continues in the oesophagus.
4.4 The stomach

1. The food reaches the stomach, which is a muscular bag with elastic walls.
2. The stomach walls form deep pits that contain gastric glands. These
glands secrete mucus which protects the stomach walls. They also
secrete gastric acid and pepsinogen.
3. Peristalsis in the stomach churns the food to break the food up and
mix it thoroughly with gastric juice.
4. Gastric acid is hydrochloric acid with pH 2. Gastric acid
(a) stops the activity of salivary amylase by denaturing it,
(b) changes the inactive form of pepsin, pepsinogen, into the active
form, pepsin, and
(c) kills germs and bacteria.
5. Pepsin is a protease. The optimum pH for pepsin is about 2.
22 TOPIC 4
6. Food leaves the stomach in small quantities at regular intervals,
and enters the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter as a
semi-liquid mass known as chyme. The pyloric sphincter is a ring of
muscle at the base of the stomach that allows chyme to pass into
the small intestine in small amounts at a time. Allowing the food to
pass into the small intestine in small quantities ensures that the
food can be completely digested by the enzymes in the intestines.
If the person had a heavy meal, the contents of the stomach may
be emptied over a period of up to three hours.
4.5 The small intestine

1. The small intestine is divided into three parts: the duodenum,
jejunum and ileum.
2. Food is moved through the small intestine by peristalsis.
3. In the duodenum, chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive
juices from the pancreas, liver, gall bladder and intestinal glands.
4. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which is an alkaline solution
containing trypsinogen, pancreatic amylase and pancreatic lipase.
Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum through the pancreatic duct.
5. Intestinal juice contains intestinal lipase, enterokinase, erepsin,
maltase, lactase, sucrase and several other enzymes.
6. All enzymes in the small intestine have an optimum pH under alkaline
conditions.
7. Bile, an alkaline greenish-yellow fluid, is produced by the liver and
stored in the gall bladder. It passes into the small intestine through
the bile duct. Bile breaks up large fat droplets into smaller fat
droplets in a process called emulsification. This increases the
surface area to volume ratio of the fats for lipases on work on and
speeds up fat digestion.
8. Action of enzymes involved in carbohydrate digestion in the small
intestine:
pancreatic
starch amylas lactase
maltos e
e maltas
sucros e
e
sucras
lactos
e e
maltose
g ucose + fructose
2 molecules of glucose
l glucose + galactose
9. Action of enzymes involved in fat digestion in the small intestine:
lipase
fats 3 fatty acids + glycerol
Nutrition in Humans23
10. Action of enzymes involved in protein digestion in the small intestine:
enterokina
trypsinog trypsin
se trypsin
en polypeptid
peptidases /
proteins erepsin es
polypeptid amino acids

es
Note: Enterokinase converts the inactive form of trypsin,

trypsinogen, into trypsin.
11. Food is completely digested in the small intestine. The jejunum and
ileum function mainly to absorb nutrients and water.
12. Nutrients have to be absorbed into the body from the lumen of the
small intestine. The small intestine is adapted for this role by
having:
(a) An inner wall with large circular folds
(b) Finger-like projections on the inner wall called villi
(c) Each epithelial cell on the villi has smaller projections called microvilli
13. These adaptations increase the surface area of the small intestine,
resulting in a larger surface for absorption.
14. The villi have thin walls (one-cell thick) so that food molecules
diffuse over a shorter distance.
15. Within each villus is a network of capillaries and a small vessel called a
lacteal.
16. Nutrients are absorbed across the wall of the small intestine and
into the capillaries or lacteal. The lacteal transports fats away from
the small intestine while the capillaries transport sugars and amino
acids.
lacteal
capillary
network
villus
epitheliu
m
A villus
17. The transport of food away from the small intestine sets up a
concentration gradient for diffusion.
24 TOPIC 4
18. Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion or active
transport depending on the concentration gradient.
19. Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the epithelial cells of
the villi and recombined within those cells to form fats, which are
transported into a lacteal.
20. Water is absorbed by passive diffusion throughout the length of the
small intestine and mineral salts are absorbed in the ileum.
21. The food eventually leaves the small intestine and enters the large
intestine.
4.6 The large intestine

1. The large intestine or colon is shaped like an inverted U and has the
function of absorbing the remaining water and mineral salts that
have not been absorbed by the small intestine. Note that most of
the water that was present in the small intestine (from liquid in
ingested food as well as the water content in intestinal mucus and
digestive juices) had been absorbed by the small intestine.
2. The undigested waste matter moves along the large intestine by
peristalsis, getting progressively drier.
3. The undigested waste matter comprises mainly cellulose, which is
indigestible to humans.
4. The waste matter ends up at the rectum where it is stored before it
can be eliminated from the body through the anus. The elimination
of waste material is called egestion.
4.7 Transport of products of digestion

1. As absorption takes place in the small intestine, the blood in the
capillaries of the villi becomes very rich in simple sugars and
amino acids.
2. The blood capillaries of the villi converge into a large blood vessel called
the
hepatic portal vein, which leads to the liver.
3. The blood from the small intestine travels to the liver via the
hepatic portal vein. The composition of blood in this vein varies
greatly throughout the day depending on whether absorption of
nutrients is occurring in the small intestine.
4.8 Role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism

1. The liver is involved in carbohydrate metabolism and regulation of
blood glucose concentration.
2. When the glucose level in blood is high, the islets of Langerhans in
the pancreas secrete insulin, which is a hormone that stimulates the
liver cells to convert glucose into glycogen. The liver cells convert
excess glucose in the blood from the hepatic portal vein into
glycogen, which is stored in the liver.
3. 25
Nutrition in Humans When the glucose level in blood is low, the islets of Langerhans
secrete glucagon, which is a hormone that stimulates the liver cells
to convert stored glycogen in the liver back into glucose. The
glucose is released into the blood leaving the liver, which supplies
glucose to the body cells.
4.9 Role of the liver in fat metabolism
1. The liver produces bile, an alkaline liquid which helps fat digestion
by emulsifying fats.
2. It oxidises fats to produce energy.
3. It converts excess carbohydrates and proteins to fatty acids and
glycerol which are exported and stored as fatty tissue.
4.10 Role of the liver in breakdown of red blood cells

1. Aging red blood cells are removed by the spleen.
2. Haemoglobin from the red blood cells is brought to the liver, where
it is broken down. The iron from the haemoglobin is stored in the
liver while the other metabolic by-products of the breakdown form
bile pigments.
4.11 Role of the liver in protein metabolism

1. The liver is involved in the synthesis of plasma proteins e.g.
albumin, and blood clotting factors e.g. fibrinogen.
2. The liver is responsible for the deamination of excess amino acids,
which refers to the removal of the amino group (–NH2) from an
amino acid.
3. The amino group is converted into ammonia, which is toxic to cells,
before it is further converted to urea by enzymes in the liver, and
subsequently removed in urine.
4. The remnants of the amino acid are converted to glucose.
4.12 Role of the liver in detoxification

1. The liver breaks down toxic substances for excretion in urine or bile.
2. It also breaks down alcohol to acetaldehyde through the action of
an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase.
3. Acetaldehyde is then converted to harmless acetic acid by
acetaldehyde dehydrogenase.
4. Alcohol irritates oesophageal, stomach and intestinal linings.
Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to inflammation and
ulcers.
5. Excessive alcohol consumption can also lead to inflammation,
scarring and destruction of liver cells.
6. The liver cells are replaced with fibrous scar tissue in a disease
called cirrhosis of the liver, leading to loss of liver function.
26 TOPIC 4
TOPIC Nutrition in Plants
5
Objectives
(a) identify and label the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen
in transverse section using the light microscope and describe the significance of
these features in terms of their functions, such as the
• distribution of chloroplasts in photosynthesis
• stomata and mesophyll cells in gaseous exchange
• vascular bundles in transport
(b) state the equation, in words and symbols, for photosynthesis
(c) describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants
(d) state that chlorophyll traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for
the formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent uses
(e) investigate and discuss the effects of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in submerged
aquatic plant)
(f) discuss light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature as limiting
factors on the rate of photosynthesis
5.1 External leaf structure

1. The leaf blade or lamina is thin, with a large surface area to volume
ratio, increasing sunlight absorbed for photosynthesis and diffusion
of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
2. The leaf stalk or petiole holds the leaf away from the stem so that
the leaf can get more sunlight.
3. The mid-rib and vein network carry food substances away from the
leaves, and water and mineral salts to the leaves.
Nutrition in Plants27
5.2 Internal leaf structure
1. The diagram below shows the cross section of a dicotyledonous leaf
as seen under a microscope:
cuticle
upper vascula
epidermis r
bundle
chloroplast
palisade
mesophy
ll
xylem
phloe
spong m
y
mesophy
ll
lower
guar stom epidermi
d a s
cell
Cross section of a dicotyledonous leaf
2. The upper epidermis is a single layer of irregular, closely packed cells

covered by a layer of waxy cuticle. The cuticle protects the
epidermis and prevents excessive water loss through evaporation.
It is transparent to allow sunlight to pass through. Epidermal cells
contain no chloroplasts.
3. Palisade mesophyll cells are columnar in shape and closely packed.
They contain a lot of chloroplasts to increase absorption of sunlight
for photosynthesis.
4. Spongy mesophyll cells are irregular in shape with numerous
intercellular air spaces around them to allow for fast diffusion of
carbon dioxide, which enters the leaf through the stomata, to all
photosynthetic cells. They contain fewer chloroplasts than palisade
mesophyll cells. They are covered with a thin film of moisture so
that carbon dioxide can dissolve in it.
5. Within the mesophyll layers are the vascular bundles containing
xylem and phloem tissue. This brings the transport tissue into close
contact with the photosynthetic tissue, allowing water and mineral
salts to be distributed to the photosynthetic cells efficiently and
food products to be brought to other parts of the plant.
6. The lower epidermis is also a single layer of closely-packed cells
covered by a layer of waxy cuticle.
7. Guard cells are bean-shaped, chloroplast-containing cells located in
the lower epidermis. They control the opening and closing of the
stoma (plural: stomata), the gap between the guard cells. The
28 TOPIC 5
stomata allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in, oxygen to diffuse out
and water vapour to escape.
5.3 Mode of operation of guard cells
epiderm
al
cells
guard cell
with
chloroplas
ts
stom
stom a
a close
ope
n
Open stoma Closed stoma
1. Plants open their stomata during the day for carbon dioxide intake
and close their stomata during the night to minimise water loss
through transpiration.
2. Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata through
regulation of water potential within themselves.
3. Photosynthesis in guard cell chloroplasts provides the energy for
the uptake of potassium ions into the cell.
4. This lowers the water potential within the guard cells, causing water
to enter by osmosis.
5. Each guard cell has a thicker cellulose cell wall on the side
surrounding the stomata, as compared to the side adjacent to
neighbouring epidermal cells. When water enters the cell, the side
away from the stoma, being thinner, expands more than the side
framing the stoma. This causes the cells to become curved such
that the stoma opens.
6. When there is excessive water loss, even during the day, the guard
cells lose turgor and become flaccid, causing the stoma to close.
5.4 Intake of carbon dioxide

1. When carbon dioxide within the leaf is used up by photosynthesis,
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the leaf becomes lower than
that in atmospheric air.
2. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the intercellular air spaces of the
spongy mesophyll layer through the stomatal openings.
3. The mesophyll cells exposed to the intercellular air spaces are
covered by a thin film of water. Carbon dioxide dissolves in it and
diffuses into the cells.
5.5 Intake of water
1. The vascular bundles in the stem pass through the petioles and
enter the leaves.
2. Within the leaves, they branch throughout the mesophyll layers,
forming leaf veins.
3. Water from the roots travels through the xylem vessels in the
vascular bundles and enters the leaves.
4. Once out of the xylem vessels, water travels from cell to cell through
osmosis.
5.6 Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert carbon
dioxide and water into sugars using sunlight as energy in the
presence of chlorophyll.
2. Equation for photosynthesis:
light
6CO2 + C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
12H2O energy
chlorophyl
l glucose + oxygen + water
carbon dioxide +
water light
energy
chlorophyl
l
3. Photosynthesis is split into 2 stages: light-dependent stage and light-
independent stage.
4. Light-dependent stage:
(a) Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and used to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a process called photolysis.
(b) The oxygen atoms combine to form oxygen gas which is a
product of photosynthesis.
(c) Other high-energy molecules are generated for use in the light-
independent stage to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
5. Light-independent stage:
(a) The chemical energy stored during the light reactions as high-
energy molecules is used in a series of reactions to convert
carbon dioxide into carbohydrate.
(b) Hydrogen from the light reactions is used as a reducing agent in
the process.
30 TOPIC 5(c) The carbohydrate formed in this stage is converted to glucose
and other carbohydrates by enzymes.
(d) No light energy is required in this stage.
5.7 Limiting factors on rate of photosynthesis
1. Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature are
limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis.
2. At a constant temperature and carbon dioxide concentration, the
rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing light intensity until
it reaches a plateau.
3. When the plateau is reached, light is no longer the limiting factor in
the reaction. The concentration of carbon dioxide becomes the
limiting factor.
4. Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide raises the plateau
reached.
5. Increasing the temperature over a certain range has little effect
at low light intensities but increases the rate of photosynthesis at
high light intensities.
high carbon dioxide

concentration
rate of low carbon dioxide
photosynthe concentration
sis
light intensity
Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
6. Both light and dark reactions involve enzymes which would be

denatured at a high temperature.
rate of
photosynthe under 0.03% CO2 and fixed light intensity
sis
temperature / °C
Effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
TOPIC Transport in Flowering Plants
6
Objectives
(a) identify the positions and explain the functions of xylem vessels, phloem (sieve tube
elements and companion cells) in sections of a herbaceous dicotyledonous leaf and
stem, under the light microscope
(b) relate the structure and functions of root hairs to their surface area, and to water and ion
uptake
(c) explain the movement of water between plant cells, and between them and the
environment in terms of water potential. (Calculations on water potential are not
required.)
(d) outline the pathway by which water is transported from the roots to the leaves
through the xylem vessels
(e) define the term transpiration and explain that transpiration is a consequence of
gaseous exchange in plants
(f) describe and explain
• the effects of variation of air movement, temperature, humidity and light intensity
on transpiration rate
• how wilting occurs
(g) define the term translocation as the transport of food in the phloem tissue and
illustrate the process through translocation studies
6.1 Transport vessels

1. Vascular tissues of the plant consist of xylem vessels and the phloem.
2. Xylem vessels are elongated hollow tubes that are made of xylem
cells linked end to end. Xylem cells are dead at maturity.
3. Functions of xylem tissue:
(a) Conduct water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves
(b) Mechanical support
4. Adaptations to these functions include:
(a) Absence of protoplasm and cross-walls which could impede
water flow through the lumen (central space)
(b) Deposition of lignin on the cell walls which strengthens
vessel walls, providing support
32 TOPIC 6
lumen lume lume lumen
n n
lignin
Xylem vessels
5. The phloem tissue consists of sieve tube elements and companion cells.
6. Sieve tube elements are elongated thin-walled living cells. They have
degenerate protoplasm, which means they lack organelles such as
the nucleus, ribosomes and the large central vacuole.
7. Sieve tube elements are arranged end to end, with porous walls
called sieve plates between them.
8. There is one companion cell closely associated with each sieve tube
element. Companion cells contain nuclei, cytoplasm and numerous
mitochondria, and are responsible for performing the metabolic
functions of the sieve tube elements.
9. The function of the phloem is to conduct sugars and amino acids
from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
10. Adaptations to this function include:
(a) Porous sieve plates that allow uninterrupted flow of food
substances through the sieve tubes
(b) Numerous mitochondria in the companion cells that provide
energy for them to help load sieve tube members with sugar
Transport in Flowering Plants33

sieve plate
sieve ube cell

t
companion cell
sieve plate
Phloem vessels
6.2 Position of vascular tissue in dicotyledonous stems

1. In dicotyledonous stems, the vascular bundles are arranged in a
ring around a central pith.
2. Between the ring of vascular tissue and the epidermis is the cortex.
The epidermis is covered by waterproof cuticle that minimises
water loss in the stem.
3. Within the vascular bundles, the phloem tissue is found on the
side facing the cortex and the xylem on the side facing the pith.
Between the xylem and phloem is a layer called the cambium.
Cambium cells can differentiate into new xylem and phloem
tissues.
4. Food is stored in the cortex and pith.
pith
xylem
vascula cambiu
r
bundle m
phloem
epidermis
cortex
Transverse section of a stem
34 TOPIC 6
6.3 Position of vascular tissue in dicotyledonous roots
1. The outermost layer of the root is the piliferous layer. It is a
single layer of cells bearing root hairs.
2. The layer below the epidermis is called the cortex. It consists of storage
tissue.
3. The central region of the root contains xylem and phloem tissues.
The xylem radiates from the centre, with phloem tissues
alternating between them.
endodermis
epidermis
root hair cortex

phloem
xylem
Transverse section of a root
6.4 Root hair cells

1. Root hairs are tubular outgrowths of root epidermal cells. Each root
hair is usually an outgrowth of a single epidermal cell, so they are
one-cell thick.
2. Being long and narrow, they have a large surface area to volume
ratio for rapid absorption of water and minerals.
3. The cell surface membrane controls the water potential of the cell
sap. The cell sap has a lower water potential than the soil solution,
causing osmosis to take place.
soil
particles
cellulos
e cell
wall
root hair
vacuole
Transport in Flowering Plants35 nucleus
Root hair cell
6.5 Absorption of water and minerals by root hair cells
1. Soil particles are usually coated with water and dissolved mineral salts.
2. The cell sap in the root hair cells contains sugars and ions that
cause it to be at a lower water potential than soil solution.
3. Water moves across the partially permeable cell surface
membrane from the soil solution into the cell sap by osmosis.
4. The cell sap now has a higher water potential than the cell sap in
the adjoining cell.
5. Water moves across the cell surface membranes into the
adjoining cell by osmosis.
6. This process continues until the water enters the xylem vessels
and moves up the plant.
cortex
phloem
xylem piliferous layer
root hair
water entering
the root hair
The path of water through the root
6.6 Transportation of water from the roots to the leaves

