A History of Education, by F. v. N. Painter

m
DUCATION
,,
S6RI6S
,
^^
JH|
EDITED BY
WILLIAM
T.
HARRIS, A. M., LL. D.
VOLUME
II.
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
EDITED BY W. T. HARRIS.
SERIES.
IT is proposed to publish, under the above title, a library for teachers and school managers, and text-books for normal classes. The aim will
be to provide works of a useful practical character in the broadest sense. The following conspectus will show the ground to be covered by the
series
:
I.
History of Education.
their founders.
(A.)
Original systems as ex-
pounded by
histories (B.) Critical
which set forth the
customs of the past and point out their advantages and defects, explainfinal disuse. ing the grounds of their adoption, and also of theii
II.
Educational Criticism.
(A.)
The noteworthy arraignsys-
ments which educational reformers have put forth against existing

tems
:
these compose the classics of pedagogy.
(B.)
The
critical histories
above mentioned.
m.
cation.
for the
Systematic Treatises on the Theory of Edu(A.)
Works
written from the historical standpoint; these,

to justify the traditional course of
most
part,
show a tendency
Works study and to defend the prevailing methods of instruction. (B.) written from critical standpoints, and to a greater or less degree revolutionary in their tendency.
IV.
and
The Art of Education.

and the practical
(A.)
Works on
instruction
(B.)
discipline,
details of the school-room.
Works
on the organization and supervision of schools.

Practical insight into the educational methods in vogue can not be
attained without a knowledge of the process
by which they have come
to
be established.
For
this reason
it is
proposed to give special
prominence
to the history of the systems that
have prevailed.
Again, since history is incompetent to furnish the ideal of the future,

it is
necessary to devote large space to works of educational criticism.

is
Criticism
the purifying process by which ideals are rendered clear and
potent, so that progress
becomes
possible.
History and criticism combined
make
possible a theory of the whole.
For, with an ideal toward which the entire
movement
tends,
and an
ac-
count of the phases that have appeared in time, the connected develop-
ment of the whole can be shown, and

Lastly, after the science,
all
united into one system.
comes the practice.
The
art of education is
details use-
treated in special works

ful in the school-room.
It is
devoted to the devices
and technical
believed that the teacher does not need authority so
much
as in-
sight hi matters of education.
When
he understands the theory of edu-
cation and the history of its growth, and has matured his
own
point
is
of view by
careful study of the critical literature of education,
then he
competent
to his
to select or invent such practical devices as are best
adapted
own
wants.
The
series will contain
authors, and will be under the editorship of
works from European as well as American W. T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D.

series will
The
price for the
volumes of the
be $1.50 for the larger
volumes, 75 cents for the smaller ones.
Vol.
I.
The Philosophy of Education.

12mo,
cloth, $1.50.
By Johann Karl
Friedrich Rosenkranz.
Vol.
II.
History of Education. By
Prof. F. V. N. Painter,
of Roanoke, Virginia.
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES
A HISTORY
OF
EDUCATION
BY
F. Y. N.
PAINTER,
A. M.
PBOFES80B OP MODEBN LANGUAGES AND LITBEATUBE IN BOANOKB OOLLBGB
D.
NEW YORK APPLETON AND COMPANY

1,
3,
AND
BOND STREET
1886
COPTRIGHT, 1886,
BY D. APPLETON
AND COMPANY.
DEDICATED
JBemorg
of
mj
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
following work by Prof. Painter takes up the subject from the standpoint of the history of civilization.
THE
The
educational ideals that have prevailed have
been derived from the principles that have controlled nations and religions. Each State has evolved a sys-
tem of education
idea of
in conformity with the fundamental

It
its civilization.
may
or
may
not have had
a system of schools, but it has possessed instrumentalities for education in the family, civil society, and
religious ceremonial, besides
its
own
direct discipline
its
through the laws and their administration and through In religion, public service, civil and military.
whether Christian or "heathen," there is implied a definite fundamental view of the world which is referred to in
all
concrete relations, and by this there
is
given a sort of systematic unity to the details of
life.
The
first
object of parental government
is
to train the
child into habits of conformity to the current religious
yjii
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
view.
The government
seeks to enforce an observance
of regulations that establish social relations founded on
the view of the world furnished in religion.
We
in
its
learn, therefore, to look for the explanation of
the system of education in the national ideal as revealed

religion, art, social customs,
and form of govern-
ment.
new phase
of civilization
demands
needed to
new
system of education.
as
The
school, originally organized

is
an instrumentality of the Church,
re-en-
force the other institutions, and accordingly in
modern
times gets expansion and modification for this object.

It is in this study of the civilization as a
whole that we
learn to
comprehend the organization of the schools of

attention of the reader
is called, first,
a country.
The
isted in
to the
it
broad contrast between the
spirit of education as
ex-
thority
is
Asia and that in Europe. Subjection to authe principle on which most stress is laid in
the former.
The development
of the individual seems

latter,
to be the constantly
growing tendency in the

Absolute
and
especially in its colonies. rental government,
rulers, castes, pa-
and
ethical codes,
form the chief

Personal
themes of interest in Oriental education.

adventure,
its
celebration in works of art, the
growth
of constitutional forms of government that protect the individual from the substantial might of the ruling
authority, free thought,
its
organization into science
these are the features that attract us in the civilization
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
of the Occident, and
ix
which explain
its
educational sys-
tems.
Inasmuch
throughout
tion, it
all
as
the element of authority continues
history as a necessary strand of civiliza-
follows that Oriental civilization has important
lessons for all people,
even the most democratic.

of the race must be
The
net result of the
life
summed up
and given to the
child, so that
he
shall
be saved from
repeating the errors that had to be lived through before the wisdom expressed by the ethical code could be
generalized.
Implicit obedience has to be the
first
lesson for the child.
How
he
shall gradually
finally
become
endowed with
self-control,
and
have the free
management
of
all his affairs, is

-
the further problem of
the educational system.
After the reader has studied the
spirit
of the
Asiatic systems, he will find his interest in fixing as

clearly as possible the spirit of Christianity before his
mind,
book.
as it is
portrayed in the third chapter of this
The
influence of such an idea as that of the

sor-
Divine-human God condescending to assume the

rows and
trials
of mortal
life, all
for the sake of the
elevation of individual souls, the humblest

as well as the mightiest
and weakest
is
and most exalted,
potent to
transform civilization.
be that of
infinite
That the divine history should tenderness and consideration for the
individual, even in his imperfections, acts as a perma-
nent cause to affect the relation of the directing and
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
JL
controlling powers
in
human
the masses besociety to

of the institutions
neath them.
The whole
policy
civilization-family, state,
church-becomes more
1
more one
of of tender nurture and development to be sought by viduality as the highest object
manity. Painter has trac In the fourth chapter, Prof. the new civilization, jus of fixing the course of
process
the chief as in the third chapter

against
theme
is
the rea(
i
education that the old forms of heathen e After the Church has become firmly survived. the strugand doctrinally, there arises
lished politically on tl it of the two tendencies represented, gle within "humanist" direction wine one hand, by the so-called
and puts stress on language-studies, lays chief Greek as the propaedeutic the mastery of Latin and
of
forward
the naturalism genuine culture; and, by of Nature and insists upon the study other, that to culture. science as the true road
all
on
perimental of the "humaniIn the struggle between the study science, and the study of the "moderns" (or
ties"
modern languages, modern
literature,
still
and
history),
have reached the process that
in our o goes on the discovery of a common grounc "day unadjusted by In ( of both tendencies. that conserves the merits of the me; nese education, with its exclusive training modern the study of Latin and Greek among ory, in in such trivial matters European nations, and, indeed,
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
as the study of English spelling,
xi
its
with
lack of con-
sistency
see the
and
its
strain
on the mechanical memory, we

effects obtained.
same educational
Memory
is
the faculty that subordinates the present under the and its extensive training develops a habit of
past,
mind
the
that holds
by what
is
prescribed,
and
recoils
from
new and
untried.
In
short, the educational cur-
riculum that lays great stress

a class of conservative people.
studies that develop original
especially a scientific
on memorizing produces
On
the other hand, the
powers of observation, and mind, devoted to Nature and negIt
lecting
human
not to say history, produces a radical,
revolutionizing, tendency.
must be obvious that true
held in equilibrium. progress demands both tendencies, The study of the wisdom of the race, the acceptance
of the heritage of the past life of the race,
to save the
is
essential
new
generation from repeating

hitherto.
all
the steps
traveled
on the way
This necessitates the
the humanities. grounding of education in a study of On the other hand, if this load of prescription is not to
be a millstone that crushes out

