SCALE UP DESIGN OF ROTOCONE VACUUM

DRYER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the award of Bachelor of

Technology degree in CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

by

1. ANKIREDDY GIRIDHAR (39690001)

2. R. SUDHAGAR (39690019)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMCAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF BIO-CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

SATHYABAMA
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
Accredited with Grade “A” by NAAC
JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI SALAI, CHENNAI - 600 119

NOV – 2022
 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Project Report is the bonafide work of Mr. ANKIREDDY
GIRIDHAR (39690001) AND R. SUDHAGAR (39690019), Who carried out the
project entitled “SCALE UP DESIGN OF ROTO CONE VACUUM DRYER” under
our supervision from July, 2022 to October, 2022.

Internal Guide External Guide

Dr. A. ANNAM RENITA, M.Tech, Ph.D., K.V. SURESH BABU, M.Tech,
Professor Dy. MANAGER, RMM, SMPC U1,
SDSC SHAR

Head of the Department

Dr. S. SATHISH, M.E., Ph.D
Associate Professor
_________________________________________________________________

Submitted for Viva voce Examination held on ______________________________

Internal Examiner External

Examiner
 DECLARATION

We, ANKIREDDY GIRIDHAR and R. SUDHAGAR hereby declare that the Project
Report entitle “SCALE UP DESIGN OF ROTO CONE VACUUM DRYER” done by
us under the guidance of Dr. A. ANNAM RENITA, Professor, Department of
Chemical Engineering, Sathyabama University and Mr.K.V.SURESH BABU,
Dy. Manager, SMPC U1, SDSC SHAR at SDSC SHAR, SRIHARIKOTA,
TIRUPATI DIST., A.P.-524124 is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of Bachelor of Technology degree in CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Place:

Date:
SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are pleased to acknowledge my sincere thanks to Board of Management of

SATHYABAMA for their kind encouragement in doing this project and for
completing it successfully. We are grateful to them.

We convey my thanks to Dr. S. SATISH, Head of the Department, Dept. of

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING for providing me necessary support and details at the
right time during the progressive reviews.

We would like to express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to my Project

Guide Dr. A. ANNAM RENITA, Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering
and Mr. K.V. SURESH BABU, Dy. Manager, SMPC U1, SDSC SHAR for his
valuable guidance, suggestions and constant encouragement paved way for the
successful completion of my project work.

We wish to express my thanks to all Teaching and Non-teaching staff members of

the Department of CHEMICAL ENGINEERING who were helpful in many ways for
the completion of the project.
 ABSTRACT

Roto cone Vacuum Dryer is a Batch dryer, designed to reduce the moisture content
of Powdered heat sensitive materials. Roto Cone tumble dryers are closed
environments and are ideal for active pharmaceuticals, heat sensitive materials and
toxic chemicals. They are very efficient in removal of fine moisture in batch
operations. They can be sealed and automated for Loading and discharging
operations.

This report deals with the scale up design study of 4000 lit RVD. To facilitate
doubled production capacity there is a need to increase the dimensions (scale-up)
of RVD capacity from 2000 to 4000 lit. Theoretical design calculations of 4000 lit
RVD was carried out with respect to mechanical, heating cycle, vacuum cycle and
power requirement etc. In order to validate the theoretical design, experimental trials
were carried out with chalk powder having initial moisture content of 1% with the
available RVD. The study emphasis on reduction of moisture content of chalk
powder from 1% to 0.1 %, at 72 °C with vacuum pressure, 550 mm of Hg and 3 hour
drying time by capacity of 1200 kg/process. The design aims to scale up, calculation
of time, power requirement and to validate the designed values. The methodology
was used to redesign the RVD scale up, manufacture component, process
parameters, and test performance. The main advantage of scale up is to increase
production rate by reducing the number of batches and time for drying a particular
quantity. The sizing results on 4000 lit RVD shows following dimensions as a)
Diameter 2100 mm b) cylinder height 650 mm c) two cones height 750 mm. The
performance test results before and after the RVD scale-up were a) capacity of 4000
l, b) Power requirement 14 Kw, c) RVD rotation speed 7 rpm, d) Time: theoretical-
171 min, Experimental- 195 min. The experimental results were matched with
theoretical calculated values.

i
 CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS vii
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS ix

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. DRYING 3
2.1. Moisture transport mechanisms within solids 4
2.2. Drying kinetics. 4
2.2.1. Drying curve and periods of drying. 4
2.2.2. Characteristics drying rate curve concept 6
2.3. Experimental methods. 9
2.3.1. Drying curves Measurement. 9
2.3.2. Performing a mass and energy balance on a large
industrial dryer. 13
2.4. Classification of dryers. 14
2.5. Selection of drying equipment. 16
2.6. Dryer modeling, design, and scale-up. 20

3. ROTOCONE VACUUME DRYER 26

3.1. Material of construction. 26
3.2. Surface finish. 27
3.3. Operational principle. 27
3.4. Major components of an RCVD. 27
3.5. Other part of the RCVD system. 31
3.6. Process diagram. 32
3.7. Working. 32
3.8. The factor that makes RCVD, RVD, or DVD popular and
preferred choice. 33
3.9. Advantages. 35
3.10. Design options. 35
3.11. Care to be taken while designing an RCVD. 36

ii
4. SCALE UP DESIGN OF 4000 LITERS ROTOCONE VACUUM
DRYER 38
4.1. Aim 38
4.2. Scope 38
4.3. Materials and Methods 39
4.4. Sizing. 39
4.4.1. Calculation of Diameter of RVD 41
4.4.2. Calculation of Volume of truncated cones 42
4.4.3. Calculation of Remaining volume for RVD 42
4.4.4. Calculation of Height of Cylinder 42
4.4.5. Theoretical Sizing representation 43
4.4.6. Actual RVD Sizing representation 43
4.5. Design of actual RVD 44
4.5.1. Calculation of Volume of RVD 44
4.5.2. Calculation of Curved surface area or Drying surface
Area 44
4.5.3. Calculation of Overall Heat transfer co-efficient for
material heat transfer 44
4.5.4. Calculation of Overall Heat transfer co-efficient for
heat transfer of inside air 45
4.5.5. Calculation of Overall Heat transfer co-efficient that
is lost to surroundings through insulation packing
(Glass wool) 45
4.5.6. Calculation of Logarithmic Mean Temp. difference
(LMTD) (for heat transfer between Jacketed water
to material inside) 46
4.5.7. Calculation of Logarithmic Mean Temp. difference
(LMTD) (for heat transfer between Jacketed water
to surroundings) 46
4.5.8. Calculation of Heat transfer to the Material 46
4.5.9. Calculation of Heat transfer to the inside air 47
4.5.10. Calculation of Heat transfer to the surroundings 47
4.5.11. Total Heat transferred to RVD 47
4.5.12. Calculation of Mass flow rate requirement 47
iii
 4.6. Power requirement 48
4.7. Rvd rotation 49
4.8. Heat cycle 49
4.9. Vacuum cycle 50
4.10. Total time of process 51
4.11. Experimental determination of characteristic
drying curve for chalk powder. 52

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 56

5.1. Sizing 56
5.2. Rotational speed 57
5.3. Power requirement 58
5.4. Heat load calculations 58
5.5. Time 60
5.6. Experimental trial 61
5.7. Characteristic drying curve 64

6. CONCLUSION 65

7. REFERENCES 66

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 : Outlines some sampling techniques for various dryer

types. 10
Table 2.2 : Moisture determination techniques. 11
Table 4.1 : Calculation of key dimensions for various batch contact
dryers. 40
Table 4.2 : Measured values of a sample heated in atmospheric oven
at 72°C over a period of time. 52
Table 5.1 : Sizing comparison between theoretically derived and
actual 4000 lit RVD. 57
Table 5.2 : Rotational speed of 2000 lit and 4000 lit RVD. 58
Table 5.3 : Power requirement (chalk powder) of 2000 lit and
4000 lit RVD. 58
Table 5.4 : Mass flow rate (chalk powder) of 2000 lit and
4000 lit RVD. 60
Table 5.5 : Time required for drying in 2000 lit and 4000 lit RVD. 61
Table 5.6 : Data recorded for chalk powder trial on 4000 lit RVD. 62
Table 5.7 : Comparison of theoretical and experimental time for
drying in 4000 lit RVD 64
Table 6.1 : The parameters after scaling up from 2000 Lt to
4000 Lt RVD 65

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.1 : Several common representations of a typical drying curve. 6

Fig. 2.2 : Drying curve for a given material at different constant
external conditions. 7
Fig. 2.3 : Characteristic drying curve. 7
Fig. 2.4 : Batch dryers classification. 15
Fig. 2.5 : Continuous dryers classification. 16
Fig. 2.6 : Heat and material flows around a continuous dryer. 21
Fig. 3.1 : Photograph of Roto cone Vacuum Dryer. 27
Fig. 3.2 : Roto cone Vacuum Dryer 27
Fig. 4.1 : Rotating (double-cone) vacuum dryer. 38
Fig. 4.2 : Basic geometric for batch dryer calculations. 41
Fig. 4.3 : Cone sizing dimensions. 41
Fig. 4.4 : RVD sizing based on theoretical calculations. 43
Fig. 4.5 : RVD sizing based on standard available in market. 43
Fig. 4.6 : Moisture vs time graph of chalk powder 54
Fig. 4.7 : Rate of drying vs time graph of chalk powder 54
Fig. 4.8 : Characteristic Drying curve for chalk powder 55
Fig. 5.1 : Graph showing variation of moisture with time 63
Fig. 5.2 : Graph showing variation of material temperature with
time 63
Fig. 5.3 : Characteristic Drying curve for chalk powder 64

vi
 LIST OF SYMBOLS
.

Symbol Description

Φ Characteristic moisture content

F Relative drying rate

N Drying rate

Nm Constant-rate period

X Volume-averaged moisture content

Xcr Moisture content at the critical point

Xe (X*) Moisture content at equilibrium

K External mass-transfer coefficient

Φm Humidity potential coefficient

YW Humidity above a fully wetted surface

YG Bulk-gas humidity

XI Inlet moisture content

XO Outlet moisture
Enthalpy of the solids or gas plus their associated
I
moisture
G Gas mass flow rate

As Area of the heat-transfer surface

ΔTWS Temperature driving force of wall to solid

hWS Wall-to-solids heat-transfer coefficient

X1 Initial moisture content

X2 Final moisture content

tCR Constant rate of drying time

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 tFR Constant rate of drying time

V Volume

L Length

D diameter

Π Pi

T Temperature

H Height

R Radius

R Radius

Xmetal Thickness of metal

K Thermal conductivity

H Heat transfer coefficient

U Overall heat transfer coefficient

ΔTlm Logarithmic Mean Temperature difference

A Area

Cp Specific heat

Q Heat

M Mass

T Time

Λ Latent heat

XC Critical moisture content

Q Heat transfer rate

ṁ Mass flow rate

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

ASME The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

CIP Clean-In-Place
DVD Double Cone Vacuum Dryer
EMI Electromagnetic interference
GAD General Arrangement Drawing
GMP Good Manufacturing Practice
HMI Human Machine Interface
IR Infrared Radiation
LMTD Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
MOC Material of Construction
PLC Program logic Controller
PTFE Poly Tetra Fluro Ethylene (Teflon)
RCVD Roto Cone Vacuum Dryer
RHS Rectangular Hollow Sections
RF Radio Frequency
RPM Rotations per Minute
RVD Rotary Vacuum Dryer
SHS Square Hollow Sections
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
VFD Variable Frequency Drive

ix
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

In Chemical engineering Drying is the oldest, most diverse and most common of
unit operations. Drying is a mass transfer process of evaporating water or any
another volatile solvent from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. In production, before
selling or packaging of products, drying is often used as a final step. Here we are
interested in one such operation carried out in ROTO CONE VACUUM DRYER.