1. Water travels from the roots to the leaves against gravity through
3 primary mechanisms:
(a) Root pressure
(b) Transpiration
(c) Capillary action
2. Root cells pump mineral salts into the xylem vessels using active
transport. This causes the water potential of the xylem vessels to
be lower than the water potential in the cortex cells. Water moves
into the xylem vessels by osmosis, creating a pressure that forces
water to move upwards. This is called root pressure.
3. Root pressure is not the main mechanism for movement of water in
most plants as it can only force water to travel a short distance.
4. Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the stomata of the
leaves through diffusion.
36 TOPIC 6
5. The stomata have to be open for carbon dioxide intake due to
photosynthesis. This allows the loss of water vapour from the
intercellular air spaces in the leaves as the air outside has a lower
water vapour concentration than the air inside the leaf.
Transpiration is the necessary cost of carbon dioxide intake.
6. However it is also responsible for the transpiration pull, which is the
main force that causes water to travel upwards in plants.
7. Transpiration pull is the suction force caused by transpiration that
pulls water up the xylem.
8. Capillary action is the tendency of water to travel up the narrow
xylem tubes due to the interactions between water molecules and
the xylem walls. This is usually observed in young plants with
narrow veins and is not significant in larger plants.
6.7 Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

1. Water vapour in the intercellular air space diffuses out of the stomata.
2. Evaporation from the thin film of water that coats the mesophyll
cells replaces the water lost through transpiration.
3. As water evaporates from the mesophyll cells, the water potential
of the cell sap decreases. The mesophyll cells absorb water from
neighbouring cells closer to the vascular bundles by osmosis. These
cells, in turn, absorb water from the xylem vessels.
4. This creates a suction force that pulls the entire column of water up
the xylem vessels.
5. Factors affecting transpiration are:
(a) Humidity of the surroundings – Humidity affects the
concentration gradient of water vapour between the
intercellular air spaces in the leaf and the external environment.
The higher the humidity, the higher the concentration of water
vapour in the external air. The diffusion gradient for water
vapour is less steep so the rate of transpiration is lowered.
(b) Air movement – Wind removes the water vapour that
accumulates outside the stomata due to transpiration. This
maintains the steep diffusion gradient of water vapour. The rate
of transpiration will remain high as long as water vapour is
continually being removed by wind.
(c) Temperature – Heat increases the rate of evaporation and also
increases the movement of water molecules. The higher the
temperature, the higher the rate of evaporation as well as the
rate of movement of water vapour, and thus, the higher the
rate of transpiration.
(d) Light intensity – Light intensity causes stomatal opening. Since
transpiration takes place mainly through the stomata, the rate of
transpiration
Transport in Flowering Plants 37 will increase with increased light intensity.
6. Wilting takes place when the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate
of water intake by the roots. Plant cells lose water and become
flaccid.
sectio
n of
water leaf
evaporates
from
surfaces of
mesophyll
cells into the
intercellular
air space water vapour diffuses
stoma out of the leaf through the
stomata
The path of water in a leaf
6.8 Translocation
1. Translocation is the transport of sugars from the leaves to other
parts of the plant. This is done by the phloem tissues. The leaves,
which supply sugar, are known as the source while other parts of
the plant which require sugar are known as the sink.
2. Energy is required for this process as the mode of uptake of sugars
into sieve tube elements in the leaves is active transport.
3. At the end of the sieve tube where sugars are being unloaded for
use, sugars are also removed from the sieve tube by active
transport.
6.9 Translocation studies

1. To show that translocation occurs in the phloem, radioactive carbon
dioxide may be introduced to the plant. After a few hours, slices of
tissues are removed from the stems to determine where
radioactivity, which indicates the presence of radioactive sugars,
first appears.
2. Translocation occurs from source to sink and the direction of the
movement may be upwards or downwards. To study the direction of
translocation in a plant, a ring of bark, containing the phloem, is cut
away from the stem. A few days later, a bulge has formed on top of
the cut. This is formed due to an accumulation of phloem sap, as it
is unable to move downwards towards the roots.
3. When an aphid is introduced to a plant, it will insert its proboscis
into the stem to feed. The rest of the aphid is removed from its
proboscis and phloem sap will continue to exude from the free end
of the proboscis, which shows that there is pressure in phloem sap.
38 TOPIC 6This pressure is formed due active loading of sugar at the source,
which will cause water to enter the phloem to generate a region of
high pressure, and active unloading of sugar at the sink, which will
cause water to exit the phloem, generating a region of low
pressure.
TOPIC Transport in Humans
7
Objectives
(a) identify the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney
(b) state the role of blood in transport and defence
• red blood cells – haemoglobin and oxygen transport
• plasma – transport of blood cells, ions, soluble food substances, hormones,
carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins, plasma proteins
• white blood cells – phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection
• platelets – fibrinogen to fibrin, causing clotting
(c) list the different ABO blood groups and all possible combinations for the donor and
recipient in blood transfusions
(d) relate the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries to their functions
(e) describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
(f) describe the structure and function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction
and the working of valves
(g) outline the cardiac cycle in terms of what happens during systole and diastole.
(Histology of the heart muscle, names of nerves and transmitter substances are
not required.)
(h) describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries and
list the possible causes, such as diet, stress and smoking, stating the possible
preventative measures
7.1 Overview of the human circulatory system

1. The components of the circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels
and
blood.
2. Blood passes through the heart twice in a complete circuit. This
is termed double circulation.
3. Double circulation consists of:
(a) Systemic circulation – Carries oxygenated blood (oxygen-rich)
from the heart to all body organs and returns oxygen-poor
blood to the heart
(b) Pulmonary circulation – Carries deoxygenated blood (oxygen-
poor) from the heart to the lungs for gaseous exchange before
returning blood to the heart for transport to the body organs
via systemic circulation
Transport in Humans39
4. The three main types of blood vessels are:
(a) Arteries – Vessels that carry blood away from the heart to body
organs. Arteries branch into arterioles and then into capillaries.
(b) Capillaries – Microscopic vessels that connect between the
arteries and veins. They converge into venules which converge
into veins. They form networks called capillary beds that are
present in most body tissues.
(c) Veins – Vessels that return blood to the heart
5. The main vessels of the human circulatory system are:
(a) Pulmonary arteries that supply oxygen-poor blood from the heart
to the lungs
(b) Pulmonary veins that bring oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the
heart
(c) Aorta that supplies oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest
of the body. The aorta branches into: coronary arteries which
supply cardiac tissue, an anterior branch leading to the head
and arms and a posterior branch (dorsal aorta) leading to
abdominal organs and legs.
(d) Branches of the dorsal aorta include:
(i) Hepatic artery from the heart to the liver
(ii) Arteries to the alimentary canal
(iii) Renal arteries from the heart to the kidneys
(e) Vena cava consists of an anterior branch which returns blood
from the head and arms to the heart and a posterior branch.
(f) Posterior vena cava collects blood from the posterior parts of
the body, such as from:
(i) Hepatic veins from the liver to the heart
(ii) Renal veins from the kidneys to the heart
40 TOPIC 7
(g) Hepatic portal vein transports blood from the alimentary canal to
the liver. Blood from the liver is returned to the heart via the
hepatic vein.
head and arms
pulmona
ry pulmona
artery lung ry
vein
s
anterior
vena cava
posterio
r vena hear aorta
cava t
hepatic
vein
hepatic artery
liver
hepatic digestive tract
portal renal artery
vein
renal kidneys
vein
trunk and legs
The human circulatory system
7.2 Components of blood
1. Blood is a connective tissue consisting of 45% cells suspended in 55%
plasma.
2. Plasma is a clear yellowish liquid consisting mostly of water. It
contains soluble proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen, as well as
dissolved substances such as nutrients, waste products and ions.
3. Cellular elements in blood include:
(a) Red blood cells (erythrocytes) which function to transport
oxygen. Adaptations to this function are:
(i) Flattened, biconcave shape without nucleus or organelles at
maturity, increasing the surface area to volume ratio for
faster diffusion of oxygen
(ii) Contains haemoglobin, an iron-containing protein which is
able to bind reversibly with oxygen
(iii) Flexibility to turn bell-shaped in order to pass through the
narrow lumen of the capillaries
(b) White blood cells (leukocytes) are responsible for fighting
infections in the body. There are two main types of white blood
cells:
(i) Phagocytes have lobed (bi-lobed, tri-lobed, multi-lobed)
nuclei and granular cytoplasm. They engulf and digest
foreign particles such as bacteria.
(ii) Lymphocytes have a large rounded nucleus and a small
amount of cytoplasm. They produce antibodies to protect
the body from pathogens.
(c) Platelets (thrombocytes) are small cell fragments which have no
nuclei. They play a role in blood clotting.
Erythrocyte Phagocyt Lymphocyte

s e
42 TOPIC 7
7.3 Role of blood in transport
1. Blood plasma transports:
(a) Simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol from the
capillaries in the small intestine
(b) Waste products of metabolism from tissues:
(i) Carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ions. Carbon
dioxide enters the blood from body tissues by diffusion into
red blood cells, which contain the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase to convert it to hydrogen carbonate. The
hydrogen carbonate then diffuses out of red blood cells to
be carried in plasma. In the lungs, the reverse occurs.
(ii) Nitrogenous waste products such as urea, uric acid and
creatinine to the kidneys to be removed
(c) Hormones from the glands to target tissues
(d) Heat from muscles and liver throughout the body
2. Red blood cells transport:
(a) Oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin
(b) A small amount of carbon dioxide bound to haemoglobin
7.4 Transport of oxygen by red blood cells

1. As air enters the lungs, oxygen dissolves in the fluid covering the
moist epithelium of the alveoli.
2. The oxygen diffuses into the capillaries of the lungs where they
bind reversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
3. When blood is transported to oxygen-poor respiring tissues,
oxyhaemoglobin releases its oxygen which then diffuses into tissue
cells.
7.5 Immune function of white blood cells

1. Phagocytosis refers to the ingestion of harmful foreign particles,
bacteria and dead or dying cells by certain types of white blood
cells called phagocytes.
2. When phagocytes detect a foreign particle, it engulfs it by
stretching itself around the particle and enclosing it. It then digests
the particle and kills it.
3. After phagocytosis, these cells die and form pus.
4. Antibodies are special proteins found in blood and other bodily fluids
that help phagocytes identify and neutralise foreign particles.
Antibodies also activate other immune responses.
5. When pathogens enter the blood, they stimulate lymphocytes to
produce antibodies.
6. Antibodies may be present in the blood long after infection has
been cured, conferring immunity to that particular infection.
7.6 Tissue rejection

1. Tissue rejection occurs when the transplanted tissue is not
accepted by the body of the transplant recipient.
2. During tissue rejection, the tissues of the transplanted organ
are treated as foreign bodies by the recipient’s immune system
and are attacked by phagocytes. This causes the transplanted
tissue to fail.
3. Prevention of tissue rejection:
(a) Required tissue can be transplanted from genetically-similar donors.
(b) Tissue can be transplanted from one part of the body to
another, e.g. skin grafting, as the tissue will be recognised as
the recipient’s own tissue.
(c) Immunosuppressive drugs can be taken to suppress the
immune system of the recipient. Associated problems include:
(i) Lowered resistance to infection
(ii) Having to continue taking the drugs for their entire lifespan
7.7 Blood clotting

1. The blood clotting process begins at the site of injury when blood
vessels are damaged.
2. Platelets are activated, and the damaged tissue and activated
platelets release thrombokinase.
3. Thrombokinase converts plasma protein, prothrombin, into
thrombin in the presence of calcium and vitamin K.
4. Thrombin converts fibrinogen, a soluble plasma protein, to fibrin, an
insoluble protein that forms long threads.
5. Fibrin forms a mesh across the damaged surface and traps red
blood cells, forming a clot.
6. The clot prevents further blood loss, and also restricts the entry of
pathogens into the blood.
44 TOPIC 7
7.8 Blood groups
1. There are 4 blood groups: A, B, AB and O. This classification is
based on certain proteins present on the surfaces of red blood
cells.
2. These proteins can be recognised by antibodies present in the
blood plasma as either foreign or ‘self’.
3. If they are recognised as foreign, an immune response will be
mounted against the foreign blood, resulting in agglutination, where
the red blood cells clump together and are marked for
phagocytosis.
4. When no agglutination occurs, it shows the blood can be accepted
by the recipient.
5. Transfusion results between the different blood groups are shown below:
Recipient
Donor
A B AB O
A Accepte Rejected Accepte Rejected
d d
B Rejected Accepte Accepte Rejected
d d
AB Rejected Rejected Accepte Rejected
d
O Accepte Accepte Accepte Accepte
d d d d
7.9 Blood vessels and their functions

1. Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart.
2. They have thick, muscular and elastic walls that can withstand the
surge of the high pressure blood pumped out of the heart.
3. The arterial wall is divided into three layers. The outer layer is a
protective layer consisting of connective tissue and elastic fibre. The
middle layer consists of smooth muscle and more elastic fibres and
the innermost layer next to the lumen consists of the endothelium,
a single layer of flattened cells.
4. All arteries carry oxygenated blood with the exception of the pulmonary
arteries.
5. Arteries split up into arterioles which are structurally similar to
arteries but smaller in diameter.
6. Arterioles control blood flow into capillary beds by:
(a) Contracting the smooth muscle layer in the arteriole wall.
(b) Using sphincters, which are bands of smooth muscle located
where arterioles branch into capillaries. Contraction prevents
blood flow into capillary beds.
7. Capillaries are microscopic vessels with walls that are only one-cell
thick. Their walls consist of a layer of flattened cells called
endothelial cells.
8. The endothelium is partially permeable, allowing diffusion to occur.
9. Capillaries branch to form networks called capillary beds, which
infiltrate almost all tissues, allowing exchange of substances to
take place.
10. The extensive branching increases the total cross-sectional area of
the vessels, lowering the blood pressure in the capillaries and
hence the rate of blood flow, giving more time for the exchange of
substances.
11. Capillaries converge into venules which are small vessels
structurally similar to veins.
12. Venules converge to form veins.
13. Similar to arterial walls, the walls of veins consist of three layers.
14. However, the middle wall contains much less smooth muscle and
elastic fibres. Hence they are not as thick, muscular or elastic as
arteries. Therefore, a vein has a larger lumen as compared to an
artery with the same external diameter.
15. The blood pressure in the veins is much lower than that of the
arteries. Blood flows more slowly and smoothly so there is no need
for thick, muscular and elastic walls.
16. Blood flow through the veins is assisted by the presence of semi-
lunar valves and skeletal muscle action.
17. When we move, our skeletal muscles pinch the veins and move
blood through them.
18. Blood is prevented from flowing backwards by the semi-lunar
valves. Blood moving backwards causes the valves to close.
19. Veins carry blood back to the heart. The exceptions are portal
veins, which carry blood between two capillary beds, e.g. the
hepatic portal vein.
20. Veins carry deoxygenated blood with the exception of the pulmonary
veins.
46 TOPIC 7
outermost
layer
(connective
tissue) endotheliu lumen
m lume
n middle layer
(smooth muscle
middle layer and elastic fibres)
(smooth
muscle and endothelium
endotheliu
m elastic fibres)
Vein Capillary Artery
sectio
n of
valve
directio
directio
n of
n of
flow of
flow of
blood
blood
Semi-lunar valves in veins
7.10 Exchange of substances in capillaries

1. Capillaries are found between tissue cells.
2. As blood enters the capillaries, the narrow lumen of the capillaries
forces red blood cells to travel in a single line.
3. Rate of blood flow decreases, allowing more time for the exchange
of materials between tissue cells and red blood cells.
4. At the arterial end of capillaries, the blood pressure is high, forcing
plasma through capillary walls into tissues. Plasma proteins are
unable to pass through capillary walls.
5. The solution bathing tissue cells becomes known as tissue fluid, or
interstitial fluid.
6. There is a higher concentration of nutrients and oxygen in blood
than in the interstitial fluid. They diffuse across the endothelium of
the capillary into the interstitial fluid, and from there, across the
plasma membranes of tissue cells.
7. Waste materials from the tissue cells diffuse into the interstitial
fluid, where they are present in higher concentrations than within
the blood. They diffuse across the endothelium of the capillary into
blood and are transported to excretory organs for removal.
7.11 Structure of the heart
1. A diagram of the heart and its associated blood vessels is shown below:
pulmonary
artery aorta
anterior
pulmona
vena
cava
ry
right arter
atriu y
m
left
atrium
pulmonary
veins
pulmona
semi-lunar ry
valve veins
atrioventricular
valve semi-
lunar
valve
left
posterior
right ventricl atrioventricu
vena cava
ventric e lar valve
le
The human heart
2. The heart is mainly made up of cardiac muscle tissue surrounded
by a double- walled sac called a pericardium. The inner membrane
of the pericardium is connected to the outer layer of the cardiac
muscle. Between the two layers is the pericardial fluid, which
reduces friction when the heart is beating.
3. The four chambers of the heart are the right and left atria and ventricles.
4. The atria are the upper chambers of the heart, with relatively thin
walls. They collect blood returning to the heart and pump it into
the ventricles.
5. The ventricles have thick, muscular walls. The left ventricle has
thicker walls than the right ventricle, as it has to pump blood to
the rest of the body.
6. The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood and the left
side pumps oxygenated blood. The septum separating the right and
left sides prevent the blood from mixing, so that the maximum
amount of oxygen can be carried to the tissues.
7. Between the right atrium and ventricle is a valve called the tricuspid
valve which consists of three flaps attached to the walls of the right
ventricle by cord-like tendons called cordae tendineae.
48 TOPIC 7
8. Between the left atrium and left ventricle is a bicuspid valve (mitral
valve) which consists of two flaps, also attached by cordae
tendineae.
9. The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are collectively known as
atrioventricular valves.
10. Vessels associated with the heart are the anterior and posterior
venae cavae, pulmonary veins and artery, aorta and coronary
arteries. The coronary arteries are found on the heart surface itself,
and supply blood to the heart muscles.
11. Located at the start of the aorta and pulmonary arteries are semi-lunar
valves.
7.12 Cardiac cycle