rising generation, there
all
spontaneity from the
must be a counter-movement
whose principle is the scientific spirit, approaching the world of Nature and the world of institutions with the
free attitude
of science and individual investigation,

results that
activity,
which accepts only the

or verified
can be demonstrated
by
its
own
and enjoys therefore a

acquisitions.
in feeling of self-recognition
its
In
sci-
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
ence,
man
is
on doubly active:
tlie
one hand, seizing

t
on and inventorying the particular a universal principle other hand, subsuming it under
fact or event;
that involves causal energy

act of
and a law of
action.
because
mind special gratification subsumption gives the and free from the limited instance
it feels set
wherein it sees the elevated to the realm of principle, contains them all that creates all instances, and
energy
potentially
within
itself.
Hence, the
spirit
of revolu-
a hold of society in the tion that is gaining so powerful science is contagious, most recent times. The spirit of
from the and impels toward complete emancipation

past.
But
science has
made comparatively
political
little
prog-
ress in the social
and
bedepartments, and,
is it
sides this,
no one
is
it
born with science, nor

in early youth.
possible
nec<
for one to attain
Hence,
it is
in education, retain the prescriptive element sary to to prescribed rale implicit obedience and to insist
upon
at first.
There must be a gradual and free
transition
over
self-government
scientific investigation.
W.
CONCOED, MASS., April, 1886.
T. HAKKIS.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
IT was in the library of the University of Bonn, of nearly four years ago, as I sat before an alcove
educational works and leisurely examined the admira-
by Eaunier and Karl Schmidt, that the first thought and purpose of preparing this work were
ble histories
In view of the poverty of our literature in educational history, it seemed to me that such a work, by exhibiting the pedagogical principles, labors, and
conceived.
to teachers in progress of the past, might be helpful
America.
The
history of education, viewed
from the stand-
has been traced in point of the philosophy of history, its relations with the social, political, and religious conditions of each country.
While the
this field
results of
French
utilized,
and German scholarship in
have been
the original sources of information whenever accessible have been consulted. As far as was consistent with the
limits of this volume, the great teachers of all ages
have
XI V
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
themselves-a method that been allowed to speak for than to paraphrase or epit appeared more satisfactory mize their views. of detail as serve only Avoiding such matters I have endeavored confuse and oppress the memory,
1
characteristics of each peto present clearly the leading of promilabors and distinctive principles riod, and the
nent educators.
has been prominence and other ed Pestalozzi, Froebel, given to Comenius,
Considerable
cational reformers,
scientific
who laid the foundations of use methods now coming into general
the
illustration of various statements, recogni* support or to speak freely. authorities have been permitted has In preparing this history my position While I believe, that of conservative progress.
is
and practice valuable in educational theory
is
to
be
retained, scrutiny,
to rigi( and novelties are to be subjected in view of the fact it does not seem wise,
is
the science of education
to rejec yet incomplete, and reforms as unnecessary and summarily all changes of higher educati< hurtful innovations. In the sphere
to either the humanists I have not allied myself these two that the truth lies between realists, believing of education 1 extremes. In every department
and been able to discover progress,
it is
my
coi
of the present hope that the agitations devised. more nearly perfect than any yet
will issue in a
'
system
I
have
frequently
consulted
Paroz's
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
XV
" GescMchte der Universelle de la Pedagogie," Dittes's " Geschichte der PddagoErziehung," and Kauiner's
gik / but my greatest obligation " Geschichte der Schmidt's Pddagogih," which
is
"
due to Karl
is
prob-
ably the ablest
work
that has yet been written on edu-
From these works, as well as from other French and German authors, a number of valuTo President Juable passages have been translated. lius D. Dreher, of Eoanoke College, who read this
cational history.
work, both in manuscript and in proof, special acknowl-
edgments are due for valuable suggestions.

F. Y. N. P.
SALEM, VIRGINIA, April 12, 1886,
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION
I.
THE ORIENTAL NATIONS

1.
China
India
Persia
9
15 21
of Israel
.
2. 3.
4.
5.
The People Egypt
.26
32
II.
THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL NATIONS

1.
Greece
a.
&.
e.
Sparta Pythagoras Athens

Socrates
.
d.
e.
Plato
37 39 40 45 49 56 60
62 65
71
/. Aristotle
2.
Rome
a.
b.
e.
Cicero
Seneca
Quintilian
74
76
III.
CHRISTIAN EDUCATION BEFORE THE REFORMATION 1. The Relation of Christianity to Education

of Christianity Brief Survey of the Period 4. Education in the Early Church
2.
The Founder
3.
a. Catechetical Schools
...".91
.
.
80 80 82 86 88
CONTENTS.
XVill
PACK
5.
Education during the a. Monastic Schools
Middle Ages
.
.
'
Parochial Schoo 6. Cathedral and . c. Charlemagne . d. Secular Education Education e. Knightly

.
1Q3
^
106 1Q7
'
'
uo
'
/.
a.
Burgher Schools Female Education
111
h. Brethren of the
i.
Common
.
Life
\\%
^
^_
The
Scientific Spirit
j.
k.
1.
Mohammedan Learning
Rise of the Universities.
.
'.
'
Summary
REFORMATION
TO^
THE IV.-EDITCATIO* FKOM

E
1
'
THE PRESENT
.
^
120
138
131
^
'_
The Revival
a.
ft.
of
Agricola Reuchlin
.-..'
. .
Humanists Learning anl the
c.
Erasmus
2.
The Relation of the Reformation the Church a. The Condition of

b
to
.
Education
Principles of Protestantism
.
14(
14(
14!
3.
The Reformers
a.
6.
c.
. ^
Luther Melanchthon Zwingli and Calvin

.
4.
Abstract Theological Education (1530-1700)

a.
b.
c.
John Sturm The Universities The Jesuits

'
5.
Educatio Reaction against Abstract Theological

a.
b.
c.
Montaigne Bacon
'
179
-^gg
-
d.
e.
Milton Ratich
194
200
Comenius
CONTENTS.
XIX
/. g.
h.
Locke Jansenism FSnelon
..,,....
HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
INTRODUCTION.
THE
principles which should control are to be sought in human nature.
educational
This truth, methods which long remained unnoticed or inoperative, has been
emphasized by the educational reformers of modern times. "Everything should be done in the order of " is one of the maxims of Comenius. Pestalozzi nature
" Sound education stands before has beautifully said me symbolized by a tree planted near fertilizing waters.
:
A little seed, which contains the design of the tree, its form and proportions, is placed in the soil. See how it germinates and expands into trunk, branches, leaves, The whole tree is an uninterrupted flowers, and fruit chain of organic parts, the plan of which existed in its seed and root. Man is similar to the tree. In the newborn child are hidden those faculties which are to unfold during life. The individual and separate organs of his being form themselves gradually into an harmonic whole, and build up humanity in the image of God." The various faculties or capacities which await de!
velopment in the child are classed and moral. To meet the ends of
l
as physical, mental,
life,
the body must
mind be developed, and the moral nature grow, the in a These powers, though at first existing trained. within themselves large poscontain germinal condition, toward development, sibilities and a strong impulse
helpless infant
The germinal a Newton. into activity; the limbs powers start spontaneously to objects of come restlessly active, the senses open
may become
beginning, external world, and cognition transforms or development, which gradually growth into manhood, goes on childhood into youth, and youth thwarted to definite laws, and maybe sadly
has
its
according
by
or greatly promoted by judicious care. of his early life man it During a considerable period he is without the strength and helpless and ignorant;
neglect,
knowledge necessary
ence.
to maintain an independent ex: a necess It is this fact that renders education
The
and mental growth processes of physical and directed during the formative periods assisted of education. childhood and youth. This is the function can be adc Without its fostering care, no generation the achievei for the duties of life and quately fitted of a worthy destiny. devel The end of education is complete human several parts the ment. This is attained by leading of their high nature to a harmonious realization man's is a noble mail finished result
est possibilities.
must be
The
the ideal hood, whose highest exemplification, The elements of this manhood is Christ.
culture,
clear and well-informed healthy body, a to every right feeling, a: bilities quickly susceptible res volitions are determined by steady will whose and an enlightened conscience.
intellect, sensi
INTRODUCTION.
In support of
this conception of education, Prof.