Roto Cone Vacuum Dryers are indirect drying dryers used for drying all solids from
catalyst, polymers to pharmaceuticals and food ingredients. It is cost effective, high
energy efficient and environment friendly.

The Roto cone vacuum dryer is a batch operation under vacuum used for Drying of
solids or powder. In the batch operation, raw material charged is heated indirectly
and simultaneously undergoes rotary motion of the cone assembly. The dryer
conical shape ensures the heat media, hot liquid, circulation efficiently. Drying of
water or any other volatile liquid takes place when heat transferred from outer cone
through jacket, and vacuum is applied in the inner cone. The drying operation is
built on the principle that water or other volatile product moves from a region of low
pressure. The vapor pressure is achieved by heating the product to drying
temperature of the absorbed or free liquid is sucked by vacuum or purging with
Nitrogen. Hence, the necessary conditions for effective drying are attained by
uniform heat transfer throughout the batch and quick removal of the vapor. The
applied vacuum control throttling was achieved through PLC.

These dryer is used for drying of products that are damaged especially by high
temperatures and materials having special features such as simply oxidized, volatile
compounds, toxic dust and strong irritants.

The low rotational speed of the dryer makes them ideal for friable and delicate solids
such as macromolecules, crystals, or solids that are agglomerated. The cone
shaped vessel has simplified the complete discharge of friable materials.

1
Because Roto Cone tumble dryers have no agitator or shaft seals and only one seal
on the vacuum line, cross-contamination is minimized and inspection and cleaning
are simplified. It is very economical by total solvent recovery.

Roto Cone tumble dryers are closed environments and are ideal for active
pharmaceuticals and toxic chemicals. They can be sealed and automated for
Loading and discharging operations.

2
 Chapter 2
DRYING

Drying is the process of yielding solid product by evaporating volatile materials,

normally water. Drying is considered as mass transfer and heat transfer process.
Heat is consumed to evaporate water in drying. The drying process consumes
significant amount of heat energy which is generally equal to latent heat of
vaporization of water, 2500 J/g. Simultaneously, the material will evaporate and
leave the system either by diffusion and/or convection.

While designing and operating a dryer there are other concerns besides Heat
transfer and mass transfer. The quality of product such as color, particle density,
hardness, texture, flavor, etc. is also very strongly influenced by the drying
conditions and the physical and chemical transformations occurring in the dryer.
The measurement and/or calculation for designing and understanding the drying
process involves the following:

1. Mass and energy balances

2. Thermodynamics
3. Mass- and heat-transfer rates
4. Product quality considerations

The below section describes how these aspects are calculated and measured
and how the info is used in engineering application.

3
2.1 MOISTURE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS WITHIN SOLIDS

Different Mechanisms by which moisture moves to the surface of material in drying

are
 Diffusion of moisture through solids:. Diffusion is a molecular process,
brought about by random wanderings of individual molecules. If all the water
molecules in a material are free to migrate, they tend to diffuse from a region
of high moisture concentration to one of lower moisture concentration,
thereby reducing the moisture gradient and equalizing the concentration of
moisture.
 Convection of moisture within a liquid or slurry:. Drying of a flowable solution
into a solid makes liquid motion within the material brings wetter material to
the surface.
 Evaporation of moisture within a solid and gas transport out of the solid by
diffusion and/or convection: Within a solid if it is boiling or porous evaporation
can occur. Subsequently vapor from the sample must move out.
 Capillary flow of moisture in porous media: The flow of liquid in porous media
by capillary action is due to the reduction of liquid pressure within small pores
due to surface tension forces.

2.2 KINETICS OF DRYING

The rate of drying of drying is discussed in this section. The drying kinetics
commands the size of drying equipment, which straightly affects the operating and
capital costs of a process involving drying. The drying rate can also impact the dried
product quality as other phenomena can occur simultaneous, such as shrinkage
due to moisture loss and heat transfer.

2.2.1 Drying Curves and Periods of Drying The Drying curve provides most basic
and vital kinetic data on drying. A drying curve defines the drying kinetics and how
they vary during drying. The drying curve is affected by the size or thickness of the
drying material, material properties and drying conditions. This section describes,
the drying curves general characteristics and its uses. To obtain drying curves using
experimental techniques are disclosed in the “Experimental Methods” section and

4
drying curves uses for scale-up are discussed in “Dryer Modeling Design and
Scale-up.”

Several representations of a typical drying curve are shown in Fig. 2-1. The plot in
Fig. 2.1a, is the moisture content (on dry basis) vs time. The plot in Fig. 2.1b, is rate
of drying as a function of time, the derivative of fig. 2.1a plot. The plot in

5
 Fig. 2.1 Several common representations of a typical drying curve

Fig. 2.1c, is rate of drying as affected by the drying material average moisture
content. As time passes the material loses moisture, the movement of time in the
plot Fig. 2.1c is from right to left.

The different periods of drying show some salient features of the drying curve show.
These periods in the drying curve are common, but not all periods occur in every
drying process. The first period of drying where material is being heated early in
drying is called the induction period. The constant rate period or second period of
drying is where the surface remains sufficiently wet to keep the vapor pressure of
water on the surface. When the surface dries sufficiently, the rate of drying
decreases and the falling-rate period happens. This period can also be stated as
hindered drying.

Figure 2-1 describes the critical point as the changeover between constant-rate and
falling rate periods of drying. At this changeover the critical point refers to the
average moisture content of a material. The drying curves examples are shown in
sections below and the phenomena that give rise to common shapes.

2.2.2. Characteristic Drying Rate Curve concept: During the falling rate period,
the rate of drying curves, often show the same shape for a specific material. (Figs.
2.2 and 2.3), to facilitate drawing of a single characteristic drying rate curve for the
material being dried. Strictly speaking, the concept should

6
 Fig. 2.2 Drying curves for a given material at different constant external
conditions.

Fig.2.3 Characteristic drying curve.

only apply to materials of the same specific size (surface area to material ratio) and
thickness, but some evidence shows that concept can applied for rather wider range
with reasonable accuracy. A linear falling rate curve is a often a good reasonable
approximation for the form of the characteristic function, in the absence of
experimental data/ (good approximation for fair for ion-exchange resin, silica gel,
milk powder). At the first drying period the each volume averaged , free moisture

7
content, is assumed that there is a corresponding specific rate of drying to the un-
hindered drying rate is independent of the external drying conditions. Volume-
averaged is not just rather the distance but averaging over the volume (distance
cubed for a sphere). The relative drying rate is defined as

f = N/Nm (2-1)

where N - drying rate, Nm - rate in the constant rate period, and the characteristic
moisture content becomes

Φ = (2-2)

Where, X - volume averaged moisture content, Xcr - moisture content at the critical
point, and Xe - at equilibrium. Thus, the drying curve is normalized to pass through
the points(1,1), and (0,0) i.e. critical point of transition in drying behavior and at
equilibrium respectively.

This representation for the drying rate in falling rate period leads to a simple lumped-
parameter expression, namely,

N = f Nm = f [k φm(YW – YG)] (2-3)

Here k - external mass-transfer coefficient, φm - humidity potential coefficient

(corrects for the humidity not being a strictly true representation of the driving force;
close to unity most of the time), YW -humidity above a fully wetted surface, and YG -
bulk-gas humidity. For understanding the performance of industrial drying plants
due to its simplicity and the separation of the parameters that effect the drying
process, basis equation (2-3) is widely used. The material itself f, the process
conditions φm(YW – YG)f and the design of the dryer k.

However, the characteristic drying curve, is obviously a gross approximation. A

common drying curve will be found only if the volume-averaged moisture content
imitates the moistness of the surface in some fixed way.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

In drying research, Lab-scale, pilot-scale, and plant-scale experiments all play

important roles. For studying product characteristics and physical properties, Lab-
scale experiments are often necessary; In proof-of-concept process tests and to

8
generate larger quantities of sample material, pilot-scale experiments are often
used; and to analyze processing problems and to start or change a full scale
process. plant-scale experiments are often needed.

2.3.1. Drying Curves Measurement: It is difficult to use experimentally measured

drying curves. Naturally, this is a 3-step process. The first step is sample collection
at different time intervals of drying, the second step is sample analyzation of all
samples for moisture, and the third step is data interpretation to make process
conclusions.

Based on the type of dryer, solid sample collection techniques rest on. Since the
curve for drying is the moisture content vs time, it must be likely to attain material
before the completion of drying process. When sampling drying curve for a material,
the several important considerations are:

1. The sampling process desires to be fast comparative to the drying

process. Drying taking place after or during sampling can yield misleading
results. Samples must be closed prior to analysis. Plastic bags don’t
afford sufficient seal.
2. In heterogeneous samples, to represent the compositon of the mixyture
accurately the sample must be large enough.

Table 2.1 outlines some sampling techniques for various dryer types.
Dryer type Sampling method
Fluid bed dryer Sampling cup
Sheet dryer Collect at end of dryer. Increase speed of change the
drying time.
Tray dryer Record initial moisture and mass of try with time.
Indirect dryer Decrease residence time with higher flow rate and
sample at exit.
Spray dryer Residence time of product is difficult to determine and
change. Special probes have been developed to
sample partially dried powder in different places
within the dryer (Ref. Langrish)

9
For the collection and interpretation of drying data, moisture measurement
techniques are critical. The crucial message of this section is that the value of
moisture obtained almost definitely depends on the technique of measurement and
that when measuring moisture, it is important to have a consistent technique. Table
2-2 contrasts and compare some different techniques for measurement of moisture.

The most shared method is gravimetric, loss-on-drying. A sample taken in pan or

tray is weighed and placed into an heater or oven at approximately high
temperature for a given length of time. After drying sample is weighed again. The
weight difference obtained is assumed to be owing to the evaporation of water
completely from the sample. The drying time, sample size and temperature, and are
all important factors. In the given time, a very thick or large sample may not dry fully;
a little sample may not correctly represent the composition of a mixed sample. The
temperature too effect the performance of drying as low temperature can lead to
incomplete drying of sample, but high temperatures can burn the sample, causing
an affectedly high loss of mass.

Generally, samples(solid) are collected as described, nevertheless in some

experiments, it is more appropriate to measure the humidity change of the air owing
to drying. This technique is more common in lab scale equipment than pilot scale
or plant scale equipment and requires a decent mass balance of the system.

Table 2.2. Moisture Determination Techniques

S.No Method Principle Advantages Disadvantages

1. Gravimetric Water evaporates Simple technique. Method is slow.

(loss on drying) when sample is No extensive Measurement time
held at a high calibration is several minutes
temperature. methods are to overnight
Difference in needed. Lab (depending on
mass is equipment’s is material and
recorded commonly accuracy).
available. Generally, not
suitable for process

10
 control. Doesn’t
differentiate
between water and
other volatile
substances.