1. One complete sequence of pumping and filling of the heart is called
the cardiac cycle.
2. The contraction phase is called systole and the relaxation phase is
called
diastole.
3. The cycle starts when the whole heart is relaxed. The right atrium
receives blood from the venae cavae and the left atrium receives
blood from the pulmonary veins.
4. The next stage is atrial systole. When the atria contract,
atrioventricular valves open and blood flows into the ventricles.
5. Next, the ventricles contract and atrioventricular valves close,
producing the ‘lub’ sound of the heartbeat. This is called ventricular
systole. The pressure in the ventricles increases, causing the semi-
lunar valves in the pulmonary artery and aorta to open. Blood flows
into the aorta and pulmonary artery. While the ventricles are
contracting, the atria relax in atrial diastole.
6. Finally, the ventricles relax. This is called ventricular diastole. The
semi-lunar valves shut because the ventricles are at a lower blood
pressure than the aorta and pulmonary arteries. This causes the
‘dub’ sound of the heartbeat. The atrioventricular valves open due
to the drop in ventricular pressure.
7.13 Coronary heart disease

1. Coronary heart disease occurs when the coronary arteries become
blocked (occluded) or narrowed.
2. The heart muscles will no longer be able to receive sufficient
oxygen and nutrients.
3. This can cause a heart attack. During a heart attack, blood supply to
49 of the heart muscle is completely cut off due to blockage in the
Transport in Humanspart
coronary arteries. The affected part dies, which can affect the
heart’s ability to pump and lead to heart failure.
4. A cause of coronary heart disease is atherosclerosis, in which an
artery wall thickens and hardens due to the deposition of plaque,
which causes the lumen of the artery to become narrower.
5. The narrowing of the lumen of the arteries causes an increase in
blood pressure. This causes arteries to develop rough linings, which
increases the likelihood of formation of blood clots inside the
arteries. This is known as thrombosis.
6. This obstructs blood flow in the afflicted artery. If it occurs in a
coronary artery, a heart attack takes place.
7. Factors that contribute to atherosclerosis include:
(a) High intake of cholesterol and saturated fats
(b) Stress
(c) Smoking
8. Preventive measures include:
(a) Healthy diet – low in cholesterol and saturated fats
(b) Not smoking – nicotine increases blood pressure
(c) Exercising – lowers stress and strengthens the heart
50 TOPIC 7
TOPIC Respiration in Humans
8
Objectives
(a) identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and
associated capillaries
(b) state the characteristics of, and describe the role of, the exchange surface of the
alveoli in gas exchange
(c) describe the removal of carbon dioxide from the lungs, including the role of the
carbonic anhydrase enzyme
(d) describe the role of cilia, diaphragm, ribs and intercostal muscles in breathing
(e) describe the effect of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components – nicotine, tar
and carbon monoxide, on health
(f) define and state the equation, in words and symbols, for aerobic respiration in humans
(g) define and state the equation, in words only, for anaerobic respiration in humans
(h) describe the effect of lactic acid in muscles during exercise
8.1 Overview of the human respiratory system
nasal
cavity pharynx
external
larynx
nostril
trache
a
lun cluster of alveoli (air
sacs) cut end of rib
g bronchi
pleural membrane
external intercostal
muscle heart pleural
internal intercostal
muscle fluid
diaphrag
m
bronchiol
es
Respiration in Humans51
The human gas exchange system
1. Breathing is the transport of oxygen from the outside air to the
cells, and carbon dioxide from the cells to the outside air. This is not
the same as cellular respiration, which is the process by which an
organism breaks down food molecules to release energy for life
processes.
2. The human respiratory system consists of :
(a) Nasal passages – Passages leading from the nostrils lined with a
moist mucous membrane
(b) Pharynx – Common passage for the opening of the oesophagus
and the trachea
(c) Larynx – Voice box containing vocal cords
(d) Trachea – A tube supported by C-shaped cartilage connecting
the larynx and the lungs. The C-shaped cartilage prevents the
trachea from collapsing as the air pressure in the lungs
changes. It branches into two bronchi, one to each lung.
(e) Bronchi – Branches repeatedly within the lungs to produce
numerous finer tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles at the
end of the branching terminate in clusters of air sacs called
alveoli. The epithelial lining of the bronchi and trachea are
covered with a thin film of mucus and cilia, which are hair-like
structures that can move. The mucus traps dust, pollen and
other particles and the cilia sweeps it upwards into the pharynx
to be swallowed into the oesophagus.
(f) Lungs – Located in the pleural cavity, they are enclosed by
the pleura, a two-layered membrane structure. The inner layer
is in contact with the lungs while the other layer adheres to the
wall of the chest cavity. The space between the two membranes
is known as the pleural space, and it contains a small amount of
pleural fluid, which acts as a lubricant when the lungs expand
and contract during breathing.
(g) Related muscles, ribs and diaphragm.
8.2 The thoracic cavity

1. The lungs are protected by the ribs which extend from the
backbone to the sternum (breast bone).
2. Two sets of muscles attached to the ribs are involved in breathing.
These are the external and internal intercostal muscles. When one
set contracts, the other set relaxes.
3. The diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom
wall of the thoracic cavity. When the diaphragm muscles contract,
the diaphragm moves downwards. When they relax, the diaphragm
moves up again.
4. 8The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm work together to change
52 TOPIC
the volume of the chest cavity (thoracic cavity).
8.3 Inhalation
1. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, flattens and moves
downwards.
2. The external intercostal muscles contract while the internal
intercostal muscles relax. The ribs move upwards and outwards.
3. The thoracic cavity increases in volume.
4. This causes the air pressure of the lungs to fall below that of the
atmosphere.
5. Air rushes into the lungs.
6. During inhalation, air passes through the respiratory passage in the
order: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveoli.
8.4 Exhalation
1. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and arches upwards.
2. The internal intercostal muscles contract while the external
intercostal muscles relax, moving the ribs downwards and inwards.
3. The thoracic cavity decreases in volume.
4. Air pressure in the lungs is now higher than that of the atmosphere.
5. Air flows out of the lungs until the air pressure in the lungs reaches
equilibrium with atmospheric air pressure.
8.5 The alveoli

1. The alveoli are the sites of gas exchange in the lungs.
2. They are present in large quantities, providing a huge surface area
for gas exchange.
3. The walls of the alveoli are one-cell thick, resulting in a small
distance for diffusion.
4. They are covered with a thin film of water to allow oxygen to
dissolve and subsequently diffuse in solution across the cell
surface membranes.
5. They are well-supplied with blood capillaries which transport away
diffused oxygen and supply carbon dioxide for excretion. The
continuous removal of oxygen and the supply of carbon dioxide
maintain the respective concentration gradients of these gases.
8.6 Mechanism of oxygen transfer in the alveoli
1. The exchange surface of the alveoli is the thin moist epithelium of
the inner surfaces.
2. Capillaries branching from the pulmonary artery supply oxygen-
poor blood to the alveoli.
3. Oxygen from the air in the alveoli taken in during inhalation
dissolves in the moisture on the lining.
4. The dissolved oxygen diffuses down the concentration gradient
across the alveolar wall and the endothelium of the blood capillaries
into the oxygen-poor blood.
5. The oxygenated blood leaves the capillaries and enters the
pulmonary veins to be carried back to the heart.
air movement thin film

of
moistur
e
alveolar wall
(one cell alveol
thick) ar
cavity
red blood cell
continuo
us blood
flow
blood capillary
A section of an alveolus
8.7 Removal of carbon dioxide

1. 7% of carbon dioxide released during respiration is transported as
dissolved carbon dioxide in blood plasma. 23% is transported bound
to haemoglobin in red blood cells. 70% is transported as
bicarbonate ions in the blood.
2. Mechanism of conversion of carbon dioxide into bicarbonate ions:
(a) Carbon dioxide from respiring cells diffuses into blood plasma
and then into red blood cells.
(b) An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, is present in red blood cells. It
catalyses the interconversion of carbon dioxide with water to
give carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions.
54 TOPIC 8
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3─ + H+
(c) The hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse into plasma.
3. In the lungs:
(a) Hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse back into red blood cells where
they combine with hydrogen ions released from haemoglobin to
form carbonic acid.
(b) Carbonic acid forms water and carbon dioxide.
(c) The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveolar
space where it is expelled during exhalation.
8.8 Effects of tobacco smoke on health

1. Harmful components of tobacco smoke are:
(a) Nicotine
(i) Addictive stimulant that stimulates adrenaline release
(ii) Increases heart rate and blood pressure
(iii) Increases risk of stroke, heart attack and impotence
(b) Carbon monoxide
(i) Poisonous gas that combines irreversibly with haemoglobin
to form carboxyhaemoglobin
(ii) Reduces efficiency of blood to transport oxygen
(iii) Increases risk of atherosclerosis
(iv) Increases risk of thrombosis
(c) Tar
(i) Carcinogenic
(ii) Paralyses cilia lining air passages, reducing effectiveness of
dust and irritant removal
(d) Irritants
(i) Paralyse cilia lining air passages
(ii) Increase risk of chronic bronchitis and emphysema
8.9 Chronic bronchitis

1. Chronic bronchitis is caused by irritation to the respiratory lining of
the airways, resulting in inflammation.
2. There is increased production of mucus by the epithelium. Cilia on
the epithelium become paralysed, unable to remove mucus and
foreign particles.
3. Airflow becomes blocked due to swelling and mucus.
4. Symptoms are wheezing, shortness of breath and a persistent cough.
8.10 Emphysema
1. Emphysema is caused by exposure to toxic chemicals, e.g. tobacco
smoke.
2. It is a lung disease characterised by the permanent enlargement of
air spaces due to a destruction of alveolar walls. This decreases the
gas exchange surface area.
3. The lungs lose their elasticity and lose their ability to effectively expel air.
4. Oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal is impaired and severe
breathlessness is experienced.
8.11 Cellular respiration

1. Cellular respiration is a process by which cells break down food
molecules to release energy stored in food.
2. This energy is used to sustain vital life processes.
3. There are two modes of respiration, aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration.
8.12 Aerobic respiration

1. Aerobic respiration is the oxidation of glucose molecules in the
presence of oxygen to release a large amount of energy, with carbon
dioxide and water as waste products.
2. The overall equation is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
3. Respiration is carried out in a complicated series of reactions involving
enzymes.
4. It occurs within the mitochondria of cells.
5. Energy released from respiration is used for:
(a) Synthesising complex molecules from simpler molecules i.e.
proteins from amino acids, hormones, enzymes
(b) Cell growth and division: synthesis of new protoplasm and genetic
material
(c) Muscular contraction, both voluntary (involving skeletal
muscles) and involuntary (cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
i.e. heartbeat and peristalsis)
(d) Active transport
(e) Transmission of nerve impulses
56 6. 8Some energy is also released as heat during respiration.

TOPIC
8.13 Anaerobic respiration
1. Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose molecules in the
absence of oxygen. Waste products vary from organism to organism.
Less energy is released compared to aerobic respiration.
2. Anaerobic respiration in humans primarily occurs in the muscle cells.
3. The preferred mode of respiration in muscle cells is aerobic.
However, during periods of strenuous exercise, since there is a limit
to the rate of breathing and heart rate, not enough oxygen is
available to the muscle cells to sustain aerobic respiration.
4. In such cases, muscle cells respire anaerobically for short durations
in order to meet the energy demands of the activity.
5. The equation for anaerobic respiration in humans is:
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + energy
glucose lactic acid + energy
6. The energy produced by anaerobic respiration supplements the
energy produced by aerobic respiration.
7. When anaerobic respiration occurs, there is a build up of lactic acid
in the muscle cells.
8. This causes fatigue. Anaerobic respiration in humans can only be
sustained for a short time before the body needs to recover.
9. During the recovery process, more oxygen needs to be taken in.
This is evidenced by heavy panting after strenuous exercise.
10. The oxygen taken in is used to restore the body to its resting state.
This is done by transporting the lactic acid from the muscles to the
liver, where some lactic acid is completely oxidised to carbon
dioxide and water to produce energy to convert the remaining
lactic acid into glucose.
11. The amount of oxygen required for this process is called the oxygen
debt.
TOPIC Excretion in Humans
9
Objectives
(a) define excretion and explain the importance of removing nitrogenous and other
compounds from the body
(b) outline the function of the nephron with reference to ultra-filtration and selective
reabsorption in the production of urine
(c) outline the role of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) in osmoregulation
(d) outline the mechanism of dialysis in the case of kidney failure
9.1 Excretion
1. Excretion is the process by which the body removes metabolic
waste products and toxic materials.
2. Metabolic processes consist of anabolic processes and catabolic processes.
3. Anabolic processes are ‘building-up’ processes where larger
molecules are synthesised from smaller molecules. Examples
include:
(a) Synthesis of proteins from amino acids
(b) Synthesis of glycogen from glucose
(c) Photosynthesis with oxygen as waste material
4. Catabolic processes are ‘breaking-down’ processes where larger
molecules are broken down to form smaller molecules. Examples
include:
(a) Cellular respiration with carbon dioxide and water as by-products
(b) Deamination of amino acids in the liver with urea as a by-product
(c) Breakdown of haemoglobin in the liver with bile pigments as by-
products
5. Waste products have to be removed because they can be
harmful if they accumulate in the body.
58 TOPIC 9
6. The waste products of metabolism are excreted by the following organs:
Excretory
Excretory products Excreted as
organs
Lungs Carbon dioxide Exhaled air
Excess mineral salts, urea,
Kidney Urine
uric acid, creatinine, excess
s
water
Excess mineral salts, small
Skin Sweat
quantities of urea, excess
water
Secreted as bile,
Liver Bile pigments
leaves the body in
faeces
9.2 Overview of the human urinary system

1. The human urinary system consists of :
(a) The kidneys, which are two bean-shaped organs located in the
abdominal cavity.
(b) The ureters, which are narrow tubes that emerge from a
depression in the concave surface of the kidney called a hilum.
The ureters connect to the urinary bladder.
(c) The urinary bladder is an elastic and muscular organ that
collects and stores urine excreted by the kidneys. The
sphincter muscle at the base of the bladder controls the flow
of urine into the urethra. It is controlled by nervous impulses
from the brain.
(d) The urethra is a duct that connects the urinary bladder to the
outside of the body. Urine passes through this tube to the
outside.
inferior vena
cava aort
a
right renal artery left renal artery
right renal left renal
vein right vein
kidney
left kidney
ureter
bladder
sphincte
r
urethra
The human urinary system
Excretion in Humans59
9.3 Structure of a kidney
cortex
medull
renal capsule a
renal
artery
renal pyrami
vein renal d
pelvis
ureter
hilum
A kidney
1. The kidney is made up of two distinct regions: an outer cortex and the
inner
medulla.
2. The cortex is covered by a protective fibrous capsule called the renal
capsule.
3. The medulla consists of 8 to 18 conical pyramids.
4. Across the cortex and medulla are numerous excretory tubules called
nephrons, as well as collecting ducts and their associated blood
vessels.
5. Nephrons are the urine-producing units of the kidney.
6. The tips of the pyramids empty urine into an area called the
renal pelvis. The renal pelvis functions as a funnel collecting urine
from all the pyramids to deliver to the ureter.
7. Blood enters each kidney from the renal artery and leaves via the
renal vein, both connected to the kidney at the hilum.
60 TOPIC 9
9.4 Structure of a nephron
branch of
renal artery
effere afferen
branch of renal artery nt t
arteriol arteriol
e e
renal capsule
corte glomerul
glomerulus Bowman’s
x us
capsule proximal
distal convoluted
tubul
e
convolute
d branch of
tubule renal vein
CORTEX
medulla
MEDULLA
collectin
g duct
pyramid
renal pelvis
loop
blood of
capillari Henlé
es
A section of a kidney A nephron
1. Components of the nephron are:

(a) Glomerulus – A ball of capillaries that obtains its blood supply
from an afferent arteriole which branches off the renal artery. It
drains into an efferent arteriole. The high pressure of the blood in
the glomerulus forces water, urea, salts and small solutes
through the partially permeable endothelium into the lumen of
the Bowman’s capsule in a process known as ultrafiltration.
(b) Bowman’s capsule – The start of the tubular component of a
nephron. It surrounds the glomerulus in a cup-like structure.
Together, the Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus make up a
renal corpuscle (Malpighian corpuscle).
(c) Proximal convoluted tubule – A convoluted tubule leading from
the Bowman’s capsule which straightens up as it passes into the
medulla, leading into the loop of Henlé.
(d) Loop of Henlé – Consists of a descending limb, a hairpin turn and
an ascending limb. It re-enters the cortex.
(e) Distal convoluted tubule – Convoluted portion of nephron leading
from the loop of Henlé, connecting it to the collecting duct.
2. The collecting duct is a tubule into which distal convoluted tubules
from several nephrons empty their filtrate. It extends deep into the
medulla, opening up into the renal pelvis. It is not considered part
of the nephron.
9.5 Urine formation
1. Excess mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes and excess water are
excreted through the kidneys through ultrafiltration and selective
reabsorption of useful materials.
2. Ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus. Blood enters the glomerulus
through an afferent arteriole from the renal artery. Blood pressure
forces water, urea, salts and other small solutes (e.g. glucose,
amino acids and vitamins) into the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule.
Blood cells and large molecules remain in the capillaries.
3. The high blood pressure (high hydrostatic pressure) driving the
ultrafiltration in the glomerulus is due to the afferent arteriole
having a larger diameter than the efferent arteriole.
4. The endothelium of the glomerular capillaries and the basement
membrane of the Bowman’s capsule that wraps around the
capillaries are partially permeable membranes, thus only small
soluble substances are able to pass through.
5. The glomerular filtrate passes from the lumen of the Bowman’s
capsule into the proximal convoluted tubule.
6. Within this tubule, most of the mineral salts and all of the glucose
and amino acids are absorbed through active transport or diffusion.
Water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
7. Reabsorption of water continues in the loop of Henlé.
8. Water and salts are reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule.
9. Water is reabsorbed from the collecting duct.
10. Excess salts, nitrogenous waste products, excess water and
processed drugs and poisons from the liver enter the renal pelvis
as urine.
9.6 Kidneys as osmoregulators