:
Huxley has
strikingly said
had a liberal education who youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a
mechanism,
it is
" That man, I think, has has been so trained in his
capable of
whose
intellect is a clear,
cold logic-engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order ; ready, like a steam-engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind;
whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of Nature, and of the laws of her operations one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel
;
by a vigorous
will,
the servant of a tender conscience

all
who
or
has learned to love

to hate all
art,
beauty, whether of nature and to respect others as himvileness,
self."
Thus, in its essential nature, education aims at developing a noble type of manhood ; but it has also an
external relation.
Man
has various labors and duties to
perform in the world, which require special training, and a wide range of knowledge. Childhood and youth
Hence, it is clear that and methods of instruction, should have some reference to the demands of practical life. Human development should be combined with practical wisdom the school should be the natural introduction into active life. This is the view of Milwho has said, "I call a complete and generous ton, education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private
;
are the periods of preparation. education, both in its subjects
4.
and public, of peace and war." Herbert Spencer also " How to has presented the same view very forcibly.
live,"
he
Not how
says, to live in
"that
is the essential question for us. the mere material sense only, but
in the widest sense.
which comgeneral problem is the right ruling of prehends every special problem In conduct in all directions under all circumstances. in what way to treat the the to treat
The
what way
mind
;
body manage our affairs in what way as a citito bring up a family in what way to behave to utilize all those sources of happizen in what way
;
in what
way
to
;
ness which Nature supplies ; how to use all our faculties and others ; how to the advantage of ourselves
greatest to live completely.
being the great thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great has to teach. To prepare us for thing which education function which education has to complete living is the rational mode of judging of any discharge and the only
this
;
And
educational course
is to
judge in what degree
it
dis-
charges such function." There are two elements, logically distinguishable but
into education. practically inseparable, entering the acquisition of knowledge. are development and the individual lacks strength to Without
;
These
development, with the problems of life and without knowlgrapple a cipher in society. The great law edge, he remains mental development is selfunderlying physical and
activity.
The is self-made. Every truly educated man whether perceiving, feelvarious functions of the mind, must for a long period be called judging, or willing,
ing, into frequent exercise in connection with objects, facts, in order to become active, oberelations, and truths,
INTRODUCTION.
and strong. The basis of this activity is knowlwhich is as necessary for the development of the edge, " As food mind as food is for the growth of the body.
dient,
is
" so indispensable to physical growth," says Johonnot, without knowledge the mind can not grow. While the
mind, from the

power,
it is
first,
possesses all the
germs of mental
the appropriation of knowledge alone that

latent
converts
and apparently passive capacities into Education is not creative it can not give what Nature has withheld. It is limited by the but not radiindividuality, which it can ennoble,
its
active capabilities."
pupil's
cally change.
race.
In some form or other, education According to Holy Writ, the
is
as old as
our
pair
first
human
tuition. Among all peobarbarous as well as civilized, each generation has ples, received a special training for its subsequent career. Where the form of civilization has been low, education
were the subjects of divine
has been narrow and defective.

ties
Uncivilized communi-
do scarcely more than strengthen the body and cultivate the senses. Among no two nations of antiquity the theory and practice of education been the same. have It has varied with the different social, political, and reof the people ligious conditions
teristics of the country.
and the physical charachowever varied or imperBut,
fect its form, education has existed

It is
a profound thought of
among all nations. German philosophy that
God
is
not leading the world, through a gradual though
freeuninterrupted development, to greater intelligence, Like the individual, our race as a dom, and goodness. whole has to pass through the successive periods of
childhood, youth, and maturity.
Each succeeding pe-
riod inherits the accumulated
wisdom of the preceding
After the one, and adds new treasures of its own. of many ages of striving and conflict, mankind lapse
has reached a stage of development among enlightened nations that seems to accord with the estate of manhood.
far Intelligence, freedom, morality, and religion, though from being universal, prevail to a degree unprecedented
in the past.
Human
With improvement
progress is an evident fact. in other human interests, there
has been unmistakable progress in education. Indeed, the ancient world, as we shall soon see, never succeeded
producing a correct and complete theory of educaIf a great thinker now and then approximated tion.
in
the truth, his voice was lost upon the heedless multiThe practice could hardly be better than the tude.
theory.
Hence we
shall find that education
was always
particular defective, usually laying stress phase of human culture, to the neglect of others. Some-
upon some
times the physical was emphasized, sometimes the inthe religious tellectual, sometimes the moral, sometimes but never all together in perfect symmetry. It has been
;
reserved for the nineteenth century, so distinguished for its many-sided advancement, to realize an education
which leaves no part of man's nature neglected.
We
are
now
prepared to understand the nature of

is
It the history of education. has been thought and done in
an exhibition of what all ages and countries in

It sets forth the prin-
reference to training the young.

ciples
and methods which have prevailed at various of periods and in different lands. It gives an account the prominent educators whose theories and methods
have exerted a noteworthy influence upon educational
INTRODUCTION.
It includes an inquiry into the social, and political conditions which have determined religious, the peculiar form of education, and traces the line of educational progress from its humble beginnings down
development.
to the precious heritage of the present. The history of education is a valuable study. Education stands in close relation to the civilization of a
people.
.effect.
It
is,
at the
same time, both a cause and an
Educational history, in setting forth the influences determining the peculiar character of education in any country, becomes to some extent a philosophy of As such it is a profound study. history in general. " The education of a people," says Dr. Henry Barnard, "bears a constant and most pre-eminently influential physical, relation to its attainments and excellences and moral. The national education is at once a mental, cause and an effect of the national character ; and acof education affords the only ready cordingly, the history to the history of the human race, and and perfect key of each nation in it an unfailing standard for estimatthe line of human proging its advance or retreat upon
ress."
the study of educational the whole field within the range of history, by bringing our vision, broadens our views in regard to education. of the By acquainting us with the views and methods the cost of repeating experiments and us past, it spares mistakes. It gives the origin of present educational sysin principle and valutems, and shows what is correct educational workers with It able in method.
To speak more
specifically,
inspires
greater zeal
by presenting the examples
of self-sacrificing
and
illustrious teachers.
And
it is
a necessary study in
in
order to complete the comprehensive scheme included what is properly called the science of education.
march
probably
The is the birthplace of the human race. of progress, following the course of the sun, has been westward through Europe to America, which comthe globe. Here the great problems pletes the circle of of religion, science, government, and education will receive their final solution. Following the
Asia
course of
human progress, the history of education natdivides itself as follows : urally I. The Oriental countries, including China, India,
Persia, Palestine,
II.
and Egypt.
The ancient classical nations, Greece and Home. III. The Christian education of Europe and Amer1. The period before the ica, which is divided into Reformation and, 2. The period after the Reformation.
;
In this
classification
no account
is
taken of uncivil-
ized peoples, since education with them consists almost chase. exclusively in training the body for war and the
Their education
bring
it
is thus too primitive in its character to within the scope of our present undertaking.
I.
THE ORIENTAL NATIONS.

STRIKING fact, which throws great light upon Eastern education, is to be noted in reference to Oriental The individual there counts for nothing. life.
Edudespotic external authority controls his destiny. a perfect man or woman, cation does not aim to develop
but to prepare its subjects for their place in the estabIt does not aim to beautify the lished order of things. The stone, but simply to fit it for its place in the wall. source of this all-controlling authority varies in the
different countries.
In China
it is
fossilized tradition
in India, caste the theocracy.
in Persia, the state ; among the Jews, In all the Oriental countries, this external authority determines the character of education ; and, if this idea is firmly grasped, it will facilitate a
;
thorough understanding of the educational systems of

the East.
1.
CHINA.
that magnificent country which a fourth part of the population of the globe comprises Its people belong to the first claims our attention.
The Chinese Empire
inrace, whose genius is shown by the early vention of paper, printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass. Their character presents many points of
Mongolian
10
interest.
the relations of every-day

spect those in authority.
and economical and in they are polite and kind. honor their parents, love their children, and reThey
They
are industrious
life
Possessed of great patience,
they endure oppression and suffering without a murmur. On the other hand, they are destitute of deep moral convictions. They are hypocritical and dishonest ; and,
once in authority, they are apt to become tyrannical, Their wives are held in contemptcruel. Destitute of hope beyond the grave, and incapable of
and even
aspirations are contined to are gross in their pleasures ; and They earthly objects. to acquire wealth, live in ease, and fill some public office,
spiritual
delights,
their
are the highest aims of their ambition. Though one of the oldest nations in the world, the Chinese have for many ages made but little progress in
They are very much the same to-day that were more than two thousand years ago. The colthey lective life of the people has become petrified in fixed
civilization.
forms.
Their customs, the relations of the various
classes of society, the methods of business and labor, the administration of justice, and the whole circle of thought,
have
all
been stereotyped.
its
They
are practically un-
changeable.
Notwithstanding
evident imperfections, the Chi-
nese regard their civilization with great complacency. " They are the celestials," and the rest of mankind are
barbarians.
The
preservation of existing institutions
is
an object of constant care. All deviation from traditional customs is looked upon with disfavor, improvements are hardly tolerated, and the introduction of foreign culture
is
generally stigmatized as barbarous.
With
CHINA.
11
such a national feeling, education can have but one end. Its object is to impress upon each generation traditional
ideas
and customs, and thus prepare
it
to take its place
It does naturally in the established order of society. not aim at a development of the human faculties it is
simply a cramming of the memory.