2. IR/NIR Absorption of Fast method. Only surface

infrared Suitable for very moisture is
radiation by thin layer or detected. Extensive
water is small particles. calibration is
measured. needed.

3. RF/Microwave Absorption of RF Fast method. Extensive calibration

or microwave Suitable for is needed.
energy is large particles.
Equilibrium measured. Relatively quick May give misleading
4. relative The equilibrium method. Useful results since the
humidity (ERH) relative humidity particularly if a surface of the
headspace final moisture material will
above sample in specification is equilibrium with the
a closed in terms of water air. Large particles
chamber is activity (to retard with moisture
measured. microorganism gradients can give
Sorption growth) falsely low
isotherm is used readings.
to determine Measurement of
moisture. relative humidity
can be imprecise.
Chemical titration
Karl Fischer that is water Specific to water Equipment is
5. titration specific. only and very expensive and
Material can be precise. Units requires solvents.
either added can be Minimal calibration

11
 directly to a purchased with required. Sample
solvent or an autosampler. size is small, which
heated in an Measurement may pose a
oven, with the takes only a few problem for
headspace minutes. heterogeneous
purged and mixtures.
bubbled through
solvent.

2.3.2. Performing a Mass and Energy Balance on a Large Industrial Dryer: To

evaluate the system operating condition and for knowing additional capacity
available it is often necessary to understand the measuring of mass and energy
balance on a large dryer. This evaluation can also be used to debug and detect
gross problems, such as product buildup and leaks. In this process the several steps
are

1. Draw a rough diagram of the overall process with all the flows of mass out
and into of the system. Check the system for the places where air leaks out
or in. Physically walking around the equipment is the best way to get this
information.
2. Decide on the envelope for the mass and energy balance. Some dryer
systems have steam heating systems or combustion and/or hot-air recycle
loops. To understand the dryer operation these may not be necessary to
include.
3. Decide on places to measure temperatures and airflows and to take product
and feed samples. Such measurements are often not equipped for drying
systems and other process equipment; the system may require slight
modification, for instance humidity tubes or ports installed into pipes for pitot
tubes. The probe must not leak when ports are placed.
4. Take the proper measurements and compute the mass and energy
balances.

12
The measurements are outlet and inlet temperatures, humidity’s, and flow rates of
the air outlets and inlets as well as the temperature and moisture of the dry and
feed solids. The following measurement methods for each are

 Airflow Rate: Measurement of this is often the most difficult. For blowers
though the fan curves are available but they are not constantly reliable. For
measurement of local velocity a small pitot tube is used. Pitot tube’s best
location to use is in a straight section of pipe. It is advisable to measure the
cross section of the pipe or duct at multiple positions, particularly near elbows
or in laminar flow and other flow disruptions.
 Air Temperature: In most cases a simple thermocouple is used, but special
care must be taken for wet or sticky material in some cases, as it may build
up on the thermocouple. Low temperature will yield by a wet thermocouple
due to evaporative cooling.
 Air Humidity: Calibration of humidity probes is needed before use, and the
absolute humidity or both the relative temperature and humidity needs to be
logged. If the temperature of probe is lower the dew point of the air in the
process, then on the probe condensation will occur until the probe heats.
 Feed and Exit Solids Rate: Particularly for a unit in production, they are
generally known. By using a bucket and stopwatch Liquids can be
measured. Solids can be measured in a variety of ways.
 Feed and Exit Solids Moisture Content: As described above, using
appropriate technique these are measured. For both the exit and feed solids
the same method is used. For feed moisture data do not rely on formula
sheets

2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS

There is several ways for classification of Drying equipment. For selection of the
most suitable dryer for the task and in understanding the important principles on
which it operates an effective classification is vital. The main types are as follows:

1. Form of feed and product—particulate (solid or liquid feed), sheet, slab

2. Mode of operation—batch or continuous

13
 3. Mode of heat transfer—convective (direct), conductive (indirect), radiative,
or dielectric
4. Condition of solids—static bed, moving bed, fluidized or dispersed
5. Gas-solids contacting—parallel flow, perpendicular flow, or through-
circulation
6. Gas flow pattern—cross flow, co-current, or counter-current

The drying system other important features are use of gas or solids recycle, the type
of carrier gas (air, inert gas, or superheated steam/solvent), operating pressure
(atmospheric or vacuum) and type of heating (indirect or direct-fired). Though, these
are primarily linked to the choice of the operating conditions and overall system, not
to the individual dryer used. The different categories relative importance depends
on the purpose of the classification. Dryer design, construction, and operation, are
differentiated in categories 2 and 3 are particularly useful. In Figs. 2.4 and 2.5, Basic
diagrams for batch and continuous dryers are revealed respectively. Though, in the
selection of a set of dryers for preliminary attention in a given drying problem, the
most key factor is frequently category 1, the form, physical properties and handling
characteristics of the wet material.

Fig.2.4 Batch dryers classification

14
 Fig. 2.5 Continuous dryers classification

The feed category is a very primary description; particulate can also contain
powders, pellets, pastes, granules, performs, etc.; slurry/liquid also includes
sludges and solutions.

2.5 SELECTION OF DRYING EQUIPMENT

Dryer Selection Considerations: It is a challenging task and rarely clear-cut for

selection of dryer. There may be several different dryer types for 500-μm particles,
which are possible to handle the task well, at parallel cost. There may be no dryers
for 5-μm particles, that are fully appropriate, and the duty is to find the “least bad”!

The board choices of suitable equipment can be revealed with the help of dryer
classification. For instance:
• Batch dryers are nearly invariably used for mean quantities below 50
kg/h and continuous dryers above 1 ton/h; in the intervening range,
any may be suitable.
• Slurry or liquid feeds, continuous sheets and films, or large artifacts
need completely diverse equipment to particulate feeds.

15
 • Powders and particles below 1 mm are successfully dried in contact
or dispersion dryers, but maximum through-circulation units are
inappropriate. On the other hand, for particles of several millimeters
or above, rotary dryers, spouted beds and through circulation dryers
are very appropriate.
• Dispersion convective dryers (including fluidized-bed, rotary, and
pneumatic types) and Through-circulation dryers, and rotary or
agitated contact dryers, normally give healthy drying rates than
contact tray dryers or non-agitated cross-circulated.
• For fragile particles where it is wanted to avoid attrition, non-agitated
dryers (including through-circulation) may be desirable.
• For solids, or organic solvents which are toxic, highly flammable, or
decompose easily, contact dryers are frequently desirable to
convective, as it is easy to control environmental emissions and the
containment is better. A closed-cycle system using an inert carrier gas
(e.g., nitrogen) is often needed, if a convective dryer is used,
• For heat-sensitive materials, vacuum, Cocurrent, and freeze dryers
can be particularly appropriate.

The procedure given here in a simple step- by- step.

1. Initial selection of dryers: For handling the wet material and the dry product
choice those dryers which is best suited and fit into the continuity of the
process as well as producing a product of the desired physical properties.
This initial selection can be made based on the materials handled by the
various types of dryers.
2. Initial comparison of dryers: Selected dryers should be evaluated nearly from
performance data and available cost. From this assessment, those dryers
which appear to be inappropriate or inefficient from the standpoint of
performance should be rejected from further consideration.
3. Drying tests: Drying tests should be carried out in those dryers still under
thought. The optimum operating conditions and the product characteristics
will be determined by these tests and based on these results a firm
quotations are formed for equipment vendors.

16
4. Final selection of dryer:. Based on the outputs of the quotations and drying
tests, the final choice of the most appropriate dryer can be made. In the
preliminary selection of a dryer the following the important features are
considered:
 Properties of the material being handled
a. Physical characteristics when dry
b. Physical characteristics when wet (adhesiveness, stickiness,
flowability, cohesiveness)
c. Flammability
d. Corrosiveness
e. Abrasiveness
f. Particle size
g. Toxicity
 Drying characteristics of the material
a. Moisture type (unbound, bound, or both)
b. Moisture content intially(maximum and range)
c. Moisture content finally (maximum and range)
d. Allowable drying temperature
e. Feasible drying time for different dryers
f. Non-water volatiles level
 Flow of material to and from the dryer
a. Batch or Continuous operation
b. Quantity to be handled per hour (or batch size and
frequency)
c. Process subsequent to drying
d. Process prior to drying
 Product quality
a. Contamination
b. Shrinkage

c. Over drying
d. State of subdivision
e. Uniformity of final moisture content
f. Decomposition of product
17
 g. Bulk density
h. Temperature of product
 Recovery problems
a. Recovery of Dust
b. Recovery of solvent
 Facilities available at site of proposed installation
a. Humidity, Temperature, and cleanliness of air
b. Space
c. Available electric power
d. Available fuels
e. Exhaust-gas outlets
f. Vibration, Permissible noise, dust, or heat losses
g. Source of wet feed

The nature of material handled is the basic property for choice of the dryer. For
example a slurried material may opt for different dryer than that of a wet coarse
solid, which in turn has different dryer for sheet material.

Following primary choice of choosing appropriate dryers, a approximate estimation

of the cost and size has to be determined to eliminate the inefficient one. When
sufficient data is not available, the user can approach the equipment manufacturer
for primary cost and performance data. While comparing the performance of a dryer,
the features in the list above should be properly studied so that the dryer
performance is not affected. The steps in the process for simplifying or eliminating
should not affect the operations that follow drying, such as filtration, grinding etc.

2.6 DRYER MODELING, DESIGN, AND SCALE-UP

General Principles Models and calculations on dryers can be categorized in

terms of (1) the level of complexity used and (2) the purpose or type of calculation
(design, performance rating, or scaleup).

Levels of Dryer Modeling can be carried out at four different levels, depending on
the amount of data available and the level of detail and precision required in the
answer.

18
 Level 1. Heat and mass balances: These balances give information on the
material and energy flows to and from the dryer but say nothing about the
required equipment size or the performance which a given dryer is capable
of.

Level 2. Scoping: Approximate or scoping calculations give rough sizes and

throughputs (mass flow rates) for dryers, using simple data and making some
simplifying assumptions. Either heat transfer control or first-order drying
kinetics is assumed.

Level 3. Scaling: Scaling calculations give overall dimensions and

performance figures for dryers by scaling up drying curves from small-scale
or pilot-plant experiments.

Level 4. Detailed: Rigorous or detailed methods aim to track the temperature

and drying history of the solids and find local conditions inside the dryer.
Naturally, these methods use more complex modeling techniques with many
more parameters and require many more input data.

Types of Dryer Calculations: There are three types of computation methods for
designing a new dryer or improving the efficiency of an existing one.

 New dryer design performance cycle data and processed using the process
flowsheet and physical properties data sheet.
 For new set of process conditions the Performance of the present dryer is
calculated.
 Scale-up from laboratory-scale or pilot-plant experiments to a full-scale
dryer

A dependable model for drying of solids in the falling rate period which actually
determines the total drying time is difficult. The kinetics of the said period mainly
depends upon movement of internal moisture within a solid. This is highly
dependent on the internal structure, which in turn varies with the upstream process,
the solids formation step, and often between individual batches. The key
parameters of solids drying will not able to derive from theory alone or using any
physical properties data. Therefore, experimental data is required. It also helps to
design and scale up of a dryer exactly and more dependable than the design based

19
on thermodynamic data. The experiments are very useful in certifying the theoretical
model and also provide necessary data for calculating the non measureable
parameters. It is also helps in designing models more accurately.