1. Osmoregulation is the control of water and mineral salts in the blood.
2. The water potential of blood has to be maintained for proper
functioning of the body.
3. Excessive gain in water due to drinking or excessive loss due to
diarrhoea or sweating will result in a change in the water potential
of blood.
4. Excess water could also cause water to move into cells from tissue
fluid by osmosis. This causes the cells to swell and burst.
5. Too little water would cause water to move out of the cells into
tissue fluid causing dehydration.
6. Excess water could also lead to an increase in blood pressure due
62 TOPIC 9to an increase in volume. This could lead to stroke.
7. The amount of water in blood is controlled by a hormone called
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
8. ADH is produced in the hypothalamus of the brain and is stored and
released from the pituitary gland.
9. The hypothalamus contains osmoreceptor cells that can monitor the
water potential of blood.
10. When blood water potential decreases beyond a certain amount,
the pituitary gland is stimulated to secrete more ADH into the
blood.
11. ADH works on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts
in the kidneys.
12. It makes the epithelium more permeable to water.
13. This causes more water to be reabsorbed, producing a smaller
volume of more concentrated urine.
14. The water potential of blood then returns to regular levels.
15. When the water potential of blood increases beyond normal levels,
the osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus stimulate the pituitary
gland to release less ADH.
16. The epithelium of the kidney tubules and collecting ducts become
less permeable to water.
17. Less water is reabsorbed resulting in a larger volume of dilute urine.
18. The water potential of blood returns to normal levels.
9.7 Dialysis
dialysis fluid in
vein blood
blood
artery
dialysis
fluid out
1. The kidneys function to remove waste products, excess water and
excess mineral salts.
2. A dialysis machine would have to perform the functions of a kidney.
3. In dialysis, blood is passed over a dialysis membrane of a large
surface area which is permeable to small molecules but does not
allow proteins to pass through.
4. On the other side of the dialysis membrane is the dialysis fluid,
which contains the same concentration of essential substances as
the blood plasma, with the exception of metabolic wastes.
5. Substances move from the blood to the dialysis fluid and vice versa
through diffusion down a concentration gradient.
6. As blood flows through the tubules immersed in dialysis fluid,
metabolic waste diffuses out of the tubing into the fluid.
7. Fresh dialysis fluid is continually supplied during dialysis in order to
maintain a low concentration of urea in the fluid as compared to
that in blood plasma.
8. The direction of blood flow is opposite to the direction of flow of the
dialysis fluid in order to increase the length of exchange surface
with the necessary concentration gradients. This is known as
countercurrent flow.
64 TOPIC 9
TOPIC Homeostasis
10
Objectives
(a) define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment
(b) explain the basic principles of homeostasis in terms of stimulus resulting from a
change in the internal environment, a corrective mechanism and negative
feedback
(c) identify on a diagram of the skin: hairs, sweat glands, temperature receptors, blood
vessels and fatty tissue
(d) describe the maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans in terms of
insulation and the role of: temperature receptors in the skin, sweating, shivering,
blood vessels near the skin surface and the co-ordinating role of the hypothalamus
10.1 Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
environment. It allows an organism to survive in a changing
environment.
2. It involves:
(a) Thermoregulation – the maintenance of a constant body temperature
(b) Osmoregulation – the maintenance of a constant water potential and
pH
3. Thermoregulation is the maintenance of body temperature within a
range that will allow cells to function effectively.
4. Many body processes, including metabolism, involve enzymes,
which have an optimal temperature range.
5. Large body temperature changes could affect the rate of cellular
respiration or alter membrane properties.
6. Osmoregulation is important because changes in the water
potential could affect the direction of osmosis in body cells and the
electrolyte balance across cell membranes.
7. Homeostasis involves a process called negative feedback. Negative
feedback is a corrective mechanism in which the body’s response is
to restore the normal conditions of the internal environment.
Homeostasis65
8. Terms involved in negative feedback control mechanism:
(a) Stimulus – A change in internal environment
(b) Receptor – Sense organs that detect the stimulus
(c) Effector – Effect corrective responses
(d) Response – Condition returns to normal, gives negative
feedback to receptor
Recepto Effector Corrective

r (Implemen mechanis
(Detects ts m
stimulus corrective
mechanis
Stimulus
(Condition Response
increases (Conditio
above normal) Negative feedback n
decrease
Normal condition
Stimulus
Negative feedback Response
(Condition
(Conditio
decreases
n
below normal)
increase
Recepto Effector
r (Implemen
Corrective
(Detects ts
mechanis
stimulus corrective
m
mechanis
Negative feedback pathway
66 TOPIC 10
10.2 Structure of the skin
pore of
hair sweat gland
follicl
nerve e
endings epidermi
s
blood capillaries
dermi
sebaceous s
gland hair
erector muscle swea
t
fat cells glan
d
hair papilla
Structure of the skin
1. The skin comprises two layers: the epidermis and the dermis.
2. The epidermis is the outermost layer which forms a waterproof and
protective covering.
3. The dermis is the layer containing hair follicles, sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, blood vessels, mechanoreceptors and
thermoreceptors.
4. The arterioles leading to the capillaries in the dermis are controlled
by nerves. They respond to stimulation by undergoing
vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
5. Vasoconstriction is the contraction of smooth muscles in the
arteriole walls. It decreases the diameter of the blood vessels,
reducing blood flow. The skin looks pale when vasoconstriction
takes place.
6. Vasodilation is the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arteriole
walls. It increases the diameter of the blood vessels, increasing
blood flow. The skin becomes flushed when vasodilation takes
place.
7. Hairs grow within the hair follicles. Attached to the hair follicles are
sebaceous glands which produce sebum, and hair erector muscles,
Homeostasis67 which raise hair.
8. Sweat glands are coiled tubes that secrete sweat through a sweat
duct. Secreted sweat contains water, sodium chloride and small
amounts of metabolic waste products.
9. Sweat glands are used for body temperature regulation.
10. Nerve endings of sensory neurones enable pressure, pain or
temperature changes to be detected.
11. Beneath the skin is a layer which consists of connective tissue and
adipose tissue. Adipose cells store fat. This layer serves as
insulation and padding.
10.3 Thermoregulation
1. Heat is produced by metabolic activities within the body. Most heat
is produced by the liver, the brain, the heart and the contraction of
skeletal muscles.
2. Heat can be removed from the body by conduction, convection and
radiation if the environmental temperature is lower than the body
temperature. Otherwise, heat would be gained.
3. Heat can be removed through evaporation of sweat.
4. The skin participates in thermoregulation through vasoconstriction,
vasodilation and sweating.
5. The hypothalamus in the brain regulates body temperature by
receiving information about temperature changes from
thermoreceptors located in the skin and within the hypothalamus
itself, and activating mechanisms that promote heat gain or loss.
10.4 Coping with heat gain

1. When the external temperature rises above normal levels,
thermoreceptors within the skin send signals to the hypothalamus in
the brain. Any corresponding rise in blood temperature is also
detected by thermoreceptors located within the hypothalamus
itself. The hypothalamus is stimulated to send out nerve impulses
to:
(a) Arterioles in the skin, stimulating vasodilation. Increased blood
flow in superficial capillaries causes more heat loss through
conduction, convection and radiation.
(b) Sweat glands, stimulating sweat production. Heat is lost through
evaporation of sweat from the skin.
(c) Hair erector muscles, which relax so that hair follicles lie flat.
This ensures that no air is trapped by the hairs as air is a good
insulator. This is more evident in animals.
(d) Lungs, stimulating rapid breathing or panting. Heat is lost
through exhaled air. This is also more evident in animals.
2. Body temperature returns to normal.
68 TOPIC 10
10.5 Coping with heat loss
1. When the external temperature falls below normal levels,
thermoreceptors in the skin send signals to the hypothalamus. A
decrease in blood temperature is also detected by thermoreceptors
in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is stimulated to send out
nerve impulses to:
(a) Arterioles in the skin, stimulating vasoconstriction. Decreased
blood flow in superficial capillaries causes less heat loss through
conduction, convection and radiation.
(b) Sweat glands, stopping sweat production
(c) Hair erector muscles, which constrict so that hair follicles are
raised. This traps a layer of air between the hairs which acts as
an insulating layer.
(d) Muscles, causing involuntary and increased contraction of
muscles, known as shivering. This increases cellular respiration
in muscle cells, producing heat.
2. Body temperature returns to normal.
3. In humans, the always-present layer of adipose tissue beneath the
skin acts as insulation.
Homeostasis69
TOPIC Co-ordination and Response in Hu
11
Objectives
(a) state the relationship between receptors, the central nervous system and the effectors
(b) describe the structure of the eye as seen in front view and in horizontal section
(c) state the principal functions of component parts of the eye in producing a focused
image of near and distant objects on the retina
(d) describe the pupil reflex in response to bright and dim light
(e) state that the nervous system – brain, spinal cord and nerves, serves to co-ordinate
and regulate bodily functions
(f) outline the functions of sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor neurones
(g) discuss the function of the brain and spinal cord in producing a co-ordinated
response as a result of a specific stimulus in a reflex action
(h) define a hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the
blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs and is then
destroyed by the liver
(i) explain what is meant by an endocrine gland, with reference to the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas
(j) state the role of the hormone adrenaline in boosting blood glucose levels and give
examples of situations in which this may occur
(k) explain how the blood glucose concentration is regulated by insulin and glucagon as
a homeostatic mechanism
(l) describe the signs, such as an increased blood glucose level and glucose in
urine, and the treatment of diabetes mellitus using insulin
11.1 The human nervous system

1. The human nervous system consists of:
(a) Central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and spinal cord
(b) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of nerves
connecting the central nervous system and the rest of the body.
The function of the PNS is to conduct sensory and motor signals
between the CNS and the limbs and organs (receptors and
effectors).
2. A stimulus is a change in the environment that causes an
organism to react. Stimuli are detected by sensory receptors.
3. A response is a change in the body as a result of the stimulus.
Effector cells are muscle cells or gland cells, which carry out the
response to stimuli.
4. Bodily functions are classified into voluntary actions and involuntary
actions.
70 TOPIC 11
5. Involuntary actions are actions that cannot be consciously
controlled, such as heartbeat, peristalsis, vasoconstriction and
reflex actions.
6. Voluntary actions are actions that are consciously controlled.
11.2 Nervous tissue

1. Nerve impulses are transmitted by nerves, which are bundles of
neurones wrapped in connective tissue.
2. A neurone is a nerve cell.
3. There are three main types of neurones:
(a) Sensory neurones – Respond to stimuli affecting cells of the
sensory organ they are found in and relay signals to the CNS
(b) Intermediate neurones (relay neurones) – Transmit nerve
impulses from the sensory neurones to the motor neurones;
found within the CNS
(c) Motor neurones – Transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to the
effector muscle cells or gland cells
4. Neurones share common characteristics:
(a) A relatively large cell body containing the nucleus and organelles.
(b) Slender nerve fibres that increase the distance over which
nerve impulses can be transmitted. There are two types of
nerve fibres.
(i) Axons are long, slender projections that conduct nerve
impulses away from the cell body of the neurone.
(ii) Dendrons are branched projections that conduct nerve
impulses towards the cell body.
(iii) At the terminal ends of axons and dendrons, the nerve fibre
branches. These branches are known as dendrites. Where
the axon is connected to muscles, these branches are also
known as motor end plates.
Co-ordination and Response in Humans71

5. The relationship between sensory neurones, the CNS and motor
neurones is shown below:
sensory neurone sense organ

(receptor)
cell
axon bod
y
dendrit dendro myeli

n n
es cell sheat
h
body neurilem
cell node ma node of

intermediate of Ranvier
neurone body Ranvie
r
axon
motor skeleta
dendrite neurone l
s muscle
(effecto
r)
A neural pathway
11.3 Structure of a sensory neurone

cell
bod
y sense
dendrite organ
dendro (recepto
r)
axon n
direction of nerve impulse
Structure of a sensory neurone
1. The sensory neurone has a smooth and rounded cell body, a single
long dendrite and a short axon. The dendron is structurally similar
to an axon and is myelinated.
72 TOPIC 11
11.4 Structure of a motor neurone
dendrites
muscle fibres direction of nerve impulses from
myelin sheath axonthe cell body
neurilemma
node of Ranvier
axon terminal
motor end plate
cytoplasm nucleus
Structure of a motor neurone
1. The motor neurone consists of a cell body and a long thin axon
covered by a myelin sheath.
2. Around the cell body are branching dendrites that receive nerve
impulses from other neurones and conduct them towards the cell
body.
3. The axon conducts signals away from the cell body towards the effector
cells.
11.5 Structure of an axon

node of
Ranvier layers of myelin
produced by
signal Schwann cell
directio
n axon
nodes Schwan
myeli of n cell
n Ranvier nucleus of
sheat synaptic terminal Schwann cell
h terminal branches
Structure of an axon
1. In the PNS, supporting cells called Schwann cells form an
electrically-insulating layer around axons called the myelin sheath;
80% of the myelin sheath consists of lipids.
2. The gaps between adjacent Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier.
3. The myelin sheath increases the speed at which nerve impulses
travel along the axon by allowing nerve impulses to jump from
node to node.

11.6 Synapses
1. A synapse is a junction between two neurones or between a
neurone and an effector.
2. At a synapse, impulses from the axon of one neurone are
transmitted to the dendrites of another neurone or to effector
cells.
3. Nerve impulses are transmitted across the tiny space of a synapse
by chemicals called neurotransmitters.
11.7 Reflex actions

1. Reflex actions are involuntary responses to a specific stimulus.
They cannot be consciously controlled.
2. The pathway by which nerve impulses travel during reflex actions is called
a
reflex arc.
3. It consists of:
(a) Receptor
(b) Sensory neurone
(c) Intermediate neurone / relay neurone (located in CNS)
(d) Motor neurone
(e) Effector
4. The diagram below shows the reflex arc, the pathway of nervous
impulses controlling a reflex response:
cell body of
sensory receptor cells
neurone or nerve
central canal relay neurone endings
dorsal root
spina
l
nerv
e
ventral root
grey matter cell
white body
matt of spinal cord
er motor
74 TOPIC 11 neuron
e The reflex arc
effector
5. Receptors in the skin detect the stimulus.
6. Nerve impulses are produced which are transmitted by the sensory
neurone to the spinal cord.
7. In the spinal cord, the nerve impulses are transmitted across a
synapse to an intermediate neurone and then across another
synapse to the motor neurone. Nerve impulses are also transmitted
to the brain.
8. Nerve impulses travel along the motor neurone to the motor end plate.
9. The nerve impulses stimulate the motor end plate and cause the
muscle to contract.
11.8 Structure of the eye

eyelashe
upper
s
eyelid tear gland
pupil
remains of
third eyelid
(nictitating corne iris conjunctiva
membrane) a lowe (covers
r sclera)
eyeli
d
Structures at the front part of the eye
rectus choroid
muscle
vitreous
humour
ciliary scler
muscl
e a
retina
eyeli
aqueous d fovea
chamber
eyelas opti
c
h nerv
e
corne
a
pupi
l
lens
iris
conjunctiv
suspensor blin
y d
ligament spo
t
Vertical section of the eye
1. Iris – Pigmented circular sheet of muscles that control the
contraction and dilation of the iris through the contraction and
relaxation of the circular muscles and radial muscles
2. Pupil – A hole in the middle of the iris which allows light to enter the eye
3. Sclera – Tough white outer layer of connective tissue
4. Conjunctiva – Thin, transparent mucous membrane that helps to
lubricate the eye
5. Cornea – Transparent refractive layer covering the iris and pupil.
It causes the most of the refraction of light entering the eye. The
cornea is continuous with the sclera.
6. Tear gland – Gland lying at the upper corner of the eyelid. Secretes
tears which lubricate the eye, nourish the cornea and keeps it free
from dust.
7. Choroid – Black middle layer of the eyeball, between the sclera and
retina. Contains blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients, and
remove metabolic waste products. It is pigmented black to prevent
an internal reflection of light.
8. Retina – Innermost layer of the eyeball which contains
photoreceptors. Photoreceptors are connected to nerve endings
from the optic nerve.
9. Lens – Transparent biconvex structure that refracts light onto the
retina. The lens is flexible and its curvature can be changed. It is
responsible for the process of accomodation, a reflex action where
the lens is able to change its curvature to focus sharp images on
the retina.
10. Ciliary body – Contains ciliary muscles which control the curvature
of the lens. It is also responsible for producing aqueous humour.
11. Suspensory ligament – Connects the ciliary body to the lens
12. Aqueous humour – A transparent, water substance filling the space
between the cornea and the lens. It keeps the front of the eye firm
and helps refract light into the eye.
13. Vitreous humour – Clear gel filling the space between the lens and
the retina. It keeps the eyeball firm and helps refract light onto the
retina.
14. Fovea – Yellow pit in the retina where images are usually focused
15. Optic nerve – Transmits visual information from the retina to the
brain. There are no photoreceptors in the area of the retina where
the optic nerve leaves the eye. This area is called the blind spot.
76 TOPIC 11
11.9 Focusing on a near object
ciliary muscles
contracted
suspensory
ligaments
not
stretched
rays
focused
onto retina
strong
diverging rays
of light from a
near object
shape of lens
is more natural (convex)
1. Light rays from a near object enter the eye as diverging rays to fall
on the retina.
2. The retina sends impulses to the brain, which sends impulses to the
ciliary muscles.
3. The ciliary muscles contract, causing the suspensory ligaments to
become slack.
4. The suspensory ligaments relax their pull on the lens. The elastic
lens becomes thicker and rounder, causing more refraction of the
rays of light, enabling a sharp image to be focused on the retina.

