UNIT-III

Meteorology and Air Pollution

Syllabus: Properties of atmosphere: Heat, Pressure, Wind forces, Moisture and
relative Humidity, Lapse Rates -Influence of Civil Engineering Terrain and
Meteorological phenomena on plume behavior and Air Quality - Wind rose
diagrams, Plume Rise Models.

Introduction:
 Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena and
their effects on weather and climate. It influences air pollution levels through
factors like wind speed, temperature, Pressure and humidity.
 An air pollution problem involves three parts:
• The pollution Source
• The Transport or Dispersion of the pollutant
• The Recipient

This unit concerns itself with the transport mechanism: how the pollutants
travel through the atmosphere. The environmental engineer should be conversant
enough with some basic meteorology to be able to predict the dispersion of air
pollutants.
Properties of the Atmosphere: Heat, Pressure, Wind, Force, Moisture,
and Relative Humidity

The atmosphere is a complex system with various properties that influence

weather patterns, climate, and air quality. Key properties of the atmosphere include
heat (temperature), pressure, wind, force, moisture, and relative humidity.

1. Heat (Temperature):

 Definition: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of air

molecules. It determines how hot or cold the atmosphere is at any given time.
 Influences: Temperature influences air density and pressure, and it plays a
crucial role in weather phenomena and climate patterns. The Earth's surface
heats unevenly due to solar radiation, creating temperature gradients that
drive atmospheric circulation.
 Measurement: Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit
(°F), or Kelvin (K) using thermometers.

2. Pressure:

 Definition: Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of the air
above a given point. It decreases with altitude.
 Influences: Changes in atmospheric pressure can lead to the formation of high
and low-pressure systems, which are associated with different weather
 patterns. High-pressure systems generally bring clear skies, while low-
pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation.
 Measurement: Pressure is measured in millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa)
using barometers.

3. Wind Speed:

 Definition: Wind is the movement of air from high-pressure areas to low-

pressure areas. It is a vector quantity, having both speed and direction.
 Influences: Wind is influenced by the pressure gradient force, Coriolis effect,
and friction. It plays a key role in the distribution of heat and moisture around
the globe.
 Measurement: Wind speed is measured in meters per second (m/s) or
kilometers per hour (km/h) using anemometers, and direction is measured
using wind vanes.

4. Moisture:

 Definition: Atmospheric moisture refers to the presence of water vapor in the

air. It is a critical component of the hydrological cycle and weather systems.
 Influences: Moisture levels influence cloud formation, precipitation, and
humidity. Water vapor also plays a significant role in regulating the Earth's
temperature through the greenhouse effect.
 Measurement: Moisture content is often expressed as specific humidity (grams
of water vapor per kilogram of air) or as dew point (the temperature at which
air becomes saturated with moisture).

4. Relative Humidity:

 Definition: Relative humidity is the ratio of the current amount of water vapor
in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at a given
temperature, expressed as a percentage.
 Influences: Relative humidity affects human comfort, weather phenomena,
and the formation of clouds and precipitation. High relative humidity can
make temperatures feel warmer, while low relative humidity can make
temperatures feel cooler.
  Measurement: Relative humidity is measured using hygrometers or
psychrometers and is expressed as a percentage (%).

Lapse Rates:

Lapse rates refer to the rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with
an increase in altitude. They are critical in meteorology for understanding
atmospheric stability, cloud formation, and weather patterns. There are several types
of lapse rates, each important in different contexts:

Types of Lapse Rates:

1. Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)

o Definition: The actual rate of temperature decrease with altitude in the
atmosphere at a specific place and time.
o Typical Value: The average environmental lapse rate in the troposphere
is about 6.5°C per kilometer (km).
o Variation: The ELR can vary depending on local weather conditions,
time of day, and geographic location.
2. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
o Definition: The rate at which the temperature of a dry (unsaturated) air
parcel decreases as it rises adiabatically (without exchanging heat with
its surroundings).
o Value: The DALR is approximately 9.8°C per kilometer.
o Importance: This rate is used to assess the stability of the atmosphere.
When a rising parcel of air cools at this rate, it can be compared to the
environmental lapse rate to determine atmospheric stability.
3. Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR)
o Definition: The rate at which the temperature of a saturated air parcel
(air at its dew point) decreases as it rises adiabatically.
o Value: The WALR varies but typically ranges from about 4°C to 7°C per
kilometer, depending on the temperature and pressure of the air.
o Importance: The WALR is lower than the DALR because latent heat is
released during the condensation of water vapor, which reduces the rate
of cooling.
 Stability of the Atmosphere Based on Lapse Rates:
1. Stable Atmosphere:
o Condition: The atmosphere is stable when the ELR is less than the
DALR and WALR. In this case, a rising air parcel cools faster than the
surrounding air, becomes denser, and sinks back to its original level.
o Weather Implications: Stable conditions often lead to clear skies and
minimal vertical motion of air.
2. Unstable Atmosphere:
o Condition: The atmosphere is unstable when the ELR is greater than the
DALR. A rising air parcel remains warmer and less dense than the
surrounding air, continuing to rise.
o Weather Implications: Unstable conditions can lead to the development
of clouds, thunderstorms, and turbulent weather.
3. Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere:
o Condition: The atmosphere is conditionally unstable when the ELR is
between the DALR and MALR. Stability depends on whether the air is
saturated.
o Weather Implications: If an air parcel is unsaturated, it will be stable; if
it becomes saturated, it will become unstable, potentially leading to
cloud formation and precipitation.