Fig. 2.6. Heat and material flows around a continuous dryer.

Heat and Mass Balance: Fig.2.6 represents the mass and heat balance process
diagram of continuous dryer with parameters on dry basis.

Mass Balance: The mass balance generally done on the main solvent. The rate of
evaporation is given as E(kg/s). the evaporation rate of vacuum or contact dryer is
nearly equal to the vapor flow at exhaust, expect for any non-condensable gas.
Where as for contact dryers it is equal to increased humidity at exhaust. At steady
state rate of evaporation expression for continuous dryer is given as

E = F (XI − XO) = G (YO − YI) (2.4)

Assuming that flows of dry gas(G) and dry solids(F) doesn’t vary between the dryer
input and output. Sometimes the mass balance is also carried out on solids and
gas. These allows us to check for any gas leaks during process or any entrainment
of solids to the exhaust in the process.

During the scale-up or design calculations, flow rate of solids, inlet moisture
contentand outlet moisture content(XI) is required. The rate of evaporation and
outlet gas are computed. During the performance, the process is reverse i.e.
evaporation rate is calculated for existing conditions and thereafter solids quantity
and final moisture of solids are back computed.

The instantaneous rate of drying at any point during drying in batch dryer with m as
mass of dry solids is given as

20
 E = m( )= G (YO − YI) (2.5)

Heat balance: for continuous dryer the expression in the form

GIGI + FISI + Qin = GIGO + FISO + Qwl (2.6)

Where, I - enthalpy (kJ/kg dry material) ( solids, moisture present in solids and gas).
Enthalpy of the gas includes the latent heat term for the vapor. Expanding the
enthalpy terms gives

G(CsITGI + λYI) + F(CPS + XICPL)TSI + Qin

= G(CSOTGO + λYO) + F(CPS + XOCPL)TSO + Qwl (2.7)

Here Cs is the humid heat CPG + YCPY. The equation of batch dryer given as

GIGI + Qin = GIGO + m + Qwl (2.8).

Scoping Design Calculations Without any experimental data or drying curve, the
sizing of dryer and time for drying can be found using scoping computing based on
mass and heat balance. These calculations allows to determine almost accurately
the surface area required for convective dryers and Volume for batch dryers, but
the not exact for determining other data.

Continuous Convective Dryers during designing, the essential solids quantity F

and with known initial and final moisture XI and XO respectively, as is the ambient
humidity YI. The conditions of oulet gas (temp. TGO and hum. YO ) is found either
by calculating with the chosen inlet gas temp. or with the help of Psychometric chart.
10% to 20% enthalpy reduced will be there due to heat losses and sensible heat
absorbed by solids and some heat also lost during breaking the bonds for removal
of bound moisture. Now that the gas mass flow, G, can be calculated using mass
balance equation [Eq. (2.5)]. A typical gas velocity UG along the dryer is now chosen,
for example, 20 m/s for a flash dryer, 0.5 m/s for a fluidized bed, and 3 m/s for a co-
current rotary dryer. Cross-sectional area A for through-circulation and dispersion
dryers, is

( )
A= = (2.9)
( )

21
The calculated area, A, provides the platform of determining the diameter of dryer ,
or rectangular bed linear sizing. The outcome accuracy may be approximately equal
to 10% can then be calculated and can be improved further by good approximations
of heat losses and velocity. During the performance, gas flow rate is found by
reversing the equation, G = ρGIUGA.

The above procedure doesn’t provide any data about dryer dimensions or drying
time of solids. Calculating the minimum time for drying is calculated for maximum
drying rate, Ncr with assumption of gas phase heat transfer control and guessing
appropriate heat transfer co-efficient for gas to solid. The tmin equation given as

tmin = (2.10)

Alternative assumption is that the whole process of drying time can be calculated
using Eq. (2.13) for first order falling rate. It is recommended to measure the drying
time experimentally.

Continuous Contact Dryers The controlling factor is surface area available for
heat transfer. The design equation is found using

(2.11)

Where, Q- heat transfer rate between wall and solids

ΔTWS – temperature difference between outside the wall and solids inside
dryer or driving force
λev – latent heat of evaporation of volatile liquid, solids and vapor to
required temperature.
hWS - heat transfer co-efficient between the solid and wall
Here, the controlling factor is again the rate of heat transfer.

If the falling rate period of drying is dominating factor, then the kinetics used to
calculate the residence time of solids in dryer for the given surface area, A s, is not
sufficient to get the required moisture content. Once more it is suggested for
experimental drying curve.

22
Batch Dryers: By fixing the batch size, the dryer dimensions and volume of the
dyer that contains the solid material for drying can be calculated. The residence
time for drying the solids is calculated using the formula

(2.12)

The following are assumed, controlled rate of heat transfer and rate of constant
drying. Drying calculation for falling rate will be wrong unless proper scaling was not
developed using the drying curve. we can compare the surface area to volume ratios
of various dryers and can derive the data to compare the drying times with each
other.

Falling-Rate Kinetics: In the hindered drying, the constant rate time (tCR ) for drying
is corrected to the first order kinetics of falling rate using the following equation,

(2.13)

Where X1, X2 and XE are intial, final and equilibrium moisture content respectively.
Falling rate time is always greater or equal to constant rate time tFR ≥ tCR. The
equation for combining both constant rate period, ending at Xcr and falling rate
period with first order kinetics, starting at Xcr and ending at XE is

(2.14)

Where, Xcr is critical moisture content.

Scale-up Effects: If the scale up the dryer volume increases, which is either
controlled by constant rate drying heat transfer or following the proportionality of first
order kinetics of falling rate from the characteristic drying curve then then the drying
rate N (kg/kg/s) and drying time t will be proportional to the ratio between the area
over which heat enters and the mass or volume of solids.

23
For Dryers of all types the specific drying rate is constant for the set of conditions
which is nothing mass flux or evaporation rate per unit area. Thus the convective
dryers, fluidized bed dryers and contacts dryers drying time remains same as long
as the depth of layer solids remain constant i.e. with increase in volume doesn’t
effect the drying time. But for rotary or agitated(mechanical) dryers the surface area
of heat transfer increases the square of dryer diameter and volume as cube.
Therefore, time for drying increases by cube root of batch.

(2.15)

Taking into considerations of above points Roto cone Vacuum dryer (RVD or RCVD)
has been chosen for drying of materials which cannot resist high temperature,
material which are easily oxidized, volatile materials which should be retrieved,
materials strong irritant and poisonous in nature

24
 Chapter 3

ROTO CONE VACUUM DRYER

Roto cone vacuum dryer drying operation is a batch type. Here, the batch raw
material charged is indirectly heated while undergoing simultaneous rotary motion
of the cone assembly. The conical shape of the dryer confirms efficient circulation
of hot liquid heating media. Drying takes place when heat is transferred from outer
cone jacket to inner cone and vacuum application to the inner cone. The principle
of drying operation is based on that, the water or other volatile material moves from
a zone of low pressure. The product to be dried in warmed to raise the vapor
pressure of the free liquid or absorbed by vacuum or by sweeping it with Nitrogen.
Hence the necessary conditions for actual drying are attained by uniform heat
transfer throughout the batch and rapid removal of the vapor. The applied vacuum
is controlled with PLC by throttling valve.

Roto cone vacuum dryer is appropriate for drying of materials which cannot with
stand high temperature or heat sensitive materials such as materials that are easily
oxidized, poisonous in nature, volatile materials which should be retrieved and
materials strong irritant. The roto cone dryer with advanced technology combines
during operation under vacuum. The roto cone vacuum dryer enables improved
drying efficiency, low temperature operation and economize the process by total
solvent recovery. IcGMP based working helps in achieving optimum dust control,
while offering advantages of efficient charging and discharging of materials of RVD.
The drying unit initially breaks large lumps using equipped lump breakers and
subsequently powders them. The reduced drying time and a lump free product is
obtained with rotary action of dryer together with mechanical action of the breakers.

3.1 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION:

All Contact Parts are usually SS316 Or Higher Grade, and Non Contact Parts are
SS304 (Or Mild Steel in case of Non-GMP set up). Incase of Highly Corrosive
chemicals, the Contact Parts are recommended to be Hastelloy (C22 Or C276), Or
Halar PU Coated SS304 or Coated SS304.

25
Fig. 3.1 Photograph of Roto cone Vacuum Dryer.

Fig. 3.2 Roto cone vacuum dryer

26
3.2 SURFACE FINISH

The contact surface of product needs to be very smooth as per GMP (Good
Manufacturing Practice) guidelines. This also helps in avoids formation of
electrolytic cell formation owing to the surface corrosion. Thus, Mirror Finish of
minimum 240 grit for product contact surface generally, and 180 grit matt finish for
non-contact surface. For cases of a Non-GMP set up, the surface is either epoxy
coated or painted with protective layer,if Mild Steel is used (for Product Non-Contact
in some cases).

3.3 OPERATION PRINCIPLE

During the roto cone vacuum dryer operation product is dried by creation of a
vacuum. Thus the pressure decreases around the product to below the water vapor
pressure thereby resulting in reducing product water boiling point. The product
water evaporates and enhances rate of drying of the product. The process is also
carried out under low relative humidity for improved drying.

3.4 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN RCVD:

The components can be listed as under:

1. RCVD Bowl: A central cylindrical shaped vessel with top and bottom cones
usually angled at 45 degree.

2. RCVD Jacket: A metal jacket for Heating and Cooling the external surface of the
bowl. Jacket includes central circular cylindrical portion, top and bottom cone.

3.Charging Hole Or Manhole with Openable or Hinged Door: A manhole and a

closing lid is provided for both charging the wet material and maintenance purpose.
Usually manhole is big enough for either accessing the interiors by hand Or for
manual entry of a person inside the bowl.

4. Bottom Discharge Valve (usually butterfly valve): A suitable diameter of

discharge valve is provided for unloading the dry mass at the end of the operations.

5. Vacuum Pipe with Vacuum Bulb: The horizontal hollow pipe (either of heavy
schedule or bored out of a solid rod) is provided for extraction of vapors generated

27
through the filter on the vacuum bulb (either a normal cloth filter Or sintered mesh
filter).

6. Mechanical Seal between Vacuum Pipe and RCVD Bowl interface: Because
the RCVD bowl rotates, while, the vacuum pipe is stationary, and, at the same time,
vacuum pipe protrudes through the bowl horizontally, a mechanical seal is needed
which allows smooth rotation of the bowl without vacuum or material leakage. In
some arrangements, the seal sits exactly between the gap Or machined steps
created between the vacuum pipe and the bowl. However, in some designs, before
the mechanical seal, a PTFE (also known as Teflon) bush is fixed at the interface
and further (after the PTFE bush) the mechanical seal is fixed.

7. Hot Fluid Or Steam Connection to RCVD Jacket: A horizontal pipe is provided

(which is usually provided on the drive end) for supplying the hot fluid (usually Hot
Water Or Steam Or extremely rarely Other Hot Fluid). Usually the piping is done
such that the hot fluid travels through the core pipe and gets distributed in the RCVD
jacket through the channeling effect. The same fluid when exchanges heat with the
surface looses its temperature and returns back to the same pipe, however, now
through the annular space created by other bigger pipe that parallelly covers the
core pipe. It means Pipe In Pipe arrangement, where, the inner pipe carries supply
fluid and outer pipe carries the returning fluid going back to the heating source.