11.10 Focusing on a distant object
ciliary
muscles
relaxed
suspensory
ligaments taut
rays
focused
onto
retina
weak
diverging rays
of light from
distant object
lens pulled
flatter
(convex)
1. Light rays from a distant object enter the eye as almost parallel
rays to fall on the retina.
2. The retina sends impulses to the brain, which sends impulses to the
ciliary muscles.
3. The ciliary muscles relax, causing the suspensory ligaments to become
taut.
4. The suspensory ligaments pull on the lens more. The elastic lens
becomes thinner and less curved, causing less refraction of the
rays of light, enabling a sharp image to be focused on the retina.
11.11 The pupil reflex

1. The pupil reflex is an involuntary action where the pupils contract or
dilate in response to changing light intensities.
2. The pupils dilate to allow more light to enter the eye for better
vision when light intensity is low, and contract to restrict light entry
when light intensity is high as excessive light can damage the
retina.
3. The size of the pupil is controlled by two sets of involuntary muscles
in the iris called the circular muscles and the radial muscles.
4. The reflex arc involves these components:
78 TOPIC 11
(a) Light entering the eye falls on the retina.
(b) Retina sends impulse via optic nerve to the brain. The brain is
the organ of the CNS that is nearest to the eye.
(c) The brain sends impulse to the iris muscles.
(d) The circular and radial muscles respond to change the size of
the pupil, to adjust to the light conditions.
circular
muscles
pupil
radial muscles
Structure of the iris
5. When light intensity is high:

(a) Circular muscles in the iris contract.
(b) Radial muscles in the iris relax.
(c) The pupil constricts.
6. When light intensity is low:
(a) Circular muscles in the iris relax.
(b) Radial muscles in the iris contract.
(c) The pupil dilates.
11.13 Hormones
1. A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more
specific target organs.
2. Hormones are active in minute quantities and are destroyed by the
liver and excreted by the kidneys.
3. They affect cellular metabolism and coordinate the growth,
development and activity of an organism.
4. Glands are classified into two groups: exocrine glands and endocrine
glands.
5. Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products via ducts.
Examples include sweat glands and salivary glands.
6. Endocrine glands are glands that secrete their products directly into
the bloodstream. Examples include the pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, adrenal gland and the gonads.
7. Some glands are both exocrine and endocrine. An example would
be the pancreas, which secretes pancreatic juice via the pancreatic
duct, and
Co-ordination and Response insulin79
in Humans and glucagon from the islets of Langerhans into
the bloodstream.
11.14 The pancreas as an endocrine gland
1. The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are areas in the pancreas
that contain groups of endocrine cells.
2. These cells produce the hormones insulin and glucagon.
3. Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that participate in
homeostatic control of blood glucose level by negative feedback
mechanism.
4. When blood glucose level exceeds the normal level, more insulin is
released and acts to lower the glucose level.
5. When blood glucose level falls below the normal level, more
glucagon is released and acts to increase the glucose level.
6. Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by:
(a) Stimulating body cells to increase glucose uptake by increasing
permeability of plasma membranes to glucose
(b) Stimulating the liver and muscle cells to store glucose in the
form of glycogen
(c) Decreasing production of glucose from glycogen breakdown in
the liver
(d) Decreasing the conversion of fatty acids and amino acids to
glucose in the liver
7. Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by stimulating liver cells
to:
(a) Convert glycogen to glucose
(b) Convert amino acids and fatty acids to glucose
(c) Convert lactic acid into glucose
11.15 Diabetes mellitus

1. Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body does not produce
sufficient insulin or does not respond to insulin.
2. The excess glucose cannot be completely reabsorbed by the
kidneys and are excreted in the urine.
3. Symptoms include:
(a) A persistent high blood glucose concentration
(b) Presence of glucose in the urine
(c) Excessive urination, excessive thirst and weight loss
80 TOPIC 11
4. Diabetes can cause:
(a) Poor immune response – increased susceptibility to infections
(b) Damaged blood vessels leading to vision loss and a decreased
sensation in the limbs
(c) Kidney failure and heart failure
5. Diabetic individuals can control their disease by receiving regular
injections and controlling their carbohydrate intake.
11.16 Adrenaline
1. Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands located
above the kidneys. It is responsible for the ‘fight-or-flight response’
triggered by stress (emotional or physical threats to the organism).
2. In response to stress, the adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline into the
blood.
3. The adrenaline travels to target organs, causing:
(a) Increased conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and
skeletal muscles
(b) Increased glucose release into blood by liver cells
(c) Increased metabolic rate, causing more energy to be released
in cellular respiration
(d) Increased heart rate and volume of blood pumped per unit time,
increasing oxygen and glucose supply to muscle cells
(e) Dilated bronchioles and increased breathing rate and depth,
allowing more oxygen to be taken in for cellular respiration
(f) Decreased blood supply to the digestive system, the kidneys
and the skin as vasoconstriction occurs in several body parts,
diverting blood supply to the heart, brain and skeletal muscles
(g) Vasodilation occurring in other body parts, increasing blood
supply to these organs
(h) Dilated pupils, enhancing vision
(i) Contracted hair erector muscles, producing ‘goose pimples’

TOPIC Reproduction
12
Objectives
(a) define asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring from one parent
(b) define sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei to form a
zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring
(c) identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary, the sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels of one, locally available, named, insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flower,
and examine the pollen grains under a microscope
(d) state the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers and carpels
(e) use a hand lens to identify and describe the stamens and stigmas of one,
locally available, named, wind-pollinated flower, and examine the pollen grains
using a microscope
(f) outline the process of pollination and distinguish between self-pollination and cross-
pollination
(g) compare, using fresh specimens, an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower
(h) describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by
fertilisation (production of endosperm and details of development are not required)
(i) identify on diagrams, the male reproductive system and give the functions of:
testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis
(j) identify on diagrams, the female reproductive system and give the functions of:
ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina
(k) briefly describe the menstrual cycle with reference to the alternation of
menstruation and ovulation, the natural variation in its length, and the fertile and
infertile phases of the cycle with reference to the effects of progesterone and
estrogen only
(l) describe fertilisation and early development of the zygote simply in terms of the
formation of a ball of cells which becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus
(m)state the functions of the amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid
(n) describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of
dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products (Structural details are not
required)
(o) discuss the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and methods by which it
may be controlled
82 TOPIC 12
12.1 Reproduction
1. Reproduction is the biological process by which new organisms are
produced to ensure the perpetuation of the species.
2. Reproductive methods are grouped into two main groups: asexual
reproduction
and sexual reproduction.
3. Asexual reproduction is when an organism produces a genetically
identical offspring without the contribution of genetic material from
another organism.
4. Sexual reproduction is when a genetically dissimilar offspring is
produced through the fusion of two gametes, one from each
parent organism, during the process of fertilisation.
5. Gametes are reproductive cells that contain half the number of
chromosomes as a normal body cell.
6. The zygote produced during fertilisation contains genetic material
from both parents, and is therefore genetically different from them.
12.2 Structure of an insect-pollinated flower
petal stigma
style carpel
stamen anthe
ovary
r
filame
nt
ovule
receptacl sepal
e pedic
el
An insect-pollinated flower
1. Pedicel (flower stalk) – Modified stem that holds the flower
Reproduction83
2. Receptacle – The end of the pedicel which holds the parts of the flower
3. Sepals – Modified leaves which are green in colour and are found on
the outermost ring of floral leaves. They make up the calyx and
protect the flower when it is in bud stage.
4. Petals – Modified leaves which form the most conspicuous part of
the flower; they make up the corolla. They are brightly coloured in
insect-pollinated plants and form a platform for insects to land on.
5. Carpel – Female reproductive organ. It contains an ovary with one or
more ovules and has a sticky tip known as a stigma.
6. Stigma – Receptor of pollen grains. Secretes a sugary fluid that
stimulates germination of pollen grains.
7. Style – Stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary. Holds the
stigma in position to trap pollen grains.
8. Ovary – Each ovary contains one or more ovules.
9. Ovule – Contains female gametes
10. Stamen – Male reproductive organ. It consists of an anther and a filament.
11. Anther – Contains pollen grains. Pollen grains in insect-pollinated
plants are heavy and sticky.
12. Filament – Stalk that holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse
pollen
13. A flower can have multiple carpels. Multiple carpels form a pistil.
12.3 Structure of a wind-pollinated flower
bracts
stigma
stamen
A wind-pollinated flower
1. Flowers are small, dull-coloured, scentless and without nectar.

2. Flower parts are protected by leaf-like structures called bracts.
3. Stamens have long pendulous filaments that hang out of the bracts,
exposing anthers to the wind.
4. Stigmas are large, extended and feathery, with a large surface
area to trap the small and light pollen grains.
84 TOPIC 12
12.4 Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
Plant part Insect-pollinated flower Wind-pollinated flower
Large, brightly- Small and dull; flower parts

Flower
coloured protected by modified leaves
petals called bracts
Flowers are
Scent Flowers are scentless
strong-
smelling
Nectar Present Absent
Necta
Present Absent
r
guid
e
Not pendulous and do Pendulous and protrude
Stamen
not protrude out of out of the flower
the flower
Small and compact, do Large and feathery, protrude
Stigma
not protrude out of the out of the flower
flower
Fairly abundant,
Pollen Very abundant, small and
large and
grain light
sticky
12.5 Pollination
1. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma, enabling fertilisation.
2. Mechanisms of pollination include insect pollination and wind pollination.
3. Insect-pollinated flowers contain nectar and have nectar guides
which are lines that are visible to insects, guiding them to the
location of the nectar.
4. When the insect enters the flower, pollen grains from the anthers
stick onto the insect. If pollen grains from a previously-visited
flower are present on the insect, they will be transferred to the
sticky stigma.
5. Wind-pollinated flowers have their pollen carried away by the wind
when the exposed anthers shake in the wind.
6. When the pollen grains come into contact with the large feathery
stigmas of another flower, they would be trapped.
Reproduction85
7. There are two types of pollination: self-pollination and cross-pollination.
12.6 Self-pollination
1. Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the same flower, or from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of another flower on the same plant.
2. Factors that promote self-pollination are:
(a) Bisexual flowers with anthers and stigma maturing at the same time
(b) Stigma being located directly below the anthers, allowing pollen
grains to fall onto it
3. Advantages of self-pollination are:
(a) Not dependent on external agents of pollination such as insects or
wind
(b) Less wastage of pollen and energy. During wind and insect
pollination, a great number of pollen grains are lost as only a
few pollen grains come into contact with a stigma of a flower of
the same species.
(c) Only one parent plant is required.
4. A disadvantage of self-pollination is less genetic variation, hence
the offspring is less adapted to environmental changes.
12.7 Cross-pollination
1. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of a flower of another plant belonging to the
same species.
2. Factors that promote cross-pollination are:
(a) Plants bearing only male or female flowers. These plants are
called dioecious plants.
(b) In plants with bisexual flowers, the anthers and the stigmas
mature at different times.
(c) Self-incompatibility – When a pollen grain of a flower happens
to land on the stigma of the same flower or another flower on
the same plant, a biochemical block prevents the pollen grain
from germinating.
3. Advantages of cross-pollination are:
(a) Greater genetic variation, hence the offspring has a higher
chance of surviving environmental changes.
(b) Offspring may have inherited beneficial qualities from both parents.
86 TOPIC 12
4. Disadvantages of cross-pollination are:
(a) Energy-consuming – lots of energy is required to make large
amounts of pollen grains.
(b) A great number of pollen grains are wasted due to the
randomness of the dispersal methods.
(c) External agents of pollination i.e. wind, insects are required.
(d) Two parent plants are required.
12.8 Double fertilisation in plants
polle
stigma
n
grai
n
pollen
tube 2
nuclei
style
ovary
definiti
ve ovule
nucleus
ovum micropyl
Fertilisation in plants
1. After pollination, a pollen tube grows out of each pollen grain in

response to the sugary fluid secreted by the stigma.
2. The cytoplasm and the two nuclei of the pollen grain (generative
nucleus and pollen tube nucleus) pass into the pollen tube. The
pollen tube nucleus controls the growth of the pollen tube.
3. The pollen tube grows through the cells of the style by secreting
enzymes to digest them.
4. The generative nucleus divides to form two male gametes.
5. The pollen tube enters the ovary and then enters the ovule through
an opening in the ovule wall called a micropyle and releases the
Reproduction87 two male gametes.
6. One male gamete fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. The
other male gamete fuses with the definitive nucleus to form the
endosperm nucleus.
7. The zygote will divide and develop into the embryo. The endosperm
nucleus will divide and give rise to the endosperm, a food storage
tissue that will nourish the developing embryo.
8. The ovule will develop into a seed and the ovary will develop into a fruit.
12.9 Male reproductive system
ureter urinar ureter

y
kidne urinar bladd semin
y y er al
bladd pubi vesicl
er c e
semin
al vas bon bulbourethr
vesicl deferen e al gland
e s
vas rectu
deferen
prostat urethr s m
e anus
gland a
bulbourethr penis penis epididymis

al gland testis
epididym testis
is scrotum
urethra
Front view of the scrotum Side view of
the
male reproductive system male reproductive system
1. Testes (singular: testis) – The male reproductive organs (gonads).

Produces sperms (male gametes) and male sex hormones e.g.
testosterone. Male sex hormones are responsible for development
and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics. Leading from
the end of each testis is a narrow tightly- coiled tube called the
epididymis in which sperms are stored.
2. Scrotum – The two testes are held in a pouch-like sac outside the
body called the scrotum. The lower temperature in the scrotum is
essential for sperm production.
3. Sperm ducts – The sperm ducts (vas deferens) lead from the
epididymis. During ejaculation, they transport sperm from the
epididymis to the urethra.
4. Prostate gland – The prostate gland is a large gland which secretes
directly into the urethra through several small ducts. The fluid
contributes to semen. Semen is a composition of sperm and fluids
from the sex glands containing nutrients and enzymes which
nourish and activate the sperm, allowing them to swim actively.
5. Seminal vesicles – Ducts from the seminal vesicles join the vas
deferens. The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that secrete a
88 fluid that makes up a proportion of semen.
TOPIC 12
6. Cowper’s glands – The Cowper’s glands, also known as bulbourethral
glands, are a pair of pea-sized glands located beneath the prostate.
The fluid produced by the gland contributes to semen.
7. Urethra – The urethra is a common passage for urine and semen to
pass out of the body. The sphincter muscle at the base of the
bladder prevents urine from passing out of the bladder during
ejaculation of semen.
8. Penis – The penis consists of cylinders of spongy erectile tissue
around the urethra. The tissue contains numerous spaces that allow
it to fill up with blood. When that happens, the penis becomes
erect and hard, allowing it to enter the vagina of a woman during
sexual intercourse to deposit semen.
12.10 Spermatozoa
middle
piece head
plasma
membrane
tail acrosom
mitochond
ria
e nucleus
neck
A sperm cell
1. The male gamete, the sperm (singular: spermatozoon, plural:

spermatozoa), consists of a head, middle piece and tail.
2. The head contains:
(a) An acrosome, an enzyme-containing sac. The acrosome contains
digestive enzymes which break down the outer membrane of
the ovum, allowing for fertilisation
(b) A small amount of cytoplasm and a large haploid
nucleus
3. The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria arranged spirally
to provide energy for the sperm to swim to the egg.
4. The tail (flagellum) beats to propel the sperm towards the egg.
Reproduction89
12.11 Female reproductive system
oviduct funnel
urete
ovary ovary
r
uterine
oviduc lining
oviduc (endometriu
t m)
t
uterus cervix
uteru
urinar rectu
s y
bladde
r m
uterine pubic vagina
lining
(endometriu bone
Side view of the
m) urethra anus
cervix
vulva
vagin
a
vulva
Front view of the
female reproductive system female reproductive system
1. Ovaries – The female reproductive organs (gonads). Produces ova

(singular: ovum) and female sex hormones e.g. estrogen and
progesterone. Female sex hormones are responsible for
development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics.
Mature eggs are released from the ovaries into the oviducts.
2. Oviducts – The oviduct (fallopian tube) is a narrow muscular tube
leading from the ovary to the uterus. The oviduct has a funnel-like
opening to make it easier for ova to enter the oviduct. Cilia on the
inner lining help move the ovum to the uterus. The ovum is usually
fertilised in the oviduct.
3. Uterus – The uterus is a thick muscular organ that can stretch as the
fetus increases in size during pregnancy. The smooth muscles in
the uterine wall contract to expel the fetus during birth. The uterus
is lined by a lining called the endometrium (uterine lining). The
endometrium is richly supplied with blood vessels and is the site of
implantation of the embryo post-fertilisation. It is broken down every
month and flows out of the body in the process called menstruation.
4. Cervix – The cervix is a circular ring of muscle at the neck of the
uterus. It opens into the vagina. It enlarges during birth to allow the
passage of the fetus.
5. Vagina – The vagina is a thin-walled chamber where sperm is
deposited during sexual intercourse. It forms the birth canal
through which the baby is born.
90 TOPIC 12
12.12 Ovum
cytoplasm
nucleus
cell
surface
membran
e
An ovum outer
membran
e
1. The female gamete, the ovum, is a large cell containing abundant
cytoplasm.
2. It has a large nucleus containing a haploid set of chromosomes.
3. It is surrounded by a plasma membrane and an outer membrane.
12.13 The menstrual cycle