education in this defective form there is great " The stimulus in China. importance of generally instructing the people," says Williams, "was acknowledged even before the time of Confucius, and practiced to a good degree at an age when other nations in the
To
world had no such system; and although in his day feudal institutions prevailed, and offices and rank were
not attainable in the same manner as at present, yet magistrates and noblemen deemed it necessary to be
well acquainted with their ancient writings. In the 'Book of Rites' it is said 'that, for the purposes of education among the ancients, villages had their schools,
districts their academies,
departments their colleges, and

This, so far as
principalities
their universities.'
we
know, was altogether superior to what obtained among the Jews, Persians, and Syrians of the same period." Education is forcibly and frequently inculcated in the classical Chinese literature, which is held in high esteem. The patronage of the wealthy makes education respectable and popular.
Besides, education opens the only road to political preferment. All the officers of the Imperial Government are chosen from among those who
have completed a long course of study and passed through the ordeal of several laborious and rigid examinations. Every community supports one or more, primary schools, while the larger towns and cities have
12
teachers are generally for their work by a long competent, being prepared course of study. The schools are conducted in rooms destitute of comfort, and without furniture, except the
chair and table of the teacher, and the desks and seats
academies and colleges.
The
furnished by the pupils themselves. Children are placed under the care of a teacher at the age of six or seven years. The first years of their
instruction are devoted to reading and writing ; and, as these are very difficult to learn, on account of the signcharacter of the Chinese language, the great majority
The teaching is the pupils repeat after the teacher the wholly by rote names of the characters in the book given them to study. After they have learned to pronounce the characters
never reach any higher attainments.
:
fluently they are taught the meaning, and the moral lesextract sons of the book are impressed upon them.
An
is
given from the book

:
first
placed in the hands of pu-
pils at school
Men,
In
at their birth, are
this, all
radically good. approximate, but in practice widely
by nature
di-
verge. If not educated, the natural character is changed. course of education is made valuable by close at-
tention.
To To
lence.
bring up and not educate is a father's error. educate without rigor shows a teacher's indo-
That boys should not learn is an improper thing. For if they do not learn in youth, what will they do
when old ? Gems unwrought can form nothing useful. So men untaught can never know the proprieties.
CHINA.
13
tan or
The discipline is severe. The teacher keeps his ratbamboo hanging in a conspicuous place, and he
uses scolding, castigation, starving, and imprisonment, to stir up the diligence of his pupils in their necessarily
distasteful tasks.
selves
Those in pursuit of a higher education place themunder the care of a competent teacher, from
in the art of composition.
toil,
whom
and
severe
classics they receive instruction in the Chinese After many years of
inations in
and running the gantlet of repeated examwhich his competitors are numbered by the successful scholar becomes a member of thousands, the Imperial Academy a position that brings him high honors and also a generous support from the royal treasHenceforth he is a member of the Imperial Govury.
ernment.
proper to say a word here in reference to the Chinese classics, which form the basis of education, to
It
is
the exclusion of
geography, history, mathematics, science, and language which are deemed in the "Western world so indispensable to a liberal cultThese classics in their present form are the work ure.
of Confucius, the most distinguished of Chinese philosofifth century bephers and teachers, who lived in the fore Christ. They are in part compilations made by him from older works and in part his own composition.
treat chiefly of the duties of social and political in some measure historical. life, though they are also
all
those studies
They
" I teach
you nothing," says Confucius,

viz.,
might learn yourselves
" but what you the observance of the fun-
damental laws of relation between sovereign and subfather and child, and husband and wife, and the ject,
14
five cardinal virtues, universal charity, impartial justice,
and usages, recticonformity to established ceremonies tude of heart and mind, and pure sincerity." He thus
in particular: "There are three speaks of filial duty thousand crimes to which one or another of the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty, and of these
When
is greater than disobedience to parents. ministers exercise control over the monarch, then there is no supremacy ; when the maxims of the sages then the law is abrogated ; and so those are set
no one
aside,
who
ents.
disregard
filial
duty are
evils
as
though they had no paruniversal
rebellion."
prepare the way for of Confucius was a system of from which the ideas of a personal natural morality, God and future life were excluded. "While it has it has fostered a sapped the foundations of all religion, attention to outward ceremony. painstaking To sum up the results of this inquiry, the whole system of Chinese education confines the mind within a
These three
The teaching
narrow
circle of ideas, perpetuates
the fixed customs of
the people, encourages outward morality and ceremony, and renders progress well-nigh impossible. In the lan" Owing to this guage of an able author already quoted the minds of scholars are undue attention to the classics,
:
not symmetrically trained, and they disparage other branches of literature which do not directly advance this great end. Every department of letters, except
statistics, jurisprudence, history, teemed in comparison; and the literary graduate of fourscore will be found deficient in most branches of
and
official
is
dises-
hundreds of common general learning, ignorant of national history, which the things and events in his
INDIA.
15
school-boy in the "Western world would be ashamed not to know in his. This course of instruction does not form well-balanced minds, but it imbues the
merest
future rulers of the land with a full understanding of the principles on which they are to govern, and the
policy of the supreme
to consolidate its
own
in using those principles As adapted to perauthority."
power
petuate an exclusive national existence, the Chinese system may not inappropriately be designated ancestral
education.
2.
INDIA.
The
consideration of education in India ought to
possess the greater interest for us, since the Hindoos are of the same blood as ourselves. As a branch of the
great
Aryan or Indo-European family of nations, they moved southward from their Central Asiatic home, some
two thousand years before Christ, into the vast peninsula which extends from the Himalaya Mountains into the Indian Ocean. There they brought into subjection the swarthier aborigines and, under the influence of the favorable soil and climate, they developed into a very numerous people. The wealth of their country has always been a temptation to the avarice of other nations.
;
The inoifensive character of the people has rendered them an easy prey. The Greeks, the Mohammedans, the Portuguese, and the Dutch have successively reached out a covetous hand after the natural and artificial treasures of the country. Last of all, the English, with their insatiable thirst for empire, have brought the whole under their sway, thereby adding a population peninsula of one hundred and ninety millions to the British do-
IQ
title minion, and securing for the Queen the additional influences have of Empress of India. All these foreign and religious wrought changes in the social, political, condition of the people of India and, at present, all the ancient usages and laws are in a process of rapid disso;
lution.
The language
of the ancient Hindoos was Sanskrit,
which, as nearly related to the Latin,
and other Indo-European languages,

est to
the philologist. Though to dialects, as did the Latin after the fall of the place
Greek, English, of especial interthe Sanskrit has given

is
of the Empire, it is still the learned language Brahmans. This language is the repository of a literaThe ture of great antiquity and surprising magnitude. " was compiled Yeda," a collection of religious hymns, " more than a thousand years before Christ. The Maha" is an is more than bharata epic poem, whose length " " " double that of the ^neid," and Paradise Iliad,"'
Eoman
Lost" combined.
The
more
prevailing religion
is
Brahmanism.
this religion is pantheistic, intelligent classes,
For the and
closely resembles
many.
modern philosophic pantheism in Geris an unconAccording to Brahmanism, God

which has un-
scious but alt-pervading spiritual presence
folded from within himself the material and visible uniAs God is thus believed to be in everything, verse. this religion easily and naturally degenerates among the masses into polytheism, in which the various objects of nature are worshiped as divinities. The people present strange contradictions of character.
They
faithful in
are gentle, docile, polite, industrious, and are deservice; at the same time they
INDIA.
17
ungrateful, avaricious, and full of are divided into four principal classes They flattery. The Brahmans, or holy teachers; the or castes:
ceitful,
jealous,
KshatviyaSj or soldiers and kings of the nation; the Vaisyas, or farmers and traders; and the /Sudras,
or servants of the three other
classes.
The
three
higher castes all
enjoy peculiar rights and
privileges,
though the Brahmans possess the greatest influence, and are the repositories of learning for the whole people. Of
the relative position of the several castes, Manu, the reputed author of the most celebrated law-book of the an" Whatever exists in the universe cient Hindoos, says : is all in effect, though not in form, the wealth of the
Brahman
since the
Brahman
is
entitled to
.
.
it all
.
by
his
primogeniture and eminence of birth.
The
first
part of a Brahman's compound name should indicate holiness of a Kshatriya's, power ; of a Yaisya's, wealth ;
;
and of a Sudra's, contempt." Of the caste system as a whole, a writer, who had ample opportunities of know" It has made the Hindoos contented with ing, has said whether good or bad, high or low and in their lot doing so has provided a kind of universal happiness, which, if not of the highest kind, was better than none. Even now as it is passing away, and justly so, we have
:
firm faith that the