Applications of Lapse Rate:

1. Weather Forecasting
o Meteorologists use lapse rates to predict cloud formation,
thunderstorms, and other weather phenomena. Knowing whether the
atmosphere is stable or unstable helps in forecasting weather patterns.
2. Aviation
o Pilots need to understand lapse rates for safe flight operations, as they
affect turbulence, cloud formation, and visibility. Unstable conditions
can lead to severe turbulence, while stable conditions usually provide
smoother flights.
3. Environmental and Climate Studies
o Lapse rates are used in studying climate change and its effects on
atmospheric dynamics. They help in understanding how temperature
profiles change with altitude, which is critical for climate modeling.
Influence of Civil Engineering Terrain and Meteorological phenomena
on plume behavior and Air Quality

Definition: Plume is a visible or measurable release of pollutants, particles, or

substances from a point source into the atmosphere. Understanding the behaviour
and types of plumes is crucial for air quality management and environmental impact
assessments.

 Types of Plumes

The behaviour of a plume is influenced by various factors, including the stack

height, exit velocity, ambient temperature, wind speed, and atmospheric stability.
Based on these factors, plumes are categorized into different types:

1. Looping Plume:
o Characteristics: Looping plumes exhibit a wavy, oscillating pattern as
they disperse. This type of plume occurs in highly unstable atmospheric
conditions, where there is strong vertical mixing.
o Conditions: Strong solar heating and turbulent air conditions typically
cause looping plumes.
o Implications: Looping plumes can lead to high ground-level
concentrations of pollutants close to the source.
2. Fanning Plume:
o Characteristics: Fanning plumes spread horizontally but show minimal
vertical dispersion. This occurs in stable atmospheric conditions, where
vertical mixing is suppressed.
o Conditions: Often observed during nighttime or early morning when
temperature inversions are present.
o Implications: Fanning plumes can result in significant horizontal
transport of pollutants but maintain low concentrations near the
ground.
3. Coning Plume:
o Characteristics: Coning plumes form a cone-like shape as they disperse
both horizontally and vertically in a neutral or slightly stable
atmosphere.
o Conditions: Occur in neutral atmospheric conditions where there is
moderate vertical mixing.
o Implications: Coning plumes result in a more uniform dispersion of
pollutants, reducing peak concentrations near the ground.

4. Lofting Plume:
o Characteristics: Lofting plumes rise above a stable layer and disperse
upward, preventing pollutants from reaching the ground.
o Conditions: Occurs when there is a stable layer below the release height
and an unstable layer above.
o Implications: Lofting plumes are beneficial for air quality near the
ground, as pollutants are carried aloft and dispersed away from the
source.
5. Fumigation Plume:
o Characteristics: Fumigation plumes occur when a stable layer aloft traps
pollutants, causing them to disperse downward towards the ground.
o Conditions: Commonly occurs in the morning as the ground warms,
breaking a nighttime inversion and causing pollutants to descend.
o Implications: Fumigation can lead to high ground-level concentrations
of pollutants, posing a significant health risk.

6. Trapping Plume:
o Characteristics: Trapping plumes are confined between two stable
atmospheric layers, limiting vertical dispersion.
o Conditions: Occurs in conditions with multiple temperature inversions
or stable layers.
o Implications: Trapping plumes can lead to high concentrations of
pollutants within a specific altitude range, affecting air quality at those
levels.

Types of Plumes
Influence of Civil Engineering Terrain and Meteorological phenomena on plume
behavior and Air Quality:

The behaviour of plumes (pollutant dispersal from sources like industrial

stacks, vehicles, or natural sources) and overall air quality are significantly influenced
by civil engineering terrain and meteorological phenomena. Here’s how these factors
interact:

 Civil Engineering and Terrain Influence:

1. Urban Structures and Layout:

o Buildings and Skyscrapers: Tall buildings can create wind tunnels,
altering wind flow patterns and influencing plume dispersion. They can
either channelize the wind, dispersing pollutants more efficiently, or
create zones of stagnation, leading to pollutant buildup.
o Street Canyons: Narrow streets with tall buildings on both sides can
trap pollutants, reducing dispersion and increasing concentrations at
street level, affecting air quality for pedestrians and residents.
o Industrial Zones: The placement of factories and industrial zones can
influence local air quality. Proximity to residential areas can exacerbate
exposure to harmful pollutants.
2. Topography:
o Hills and Mountains: Elevated terrain can block or channel wind flow,
affecting the dispersion and dilution of pollutants. Valleys can trap
pollutants, especially during temperature inversions, leading to high
local concentrations.
o Plains: Open and flat areas generally allow for more uniform wind flow
and better dispersion of pollutants.
3. Vegetation and Green Spaces:
o Forests and Parks: Trees and vegetation can act as physical barriers,
altering wind patterns and helping to absorb certain pollutants, thereby
improving air quality. Green spaces can also reduce the urban heat
island effect, influencing local meteorology.
 Meteorological Phenomena Influence:

1. Wind:
o Speed and Direction: Wind is the primary driver of pollutant
dispersion. High wind speeds can disperse pollutants over a larger area,
reducing local concentrations, while low wind speeds can lead to
pollutant buildup.
o Turbulence: Atmospheric turbulence enhances the mixing of air,
promoting the dilution of pollutants. Turbulence can be influenced by
terrain and surface roughness.
2. Temperature:
o Temperature Inversions: During an inversion, a layer of warm air traps
cooler air near the ground, preventing vertical mixing. This leads to high
concentrations of pollutants near the surface, especially in valleys and
low-lying areas.
o Diurnal Variations: Temperature changes throughout the day can
influence plume behavior. For instance, heating of the ground during
the day can cause upward convection, enhancing vertical mixing and
dispersion.
3. Humidity and Precipitation:
o Humidity: High humidity can enhance the formation of secondary
pollutants like particulate matter and ozone. Moisture can also lead to
the deposition of pollutants, removing them from the atmosphere.
o Precipitation: Rain and snow can wash pollutants out of the air (wet
deposition), improving air quality. Conversely, a lack of precipitation
can result in the accumulation of pollutants.
4. Solar Radiation:
o Photochemical Reactions: Sunlight drives photochemical reactions that
produce pollutants like ground-level ozone. Areas with high solar
radiation can experience higher levels of these secondary pollutants.
  Wind Rose Diagrams

Wind rose diagrams are graphical representations of wind speed and direction data
collected over a specific period. They provide a visual summary of how wind speed
and direction are distributed at a particular location.

Features of Wind Rose Diagrams:

1. Directional Distribution:
o The diagram is typically a circular plot with 16 or 32 compass directions
(e.g., N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, etc.).
o Each "spoke" on the wind rose represents a direction from which the
wind blows.
2. Frequency:
o The length of each spoke indicates the frequency of winds coming from
that direction.
o The diagram shows the percentage of time the wind blows from each
direction.
3. Wind Speed:
o Different colors or segments on each spoke represent different wind
speed ranges.
o This helps in understanding both the dominant wind directions and the
range of wind speeds.

Applications:

 Urban Planning: Helps in designing buildings and layouts to optimize natural

ventilation and reduce wind-related issues.
 Air Quality Management: Assists in understanding pollutant dispersion
patterns based on prevailing wind directions.
 Renewable Energy: Aids in the optimal placement of wind turbines to
maximize energy production.
Typical Wind Rose Diagram
Plume Rise Models:

Plume rise models are mathematical models used to predict the rise of a
pollutant plume released from a stack or chimney before it begins to disperse
horizontally. The rise is due to the initial buoyancy and momentum of the effluent.

Factors Influencing Plume Rise:

1. Stack Parameters:
o Height: Taller stacks can release pollutants higher into the atmosphere,
aiding in dispersion.
o Exit Velocity: Higher exit velocities can enhance plume rise due to
increased momentum.
o Exit Temperature: Hotter effluents are more buoyant, leading to a
greater plume rise.
2. Atmospheric Conditions:
o Wind Speed: Stronger winds can shear and limit the rise of the plume.
o Temperature Gradient: Stable atmospheric conditions can suppress
plume rise, while unstable conditions can enhance it.

Common Plume Rise Models:

1. Briggs Plume Rise Equations:

o Developed by G.A. Briggs, these empirical formulas estimate the plume
rise based on buoyancy and momentum.
o Separate equations are used for buoyant plumes (e.g., from hot
effluents) and momentum-dominated plumes (e.g., high exit velocity).
2. Gaussian Plume Models:
o Incorporate plume rise calculations as part of a larger framework to
predict pollutant dispersion.
o Examples include the Gaussian Plume Model, which uses a steady-state
approach to simulate pollutant concentration distribution.
3. Integral Models:
o These models integrate the conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy to predict plume rise.
 o They can handle complex scenarios, including variable atmospheric
conditions and source characteristics.

Applications:

 Environmental Impact Assessments: Plume rise models help predict the

dispersion of pollutants and their impact on air quality.
 Regulatory Compliance: Ensures that emissions meet air quality standards by
predicting pollutant concentrations at ground level.
 Industrial Planning: Assists in the design of stacks and chimneys to minimize
adverse environmental impacts.