8. Support Structure with base frame Or base plate: A support structure of hollow
metal shapes viz. SS304 Or Mild Steel RHS Or SHS (Rectangular Hollow Sections
Or Square Hollow Sections) are used to support the RCVD from both the sides i.e.
Drive Side, as well as, Vacuum Side. Either a base frame of structural steel is
provided Or simply base plates are provided at the bottom of the legs to grout it on
the floor Or anchor it on the pedestal.

9. AC Motor: AC motor of 415 Volts, 1440 rpm, 50 to 60 Hz and of adequate power

(considering a suitable starting torque at full load condition) is chosen. Voltage and
Frequency can vary depending on the country of usage. Some countries use either
110 Or 220 Volts only, whereas, other countries use Voltage ranging from 415 to
450 Volts. Frequency varies too from country to country.

28
10. Drive and/or Gearbox: A suitable drive is chosen that is suitable to the motor,
as well as, keeping in mind the reduction ratio. In some case, the gearbox is
provided with Spur Wheel and Pinion Wheel arrangement (usually for higher
capacity RCVDs) for the limitations of the gearbox size and reduction ratios.
Whereas, in some cases, directly the gearbox is provided with motor for directly
reducing the RPM from 1440 to 10-12. The selection of gearbox depends on RPM
(rotations per minute) and client's need. Both Helical Bevel, as well as, Worm
Reduction gearboxes are popular.

11. Couplings, Bearings and Plummer blocks: Suitable couplings are used
between drive and motor. In many of the designs, the drive end shaft enters into the
hollow gearbox, which is directly coupled with a motor. Bearings and Plummer
blocks are provided on both the sides (i.e. drive and non-drive) to support the RCVD
bowl, as well as, to allow it to rotate freely.

12. Electromechanical Brake Or Pneumatic Brake: It becomes essential to break

the speed of the RCVD at times, hence, electromechanical brake (works on the
principle of EMI) Or pneumatic brake is provided that ensures the RCVD rotational
motion is broken and it comes to a halt immediately. These kinds of brakes are
especially needed for a Helical Bevel Gearboxes, which does not lock the shaft from
reverse rotation.

13. Variable Frequency Drive (VFD): AC Frequency Drive is provided to control

Or vary the speed of rotation between 6 to 12 rpm usually.

14. Safety Railing: An openable safety railing is provided with a limits switch Or
proxy sensor, which ensures that RCVD rotates only when the railing is closed. If
someone accidently Or purposefully opens the railing to go near the RCVD, the
motor stops immediately, hence, mitigates the possibility of any accident.

15. Instruments viz:

a) Product Temperature Sensor: A horizontal RTD sensor passing through
central vacuum pipe, with probe open to the vapors and/or the powder mass
inside the RCVD bowl.

29
 b) Vacuum Guage Or Compound Guage on the RCVD Manhole: A dial
type guage is provided to note the vacuum as well as pressure inside the
RCVD bowl.
c) Pressure Guage on the RCVD jacket: Ideally the jacket pressure should
not exceed 3bar (as a practice). More pressure may cause damage to the
RCVD bowl surface.
d) Temperate Sensor on Condenser
e) Pressure and Vacuum Guage for Receiver and Its Jacket respectively.

3.5 OTHER PARTS OF THE RCVD SYSTEM:

1. Condenser: The vapors coming out of the RCVD is generally condensed by

using a Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchanger. In the heat exchanger utility
fluid(mostly chilled water Or cooling water) is circulated on shell side and on the
tube side process side fluid (vapors) are passed. Though, it can be the other way
around too (based on the heat load calculations). To avoid heat losses to ambient
Condenser can be insulated and cladded.

2. Receiver: At the bottom of the Shell and Tube Heat exchanger a condenser
solvent recovery receiver is provided. Receiver can be Horizontal cylindrical with
saddle support or a vertical cylindrical with legs support. A arrangement for vacuum
breaking is provided with a control/ On-Off valve on the receiver.

3. Vacuum Pump: To enable the extraction of vapors to complement the

condensation process a right capacity Vacuum Pump is connected to the system
(mostly to the receiver), which generates vacuum inside the RCVD bowl.

4. Water Heating system Or Low Pressure Steam (for heating RCVD surface):
A dedicated skid mounted vertical cylindrical vessel with external heating i.e either
with steam (LPS) or with Electrical Heaters is provided for hot water system. The
pump circulates the hot water from hot water generation tank into the RCVD jacket
and the return water is sent back to the hot water tank. To ensure water doesn’t
spill over a level guage/switch is provided and, valves gets ON when level goes
down to make up water. The inlet water temperature control is ensured by placing
temperature sensor on the Hot Waters Tank and RCVD jacket inlet which together

30
controls the flow of Steam (through PID control valve) Or the Electrical Heater. For
direct steam heating, uniform temperature is maintained in the jacket by the PID
control valve for throttling the steam.

5. Nitrogen Purging system: To clean the vacuum bulb filter and pushing the
vapors out towards the condenser by intermediate or perioding gushing or N2 gas
a small nitrogen container is provided with control valves. The purging of N2 is done
through the same vacuum pipe, therefore, it is required to stop temporarily while
purging.

3.6 WORKING

Rotary Vacuum Drier (RVD) is loaded with fine powder and heated using hot water
circulation inside the RVD jacket to the required temperature (70 ± 5 0C). The hot
water from hot water tank is pumped to RVD jacket by using the pump. The hot
water temperature in tank is maintained at 70 ± 5 0C. The temperature controller is
used to control and monitor the temperature of hot water inside the tank. The above
cycle of rising temperature and maintaining required temperature is called heat
cycle. After completion of heat cycle, vacuum is applied, with heating cycle
continuing, is called vacuum cycle. 200-300 mm Hg of Vacuum is maintained in
RVD by using the appropriate controls at vacuum pump and same is monitored.
After completion of both cycles, RVD is purged with Nitrogen (N2) gas to break the
vacuum. After purging with nitrogen, a sample is collected from RVD and sent to lab
for moisture analysis. After the completion of operation, the material is unloaded
from RVD and packed in batch containers. The discharge valve is operated
remotely. The whole operation is remotely operated from control room with the PLC
controls and SCADA.

3.7 THE FACTORS THAT MAKES RCVD or RCVD or DVD SO POPULAR AND
A PREFFERED CHOICE ARE AS UNDER:

1. Vacuum Drying under Moderate or Low Temperature: RCVD bowl is provided

with a metal jacket (usually SS304 grade in Pharma API) which allows the Hot Water
or Low Pressure Steam (at usually 3 to 3.5 bar, Non IBR) to heat the surface and
inturn heat the mass to be dried by conduction and convection. Because of the
application of the vacuum inside the closed bowl, the vapor pressure inside the bowl

31
drops and hence the boiling point of the liquid to be evaporated (viz. Water or
Solvent) too drops and hence boiling takes place at lower temperature and vapor
generation (and subsequently extraction of vapors) happens faster as compared to
any other traditional drying method.

2. Material Shuffling for achieving Uniform Heat Transfer: RCVD is provided

with a rotary mechanism, wherein, the bowl rotates along a horizontal axis (it is
supported over A or C shaped strong metal structures with bearings) at a low rpm
(rotations per minute). Here the layer by layer shuffling of the mass inside the RCVD
bowl takes place, resulting into uniform heat transfer amongst the wet powder
particles. Most importantly, the powder mass shuffling takes place with minimum
contact with any mechanical moving parts inside the RCVD bowl. All other
vacuumized dryers works on either a complete static bed Or wet powder being
shuffled by some mechanical agitator type structure. However, such structures
needs to be cleaned thoroughly as per pharmaceutical standards and hence RCVD
is preferred over other vacuumized dryers.

3. Vacuum Application, Inert Gas Purging and Temperature sensing through

a smallest possible protrusion: RCVD has a unique design in which a horizontal
hollow pipe (which acts as a vacuum Or suction pipe) protrudes inside the RCVD
bowl through a central smallest possible opening. The same pipe acts as a inert gas
(usually nitrogen) purging nozzle (used to push the vapors). Further, a temperature
sensing element is passed through this horizontal pipe, which, further tries to sense
the temperature of the inside mass And/ Or vapors. In any other type of a vacuum
dryer, managing all these things is too difficult as there is a risk of vacuum leakage.

4. Possibility of fully automatic loading and unloading of the mass: It is one of

the biggest concern of the Pharma, as well as, other industries today, to handle
hazardous and polluting drugs Or chemicals, while ensuring Or following the safety
standards. RCVD comes with a charging manhole, discharge butterfly valve and
optional sampling valve, as well as, spray ball for cleaning in place (CIP/ WIP). The
Charging and Discharging operation can be made completely automated.

Besides above Some of the other benefits of Vacuum Dryer are:

1. Predictable and Repeatable outputs.

32
 2. Drying of Temperature Sensitive Products - At reduced pressures all
liquids vaporize at lower temperature at ,so, it is possible to vaporize the
liquids at very low temperatures.
3. Reduced Energy – The temperature differential is increased without raising
the temperature by evaporating the liquid under vacuum at low temperature.
4. Safe for Friable Products – Because of the low speed of tumble dryer
operation, making roto dryers ideal for delicate and friable solids such as
macromolecules, crystals or agglomerated solids.
5. More Complete Discharge – There is no trap of product as in agitated
dryers, due to Rota-Cone Dryers have very little surface area and no agitator.
The cone angle of 45 degree allows all products to freely discharge.
6. Low Cross Contamination – There is less number of moving parts in the
tumble dryer(one moving part) which is an inherently simple and clean
design. So, the yield will be improved and reduces the cross contamination.
7. Easily Cleaned – With a standard single spray nozzle the whole RVD
internals can be cleaned.
8. Easily Inspected Interior – From on vantage point – loading hatch, all
surfaces of the Rota Cone Vacuum Dryer can be inspected.
9. Single Enclosed Environment – As the loading and discharging operations
are sealed, automated and purged, active pharmaceutical ingredients, drugs
and toxic chemicals can be dried safely. The isolated system also guarantees
the maximum collection of solvents, with operator and the environment
protection.
10. Avoid Oxidation – The Rota-Cone Vacuum Dryer aids in avoiding oxidation
of chemical and with an inert gas purge by maintaining an oxygen free
environment.

3.8 Advantages
• Drying time is reduced.
• Dust control by total contained process.
• Charging and Discharge is very efficient
• Lump free product due to Choppers(Lump breaker).
• Charging ports are easily openable
• Re-drying of lumps are eliminated.

33
 • Final product Handling and exposure is avoided.
• Dried product is of uniform size.
• Crystalline or amorphous powders can be processed as they are
prone for lumps.
• Internal surface cleaning is easy, which ensures high quality
product..
• Maintenance of Optimum and Continuous vacuum in the process.
• Shuffling material uniformly over the heated surface of the cone.

3.9 Design Options:

• Agitator for lump breaking
• Addition of liquid
• Sampler for solids
• Drum Loading and Unloading System automation
• Polished Contact Surface
• CIP - Clean-In-Place Spray Nozzles
• Stamp of ASME code
• XP Electrics
• Vacuum System
• Recovery system for solvent
• Control systems for Hot Water or Hot Oil Temperature
• Complete Controls

3.10 CARE TO BE TAKEN WHILE DESIGNING AN RCVD:

1. Material of Construction: The correct choice of MOC will choose the adherence
to the quality and process parameters, as well as, durability of the RCVD.