this
God
of
all
mankind,
who
permitted
wondrous
institution to
grow up and
flourish for
thousands of years, will overrule it for good." The caste system of India is the controlling
ence in education.
the four principal
to learn
influ-
Each individual is born into one of castes, whose usages he is compelled
and observe.
As
these are very numerous,, delife,
scending into insignificant details in daily
such in-
18
tion.
struction forms the principal part of the child's educaThe Sudras and females are excluded from all
other kinds of instruction.
At
sent to school.
the usual age of six or seven years the child is This is presided over by a Brahman,
it
who
regards
is
a disgrace to receive a stipulated salary,
and who
patrons. erable estates; but,
remunerated by voluntary gifts from his These gifts range from mere trifles to consid-
upon the whole, leave the teacher
He is held in high honor, and pupils poorly paid. render him greater reverence than they show to their School is usually kept in the open air. under parents.
the shadow of a friendly tree; but, in case of bad weather, it is transferred to a thatched shed, or other
covered building. Along with ceremonial usages and moral instruction, reading, writing, and arithmetic are
The first exercises in writing are in the sand. taught. The teachers are aided not only by regular assistants,
but
also
lessons are learned aloud
once.
by the more mature pupils of the school. The by the whole body of pupils at The discipline, in the main, may be regarded as
It is only after admonition has failed that bodily pain is inflicted by the rod, by placing the pupil in an uncomfortable position, or by pouring cold water upon
mild.
him a mode of punishment peculiar to India. The following extracts from a description written by
a Hindoo, present some interesting details of the oldstyle school :
hour before closing the school the pupils are all to stand up in a line, and, with their hands applied to their hearts, they repeat the multiplication-table, the alphabet, and the sacred hymns or slokas / at the end of
An
made
INDIA.
19
system but little progvery defective, and the children make take a month or more to learn the alphabet, ress they a year or two to learn to read, and still longer to write. Much time is wasted also in learning useless arithmetical The master is slothful, and, like all Brahmans, tables. fond of sleeping by day. In the afternoon, after the he considers his duties boys have collected for work, over till five, and so indulges in a sound sleep. Meanwhile the pupils must get along as best they can ; but the teacher must not be disturbed.
is
;
last their hands are raised to their forein reverence to the god heads, and their bodies bowed The master then instructs in whose honor it was said. them in a long and tedious catalogue of frivolous duties to be discharged in their houses ; to which they all assent " After this with a loud " Yes, yes they prostrate themselves before the teacher, and are dismissed to their The teacher must be a Brahman. respective homes. The wealthy and respectable will never condescend to have their children educated by one of a lower caste. of education practiced in these schools The
each one of the
teacher, however, is great on the subject of on what should be eaten, what abstained from on idolizing the Brahmans and avoiding the pariahs; on his genealogy, his rights, his privileges, and on the mean origin and low position of other castes. He is ever eloquent on the necessity of feeding, clothing, and to the marriage sheltering Brahmans, and of subscribing of their sons and daughters and is ever mourning, in terms, that the native rule has departed, and
The
cas te
melancholy with it the rajahs, who, supplying all the wants of the Brahmans, left them nothing to do but to eat, drink, and
sleep.*
Higher education
* "
in India has received,
from ancient
In other particuEvery-day Life in India," by Rev. A. D. Rowe. io be lars the description from which these extracts are taken seems
overdrawn.
20
Although the higher institutimes, careful attention. tions were destined chiefly for the Brahmans, they were
open
also to students
from the second and third
castes.
an extensive curricusubjects pursued constituted and included grammar, mathematics, history, polum, astronomy, medicine, and law. This
The
etry, philosophy,
its completion, course, which required twelve years for was pursued in its whole extent only by the Brahmans. The students of the warrior caste, from which the civil officers were chosen, and of the trading or agricultural immediate refcaste, pursued only partial courses, with erence to the wants of practical life. In the science of mathematics, the Hindoos have made noteworthy progthe rest of mankind under obligaress, and have placed tion for their development of this branch of knowledge. In the system of India no provision is made for
physical education. physical exertion.
The Hindoo
is
naturally averse to
eating, drinking,
A life made up of
and sleeping
is
his ideal of happiness.
He
does not
feel that exuberant vitality
which makes mere existence a conscious enjoyment, and wrestling with difficulties a
This is a blessing reserved for the positive pleasure. The religious education hardier children of the "West. lacks the conception of a conscious, personal God ; and,
in practice, religion has degenerated into a set of puerile The highest religious aspiration is to be observances.
absorbed into the great, unconscious world-spirit. This ideal leads to an intensely selfish subjectivity, which our fundamental duties violates, by its idle dreaminess,
to
God and man.

is
The
intellectual education of the
Hindoos
not wholly undeserving of commendation.
By
nature they are a contemplative people, and this
PERSIA.
21
is constantly fostered by their religion. however subtile their intellectual operations may But, be, the Hindoos are wanting in that strong projective force that is necessary to subdue Nature and lift the
natural tendency
masses to a high degree of civilization. The name to the system of India is caste education. given
3.
PERSIA.
attained
Persia occupies an important place in history. It its highest point of under Cyrus, who greatness
it
freed
it
into a
from the dominion of the Medes, and elevated mighty empire. At this period, Persia was the
foremost nation of the world, not only in power, but In education it surpassed both in also in civilization.
theory and practice the other Asiatic nations. The religion of Persia, founded by Zoroaster in the
sixth century before Christ, is interesting in also in its relation to education. Nowhere, if
itself,
and
the Jews, was this relation closer than cient Persians. Zoroaster discovered a dualism running The contrast between light and through all nature.
darkness, fruitfulness and barrenness, useful and hurtful animals, fortune and misfortune, life and death, led him to conceive of two spiritual beings, the one good
we except among the an-
and the other bad, who divide the world into hostile At the head of the kingdom of light is kingdoms. whose symbol is light; at the head of the Ormuzd, other is Ahriman, whose symbol is darkness. In the end, the kingdom of good will prevail and it is the
;
duty of every
aids in this
man
to contribute to this triumph.
He
work by
cultivating the
soil,
caring for
22

children,
herds, educating
in the world.
maintaining physical and

is
moral purity, and opposing whatever
evil
and hurtful
women were slavishly and excluded from the advantages of edusubordinate, cation. Every morning the wife was required to kneel " What at the feet of her husband and ask nine times, " And having received do you wish that I should do ? she must humbly withdraw to obey his comhis reply, mands. Children were objects of parental pride and as they were looked on as the source of the future power and prosperity of the state, the king was accustomed to
As
in all Asiatic nations, the
;
show
The
of the largest families. special favors to the heads exercised in the training of chilutmost care was
were left beneath under the care of the mother but the parental roof after that age they were regarded as belonging to the in public institutions. Till the state, and were educated age of fifteen this education was physical and moral. The body was strengthened and hardened by temperate habits in eating and drinking, by gymnastic and military The moral exercises, and exposure to heat and cold. nature of the child was trained with assiduous attention. As far as possible, it was preserved from contact with vice, while the virtues of self-control, truthfulness, and and practiced. Ingratijustice were constantly enjoined tude and lying were considered the most shameful vices, while truthfulness was looked on as the highest virtue. At about fifteen, the boy passed to youth's estate and at this critical period of life he was subject to strict
dren.
Up
to the age of seven, they
restraint. supervision and wholesome
Through severe
military discipline,
he was prepared for the hardships
PERSIA.
23
of war, while the wise instruction of overseers or govThe ernors fitted him for the civil service of the state.
teachers were the ripest and worthiest men of the counAt the age of fifty, the Persian was exempt from try.
military service. It was from among these men of advanced age and ripe experience that the instructors of youth were chosen and they were expected to be pat;
terns of the virtues that they inculcated by precept. Xenophon has treated at some length of Persian
education, and has given us a clear insight into many "Most states," he says, "let each one bring his sons as he pleases, and further permit the older up
details.
youth to
live as
they choose
only they forbid them to
steal, to rob, to enter a house by force, to strike in secret, to commit adultery, and disobey the civil authorIf any one commits such a misdeed, they subject ity.
him
to punishment.
The Persian
laws,
on the contrary,
take the initiative, and exercise a care that the citizens from the beginning on have no inclination to a wicked
or shameful deed.
For
this
they provide in the follow-
ing manner
they
call
They have free. The part