1. The menstrual cycle normally spans over 28 days. There is natural
variation in the length of the menstrual cycle, and it can range
from 21 to 33 days.
2. Day 1 to 5: Menstruation lasts for 5 days. The first day of
menstruation is day 1 of the menstrual cycle. The endometrium
breaks down and flows out of the body.
3. Day 6 to 13: The ovaries secrete estrogen which causes the repair
and growth of the endometrium. The endometrium becomes
thicker.
4. Day 14: A mature ovum is released from the ovaries. Secretion of
progesterone is stimulated. The ovum dies after about 1 to 2 days
if it is not fertilised.
5. Day 15 to 28: Progesterone and estrogen are continually being
secreted for continued development and maintenance of the
endometrium. Progesterone maintains the endometrium by causing
it to become thicker. The endometrium readies for implantation.
Towards the end of the cycle, secretion of progesterone and
estrogen decline sharply. The endometrium is no longer maintained
and disintegrates. It flows out from the uterus together with some
blood through the vagina. This marks the beginning of another
cycle.
6. The fertile phase of the cycle is from day 11 to 17. This is because
Reproduction91 sperms can survive for 2 to 3 days in the female reproductive
system. Sperms deposited in the vagina from day 11 onwards can
fertilise the ovum which is released from the ovaries on day 14. The
ovum can survive for 1 to 2 days after ovulation; hence fertilisation
is possible up till day 17.
7. The rest of the days make up the infertile phase of the menstrual
cycle. Sexual intercourse during this period is unlikely to result in
fertilisation since no ovum is present.
progesterone
ovarian
hormones
estrogen
ovary
corpus luteum
developin
g follicles
lining
of
uterus
Days
14 28
1 (Ovulatio
n)
The menstrual cycle
12.14 Fertilisation in humans

1. During sexual intercourse, semen containing sperms is deposited
into the vagina of a woman. The fluids from the male sex glands
that make up semen provide nutrients and protection for the
sperms, as well as a medium for them to swim in.
2. The sperms swim up the oviducts and encounter the ovum.
3. The acrosome of the sperms release enzymes to disperse the layer
of cells surrounding the ovum and break down the outer
membrane of the ovum.
4. Only 1 sperm will enter the ovum. The plasma membranes of the
sperm and the ovum fuse and the sperm nucleus enters the ovum.
The plasma membrane of the egg undergoes a change as soon as a
single sperm has entered, preventing other sperms from entering.
5. The sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus, forming a fertilised
ovum known as a zygote.
6. The remaining sperms eventually die.
92 TOPIC 12
12.15 Development of the zygote
1. The cilia on the oviduct lining help move the zygote towards the uterus.
2. In the meantime, the zygote divides many times to form a hollow
ball of cells called the embryo.
3. 5 to 7 days after fertilisation, the embryo comes into contact with
the endometrium and becomes embedded. This process is known as
implantation.
4. Tissues growing out from the embryo invade the endometrium,
forming the placenta. The placenta is an organ that contains both
maternal and embryonic blood vessels. It allows for diffusion
between the maternal blood circulation and embryonic blood
circulation.
5. The placenta:
(a) Provides nutrients (glucose, amino acids and mineral salts)
and oxygen for the embryo
(b) Removes waste materials such as urea and carbon dioxide
(c) Allows protective antibodies to diffuse from maternal blood into
embryonic blood
(d) Provides a barrier preventing maternal blood and embryonic
blood from mixing. Reasons for this include:
(i) Maternal blood pressure is much higher than embryonic
blood pressure and would damage vital tissues.
(ii) The embryo might have a different blood group, resulting in
agglutination if mixing of blood occurs.
(e) Produces progesterone which maintains the endometrium during
pregnancy
6. The embryo eventually becomes connected to the placenta by the
umbilical cord. Embryonic blood travels to the placenta via the
arteries of the umbilical cord and returns with oxygen and dissolved
food substances via the umbilical vein.
7. A membrane called the amniotic sac begins development at the
same time as the placenta, and encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled
space. The fluid is known as amniotic fluid.
8. The amniotic fluid functions to:
(a) Absorb shock, support and protect the embryo from physical injury
(b) Lubricate the vagina during birth to reduce friction
(c) Allow the fetus to move freely during development
9. About 9 weeks after fertilisation, the embryo has developed into a fetus.
Reproduction93
12.16 Human Immunodeficiency Virus
1. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that can
be spread through sexual intercourse.
2. It is caused by a virus called Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
3. HIV progressively reduces the effectiveness of the infected
person’s immune system in protecting him from infection.
4. HIV infection progresses to AIDS, the last stage of the infection, in
about 9 to 10 years after infection.
5. Symtons of AIDS include:
(a) Persistent fever, sweat, swollen glands, chills, weakness and weight
loss
(b) Pneumonia
(c) Tuberculosis
(d) Chronic diarrhoea
(e) Brain infection
(f) Tumours such as Kaposi’s sarcoma (cancer of the blood vessels)
and cervical cancer in women
6. HIV is transmitted:
(a) By sexual intercourse with an infected person
(b) By sharing and reusing contaminated needles during
intravenous drug use, tattoos and piercing
(c) By receiving a blood transfusion from an infected donor
(d) During pregnancy and childbirth. An infected mother could pass
on the disease to her child
7. Spread of HIV can be prevented by:
(a) Having protected sexual intercourse. A condom reduces the risk of
infection.
(b) Abstinence from sex or having sex with only one partner
(c) Not sharing objects that could be contaminated with blood or
bodily fluids such as hypodermic syringes, razors and
toothbrushes
(d) Screening of blood in a blood bank for HIV infection to reduce
chances of transmission during blood transfusions
(e) Infected mothers should undergo antiretroviral therapies and
give birth by caesarean section to minimise risk of transmission
to the foetus. Breastfeeding should be avoided after birth.
(f) Visiting reliable operators for tattoos, piercings or acupuncture
where needles are sterilised or disposable
94 TOPIC 12
TOPIC Cell Division
13
Objectives
(a) state the importance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual reproduction
(b) explain the need for the production of genetically identical cells
(c) identify, with the aid of diagrams, the main stages of mitosis
(d) state what is meant by homologous pairs of chromosomes
(e) identify, with the aid of diagrams, the main stages of meiosis (Names of the sub-
divisions of prophase are not required)
(f) define the terms haploid and diploid, and explain the need for a reduction division
process prior to fertilisation in sexual reproduction
(g) state how meiosis and fertilisation can lead to variation
13.1 Cell division

1. New cells must be created for growth and repair in organisms.
2. Cell division is the process by which new cells arise.
3. During cell division, a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
4. There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
5. Mitosis takes place in body cells in tissues undergoing growth and
repair while meiosis is only involved in the creation of gametes.
13.2 Chromosomes
1. A chromosome is a single coiled deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
molecule containing many genes. Genes are sections of DNA that
encode genetic instructions.
2. A normal human body cell contains 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes.
This number is the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes.
3. In gametes, there are only 23 chromosomes. This number is the
haploid (n) number of chromosomes.
4. The process of DNA replication during cell division must be finely
controlled so that the daughter cells produced by mitosis would
contain all the genes required for subsequent cell division and
differentiation.
Cell Division95
5. Errors occurring during DNA replication will be transferred to
daughter cells during cell division.
6. This could lead to harmful changes in the genes and affect cellular
function.
13.3 Mitosis
1. Mitosis is the process of cell division in which the genetic material
of the parent cell is duplicated, producing two daughter cells that
are genetically identical to the parent cell.
2. The daughter cells each contain the diploid number of chromosomes.
3. Mitosis is important for growth because genetically identical new
cells must be produced during growth.
4. Mitosis is also required for repair. New cells are produced to replace
worn-out cells that have been destroyed or shed.
5. Mitosis occurs during asexual reproduction, producing offspring that
are genetically identical to the parents as well as to one another.
chromosomes
2 identical
mitosis daughter cells
parent cell DNA

replicates
Mitosis
13.4 The cell cycle

1. The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell,
resulting in cell division.
2. It consists of a period in which the cell prepares for cell division by
accumulating nutrients, increasing its size and number of
organelles and replicating its DNA, called the interphase, and the
actual mitotic phase.
3. The mitotic phase consists of mitosis, which is the division of the
genetic material, and cytokinesis, which is the division of the
cytoplasm.
96 TOPIC 13
13.5 Stages of mitosis
Interphase
1. During interphase, the cell grows, stores energy and duplicates
organelles.
2. The DNA replicates and the total DNA content of the cell doubles.
The chromosome number still remains 2n.
3. The chromatin (threads of chromosomes) is in the dispersed state.
chromati
n
(duplicate
d)
nuclear
envelope
Interphase
Prophase
1. The chromatin condenses to form thick strands, which are visible
under the light microscope. Each duplicated chromosome appears
as two identical sister chromatids joined together at a central
region called the centromere. The centromeres form X-shaped
structures.
2. The nuclear envelope disappears.
fragments
of chromosome,
nuclear consisting of two
envelop sister chromatids
e
one of the two

poles of the cell
Late prophase
Cell Division97
Metaphase
1. The chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate, which is an
imaginary line equidistant from the two spindle poles.
metaphas
e plate
Metaphase
Anaphase
1. Each pair of sister chromatids splits at the centromeres and are
pulled to the opposite ends of the cell. Each chromatid is now called
a daughter chromosome.
2. At the same time, the opposite ends of the cell move further apart.
3. The two ends of the cell now have equivalent and identical
collections of chromosomes.
daught
er
chromosom
es
Anaphase
98 TOPIC 13
Telophase
1. Daughter nuclei begin to form at both ends of the cell.
2. The chromosomes in each daughter nucleus uncoil to form chromatin
threads.
3. While telophase is taking place, cytokinesis occurs. Cytokinesis is not
considered a part of mitosis but is necessary for cell division.
daughter
cells
being
pinched
nuclear
envelop
e
Telophase forming
Cytokinesis
1. Cytokinesis, the division of cytoplasm, occurs at the same time the
cell is undergoing telophase.
2. The two daughter cells are pinched apart.
3. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of the parent
cell.
13.6 Meiosis
1. Meiosis is the reduction division in cells where the chromosome
number in each daughter cell is halved.
2. Normal human body cells contain 2 sets of 23 chromosomes (a
maternal set and a paternal set), making a total of 46
chromosomes. Cells containing 2 sets of chromosomes are diploid.
3. Gametes contain only 1 set of chromosomes and are known as haploid
cells.
4. Gametes have to be haploid so that when sexual intercourse
occurs, 2 haploid gametes can fuse to produce a diploid zygote. The
zygote grows and develops by mitosis, preserving its ploidy
number and giving rise to a new organism.
Cell Division99
5. Meiosis is the process by which haploid gametes are produced.
Meiosis I Meiosis II
diploid parent cell

containing 2 pairs replication
of chromosomes of
(2n = 4) chromosom
es
4 haploid gametes,
each daughter cell each containing
contains 2 2 chromosomes
chromosomes, but each (n = 2)
chromosome consists of
2 chromatids
Meiosis
13.7 Stages of meiosis

Interphase
1. Interphase in meiosis is identical to interphase in mitosis.
2. Each of the 46 chromosomes is replicated and exists as two sister
chromatids.
chromati
n
(duplicate
d)
nuclear
envelope
Interphase
100 TOPIC 13
Prophase I
1. Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, which are thick strands
that are visible under a light microscope.
2. Homologous chromosomes, one inherited from the father and one
inherited from the mother, pair up.
3. Crossing-over occurs at many points along the paired
chromosomes, where some DNA is exchanged.
regions of
crossing-
over
chromatid
s of the
same
chrosome
Prophase I
Metaphase I
1. The homologous chromosomes line up in pairs along the metaphase
plate.
2. One chromosome of each pair of homologous chromosomes ends
up on one side of the metaphase plate, while its homologue (also
consisting of 2 sister chromatids) is on the other side of the
metaphase plate.
metaphase plate
centromere
Metaphase I
Cell Division
101
Anaphase I
1. Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the
cell.
2. The sister chromatids of each chromosome are still attached and move
together.
sister chromatids
remain attached
homologous chromosomes separate

Anaphase I
Telophase I
1. Nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes at each pole of the
cell.
2. Cytokinesis occurs.
cleavag
e
furrow
Telophase I
Cytokinesis
1. As in mitosis, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage
furrow in animals or a cell plate in plants.
102 TOPIC 13
In the second cell division, the sister chromatids are separated. The
process is identical to mitosis.
Prophase II
1. Nuclear envelope disappears and chromatin condenses
Prophase II
Metaphase II
1. The chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate.
Metaphase II
Cell Division103
Anaphase II
1. The sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles.
sister
chromatids
separate
Anaphase II
Telophase II
1. Nuclear envelopes reappear at each pole.
2. Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen.
3. Each daughter cell at the end of meiosis II has a haploid number of
unreplicated chromosomes, i.e. half the amount of DNA of a usual
body cell.
haploid daughter cells forming

Telophase II
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis occurs to pinch the daughter cells apart.
104 TOPIC 13
13.8 Genetic variation arising from meiosis
1. Genetic variation increases the chances of survival of the species in
a changing environment.
2. Variation provides the basis for natural selection, a process where,
over time, individuals with heritable traits more suitable for the
environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on
their favourable genes to their offspring.
3. In a changing environment, a larger gene pool (due to genetic
variation) is more likely to contain genes that express traits more
suitable for the new environment. The species have a higher
chance of becoming adapted instead of becoming extinct.
4. Genetic variation arises through 3 processes:
(a) Independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I of
meiosis. Independent assortment results in gametes with a
random mixture of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
(b) Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes during
prophase I of meiosis. Crossing-over results in genetic
recombination, producing chromosomes that have a mixture of
maternal and paternal DNA.
(c) Random fertilisation of gametes. Each gamete has a unique set
of 23 chromosomes due to independent assortment and
crossing-over in meiosis. Any one male gamete representing
one out of the many different possible gene combinations, can
fertilise an ovum, also representing one out of the many
different possible gene combinations. This will produce variation
due to the many different combinations of genes from the male
and female gamete.
Cell Division105
TOPIC Molecular Genetics
14
Objectives
(a) outline the relationship between DNA, genes and chromosomes
(b) state the structure of DNA in terms of the bases, sugar and phosphate groups
found in each of their nucleotides
(c) state the rule of complementary base pairing
(d) state that DNA is used to carry the genetic code, which is used to synthesise specific
polypeptides (details of transcription and translation are not required)
(e) state that each gene is a sequence of nucleotides, as part of a DNA molecule
(f) explain that genes may be transferred between cells. Reference should be made to
the transfer of genes between organisms of the same or different species –
transgenic plants or animals
(g) briefly explain how a gene that controls the production of human insulin can be
inserted into bacterial DNA to produce human insulin in medical biotechnology
(h) discuss the social and ethical implications of genetic engineering, with reference
to a named example
14.1 Structure of DNA

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that carries genetic
information used in the development and functioning of all
organisms.
2. DNA consists of a pair of molecules that are twisted around each
other in a shape called a double helix.
3. Each molecule of DNA is a long polymer consisting of basic units
called
nucleotides. Polymers of nucleotides are called polynucleotides.
4. Each nucleotide consists
of: sugar-
phosphate
(a) A deoxyribose sugar backbone
(b) A phosphate group
nitrogenous base
(c) A base containing
nitrogen
phosphate
base
106 TOPIC 14 deoxyribose sugar

A nucleotide
5. There are four types of nitrogenous bases:
(a) Adenine (A)
(b) Guanine (G)
(c) Cytosine (C)
(d) Thymine (T)
6. The nucleotides polymerise to form a polynucleotide when the
deoxyribose sugars of the nucleotides are joined together by
phosphate groups, forming the sugar-phosphate backbone of the
DNA molecule.
polynucleotide
P P P
sugar-
phosphate
backbone
A C T G
bases
A polynucleotide
7. Two strands of polynucleotides wrap around each other to form the

double helix structure of DNA. The strands are held together when
the nitrogenous bases on one strand form hydrogen bonds with the
nitrogenous bases on the other strand.
8. Complementary base pairing is when each type of base on one
strand forms hydrogen bonds with only one type of base on the
other strand.
9. Adenine bonds to only thymine; cytosine bonds to only guanine.
CG
AT
T A
GC
Complementary base pairing
10.107
Molecular Genetics Each gene is made up of a unique sequence of nucleotides. A DNA
molecule contains many genes along its length.
14.2 Organisation of DNA in cells
1. DNA is wrapped around proteins to form a ‘beads on a string’ structure.
2. The DNA-wrapped proteins coil to form a chromatin fibre.
3. The chromatin fibres fold and coil further to form the compact
structures called chromosomes seen during cell division.
gene
30 nm
chromati
n fibre
DNA
200 nm
chromosome
Folding of DNA
14.3 From DNA to phenotype

1. A gene is a single unit of hereditary information consisting of a
specific nucleotide sequence located on the chromosome. Each
gene contains information for the production of a single polypeptide.
2. These gene products are responsible for every aspect of a living
organism e.g. appearance, resistance to specific diseases,
biochemical processes necessary for life etc. For example, a gene
can affect hair colour by coding for an enzyme involved in the
production of hair pigment.
14.4 Genetic engineering