2. Level of Automation: Based on the production deparment requirement and

budget allocation, the level of automation can be planned. Example, the external
Powder Transfer System can be combined along with the RVD and the bottom
discharge valve can be pneumatically stimulated. if product charging or discharging
is the prime need.

34
3. Statutory and Safety compliance: Special features are united such as Touch
Screen HMI (Human Machine Interface) with PLC (Programmable Logic
Control)based on the company policy and FDA mandate,. Any other sophistication
such as 21 CFR Chapter 11 compliance by adopting special Data Security
measures, in which activity of each user recorded can be maintained by
individualistic password protected logins. while designing an RCVD, overall Safety,
GMP guidelines along with respective FDA mandates has to be followed.

4. Batch Size Calculations: Basic Thermodynamics Or Heat Load calculations

helps in determining the optimum batch size, in addition to, the time cycle, hence
monthly Or timely production quantity.

5. Available Floor Space, Availability of the Utilities and Floor Layout/

Elevation: The area and space available will be over looked by project team and
the decision as RVD doesn’t fit in that size is regretted later. Similarly, if not planned
properly the utility equipment’s such as Vacuum Pump, Hot Water Tank, Steam,
Chilled Or Cooling Water, Nitrogen and Electrical Panel etc can cause a more
trouble such as financial loss due to structural rearrangement work, major
construction work and sometimes production time loss too. During the design stage,
RCVD GAD (General Arrangement Drawing) is superimposed on Auto cad Layout
Drawing to see the possibility of installation.

6. Thorough attention to the minute design aspects: Designing aspects such as

Positioning of the Mechanical Seal, Spur-Pinion Geared Drive versus Direct
Gearbox Drive system, Usual Vacuum Bulb with PP cloth bag versus Sintered Mesh
Filterbag, CIP system (cleaning in place) by Spray Ball, In-Process Sampling,
Nitrogen Purging, External Choppers/ Lump Breakers, Cantilevers Shaft versus
Both side Supported Structure etc has to be given extremely detailed attention.

7. Product Specific Operational Challenges (based on the previous

experience Or Studies): The Engineering and Maintenance of plant specific needs
from production team has to given importance in the capital purchase. The Safety
and Statutory department also helps in ensuring the smooth production.

8. Mechanical and Process Design, as well as, Sizing of the Equipments: With
varying parameters such as temperature, pressure and vacuum Stress analysis/
calculations has to be carried out. Similarly, based on the the static and dynamic

35
loads the thickness calculations must be done. As per the Industry Standards, the
important bought out items such as Motor, Gearbox, Seal, Valves etc should be
designed.

The above knowledge let us now move to Generally design parameters or Scale
up parameters of dryers followed by Rotocone Vacuum Dryer (RVD).

36
 Chapter 4

SCALE UP DEISGN OF 4000 lit ROTO CONE VACUUM DRYER

These are rotating batch vacuum dryers, as shown in Fig. 4-1. Some types are an
offset cylinder, but a double-cone shape is more common. They are very common
in the pharmaceutical and fine chemicals industries.

Fig. 4.1 Rotating (double-cone) vacuum dryer.

4.1 AIM

To scale up Roto cone vacuum dryer in order to facilitate the increased production
rate for drying heat sensitive products by doubling the drying capacity of RCVD or
RVD, i.e. from 2000 Lts to 4000 Lts. The design aims for arriving the RVD
dimensions, heat load calculations w.r.t heating time and vacuum time and power
required for 4000 Lts.

4.2 SCOPE

The scope of design is to scale up or sizing the RVD to 4000 lit and there by
calculating the theoretical time requirement for reducing moisture content of product
from 1 % to 0.1 %. The time or total time required for drying is the sum of runtime
of heat cycle and vacuum cycle. Design also realizes the power requirement or
power consumed during the drying process. Experimental trials will be done on the

37
4000 lit RVD and the results of these trials, will be compared with theoretical values
obtained from the design calculation.

4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

1.Materials and tools: The tools employed for experimental studies were: Ovens,
Non-contact thermometers, weigh balance, scooping spoon and petri dish. Besides
above tools following materials are used in process: cyclone separator, water pump,
pressure gauge, temperature sensors, BOT trolleys, condenser, operation control
unit, chalk powder (Size – 300 µm, Mohs hardness -3, material composition –
CaCO3, Thermal conductivity – 0.09 W/m-K, Bulk density -0.6 g/cc, specific heat –
0.9 kJ/kg-K), gunny bags and batch containers

2.Methodology: The study was carried by sizing or scale up of RVD and test
performance of RVD. The sizing or scale up of RVD is based on volume
requirement. The sizing dimensions was theoretically calculated and compared with
available RVD’s in the market for choosing a RVD nearer to our requirement.

The design parameters, time requirement and power requirement of the chosen
RVD are estimated theoretically. For this study, material chosen was chalk powder
of average particle size 300 µm.

The performance test of RVD using chalk powder was carried out with measurement
of initial moisture content. Then, powder weighing 50% volume of RVD was charged
into the RVD and drying process is carried out to reduce the moisture content from
1 to 0.1 %. During the drying process, the temperature and vacuum of RVD was
recorded against time. Test time was compared with theoretical time.

4.4. SIZING

The sizing of RVD design starts by choosing the capacity required. Here we
require to design 4000 lit RVD. The basic point to be considered in design or
scale up is L/D ratio. The L/D ratio of RVD is generally taken as 1.5 (see fig 4-2).

The first step in sizing is calculation of Diameter (D) of RVD based on the
Standard formulas issued in table.

38
 π𝐷 𝐿
𝑉= ( )
12 𝐷

Where, V= Capacity or Volume of RVD

L= length of RVD
D= dimeter of RVD

Table 4.1. Calculation of Key Dimensions for Various Batch Contact Dryers (Fig.
4-2 Shows the Geometries)

39
 Fig. 4.2 Basic geometries for batch dryer calculations

4.4.1. Calculation of Diameter of RVD

V= (πD2/12)(L/D)
4 = (3.14* D2/12)(1.5)
D2= 48/(1.5*3/14)
= 2.168 m

Fig. 4-3 Cone sizing dimensions

40
4.4.2. Calculation of Volume of truncated cones

From above fig.4-3, h = H-X mm

= 1085-275 mm
= 810 mm

Volume of truncated cone, Vc1

Vc1 = (1/3)* π*h*(R2 + r2 + R*r)
= (1/3)*3.14*810*( 10852 + 2752 + 1085*275)
= 1.315 m3

For two cones, Vc = 2* Vc1

= 2*1.315
= 2.63 m3

4.4.3. Calculation of Remaining volume for RVD

Total volume of RVD = 4000 lit = 4 m3

Volume of two cones = 2630 lit = 2.63 m3
Shortage of Volume = 4 – 2.63 = 1.37 m 3

The Shortage of Volume in RVD is compensated or offset by a

cylinder in between the two cones. Hence the volume of cylinder,
Vcyl= 1.37 m3

4.4.4. Calculation of Height of Cylinder

Volume of cylinder, Vcyl = π* R2*hcyl
1.37 = 3.14 * 10852 * hcyl
Height of cylinder, hcyl ≈ 370 mm

41
4.4.5. Theoretical Sizing representation
550 mm

810 mm
370 mm
2170 mm

810 mm
550 mm

Fig. 4-4 RVD sizing based on Theoretical calculations

4.4.6. Actual RVD sizing representation

600 mm

749.9 mm

2100 mm
650 mm
779.9 mm

300 mm
Fig. 4.5 Actual RVD sizing, obtained from market

42
4.5. DESIGN OF ACTUAL RVD

(Calculations of 4000 lit RVD Based on Standard Dimensions)

4.5.1. Calculation of Volume of RVD

Vtot = Vtop cone + Vcylinder + Vbottom cone
Vcylinder = (πD2 h)/4 = 2.25 m3 = 2250 lit
Vtop cone = (π h(D2 + d2 + Dd))/12 =1.178 m3 = 1178 lit
Vbottom cone = (πh(D2 + d2 + Dd))/12 =1.044 m3 = 1044 lit

Vtot = 2250 + 1178 + 1044 = 4472 lit

4.5.2. Calculation of Curved surface area or Drying surface area

Atot = ACylinder + Atop cone + Abottom cone

L= sqrt(h2 + (R-r)2)
Where, h= height of cone
L = Slant height of cone

ACylinder = πDhcyl = 3.14*2.1*0.65 = 4.286 m2

Atop cone = πL(R-r) = 3.14*1.06*(1.5/2) = 2.49 m2
Abottom cone = πL(R-r) = 3.14*1.2 *(1.8/2) = 3.36 m 2

Atot = 4.286 + 2.49 + 3.36 = 10.136 m2

4.5.3. Calculation of Overall Heat transfer co-efficient for material heat

transfer
1/U = (xmetal / kmetal ) + ( 1/ hwater ) + (xmaterial / kmaterial )

Where,
xmetal = thickness of metal = 16 mm
kmetal= Thermal conductivity of Metal (SS316) = 16.3 W/m.K
hwater = Heat transfer co-efficient of water in forced circulation
=3000 W/ m2.K
xmaterial= Thickness of material (chalk powder) in the form of

43
 scale = 1 mm
kmetal = Thermal conductivity of material (Chalk Powder)
= 0.09 W/m.K

1/U = 0.016/16.3 + 1/3000 + 0.001/0.09

1/U = 0.000982 + 0.000333+0.0111

U = 80.55 W/m2 K

4.5.4. Calculation of Overall Heat transfer co-efficient for heat transfer

of inside air

1/U = (xmetal / kmetal ) + ( 1/ hwater ) + (1/hair)

Where,
hair = Heat transfer co-efficient of air inside the RVD = 50 W/
m2.K

1/U = 0.016/16.3 + 1/3000 + 1/50

1/U = 0.000982 + 0.000333+0.02

U = 46.92 W/m2 K

4.5.5. Calculation of Overall Heat transfer co-efficient that is lost to

surroundings through insulation packing (glass wool)

1/U = (xmetal / kmetal ) + ( 1/ hwater ) + (xglass wool/kglass wool))

Where,
xglass wool = thickness of glass wool = 20 mm
kglass wool = Thermal conductivity of glass wool = 0.03 W/m.K

1/U = 0.016/16.3 + 1/3000 + 0.02/0.03

1/U = 0.000982 + 0.000333+0.666

U = 1.49 W/m2 K

44
4.5.6. Calculation of Logarithmic Mean Temp. difference (LMTD ) (for
heat transfer between Jacketed water to material inside)

ΔT1= Twater – Tmat_initial = 75 -30 = 45 ° C

Temp.
Twater = 75 ° C
ΔT2= Twater – Tmat_final = 75 -72 = 3 ° C
ΔT2

ΔTlm= (ΔT1 –ΔT2)/(ln(ΔT1/ ΔT2) ΔT1 Tmat_final

=45-3/ln(15) Tmat_initial

ΔTlm = 15 .5 ° C =15.5 ° K
Time

4.5.7. Calculation of Logarithmic Mean Temp. difference (LMTD) (for

heat transfer between Jacketed water to surroundings)