:
a public market-place which of the market-place that ad-
joins the courts of justice is divided into four parts : the first is reserved for the boys, the second for the
youths, the third for the men, and the fourth for the
Each one was restricted to his allotted place; aged. the boys and men were required to appear at daybreak, while the aged could come, except on certain days,
whenever they pleased. The youths that were not yet married spent the night in arms guarding the courts of As the Persians are divided into twelve tribes, justice.
every division of the market-place had twelve overseers
;
24
those over the boys must distinguish themselves through those over the youth should be ability to teach, while The overseers of the to lead them to virtue.
qualified
charged to see that the laws and ordinances The overseers of the aged held the The boys went latter to a performance of their duties. to school to have their sense of justice awakened and the day espedeveloped. Therefore the masters spent
men were
were observed.
manner
after the holding court among the boys, who, of men, brought indictments against each other for theft, violence, cheating, offensive language, etc., the convicted prisoners, but also the false acnot
cially in
only
with cusers being punished. Ingratitude was punished for the Persians hold that the unespecial severity; the gods, their parents, their grateful can love neither nor their friends, since with ingratitude fatherland,
shamelessness
is always united, and this latter is the source of all vices." prolific An incident in the life of Cyrus will illustrate more in detail the emphasis that was laid on justice in Persian When Cyrus, then a boy of twelve years, education.
most
was brought to the court of his grandfather Astyages, " he was asked by his mother, My child, how will you
learn justice at this despotic court, since your teach" " ers are at home ? Cyrus answered, Mother, I understand justice very well already. For my teacher, since I showed an eagerness for learning, often placed me once was I beaten for over others and as
;
only judge One time a large boy with a giving a wrong decision. small coat compelled a little boy with a large coat to it was better for exchange with him. I decided that
both, because each
had the coat that
fitted
him
best.
PERSIA.
25
Then I was beaten, and told that my decision would have been right if the question had been whom the but since the question had been who was coat fitted owner of the coat, I ought to have inquired the lawful to whom the coat really belonged, and whether taking a thing by force rendered its possession lawful." The Magi were an important class in Persia. They had charge of all the religious ceremonies, and were the learned class, being at once both priests and philosoSo great was their reputation that people from phers.
;
distant countries
came
to receive instruction at their
hands.
learning of Pythagoras, that gave him such eminence among the Greeks, is said to have
The
been borrowed in large measure from the Magi. The king was required to pass some time under their instruction, in order to learn
ing and the right
way
the principles of governto worship the gods. After
ascending the throne, he did not determine any imporFrom this tant undertaking without consulting them.
circumstance, they were regarded as the directors of
princes.
The one-sidedness of Persian education is evident. The state, which was absolutely despotic, was the controlling influence. As physical strength and moral rectitude were held to be the qualities of greatest utility, the one
fitting for
war and the other for the administration of
in the long period justice, they alone were emphasized Intellectual culture was wholly of public training.
neglected in the school-training. Reading and writing, if they formed any part of instruction at all, were
The higher taught only in a very limited measure. branches of knowledge, as philosophy, astronomy, and
2
26
medicine, were pursued only by the Magi. The system of Persia has been denominated state education.
4.
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL.

race,
The Semitic
Israel, unites
syrians, Phoenicians,
and
including the Babylonians, Asespecially the children of
profound contemplation with great pracFor many centuries it played an important part in the world's history, founding mighty and warlike kingdoms. Great cities arose in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, remarkable progress was made in the arts and sciences, manufactures and commerce nourished, and a considerable degree of culture was The forces of nature, particularly the sun attained. kind of and the moon, were worshiped as divinities.
tical
wisdom.
picture-writing in cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters was employed; and books, consisting of square clay tablets written on both sides and treating of geog-
raphy, history, mathematics, astronomy, and law, were The Phoenicians were for collected in public libraries.
a long time the leading maritime nation of antiquity ; and, next after the Jews, they have exerted the widest
influence
upon the "Western world.
They were the
in-
ventors of our alphabet which, with certain modifications, was transmitted to us through the Greeks and
Further than these general statements, which indicate the existence of no small degree of learning among at least certain classes, we are unacquainted with the educational history of Babylonia, Assyria, and
Romans.
Phoenicia.
But the ancient Jews, whose
literary remains
have
27
been pretty fully preserved, deserve further study. This people has occupied a unique position in the world's history. To it was assigned a peculiar mission and over its development there watched a special Providence granted to no other nation. It was the divinely;
appointed office of the Jews to preserve, in the midst of idolatrous nations, a knowledge of the true God, and to furnish at last, in the fullness of time, the great Teacher of our race. For a long period, God condescended to
be the ruler and lawgiver of this people.
after a formal
And
even
kingdom had been
established under Saul,
to
the rulers were so controlled by the law previously given Moses and by the prophets who were raised at
up
particular junctures, that the theocratic principle continued dominant for many centuries.
history of this strange people extends through four thousand years. It has experienced alike nearly the joys of prosperity and the pains of But adversity.
The
whatever the character of its outward circumstances, whether exercising a wide dominion from a splendid
wandering among all nations as a by-word and reproach, it has clung with the utmost tenacity to its national character and customs, And the influence which it has exerted upon the world is incalculable. It
has supplied the basis of all true theology ; it has given a system of faultless morality ; and, in Christianity, it has provided the most perfect form of The
religion.
civilization of
capital, or
Europe and America can be
directly
traced to the Jews.
educational history of this people has varied and social condition. In this study, attention is directed to the most important and typical
The
with
its political
28

Jewish nation reached its highest point under the reigns of its golden age
The period. of development
David and Solomon. Among the Jews the theocracy controlled both the If it gave education theory and practice of education. laid stress upon an imit a very one-sided tendency, yet The end of portant and hitherto neglected principle. the Jews was to make faithful and education among obedient servants of the living God. It aimed at pre.
to fulfill faithfully paring each succeeding generation to that people. The its part in the grand work assigned himself prescribed the principal subdivine
Lawgiver and methods of instruction. The law, whether jects was to be carefully studmoral, ceremonial, or judicial,
ied.
the Lawgiver's
soul,
" Therefore shall are ye lay up these my words," " in heart and in your instructions, your
and bind them for a sign upon your hand, that between your eyes. And ye they may be as frontlets when shall teach them your children, speaking of them and when thoii walkest thou sittest in thine house, and when thou risest by the way, when thou liest down, write them upon the door-posts of up. And thou shalt thine house, and upon thy gates."
'
An analysis
particulars.
only to impart As he was reteach them also reading and writing. Lord upon his doorthe words of the quired to inscribe and gates, he must himself have learned to write ; posts have as he wrote them for his children, they must
and,
of this passage reveals several important It shows that the Hebrew parent was not oral instruction to his children, but to
been taught to read.
Hence,
* Deut.
xi,
it
appears that the 'ability
18-20.

to read
29
and write was general among the ancient Jews ; in this particular, they surpassed every other nation and, of antiquity.
Education was restricted to the family, in which the There were no popufather was the principal teacher. Yet the instruclar schools nor professional teachers.
tion of the Jew, as is evident from the Pentateuch, braced a vast number of particulars. His whole life
hemmed
in with
minute regulations
emwas and ignorance was
not accepted as a valid excuse for transgression. The various kinds of food were prescribed; the principles that were to govern their relations to one another were
specifically
given
directions for the treatment of stran;
gers and servants were minutely laid down the facts of their wonderful history and the precepts of the moral law had to be carefully studied and the burdensome ritual of the tabernacle and temple had to become thor;
oughly familiar.
Among the potent educational agencies of the Jews, that of the annual national festivals merits consideration.
These festivals, three in number, required every adult male to present himself annually before the tabernacle
or temple at Jerusalem.
Commemorating important
national events, they kept the people acquainted with their past history. The passover recalled the deli very
from Egyptian bondage; the pentecost, the terrific splendors that attended the giving of the law the feast of tabernacles, the hardships and miraculous preservation in the wilderness. These frequent reunions not only contributed to national and religions unity, but
;
they exerted a strong educating influence upon the