1. Genetic engineering is a technique where genes of interest can be
inserted into the genome of a specific organism. For example,
genes from bacteria or other plants that confer resistance to
diseases or herbicides are inserted into crop plants like soybean or
corn in order to make it grow better. Herbicides can be used on
weeds growing around the crop plant without killing the crop plant.
The genetically-modified plant is known as a transgenic plant.
2. Transgenic organisms possess a gene or genes that have been
transferred from another species.
108 TOPIC 14
14.5 Production of human insulin
1. People suffering from type 1 diabetes mellitus require insulin injections.
2. Genetic engineering is used to produce human insulin from the
bacteria
Escherichia coli.
3. The human insulin gene is first obtained from a human
chromosome by cutting it with a restriction enzyme.
4. The plasmid vector is cut with the same restriction enzyme.
5. When the plasmids are mixed with the DNA fragments, they are
able to bind as the enzyme cuts both in the same way, generating
‘sticky ends’ that can join together. DNA ligase is added to the
mixture, allowing the cut ends of the DNA to join to form a
continuous double strand.
6. The recombinant plasmids are mixed with E. coli. Heat shock is
applied to the bacteria, opening up pores on the membrane of the
bacteria so plasmids enter the bacteria. This process is known as
transformation.
7. The bacteria are placed in large steel tanks called fermenters under
optimal conditions for growth and reproduction. Features of a
fermenter include a nutrient broth containing glucose water and
salts, 37°C temperature maintained by a temperature probe,
optimal pH maintained by a pH probe, air supply for aeration and a
stirrer to mix substances evenly.
8. At the end of fermentation, the bacteria cells are lysed open. Insulin
is extracted and purified by crystallisation.
human cell
chromosom bacterium
es in DNA
nucleus
thread DNA
plasmid
chromosom isolate
es removed d
from plasmid cut open
plasmid with restriciton
nucleus s enzyme
insulin
gene cut
from
chromosom insulin gene inserted
e with into plasmid. DNA
restriction ligase added.
enzyme
transformation
Molecular Genetics109
bacteri
a
multipl
y
production of insulin
Production of human insulin
14.6 Applications of genetic engineering
1. Genetic engineering has relevance to biological research e.g.
genetically- modified (GM) mice are used to study the function of
genes.
2. Low-cost, high-yield production of pharmaceutical drugs e.g.
insulin, clotting factors for haemophiliacs, human growth hormone.
3. Agriculture, where traits conferred through genetic modification include:
(a) Survivability in harsh environmental conditions. Areas previously
considered unsuitable can be used to grow crops. Crops are also
more likely to survive bad weather such as drought.
(b) Reduced maturation time. Multiple harvests a year translates
into increased supply of food.
(c) Resistance to pests, diseases and herbicides. Crops are less
likely to succumb to diseases; farmers are able to use pesticides
to remove pests and herbicides to remove weeds without
killing the crops.
(d) Production of toxins that kill pests (bioinsecticides). Farmers
save money on pesticides.
(e) Enhanced nutritional value. Genes coding for vitamin or nutrient
production can be inserted into a crop species to yield a more
nutritious product.
Benefits include:
(a) Lowered cost for farmers since fewer pesticides are used as
plants can produce their own. This translates to lower consumer
costs and increased accessibility to certain types of food.
(b) Higher yield since fewer crops are lost to disease or poor
environmental conditions.
(c) GM foods with enhanced nutritional value can be used to supply
nutrients to people living in areas without access to certain
nutrients in their regular diet.
4. Animal husbandry and aquaculture ‒ GM fish are designed to
overproduce growth hormone, resulting in faster growth. This
reduces fishing pressure on wild stock.
5. Gene therapy ‒ Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into a
person’s cells or tissues in order to treat a disease.
110 TOPIC 14
14.7 Social and ethical implications of genetic engineering
1. Potential health concerns including allergen transfer, transfer of
antiobiotic resistance, unknown health effects.
2. Environmental impact including transfer of genes to wild plants or
weed varieties through cross-pollination, loss of biodiversity,
reduced effectiveness of pesticides.
(a) Genes conferring herbicide tolerance might be transferred to
weed varieties, causing the development of herbicide-resistant
‘superweeds’.
(b) Pesticide-producing GM plants produce pesticides that might
indiscriminately kill insects around them, even harmless insects
such as butterflies. Such genes crossing over into wild varieties
and ending up in a natural environment would have serious
ecological implications. This results in a loss of biodiversity and
affects the ecological balance.
(c) There is a concern that insects might build up resistance to
pesticides.
3. Economic impact
(a) World food production would be controlled by a few
biotechnology companies.
(b) Increased dependence of developing countries on industrialised
countries carrying out genetic research.
(c) Technology modifying GM plants to produce sterile seeds to
minimise the spread of genes into unintended plants and
combat patent infringement would result in farmers having to
purchase new seeds every year – not financially feasible for
farmers in developing countries.
4. Ethical objections
(a) Limitations of modern science to adequately understand the
negative effects of GMOs
(b) Unnatural to mix genes across species, tampering with nature,
not respecting natural organisms’ intrinsic values
(c) Concerns about welfare of GM animals
(d) GM food labelling is not mandatory in some countries.
Consumers might be unaware that they are purchasing and
consuming GM products.
(e) GM food might not have been adequately tested
(f) Further GM developments might be skewed towards private
interests and profit instead of the public welfare
Molecular Genetics111
TOPIC Inheritance
15
Objectives
(a) define a gene as a unit of inheritance and distinguish clearly between the terms gene and
allele
(b) explain the terms dominant, recessive, codominant, homozygous, heterozygous,
phenotype and genotype
(c) predict the results of simple crosses with expected ratios of 3:1 and 1:1, using
the terms homozygous, heterozygous, F1 generation and F2 generation
(d) explain why observed ratios often differ from expected ratios, especially when
there are small numbers of progeny
(e) use genetic diagrams to solve problems involving monohybrid inheritance
(Genetic diagrams involving autosomal linkage or epistasis are not required)
(f) explain co-dominance and multiple alleles with reference to the inheritance of the
ABO blood group phenotypes – A, B, AB, O, gene alleles IA, IB and IO
(g) describe the determination of sex in humans – XX and XY chromosomes
(h) describe mutation as a change in the structure of a gene such as in sickle cell
anaemia, or in the chromosome number, such as the 47 chromosomes in the
condition known as Down syndrome
(i) name radiation and chemicals as factors which may increase the rate of mutation
(j) describe the difference between continuous and discontinuous variation and give
examples of each
(k) state that variation and competition lead to differential survival of, and
reproduction by, those organisms best fitted to the environment
(l) give examples of environmental factors that act as forces of natural selection
(m)explain the role of natural selection as a possible mechanism for evolution
(n) give examples of artificial selection such as in the production of economically
important plants and animals
15.1 Mendelian genetics

1. Hereditary traits are characteristics that can be passed from one
generation to the next.
2. The study of genetics is named after an Austrian monk, Gregor
Mendel, who studies heredity in garden pea plants (Pisum sativum).
3. Mendel focused on characteristics of pea plants that have an
‘either-or’ behaviour. For example, the flowers of pea plants are
either purple or white, with no intermediates.
4. He started his experiments with true-breeding plants. When true-
breeding plants self-pollinate, all their offspring are of the same
type. True-breeding tall plants will produce tall offspring when self-
pollinated.
112 TOPIC 15
15.2 Mendel’s monohybrid crosses
1. A monohybrid cross begins with:
(a) Cross-pollination between true-breeding parents (P generation)
(b) P generation produces hybrid offspring (offspring from 2
different varieties), called the F1 generation.
(c) F1 hybrids self-pollinate to produce another set of offspring,
called the F2 generation.
2. One of Mendel’s monohybrid crosses:
(a) P generation consisted of true-breeding plants producing either
purple or white flowers.
(b) F1 generation consisted of all purple-flowered plants.
(c) Self-pollination in the F1 generation produced an F2 generation
where the ratio of purple-flowered to white-flowered plants is 3
: 1.
P generation
Х
purple flowers white flowers
F1 generation
all plants had purple flowers
F2 generation
224
plants
had
white
flowers
705 plants had

purple flowers
3. Important observations:
(a) F1 generation did not possess intermediate traits between the two
parents i.e. flowers produced by F 1 generation were all as purple
as flowers produced by the P generation purple-flowered plant,
instead of being pale purple – an intermediate between the
purple-flowered parent and white-flowered parent.
Inheritance113
(b) Self-pollination in F1 generation produced offspring (F2
generation) in which the white-flowered trait (not expressed in
the F1 generation) resurfaced.
4. Mendel’s deductions:
(a) The heritable factor for white flowers did not disappear in the F1
generation since it was able to resurface in the F2 generation.
(b) Only the purple-flower factor affected flower colour in the F1
generation. He called the purple-flower trait dominant and the
white-flower trait recessive.
15.3 Mendel’s model of heredity

1. Hereditary factors are responsible for transmission of
characteristics from one generation to the next. These factors are
now called genes.
2. Each characteristic is controlled by a pair of alleles (different forms
of the same gene) in an organism. For example, flower colour in
pea plants is controlled by an allele for purple flowers and an allele
for white flowers. In other words, the gene for flower colour has two
alleles: purple and white.
3. Each organism inherits one allele from the mother and one allele
from the father during sexual reproduction. Each body cell of an
organism contains two alleles for each trait.
4. If an organism has two different alleles, then the dominant allele
will show its effect while the recessive allele will have no effect on
the organism’s appearance.
5. The two alleles will segregate during gamete formation. Each
gamete will only contain one allele out of the two that are present
in the body cells of an organism.
15.4 Glossary of terms involved in genetics

1. Chromosome – A chromosome is an organised structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein that is found in the nuclei
of cells. DNA contains genetic information used in the development
and functioning of all organisms.
2. Gene – A gene is a DNA segment located in a chromosome, which
codes for a single unit of inheritance. The place on the chromosome
where the gene is located is called the gene locus.
3. Allele – Alleles are different versions of the same gene. They are
located on the same gene locus in homologous chromosomes.
4. Phenotype – An observable characteristic of an organism. It can be
physical (appearance), behavioural or physiological. It depends on
the genotype of the organism.
5. Genotype – The genetic make-up of an organism. The genotype of an
organism cannot be easily predicted from the phenotype
114 (appearance) because of the existence of dominant and recessive
TOPIC 15
alleles.
6. Homozygous – Each organism inherits two alleles for a given
characteristic, one from the mother and one from the father. An
organism is said to be homozygous for a given trait when it
contains two identical alleles for that trait.
7. Heterozygous – An organism is said to be heterozygous for a given
trait when it contains two different alleles for the characteristic.
8. Dominant allele – A dominant allele is the allele that is fully
expressed in the phenotype under both homozygous and
heterozygous conditions.
9. Recessive allele – A recessive allele is the allele that is only
expressed in the phenotype under the homozygous condition. It is
masked in the phenotype under heterozygous conditions.
15.5 Explaining Mendelian ratios

Dihybrid cross:
Let P represent the dominant allele for purple flowers, and p, the
recessive allele for white flowers.
P generation
Purple- White-flowered
flowered
phenotype P
pp
PP x
pp
generation genotype
P x p p
P p p
Gametes P Pp Pp
PP
Pp Pp x P Pp Pp
Pp Pp
F1 generation
genotype
(self-pollinated)
F1 generation All purple-flowered

Pp
phenotype Gametes P p P p x P p
P PP Pp
Pp
p Pp pp
F2 generation
genotype PP Pp Pp pp
F2 generation
Purple- Purple- Purple- White-
phenotype flowere flowere flowered flowered
d d
Inheritance115
F2 generation phenotype ratio 3 purple-flowered : 1 white-flowered
1. A homozygous dominant plant (PP) will only produce gametes
containing a single copy of the P allele.
2. A homozygous recessive plant (pp) will only produce gametes
containing a single copy of the p allele.
3. When cross-pollination occurs between the two plants, the gametes
will combine during fertilisation to produce heterozygous (Pp)
hybrids.
4. Heterozygous (Pp) plants will produce gametes containing either the P or
the
p allele in a 1 : 1 ratio.
5. Crossing the F1 generation will result in a 25% chance of a
homozygous dominant offspring, a 50% chance of heterozygous
offspring and a 25% chance of a homozygous recessive offspring.
6. When there is a large amount of offspring produced, the observed
phenotypic ratio will be approximately 3 : 1.
15.6 Deducing genotype

1. A test cross is used to determine if an individual exhibiting a
dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous for the trait.
2. It is accomplished by crossing the organism with an organism that is
homozygous recessive.
3. Test cross:
P generation Purple- White-flowered

flowered
phenotype P pp
PP
generation genotype pp
x x p p
P P p p
Gametes P Pp Pp
PP
P Pp Pp
Pp Pp
F1 generation
genotype Pp Pp
F1 generation
All purple-flowered
phenotype
P generation genotype
Purple-flowered
phenotype P x
Pp
generation genotype
P p p p
Gametes
Pp Pp
F1 generation
White-flowered p
pp Pp
p
pp pp x p p
P Pp Pp
F1 generation phenotype p pp pp
1 purple-flowered : 1 white-flowered
ratio
116 TOPIC 15
4. A PP x pp cross produces only Pp offspring. Hence, if all the
offspring have purple flowers, then the unknown parent must be
homozygous dominant for the trait.
5. A Pp x pp cross produces a 1 : 1 phenotypic ratio. Hence if both
purple and white phenotypes appear among the offspring, then the
unknown parent must be heterozygous for the trait.
15.7 Dominance
1. Complete dominance is when the heterozygote has the same
phenotype as the dominant homozygote. The recessive allele
present in the heterozygote is masked by the dominant allele.
2. Co-dominance is when both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype.
3. An example would be the ABO blood typing system in humans.
Human blood groups are determined by 3 alleles for 1 gene: I A, IB
and IO.
4. IO is recessive to both IA and IB, while IA and IB are codominant when
paired together.
5. The various combinations of the alleles and the resultant
phenotypes are shown in the table below:
Phenotype Genotypes
(Blood group)
O IO IO
A IAIA or IAIO
B IBIB or IBIO
AB IAIB
6. The gene for blood group codes for a protein present on the surface
of red blood cells, called an antigen. The allele I A codes for antigen
A, IB codes for antigen B, and no antigen is expressed for allele IO.
7. For IAIB genotype, both antigen A and antigen B are expressed since
each of the alleles produces its own antigen. Both alleles contribute
to the phenotype, which is blood group AB.
8. The gene for human blood groups is said to have multiple alleles
since it exists in more than two alleles.
Inheritance117
15.8 Sex determination
1. A karyotype is a picture of a set of chromosomes in a cell. During
the preparation of a karyotype, chromosomes are stained and
examined under a microscope. A picture is taken and edited to
arrange the chromosomes by size.
2. A normal karyotype will show 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes
called autosomes, and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 2 X Y
2
Human male karyotype
3. It can be used to detect extra or missing pieces of chromosomes
that could lead to several congenital conditions.
4. In humans, sex is determined by sex chromosomes. Human sex
chromosomes are the X chromosome and the Y chromosome.
5. From the karyotype, it can be seen that the X chromosome is
much larger than the Y chromosome.
6. Human males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
They have the XY genotype.
7. Human females have two X chromosomes. They have the XX genotype.
8. Genetic diagram for sex determination:
Parents’
phenotyp Mal Female
e
Parents’ e x XX
genotyp
e XX
X XY Y X X
x X X
Gametes
X XX XX
XY
Y XY XY
Offsprin Offspring phenotype ratio
g
genotyp
118 e 15
TOPIC
XX XX
XY
XY
1 female : 1
male
15.9 Mutation
1. Mutation is a change in gene or chromosomal structure. Mutations
that occur in gamete DNA can be passed down to the next
generation.
2. Mutations that occur in normal body cells (somatic mutations) are
not passed on to the next generation. However, they are
responsible for certain types of cancer.
3. Spontaneous mutations can arise during the replication or repair of
DNA. The DNA-replication mechanism in our cells normally has high
fidelity, but occasional errors might occur.
4. Mutations can also be caused by exposure to mutagens. Mutagens
are physical or chemical agents that increase the rate of mutation.
Examples of mutagens are ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, radioactive
particles such as gamma rays, certain chemicals such as benzene,
ethidium bromide and nitrous acid.
5. Gene mutation increases the amount of genetic variation in the
gene pool as it introduces new alleles. Some mutations can be
favourable.
15.10 Gene mutation

1. An example of a disease caused by gene mutation would be sickle-
cell anaemia.
2. Sickle-cell anaemia is a blood disorder where red blood cells
possess a rigid, sickle shape when oxygen concentration in the
blood is low.
3. Normal red blood cells are flexible and can change their shape in
order to pass through capillaries. Sickle-shaped red blood cells are
not able to do so, blocking up arteries and failing to deliver blood to
certain tissues, causing tissue damage.
4. Sickle-cell disease is caused by a mutation in the gene for
haemoglobin production. It causes a single amino acid in the
normal haemoglobin chain to be replaced by another amino acid.
This causes a change in the 3-dimensional shape of the
haemoglobin molecule. HbS molecules clump together under low
oxygen concentration, causing red blood cells to become sickle-
shaped.
15.11 Chromosome mutation

1. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is a condition caused by a chromosome
mutation during meiosis (gamete production). It results in mental
retardation, and heart and respiratory defects.
Inheritance1192. The zygote inherits 3 copies of chromosome 21 instead of 2, and

this mutation is present in all body cells due to mitosis during
zygote development. Each body cell of the afflicted individual
contains 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46.
3. This chromosome mutation is far more likely to occur during ovum
production than during sperm production.
4. Women above 30 have a higher risk of carrying babies with Down
syndrome. Fetal testing is recommended for older mothers to check
for Down syndrome in the embryo.
5. The genetic diagram below shows how a zygote with Down
syndrome could have been produced.
male female
Parents x
Each normal body

cell had two copies
mutation of chromosome
21.
Gamete
s
Each sperm has fertilisation One egg has two copies

of chromosome 21,
one copy of while the other has
chromosome 21. none.
The zygote has three
copies of chromosome 21
and will develop into a
child with Down syndrome.
Down syndrome
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 XX
Karyotype from a female with

Down syndrome
120 TOPIC 15
15.12 Variation
1. Genetic variations are differences in phenotypes between
individuals of the same species.
2. In discontinuous variation of a characteristic, individuals possess
distinct and separate phenotypes with no intermediates (‘either-or’
characteristics).
3. Examples of discontinuous variation are the flower colour in pea
plants (either purple or white), ABO blood types.
60
50
40
Percentage of
30
population
20
10
0
A AB O
B Blood type
Discontinuous variation
4. Discontinuous variation is controlled by alleles of a single gene
or a small number of genes and is seldom affected by the
environment.
5. In continuous variation of a characteristic, an unbroken range of
phenotypes exist in the population.
Inheritance121
6. Examples include height, skin colour, intelligence and weight, in
which many intermediate phenotypes exist.
10
6
students
No. of
0 Height (cm)
143 –
145 –
147 –
151 –
153 –
149 –
50
4
4
Continuous variation
7. Intermediate phenotypes are usually more common than extreme
phenotypes (i.e. very tall or very short, very dark skin or very pale
skin, etc), and when plotted on a graph, a bell-shaped curve is
obtained.
8. Continuous variation is caused by the effect of many genes and is
often affected by environmental factors.
15.13 Natural selection