ΔT1= Twater – Tmetal OD_initial = 75 -35 = 40° C

ΔT2= Twater – Tmetal OD_final = 75 -40 = 35° C

ΔTlm= (ΔT1 –ΔT2)/(ln(ΔT1/ ΔT2)

=5/ln(1.142)

ΔTlm = 37.44 ° C =37.44 ° K

4.5.8. Calculation of Heat transfer to the Material

(Only Half area will be in contact with material, as material
taken is 50% of the volume of RVD)

qmaterial = U A ΔTlm
= 80.55*(10.136/2)*15.5
qmaterial = 6347.9 J/s

4.5.9. Calculation of Heat transfer to the inside air

(The other Half area is occupied with air)

qair = U A ΔTlm
= 46.92*(10.136/2)*15.5
qair = 3685.7 J/s

45
4.5.10. Calculation of Heat transfer to the surroundings

qsurroundings = U A ΔTlm
= 1.49*(10.136)*37.43
qsurroundings = 565.29 J/s

4.5.11. Total Heat transferred to RVD

Total heat transferred = Heat transferred to inside of RVD (material +
air) + Heat lost to surroundings

qtot = qmaterial + qair + qsurroundings

= 6347.9 + 3685.7 + 565.29
qtot = 10,598. 89 J/s

Heat losses through pipeline, valves and pump is assumed to be

10%
Therefore, total heat required,

qtot = 10,598.89 + 10,598.89 * 0.1

= 10598.89 + 1059.88
qtot = 11658.68 J/s

4.5.12. Calculation of Mass flow rate requirement

qtot = ṁcpΔT
Where,
ΔT =TInitial- Tfinal = 75-72 = 3 °C
CP water, Specific Heat of water = 4182 J/kg. K

ṁ = qtot/(cpΔT)
ṁ = 11658.68/(4182*3)
ṁ= 0.92 kg/s ≈ 1 kg/s = 1 lit/s

46
4.6. POWER REQUIREMENT
For 1 kg/s of water heat required to raise the temperature from 72°C
to 75°C
required= ṁcpΔT
Where,
ṁ = 1 kg/s = 1 lit/s
ΔT = TInitial - Tfinal = 72-75 = -3 °C
CP water, Specific Heat of water = 4182 J/kg. K

qrequired= ṁcpΔT
=1*4182*-3

qrequired = -12546 J/s (-ve indicates heat to be supplied)

Heat loss During heating the water through walls and heater scaling is
assumed to be 10%

Therefore, the Net Heat required is, qnet

qnet = qrequired + qrequired*0.1
= 12546 + 1254.6
qnet = 13800.6 J/s ≈ 14 kW

The power required for Maintain the RVD jacketed water Temp. = 14 kW
4.7. RVD ROTATION
The RPM of RVD is calculated using the critical Speed of Ball mill
Nc = (1/2π)(sqrt(g/R)
= 0.498 sqrt(1/R)
= 0.498 sqrt(2/2.1)

Nc = 0.4859 rps = 29.1 rpm

For RVD speed is 25% of critical speed

RVD Rotation = 29.1 * 0.25 = 7.28 ≈ 7 rpm

47
4.8. HEAT CYCLE

Calculation of Heat required to raise the Temperature of material to 72 °C.

Heat required to raise the temperature of solids and liquids present.

Qhc= mmat [ cps( Tfmat – Timat ) + Xa cpl (Tv – Timat)

Where.
mmat= mass of material taken in RVD = 1200 kg
cps = specific heat of solid material = 750 J/kg °C
Timat = Initial temperature of material(solids)= 30 °C
Tfmat= final temperature of material(solids) = 72 °C
Tv = vaporization temperature of liquid(water) = 72 °C
cp = specific heat of liquid(water) = 4182 J/kg °C
Xa = amount of water in kg / dry solids in kg

Qhc= 1200* [ 750*(72-30) + 0.01*4182*(72-30)]

= 1200 [ 31500 + 1756.44]
Qhc = 39907728.0 J

Time required to raise the feed temperature to 72 °C, thc

thc = Qhc / qmaterial

= 39907728 / 6347.9
= 6286. 76 s

thc = 6286.76 s = 104.7 min ≈ 105 min

48
4.9. VACUUM CYCLE
Calculation of Heat required to raise the Temperature of material to 72 °C
Heat required to raise the vaporize liquids(water) present.

Qvc= mmat [λ (Xi - Xf )]

Where,
mmat= mass of material taken in RVD = 1200 kg
λ = latent heat of liquid (Water) = 2333 kJ/kg °C
Xi = Initial amount of water in kg/ wt. of dry solids in kg
Xf = final amount of water in kg/ wt. of dry solids in kg

Qvc= 1200 [2333 (0.01 – 0.001)]

= 1200*[20.997]

Qvc = 25196.4 kJ = 25196400 J

Time required to raise the feed temperature to 72 °C, tvc

tvc= Qvc / qmaterial

= 25196400 / 6347.9
tvc = 3969.25 s

tvc = 3969.25 s = 66.15 min ≈ 66 min

4.10. TOTAL TIME OF PROCESS

Total time = Heat cycle time + Vacuum cycle time

ttot = thc + tvc

ttot = 105 + 66 = 171 min

49
4.11. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERISTIC DRYING
CURVE FOR CHALK POWDER

Experiment is carried out by taking small amount of material in Petri dish and heated
in oven. The temperature of oven kept at 72 °C and pressure at 1 atm. The weight
of sample with Petri dish is taken in regular time interval ( 5 min) . The process was
continued till no change in weight is observed.

Calculations:
Weight of dish = 53.79 gm
Weight of dish +material = 63.79 gm
Weight of material = 10.00 gm
Total weight of material on dry basis = 9.85 gm

Initial moisture content = 0.01 kg of water/ kg of dry solid

Total amount of water added = 6.5 gm
Final moisture content = 0.65 kg of water/ kg of dry solid
Final weight of dish +water +material = 70.2 gm
Time period taken = 300 s
Area of dish = 23.7675 cm2

50
Table 4.2. Measured values of a sample heated in atmospheric oven at 72 °C over
a period of time

Time Temp. Weight Weight of Moisture Moisture Rate of Rate of

of solid solid with removed content drying drying
S. + dish moisture
No.
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 𝑔𝑚 𝐾𝑔
(
(min) ◦C (gm) (gm) (gm) 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑚 s 𝑚 hr
1 0 31 70.2 16.41 0 0.6660 0.0000 0.0000
2 5 45 70.1 16.31 0.1 0.6558 1.40E-05 0.5049
3 10 46 69.96 16.17 0.14 0.6416 1.96E-05 0.7068
4 15 47 69.76 15.97 0.2 0.6213 2.80E-05 1.0098
5 20 46 69.56 15.77 0.2 0.6010 2.80E-05 1.0098
6 25 46 69.35 15.56 0.21 0.5797 2.95E-05 1.0603
7 30 46 69.15 15.36 0.2 0.5594 2.80E-05 1.0098
8 35 47 68.97 15.18 0.18 0.5411 2.52E-05 0.9088
9 40 46 68.74 14.95 0.23 0.5178 3.23E-05 1.1612
10 45 46 68.51 14.72 0.23 0.4944 3.23E-05 1.1612
11 50 46 68.27 14.48 0.24 0.4701 3.37E-05 1.2117
12 55 46 68.08 14.29 0.19 0.4508 2.66E-05 0.9593
13 60 47 67.87 14.08 0.21 0.4294 2.95E-05 1.0603
14 65 46 67.66 13.87 0.21 0.4081 2.95E-05 1.0603
15 70 46 67.44 13.65 0.22 0.3858 3.09E-05 1.1108
16 75 46 67.22 13.43 0.22 0.3635 3.09E-05 1.1108
17 80 46 67.01 13.22 0.21 0.3421 2.95E-05 1.0603
18 85 46 66.8 13.01 0.21 0.3208 2.95E-05 1.0603
19 90 46 66.59 12.8 0.21 0.2995 2.95E-05 1.0603
20 95 47 66.38 12.6 0.2 0.2792 2.80E-05 1.0098
21 100 47 66.17 12.38 0.22 0.2569 3.09E-05 1.1108
22 105 47 65.98 12.19 0.19 0.2376 2.66E-05 0.9593
23 110 47 65.78 11.99 0.2 0.2173 2.80E-05 1.0098
24 115 47 65.57 11.78 0.21 0.1959 2.95E-05 1.0603
25 120 46 65.40 11.61 0.17 0.1787 2.38E-05 0.8583

51
26 125 47 65.19 11.4 0.21 0.1574 2.95E-05 1.0603
27 130 47 65.01 11.22 0.18 0.1391 2.52E-05 0.9088
28 135 47 64.83 11.04 0.18 0.1208 2.52E-05 0.9088
29 140 47 64.68 10.89 0.15 0.1056 2.10E-05 0.7573
30 145 46 64.52 10.73 0.16 0.0893 2.24E-05 0.8078
31 150 45 64.36 10.57 0.16 0.0731 2.24E-05 0.8078
32 155 46 64.22 10.43 0.14 0.0589 1.96E-05 0.7068
33 160 47 64.10 10.31 0.12 0.0467 1.68E-05 0.6059
34 165 49 64.01 10.22 0.09 0.0376 1.26E-05 0.4544
35 170 50 63.92 10.13 0.09 0.0284 1.26E-05 0.4544
36 175 54 63.84 10.05 0.08 0.0203 1.12E-05 0.4039
37 180 52 63.78 9.99 0.06 0.0142 8.41E-06 0.3029
38 185 54 63.76 9.97 0.02 0.0122 2.80E-06 0.1010
39 190 52 63.75 9.96 0.01 0.0112 1.40E-06 0.0505
40 195 54 63.74 9.95 0.01 0.0102 1.40E-06 0.0505
41 200 53 63.73 9.94 0.01 0.0091 1.40E-06 0.0505
42 205 53 63.72 9.93 0.01 0.0081 1.40E-06 0.0505
43 210 56 63.71 9.92 0.01 0.0071 1.40E-06 0.0505
44 215 56 63.7 9.91 0.01 0.0061 1.40E-06 0.0505
45 220 55 63.7 9.91 0 0.0061 0.00E+00 0.0000
46 225 56 63.7 9.91 0 0.0061 0.00E+00 0.0000

52
 Moisture vs Time

(Kg of H20 / Kg
of dry solid)

(min)

Fig. 4.6 Moisture vs time graph of chalk powder

(Kg/m2 h)

(min)

Fig. 4.7 Rating of drying vs Time graph of chalk powder

53
 Fig. 4.8 Characteristic Drying curve for chalk powder

From the above Graph,

Critical moisture content, Xc = 0.15
Equilibrium Moisture content, X* = 0.006, for calculation purpose it can be
approximated to zero.

54
 Chapter 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Scale up design of 4000 lit RVD was discussed in this section w.r.t Sizing,
Optimization of Speed, Power requirement, heat load calculations and time. An
experimental trial with chalk powder was done in order to compare the theoretical
data. The results of trial were discussed below.

5.1. SIZING

The sizing of 4000 lit was done based on linear dimensions for scale up. The main
parameters governing the design is length to Diameter ratio, i.e L/D ratio, which is
generally taken as 1.5, and Diameter of RVD. Diameter is determined using the
formula

π𝐷 𝐿
𝑉= ( )
12 𝐷

Where, V is required volume of RVD.