people.
30
The higher
education was not wholly neglected,
though no institutions of purely secular learning were The priests, whose studies embraced a established.
wide range of subjects, constituted the learned class. " In order to answer their destination," says Jahn, in his "Hebrew Commonwealth," "the Levites more than other Hebrews were to study the book of the law to preserve and disseminate it in exact copies to perform the duties of judges and genealogists, and consequently to be theologians, jurists, and historians. ... As the test the accuracy of weights priests and Levites were to there were several models preand measures, of which served in the sanctuary, it was necessary that they should understand something of mathematics; and as they were to determine and announce the movable had feasts, new moons, years, and intercalary years, they The priests were occasion for the study of astronomy. to instruct the people in religion and law, and to solve questions which might arise upon these subjects. According to the spirit of the institution, the Levites were also instructors of the people, which office they in real;
ity executed when they publicly sang psalms according to the arrangement of David, and to which they were
expressly appointed by Jehoshaphat." The schools of the prophets, of which there are only scanty notices in the sacred books, appear to have been
private institutions for the study of poetry, medicine, and, in particular, the law. They were presided over
by men venerable for their age and ability, and patronized by youths and adults. They corresponded, in some the law, however, degree, to the modern university, The influence of these all other studies. overshadowing
31
schools can not have been otherwise than favorable to
Jewish culture. They were in a flourishing condition under the reign of David and it is not improbable that " the " sweet singer of Israel himself had profited by It was at this time that religious potheir instruction. reached its zenith. The Psalms of David, as poretry traying the deepest and most varied religious experiAfter a lapse of ence, have never been superseded. three thousand years, they are regarded as an innearly valuable poetic and literary treasury and some of its
;
precious
gems
are set in the
memory
of each passing
generation.
" From a survey of the whole matter," says Wines, " the conclusion seems warranted that the education of
Hebrew people, conducted mainly, though not wholunder the domestic roof, was nevertheless a national ly, education, and worthy of the imitation of other nations. Especially does it deserve to be studied and copied so far as that branch of education is concerned which conthe
sists
in
development
as distinguished
from
instruction.
The Hebrew law required an

and
and
early, constant, vigorous,
judgment, manboth of thought and feeling. The ners, habits, sentiments held to be proper to man in society, were imbibed with the milk of infancy. The manners conefficient training of the disposition,
sidered becoming in adults were sedulously imparted in The habits regarded as conducive to indichildhood.
vidual advancement, social happiness, and national repose and prosperity, were cultivated with the utmost
diligence.
the
The greatest pains were taken to Hebrew youth with their duties, as well
both personal and
political.
acquaint
as their
rights,
In a word, the
32
main channel of thought and feeling for each generation was marked out by the generation preceding it, and the stream for the most part flowed with a steady
current."
The name given

theocratic education.
to the ancient
Jewish system
is
5.
EGYPT.
In Egypt we have, perhaps, the oldest civilization The great Pyramids, which indicate considerable intellectual development, were erected more than two thousand years before Christ. The ancients looked upon Egypt as a school of wisdom. Greece sent thither illustrious philosophers and lawgivers Pythagoras and Plato, Lycurgus and Solon to complete their In the Scripture it is said, in praise of Moses, studies. that he " was learned in all the wisdom of the Egypin the world.
tians."
Egypt made high attainments in Great perfection was reached in spinning and weaving ; glass was manufactured, and some of the secrets of coloring it have baffled modern ingenuity; iron and steel, together with the common agricultural and mechanical implements made from
early period
arts.
At an
the mechanic
them, were in use.
Magnificent ruins
;
still
make
a pro-
found impression upon the beholder while single specimens of art have been transported over distant seas to adorn the public places of great modern cities. The Temple of Karnak, from its massive forms and brilliant decorations, has been pronounced the most magnificent
of man's architectural works.
EGYPT.
33
in disposition and gentle Like the people of India, they were divided into castes, the highest of which was composed of The priests possessed immense wealth and the priests. influence, were supported by the state, and held one
The Egyptians were mild
in manners.
third of the land free of tax. They were the chief representatives of learning, and the recognized intellectThe military class ranked ual leaders of the people.
next to the
The rest of the population was priests. divided into three general classes the first included the farmers and boatmen ; the second, the mechanics and
:
tradesmen; the third, herdsmen, fishermen, and com-
mon
laborers.
position of the priests has been portrayed by " The Jahn with an interesting particularity. Egyptian " were a he says, separate tribe, which was priests," divided into three subordinate classes; and they per-
The
formed not only the services of religion but the duties of all the civil offices to which learning was necessary. They therefore devoted themselves in a peculiar manner
to the cultivation of the sciences.
This learned nobil-
was strictly hereditary, and no one from ity, so to speak, another tribe could be received among its members.
They
cine,
etry),
studied natural philosophy, natural history, medi-
mathematics (particularly astronomy and geomThey history, civil polity, and jurisprudence.
were practicing physicians, inspectors of weights and

measures, surveyors of land, astronomical calculators, keepers of the archives, historians, receivers of the customs, judges, and counselors of the king, who was himIn short, they like, Raself a member of their tribe.
guel, the priest of Midian,
and Melchizedek, the
priest
34:

formed, guided, and ruled the peo-
and king of Salem

ple,
by
establishing civil regulations,
performing sacred
services,
and imparting
religious
instruction.
They
liberally rewarded for the discharge of these important duties. They not only possessed large estates in land, which, if we may credit Diodorus Siculus, oc-
were
cupied a third part of Egypt; but they also received from the king a stated salary for their services as civil officers. However suspicious such an order may appear
many at the present day, it was admirably adapted to those times, and by means of it Egypt was raised far above all the nations of antiquity, both in regard to her
to
and her advancement in the sciences. even the Greeks in ancient times were accusHence, tomed to borrow their politics and their learning from
civil institutions
the Egyptians."
The foregoing
facts prepare us for a better under-
This great interest standing of Egyptian education. was under the absolute control of the priests. The education of the lower classes was of the most elementary
nature.
The youth destined for business pursuits were commonly taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, while
the rest learned from parents or relatives the manual occupation to be followed through life. The method
of teaching arithmetic has been praised by Plato, and seems to have anticipated some of our modern methods,
inasmuch means of
numbers were taught in the concrete by There were two species of writing plays. prevalent the demotic, which seems to have been a hybrid between hieroglyphic and syllabic writing, was
as
:
in use
among
the
common
people
while the hieratic,
which was more purely hieroglyphic, was employed by
EGYPT.
35
The bark of the papyrus-reed, which grew the priests. in jungles along the Nile, was used instead of paper. The priestly and warrior castes enjoyed greater educational advantages. At Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopothere were institutions for superior instruction which lis,
were open to these two classes. The course of study embraced language, mathematics, geometry, astronomy, natural science, and religion, though the most advanced instruction was reserved for the priesthood alone. The annual overflow of the Nile, which destroyed landmarks
made a knowledge of mathematics, parof geometry, of high importance, and hence ticularly this subject received especial attention. Gymnastics
in
many
cases,
and music were excluded from the general means of " It is not the culture. custom in Egypt," says Diodo" to learn rus, gymnastics and music it is believed that the former is dangerous to the youth, and that the latter is not only useless, but even hurtful, because it renders men effeminate." Yet in Chemnis gymnastics was taught, and music was employed in connection with religious services. A religious element was not wanting in Egyptian education. Keverence for the priesthood and religion, and regard for the usages handed down by The Egyptian tradition, were carefully inculcated. system has been designated priestly education. In the seventh century before Christ a change took
;
Under place in the educational practice of Egypt. Psammetichus, elements of Greek and Phoenician culture were introduced.
He concluded treaties with the and opened his cities to foreign commerce. His children were taught in the Grecian sciences. The Greek language formed for a time a subject of study.
Grecian
states,
36

a
still
At
later
period Alexandria attained to great

states.
the center not only of trade prominence, and became
but also of culture for the Mediterranean
As
its
rather than Egypculture, however, was cosmopolitan Grecian and Jewish elements to a large tian, embodying
extent,
it
does not here
demand
further notice.
II.
THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL NATIONS.