1. New alleles arise in a population due to mutation. Independent
assortment and crossing over of chromosomes during meiosis,
and random fertilisation of gametes give rise to even more
variation within the population.
2. Variation in genes results in a wide range of phenotypes in a
population. These organisms compete against one another for
survival.
3. However, the different varieties of organisms do not have the same
chances of survival and reproduction. Some organisms possess
more favourable phenotypes, and are better-suited for their
environment. These organisms survive better, and reproduce,
passing on their favourable traits to their offspring.
4. We say that these favourable traits are ‘selected for’, because they
are present in a higher frequency in the next generation.
5. The differential survival of, and reproduction by organisms best
fitted to the environment is known as natural selection.
122 6. 15
TOPIC Evolution is the change in genetic material of a population from one
generation to the next. Over time, it can produce major changes in
a population that could give rise to a new species.
7. Natural selection is a major mechanism by which evolution takes
place because it causes helpful genes to become more common
and deleterious genes to become rarer.
8. Environmental factors that act as forces of natural selection could
include:
(a) Disease – Disease-resistant phenotypes would be selected (i.e.
sickle-cell trait against malaria).
(b) Prey – Characteristics conducive to obtaining more food are
selected for (e.g. Galapagos finches evolving beaks adapted to
particular diets).
(c) Predators – Methods for evading predators are selected for,
such as protective colouration to provide camouflage e.g. in the
peppered moth, poison glands (discourage predation), longer
legs for faster running (to escape from predators), herd
behaviour (animals try to get to the centre of the herd when
escaping from predators because it provides protection)
(d) Mating – Features that are more attractive to females of the
same species are selected for (e.g. peacock tail, throat pouches
in frigatebirds), as it increases the likelihood of finding a mate
and hence reproducing.
15.14 Artificial selection

1. Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding, is the
intentional breeding for particular genetic traits.
2. It is used to produce several economically important crops and animals.
3. Traits such as disease-resistance or high quality and yield of crop,
tolerance to environmental pressures such as pH, salinity, drought,
temperature, tolerance to insects, and tolerance to herbicides are
selected for by plant breeders.
4. In animals, traits such as fast-growing, muscular, reproductively-
efficient (fertile), good fat marbling (in cattle bred for meat), good
milk production (in cows), and good egg production (chickens) are
selected.
Inheritance123
TOPIC Organisms and their Environment
16
Objectives
(a) briefly describe the non-cyclical nature of energy flow
(b) explain the terms producer, consumer and trophic level in the context of food
chains and food webs
(c) explain how energy losses occur along food chains, and discuss the efficiency of
energy transfer between trophic levels
(d) describe and interpret pyramids of numbers and biomass
(e) describe how carbon is cycled within an ecosystem and outline the role of forests
and oceans as carbon sinks
(f) evaluate the effects of
• water pollution by sewage and by inorganic waste
• pollution due to insecticides including bioaccumulation up food chains and
impact on top carnivores
(g) outline the roles of microorganisms in sewage treatment as an example of
environmental biotechnology
(h) discuss reasons for conservation of species with reference to the maintenance of
biodiversity and how this is done, e.g. management of fisheries and management
of timber production
16.1 Ecology
1. Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and the
interactions of these organisms with their environment.
2. Terms related to ecology:
(a) Habitat – The place where an organism lives
(b) Population – A group of individuals of one species that live in a
particular habitat
(c) Community – All the organisms that live in a particular habitat. It
consists of populations of organisms that live close enough to
interact with one another.
(d) Ecosystem – Consists of a community and its physical
environment. Physical factors in the environment that the
community interacts with include pH, temperature, light
intensity, water and nutrient availability, oxygen / carbon
dioxide availability and salinity.
124 TOPIC 16
16.2 Energy transfer in an ecosystem
1. A food chain is a sequence of energy transfer in the form of food,
between organisms in an ecosystem.
2. Each level of the food chain is known as a trophic level.
3. Primary producers are photosynthetic organisms (autotrophs) that
are able to convert light energy from the Sun to chemical energy
that can be transferred from one organism to another within the
ecosystem. They can also convert inorganic nutrients in the soil to
organic nutrients that can be transferred up the food chain.
4. Consumers obtain their energy by consuming other organisms.
They occupy a few trophic levels:
(a) Primary consumers feed on primary producers directly. They
are herbivores.
(b) Secondary consumers are carnivores that eat herbivores.
(c) Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores.
5. Food chains can be combined to form food webs since some food
chains are interconnected.
6. In reality, energy flow in an ecosystem is not so direct. There are
many different types of consumers that feed at different trophic
levels. For example, parasites and scavengers feed on producers
and consumers at every level. Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
obtain their energy from non-living organic material such as faeces,
fallen leaves and dead organisms. During decomposition, nutrients
from these dead organic matter are released into the soil for
plants to use.
7. The flow of energy through an ecosystem:
Sun heat heat heat

Primary producersPrimary consumersSecondary consumers
Light energy Tertiary consumers
heat
Decomposers
Ecosystem
Flow of energy through an ecosystem
8. Energy enters the ecosystem from the outside. Light energy from
the Sun gets converted to chemical energy in producers during
photosynthesis. Some of the energy is lost as heat during
respiration and other metabolic processes. The rest gets converted
Organisms and their into organic125
Environment matter called biomass.
9. The energy moves up the trophic levels as producers get consumed
by primary consumers, primary consumers get consumed by
secondary consumers etc.
10. Energy is lost at every trophic level as heat in respiration, uneaten
organism parts and through waste material. Organisms at each
trophic level pass on much less energy to the next trophic level
than they receive.
11. Food chains seldom have more than 5 trophic levels as less energy
is available at the higher trophic levels.
12. Eventually, all energy supplied to the ecosystem is lost as heat.
Energy has to be constantly supplied to the ecosystem from the
Sun as heat cannot be recycled into useful forms of energy.
13. Example of a simple food chain:
Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake
14. Example of a simple food web:
Spide
r
Insec
t Sparrow
Green Hawk
plant Lizar
d
Mous
e
Fo
Snak
x
e
A simple food web
16.3 Pyramids of numbers and biomass

1. A pyramid of numbers shows the population of each trophic level in
a food chain. The pyramid of numbers shown below means that at
any one time in a given area, there are 1000 maize plants, 100
mice, 10 snakes and 1 fox. The size of each block in the pyramid is
proportional to the number of organisms present in that level.
1 fox
10 snakes
100 mice
1000 maize plants
2. The pyramid of numbers can sometimes be inverted.
126 TOPIC 16
3. A pyramid of numbers is not an accurate estimate of the amount of
energy at each trophic level because the population number does
not always correspond to the amount of energy it can transfer to
the next trophic level, e.g. a single tree can support a large
population of aphids.
100 ladybirds
100 000 aphids
1 tree
4. A pyramid of biomass shows the dry mass of organisms at each

trophic level in a food chain.
5. To calculate biomass, e.g. of 1000 maize plants:
(a) Dry 20 maize plants in an oven.
(b) Obtain the average mass of 1 dried maize plant.
(c) Multiply the average mass by the total number of maize plants
in the given area.
6. A typical unit for a biomass pyramid is grams per square metre (g / m2).
0.27 g/m2 fox

4 g / m2 snakes
30 g / m2 mice
330 g / m2 maize plants
7. In the examples encountered in this chapter, the pyramid of biomass is

upright.
16.4 Carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Combustion
Respiration Photosynthesis
Fossil fuels and wood Feeding

Consumers Producers
Death
Decomposition
Decompose Dead
rs organisms
The carbon cycle
1. Green plants convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into glucose

during photosynthesis. Within green plants, glucose can be
Organisms and their Environment127
converted to other organic molecules.
2. These carbon compounds are transferred to consumers through the
process of feeding.
3. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere when cellular
respiration takes place in living organisms.
4. When the green plants and animals die, decomposers break their
organic matter down into carbon dioxide and other simple
substances.
5. Fossil fuels are formed from the fossilised remains of dead plants
and animals. Carbon compounds from these dead organisms are
stored as fossil fuels.
6. When fossil fuels and wood are burnt, carbon dioxide is produced.
16.5 Water pollution

1. Pollution is the contamination of the environment causing harm and
damage to the ecosystem. It is usually the result of human
activities.
2. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly into
water without undergoing treatment. A common water pollutant is
sewage.
3. Sewage is waste matter from industries and homes. It consists
mainly of organic wastes such as detergents, oils and fats,
insecticides and herbicides, and debris.
4. Inorganic substances from industrial waste include: leached
nutrients and fertilisers (nitrates and phosphates) from farmland,
ammonia, sulfur dioxide from power plants, and heavy metals.
5. Some of these pollutants can be directly toxic to the living
organisms in the water, causing them to die. Others are
carcinogenic and can harm humans who get in contact with the
contaminated water.
6. Contaminated water usually encourages growth of microorganisms
such as bacteria, parasites (certain protozoa and worms) and
viruses. These could lead to diseases such as gastroenteritis,
cholera, typhoid and parasitic infection.
7. Other possible outcomes:
Sewage is rich in nutrients for bacterial growth. Aerobic bacteria multiply rapidly,
Fish and other organisms die due to lack of O2.
Sewage discharged in water bodies Anaerobic bacteria break do

Dead bodies cause
bacteria decomposers
to
Agricultural and domestic sewage runoff rich in phosphates and nitrates. Surface a
multiply rapidly, using up
128 TOPIC 16
Eutrophication
Submerged plants
Water pollution and eutrophication
16.6 Sewage treatment
1. Environmental biotechnology is when biotechnology is used to treat
polluted environments or in environment-friendly processes such as
green manufacturing technologies. Sewage treatment is an example
of environmental biotechnology.
2. In sewage treatment plants, sewage is drained into settling tanks
and sedimentation tanks to allow some of the solid waste to settle
and be removed.
3. The sewage then enters the aeration tank, where pure oxygen is
bubbled in and bacteria added. The bacteria oxidise carbon
compounds to carbon dioxide, oxidise ammonium and nitrogen
compounds to nitrates and eventually nitrogen gas, and remove
phosphates.
4. The liquid from the aeration tank is then filtered and the solid
contents are allowed to settle. Sewage water containing low levels
of organic material and suspended matter remains. The sewage
water is disinfected to reduce the number of microorganisms in the
water before it is discharged back into the environment.
5. The solid matter left behind from the sewage treatment process is
known as sludge.
6. Sludge undergoes a process of bacterial digestion to reduce the
amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing
microorganisms present.
16.7 Biomagnification
1. Biological magnification or bioamplification is the increase in
concentration of a substance up a food chain. Successive trophic
levels contain high concentrations of the substance.
2. Substances that tend to accumulate up a food chain share one or
more of the following characteristics:
(a) Non-biodegradable or slow biodegradation, so it persists in the
environment and can be transported by water to other areas
(b) Cannot be broken down (detoxified) within organisms
(c) Cannot be excreted by organisms (insoluble in water)
3. Examples of substances that biomagnify are mercury, arsenic and
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). DDT is a synthetic pesticide
used to control mosquitoes. These chemicals are toxic, especially
at high concentrations.
4. Each trophic level has to consume a larger biomass than it
possesses, from the previous trophic level due to energy loss at
every level. Thus, although the toxin present in the lower trophic
Organisms and their levels might129
Environment be small, larger amounts of toxins will accumulate in
the higher trophic levels since each top level consumer feeds on a
large amount of organisms from the trophic level below it.
5. Case study: DDT
(a) DDT is non-biodegradable and is transported by water to far-
reaching areas.
(b) It is insoluble in water and cannot be excreted in urine which is
water- based.
(c) It is soluble in lipids and accumulates within the fatty tissues of
animals. This process is called bioaccumulation, which is the
increase in concentration of a substance due to absorption from
food and the environment, in the tissues of organisms’ bodies.
(d) The concentration of DDT increases at the higher trophic levels due
to
biomagnification.
(e) Environmental impact of DDT: DDT is toxic to aquatic life and
insects. It is less toxic to mammals but causes eggshell thinning
in birds. The eggs are more vulnerable to breakage during
incubation, causing a drastic decline in bird reproduction rates.
Birds at the top of food chains such as pelicans, ospreys and
eagles are particularly affected.
Note: Biomagnification and bioaccumulation are words that are
commonly used interchangeably. However they do not have the
same meaning. Bioaccumulation occurs within an organism (within a
trophic level) while biomagnification occurs in a food chain (across
trophic levels).
16.8 Conservation
1. Conservation is the act of protecting species, their habitats and
entire ecosystems from extinction.
2. Conservation covers a wide range of activities. For example,
reducing pollution and combating deforestation, preventing global
warming, natural resource management and wildlife protection
comes under conservation as well.
16.9 Reasons for conservation

1. Ecological value:
(a) Organisms are interdependent.
(i) Population fluctuations due to disruption in food chains.
(ii) Disruption of natural cycles i.e. carbon cycle, water cycle etc.
(iii) Existence of an organism could be directly dependent on the
existence of another. Symbiotic organisms require their host
species in order to survive.
(b) Maintenance of the gene pool when there is a large population
130 TOPIC 16 decrease in a species, there may be an increase in the chance
of inbreeding which gives rise to offspring that are less adapted
to environmental changes.
2. Economic value:
(a) Maintain biodiversity
(i) Plants have great medicinal value. Many drugs were
derived from plants such as aspirin.
(ii) Animals and plants are both a great source of genetic
diversity for plant and animal breeding programs.
(b) Resource management: It is important to manage natural
resources such as timber and food sources so that it does not
get depleted and we can continue exploiting it profitably.
(c) Ecotourism: It is a source of income for several countries such
as Costa Rica, Madagascar, and Kenya.
3. Educational value:
(a) Conservation preserves the existence of species for future
generations to study.
(b) Chemicals extracted from plants or animals might be applicable
to scientific research in future.
4. Aesthetic value: Conservation preserves natural scenery and wildlife
for people to appreciate.
16.10 Conservation in fisheries

1. A fishery is an area with a particular species of fish or aquatic life
that is harvested for its commercial value.
2. Wild fisheries are located in the oceans, lakes and rivers, where fish
has to be captured or fished. They are prone to overfishing and
pollution, which could lead to an imbalance in the ecosystem.
3. Farmed fisheries involve raising fish commercially in tanks. It helps
to supply some of the demand for food fish but a great majority of
food fish are still obtained from wild fisheries.
4. In order to develop sustainable fisheries so that fish stock is
maintained for future fishing, certain measures have been taken:
(a) Many countries have set up ministries or government
organisations regulating fishing. These organisations help to
control the activities in fisheries by:
(i) Imposing taxes on fishing output
(ii) Vessel licensing, regulating the entry of ships into fishing grounds
(iii) Restrictions on catching techniques such as the prohibition
of bottom trawling and dynamite fishing, regulation of fish
traps etc.
(iv) Imposing a catch quota
(v) Limiting the period of fishing
Organisms and their Environment131
(b) Breeding of endangered fish in captivity by private conservation
organisations or zoos to be released back into the wild to
replenish depleted stock.
16.11 Conservation of forests

1. The forests are the major source of the world’s timber. The clearing
of forests for timber and land is called deforestation.
2. The indiscriminate logging without sufficient reforestation has led to
many environmental and ecological problems such as:
(a) The ‘slash and burn’ practice used to clear forests for
agriculture releases a large amount of carbon dioxide which
contributes to global warming.
(b) Changes in the water cycle resulting in a drier climate. Trees
contribute to humidity by transpiration and extract groundwater
through their roots to be released into the atmosphere. The loss
of this causes climate changes that could lead to
desertification.
(c) Soil erosion as tree roots are needed to bind soil together.
(d) Loss of habitat for many organisms resulting in loss of biodiversity.
3. Forest conservation includes legislation protecting forests from
indiscriminate logging such as:
(a) Regulating the rate of logging
(b) Selective logging where young trees are not cut down
(c) Designating land as forest reserves
4. Other conservation practices include reforestation, which is the act
of restocking forests which have been depleted. New seedlings are
planted to replace trees that have been felled.
132 TOPIC 16
O Level Biology Topical Revision Notes is a comprehensive guide based
on the latest syllabus. It is written to provide candidates sitting
for the O Level Biology examination with thorough revision
material. Important concepts are presented in simple and concise
points for easier reference. Relevant examples and diagrams are
incorporated into the notes to facilitate the understanding of
important concepts.
O Level Topical Revision Notes Series:

Mathematics
Additional
Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Science
Physics
Science
Chemistry
Science
Biology
ISBN 978 981 288 018 5

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Topica

Lye Ai Fern BSc (Hons), PGDE

First Published 2016

ISBN 978 981 288 018 5

We believe this book will be of great help to teachers teaching the

1.1 Animal cell

chloroplast smooth endoplasmic reticulum

large central vacuole

2. The plant cell contains most of the structures present in an animal

Cell Structure and Organisation 3

Cross-section of a red blood cell

A root hair cell

1.4 Organisation of a multicellular organism

Cell Structure and Organisation 5

2.2 Diffusion in biological systems

partially permeable membrane

2.4 Osmosis in plant cells

A turgid plant cell

A plasmolysed plant cell

2.5 Osmosis in animal cells

A crenated red blood cell

2.6 Active transport

3.1 Role of water in animals

3.2 Role of water in plants

3.3 Simple carbohydrates

3.5 Complex carbohydrates

3. In glycogen, the glucose molecules are linked together in highly

3.6 Test for starch

3.8 Test for fats

6. There are about 20 different naturally-occurring amino acids which

3.10 Test for proteins

3.12 ‘Lock and key’ hypothesis

3.13 Effects of temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions

2. At low temperatures, enzymes are inactive and the rate of

3.14 Effects of pH on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions

2. Enzyme activity is the highest at the optimum pH of the enzyme.

4.3 The oesophagus

4.4 The stomach

4.5 The small intestine

starch amylas lactase

polypeptid amino acids

Note: Enterokinase converts the inactive form of trypsin,

4.6 The large intestine

4.7 Transport of products of digestion

4.8 Role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism

4.10 Role of the liver in breakdown of red blood cells

4.11 Role of the liver in protein metabolism

4.12 Role of the liver in detoxification

5.1 External leaf structure

2. The upper epidermis is a single layer of irregular, closely packed cells

Open stoma Closed stoma

5.4 Intake of carbon dioxide

high carbon dioxide

Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

6. Both light and dark reactions involve enzymes which would be

6.1 Transport vessels

Transport in Flowering Plants33

sieve ube cell

6.2 Position of vascular tissue in dicotyledonous stems