The theoretical arrived dimensions to actual dimensions available at site are on

slight variation due to process requirements. The variation lies at Height of cylinder
and Bottom cone flange dimensions.

The variation in bottom cone flange dimensions is result of change in slant angle of
bottom, which naturally is 45°. The slant angle is slightly increased in actual RVD,
so as to empty the material completely in lesser time and also avoid accumulation
of material on RVD surface. The variation in the height of cylinder is due to
preference for 10% higher volume, for accommodating higher density material, than
the required volume or offset adjustment done on cylinder volume after volume
calculations of two cones.

The loading volume of the material to be dried is 50% of the total volume of RVD

55
Table 5.1. Sizing comparison between theoretical derived and actual 4000 lit RVD

4000 lit RVD

S.No. Geometrical parameter 2000 lit RVD
Theoretical Actual

1. Diameter 1533 mm 2170 mm 2100 mm

2. Height of top cone 455 mm 810 mm 749.9 mm
3. Height of bottom cone 465 mm 810 mm 779.9 mm
4. Height of cylinder 870 mm 370 mm 650 mm
5. Flange dia. of top cone 450 mm 550 mm 600 mm
6. Flange dia. of bottom cone 310 mm 550 mm 300 mm
7. Total Volume of RVD 2183.7 lit 4000 lit 4472 lit

5.2 ROTATIONAL SPEED

The rotational speed of RVD is calculated based on the critical speed double cone
blenders. The critical speed is the speed at which material moves along with
circumference of rotating object. At this speed, centrifugal force and centripetal
force acting on material are equal. By equating both the equations, we obtain critical
speed, Nc. This is given by,

1 𝑔
𝑁
2π 𝑅 − 𝑟

Where, R, radius of rotating object and r, radius of material. In RVD, the radius of
material is very small compared to Radius of RVD. So, the radius of material is
neglected for calculation. The same critical speed formula is for Double cone
blending, which is 60-80 % of critical speed, Nc. But in RVD that speeds can damage
size of friable materials and crystal structure of some materials due to attrition. So
RVD will generally runs on lower speed, near to 25% of critical speed.

The observed result and calculated result nearly match. Therefore, the speed of
RVD is can be taken as 25% of critical speed of RVD.

56
 Table 5-2. Rotational speed of 2000 lit and 4000 lit RVD.

Theoretical speed Original RVD speed

RVD
(rpm) (rpm)
2000 lit 8 7
4000 lit 7 6

5.3 POWER REQUIREMENT

The power requirement is calculated for chalk powder, which turns out to be 14 kW.
As the above calculation is especially for chalk powder, the power requirement
supplied is generally above than the calculated. As, there are two to three types of
products dried in the same RVD, power requirement varies with type of material
used for drying. The material with highest power requirement will be selected. The
power requirement is given by q(J/s)

𝑞 = ṁ𝐶 𝛥𝑇

where, ṁ- mass flow rate, Cp – Specific heat of hot circulating fluid and ΔT-
temperature drop during circulation. To maintain or to use only required power, a
thyristor, i.e., a variable voltage drive to regulate the voltage, is used to control the
power requirement. Thus, conserving the power usage.

Table 5-3. Power requirement (chalk powder) of 2000 lit and 4000 lit RVD

POWER, (kW)
RVD
CALCULATED SUPPLIED
2000 lit - 15
4000 lit 14 20

5.4 HEAT LOAD CALCULATIONS

Heat load is amount of heat required by the RVD to heat the materials to the required
boiling temperature and then reducing the moisture content of material to specified
moisture content, which includes heat lost to surroundings and losses through
pipes, valves etc.. The heat required for heating the material was supplied by
circulating hot water from hot water sump/tank around the RVD jacket.

57
The following assumptions was considered in heat calculations of RVD
1. There is no heat transfer between the material and air inside (occupying
other 50% volume of RVD). Assuming both material and air are in thermal
equilibrium at any time.
2. Expect for the water flowing in the jacketed area, assuming all the heat
transfers are based on conduction with no radiation.
3. The thickness of material scale up around the RVD was assumed to be 1
mm.

Total heat load on the RVD for reducing moisture content of chalk powder from 1%
to 0.1% was calculated, which is around 10.5 kW. The heat requirement done on
chalk powder is not same for other material. As the heat required varies inversely
with thermal conductivity of material and directly with the amount of moisture to be
dried. So, the same heat requirement cannot be used for different material or with
different amount of moisture. The variation of heat requirement during the drying
process are controlled by regulating the mass flow rate of hot water.

The calculated Mass flow rate of jacketed water for the chalk powder drying i.e from
1% to 0.1% is 1 kg/s, whereas for other materials it varies. It is given by, ṁ (kg/s)

𝑞
ṁ=
𝐶 ∆𝑇

where, q- total heat required per second, Cp- Specific heat of water and ΔT – the
change in temperature of water at inlet minus outlet of RVD jacket. To accommodate
higher temperatures or different material drying, the Mass flow rate of water will be
given higher with variable flow control meter, which regulates the Mass flow based
on the requirement.

Table 5.4. Mass flow rate (chalk powder) of 2000 lit and 4000 lit RVD

Mass Flow rate, (lit / s)

RVD
CALCULATED SUPPLIED
2000 lit - 10
4000 lit 1 20

58
 5.5 TIME

The time required for the material to rise temperature to near drying conditions
and moisture removal is based on the heat supplied and amount of moisture
present in material. It is generally given by, t (s), heat required to heat transferred
per second.

𝑄
𝑡=
𝑞

where, Q- total amount of heat required and q – Total heat transferred per second
or heat transfer rate. The calculated time for heat cycle and vacuum cycle was 105
min and 66 min respectively.

The time varies inversely with type of material (thermal conductivity) to be dried and
directly with amount of moisture present in the material. This implies that higher the
thermal conductivity of the material, the more is heat transferred resulting in lesser
time and vice versa. Similarly, more the moisture content, more amount of water to
be evaporated resulting in more time for drying.

Table 5.5. Time required for drying in 2000 lit and 4000 lit RVD

Heat cycle time Vacuum cycle time

S. Moisture (min) (min)
Material
No. percentage 2000 4000 lit 2000 4000 lit
lit Theory actual lit Theory actual
1. # Ammonium 0.11% to
40 40 45 15 18 25
perchlorate 0.01%
2. Chalk powder 1% to 0.1% 105 105 110 60 66 85
# Data obtained from the previous records.

59
5.6 EXPERIMENTAL TRIAL

An experimental trial was done on 4000 lit RVD with chalk powder as feed material.
1200 kg (equal to 50% volume of RVD) of chalk powder having bulk density 0.6 g/cc
and 1% initial moisture content was charged in the RVD. The charged material was
heated using jacketed hot water of temperature 75 °C. The material has undergone
a thermal change from ambient to 72 °C in 110 min, normally called as heat cycle.
Then temperature of 72 °C is maintained for 85 min with vacuum of 560mm, called
as vacuum cycle.

During the trial, moisture values and material temperature are measured and
recorded for every 10 min. The recorded data was plotted on graph, Moisture vs
time and Material temp. vs time.

Table 5.6. Data recorded for Chalk powder trial on 4000 lit RVD

Sl. No. Time(min) Moisture Material temp. Cycle

(kg of water/ kg (°C)
of dry solids)
1 0 0.01 30
2 10 0.009 35
3 20 0.0085 42
4 30 0.0081 45
HEAT CYCLE

5 40 0.0077 48
6 50 0.0072 53
7 60 0.0067 55
8 70 0.0064 58
9 80 0.0062 61
10 90 0.0061 65
11 100 0.0058 69
12 110 0.0055 71

60
13 120 0.0039 69
14 130 0.0032 69
15 140 0.0025 69

VACUUM CYCLE
16 150 0.002 69
18 160 0.0016 69
19 170 0.0013 69
20 180 0.0012 71
21 190 0.0011 71
22 195 0.001 71

Moisture vs Time
0.012
0.01
0.008
Moisture

0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)

RealTrial
graphgraph Expected graph

Fig. 5.1 Graph showing variation of moisture with time

61
 Material temp. vs Time
80
70

Material temp. C
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time, min

RealTrial
graph
graph expected graph

Fig. 5.2 Graph showing variation of material temperature with time

The graph indicates very minimal variation between theoretical to experimental

studies. The actual results of drying time for both studies are tabulated below. This
variation in theoretical to experimental always exist all type of studies. The variation
may be due to approximations in design formulas, assumptions towards
calculations or practical constraints in process. So, the results established proves
scale up design of 4000 lit RVD is appropriate.

Table 5-7. Comparison of theoretical and experimental time for drying in 4000 lit
RVD

Sl. Theoretical time Experimental time

Type of cycle
No. (min) (min)
1. Heat cycle 105 min 110 min
2. Vacuum cycle 66 min 85 min

5.7 CHARACTERISTIC DRYING CURVE

The characteristic drying curve was plotted against rate of drying vs moisture
content at conditions, temperature – 72 °C and pressure 1 atm. The results obtained
are critical moisture content Xc = 0.15 kg of H2o/kg of dry solids and equilibrium
moisture content X*= 0.006 kg of H2o/kg of dry solids.

62
 Fig. 5.3 Characteristic Drying curve for chalk powder

In the graph, the moisture content of chalk falls on the falling rate period 2. So RVD
is chosen as drying equipment to reduce the moisture content. RVD’s are generally
designed to remove fine moisture content of heat sensitive materials in very efficient
way. The chalk powder, though not heat sensitive, was chosen for experimental trial
to verify design scale up.

63
 Chapter 6
CONCLUSION

The scale up design of 4000 Lt RVD with L/D ration equal to 1.5 and diameter, 2.16
m was achieved. The design parameters are matched with the available RVD, and
the parameter are given in results and discussion chapter. The heating and vacuum
cycles were calculated for the given materials loading and the experimental results
were matched. The test with increased (doubled) volume and doubled capacity of
loading, which generally equals 50% volume of RVD has been carried out. The RVD
initially in Heat Cycle, where material (Chalk powder) temperature is raised and
controlled at 72±2 °C, has consumed time of 110 ± 5 min against theoretical value
of 105 min. Upon reaching temperature of 72 °C, vacuum Cycle was initiated, to
evacuate RVD to 560 ± 50 mm of Hg vacuum, has last for time interval of 75 ± 5
min against theoretical value of 66 min. RVD with total time of two cycles, i.e.,
around 190 ± 5 °C, has reduced the moisture content of material (chalk powder;
initial moisture content of 1%) from 1% to 0.1%.

The heat associated for rising and maintenance of material (chalk powder)
temperature during the two cycles was provided by Hot water. This hot water was
pumped from the hot water sump with controllable discharge flow rate of maximum,
10 kg/s or 10 lit/s against theoretical value of 1 LPS, is circulated through the jacket
of RVD. The power required to rise or maintain hot water in sump was done using
thyristor controllable current heaters of 20 kW against 14kW

Table 6-1. The parameters after scale up from 2000 Lt to 4000Lt RVD

RVD
S.NO. PARAMETER
2000 Lt 4000 Lt
1. Time Heat cycle 105 ± 5 min 110 ± 5 min
Vacuum cycle 60 ± 5 min 75 ± 5 min
2. Power 15 kW 20 kW

64
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