THE
ancient classical nations, Greece and
Rome,
are
surrounded with a peculiar charm.

est representatives of
They
are the earli-
European civilization, and as such have placed us under great and permanent obligathey tions. Though the stream of culture has broadened
and deepened since their glory waned, receiving in particular the mighty tributaries of Christianity and modern science and invention, it must yet trace its origin to the renowned cities of Athens and Rome. They have left ns a rich heritage in the domains of science and
government
they have transmitted heroic deeds of pa;
triotism that have never been surpassed
in architecture
and sculpture they have furnished models and inspiration for all time and in the most important departments of literature, in poetry, history, oratory, and philosoand phy, they have produced works of exalted genius
;
perpetual worth.
These nations must always retain a
prominent
will
place in the history of the world.
But the prominence long held by Greece and Rome be less marked in the future. At present they occupy a smaller share of the world's attention than was Many young and vigorous rivals formerly the case.
38
have appeared. Great modern nations have arisen whose achievements and importance demand recognition. They have produced literatures that in depth and extent, if not in form, must be conceded to surpass antiquity. They have taken up the sciences as left by the ancient world, and have led them to new conquests. Sciences of which the ancients knew nothing have been developed, and have made rich contributions to modern Commerce and invention, under the control progress. of humane ideas, have largely broken down narrow national prejudices and made a brotherhood of the nations of the earth. The telegraph, the press, and the railin harmonious co-operation, bring the road, working whole world, with its manifold interests, thoughts, and In view deeds, within the circle of our daily thought. of these facts, it is safe to say that Greece and Rome are V destined to lose something of their former pre-eminence
'
in the world's thought.
These two nations naturally occupy a prominent place in the history of education. They have left us tolerably complete records of their thought and achievements.
In education they mark an obvious advance

Orient.
upon the defective systems of the
The
indi-
vidual comes into a certain prominence. He is not crushed beneath the weight of some relentless external
power, but attains at length to a degree of personal freedom. To some extent at least, the worth of the inleft to
is appreciated, and, within certain limits, he is himself in the pursuit of wealth and happiness. Education becomes the subject of careful, scientific
dividual
thought, and enlarged views of its nature are promulIt is controlled by higher principles. The gated.
GREECE.
39
range of studies
is
widened.
Beautiful results are ob-
tained, as exhibited in the physical
and
intellectual life
of the people. No other nations have exerted such immeasurable influence upon the world.
1.
GREECE.
Greece, as the oldest of the ancient classical nations, naturally claims our attention first. It is about half the size of Pennsylvania, and possesses a mild climate and
rich diversity of surface. Its numerous coast indentations give it peculiar facilities for commerce. These facts are worthy of mention, for they were not without
upon the well-endowed and versatile inhaba branch of the Aryan family, the Greeks are of the same blood as the leading nations of Europe. Greece was divided into a considerable number of
influence
itants.
As
little
states.
strife,
This gave occasion to almost incessant during which one and another of the states, ac-
cording to the skill of its leaders, or the number of its In the history of educaallies, gained the ascendency. tion, however, only two states, or rather two cities, are worthy of consideration. These are Sparta and Athens. It is here alone, so far as the records have descended to
us, that a
During the heroic age
complete system of education was developed. to which belongs the immortal
siege of Troy, education possessed but a single character in all Greece. It was patriarchal. The father trained his sons to physical strength and filial piety ; and the
mother trained her daughters to household duties and domestic virtues. In the language of Schiller, "to throw the spear and honor the gods " was the end of
40
male education.
attained
its
when Greece had when Leonidas defended highest power, Thermopylae, and Miltiades won the field of Marathon,
a later date,
At
the educational systems of Sparta and Athens were in little to perpetuate striking contrast, and contributed no
and imbitter the feud existing between these two proud

cities.
(A.)
SPARTA.
This city was inhabited by the Dorians, a hardy and warlike race of Greeks, that held tenaciously to old custo the toms, and sternly set themselves in opposition forms of culture. In the ninth century before
highest
Christ,
Lycurgus prepared a constitution for Sparta the peculiar corresponding to the Doric character and
The Spartans, including state. about nine thousand families, were but a small part only of the population of Laconia, though they were the conwere two other classes quering and ruling class. There still more numerous, and sorely discontented with Sparcircumstances of the
tan domination these were the Perioeci, who lived as freemen in the towns adjacent to Sparta; and the Helots, who were bound to the soil as serfs. In order to main:
tain their
lation, it
supremacy in the midst of this hostile popuwas necessary for the Spartans to be constantly The system of Lycurgus, harsh vigilant and strong. and repulsive in nearly all its features, aimed at training
a powerful body of soldiers. a perpetual training-camp.
tribution of land
;
It
transformed Sparta into
of the country ; in population to live
Lycurgus made a new dishe made iron the circulating medium and he required the male portion of the
common
at public tables.
By
GREECE.
41
these sweeping regulations he struck down many evils With the abolition of wealth in the commonwealth.
and commerce,
The
pride, avarice and luxury were destroyed. " The most sternest simplicity prevailed. masterly
" stroke of this great lawgiver," says Plutarch, by which he struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and
the desire of riches, was the ordinance he made that they should all eat in common, of the same bread, of the
same meat, and of kinds that were specified, and should not spend their lives at home, lying on costly couches at splendid tables, deli vering themselves up into the hands
like
of their tradesmen and cooks, to fatten them in corners, greedy brutes, and to ruin not their minds only,
but their very bodies, which, enfeebled by indulgence and excess, would stand in need of long sleep, warm bathing, freedom from work, and, in a word, of as much care and attendance as if they were continually
sick."
The education of Sparta was chiefly physical. The children were regarded as the property of the state. The new-born babe was brought before a body of
was approved of as a strong and was destroyed. Up to the age of promising child, seven years, the child remained under the care of its After that time the boys were natural guardians. placed in public educational establishments, where they were subjected to a rigorous discipline. Their fare was coarse and meager their clothing scanty and their beds, hands from the piles of rushes plucked with their own " After banks of the river. they were twelve years old," to wear says Plutarch, "they were no longer allowed any under-garment they had one coat to serve them a
judges, and, unless
it
it
; ; ;
42
year
;

their bodies
were hard and dry, with but
little
acquaintance with baths and unguents; these human indulgences they were allowed only on some particular
days in the year.
They lodged together

of the rushes,
in
little
bands
upon beds made
which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were to break off with their hands without a knife if it were winter, they mingled some thistle-down with their rushes, which it was thought had the property of giving warmth." They were encouraged to supplement their daily allowance of food by theft. If detected, they were severely whipped In order to strengthen and for their want of skill. harden the body, they were continually trained in gymnastic exercises, the chief of which were jumping, running, wrestling, spear-throwing, and quoits. In the system of Lycurgus but small provision was made for Heading and writing were taught only literary culture.
;
The absence of formal intelto a very limited extent. lectual training, however, was partly compensated by the constant association of the young with the old, from
whom
they imbibed lessons of practical wisdom.
At
the public tables they were instructed in state affairs by the conversation of leading men ; they learned to converse in an intelligent and agreeable manner ; and by a
natural spirit of imitation they early acquired a dignified bearing
and practical wisdom beyond
their years.
Their judgment was cultivated by frequent questions

requiring well-considered answers. of speech was carefully inculcated.
if
A sententious mode
we may judge by
Lycurgus himself, certain anecdotes related of him,
and energetic style. To a Spartan who the establishment of a democracy in Lacedaemon, urged
affected a curt
GREECE.
43
Begin, friend, and set it up in your family." another who asked why he permitted such trivial " That we sacrifices to the gods, he replied, may always
he
"
said,
To
have something to offer them." The moral education of Sparta presented many admirable points. The Spartan youth were taught to maintain an absolute control over their appetites, and to observe temperance in all their habits. Drunkenness was looked upon as a shame. modest and retiring manner was inculcated until the moment for action came ; then the Spartan youth were quick, aggressive,
and strong, ready to purchase victory with their lives. They were inured to heat and cold, hunger and fatigue they were accustomed to wear the same clothing winter and summer, and to bear great physical suffering with impassive countenance. Obedience to parents and reverence for established usages were carefully cultivated. The respect entertained for age was so great that it was said to be a pleasure to grow old in Sparta. This rewas shown by saluting the aged, rising up in their spect presence, making place for them in company, and, above all, by receiving with submissive spirit their advice and reproofs. An old man once entered a theater at Athens too late to get a seat. As he stood hesitating a moment, he was beckoned by a group of young Athenians. When he had made his way to them, they retained their
;
and thus exposed the old man to ridicule. As he withdrew in confusion, he came to the benches occupied by the Lacedaemonian embassadors, who rose in a body
seats,
to receive the old
man among them. The Athenians, suddenly struck by this display of characteristic Spartan whereupon the old man virtue, burst forth in applause
;
44
exclaimed,

"
The Athenians know what
is
right,
but the
Spartans practice it." The musical education of the Spartans has been well " Nor was their instruction in described by Plutarch. " less attended to he
music and verse," carefully says, than their habits of grace and good breeding in converAnd their very songs had a life and spirit in sation. them that inflamed and possessed men's minds with an enthusiasm and ardor for action the style of them was
;
the subject always serious plain and without affectation and moral most usually it was in praise of such men as had died in defense of their country, or in derision of those that had been cowards the former they declared
;
happy and glorified, the life of the latter they described as most miserable and abject." The girls were not neglected. In the interests of a hardy race, they were encouraged to engage in gymnastic exercises, in which the claims of modesty were This physical training was not withoften forgotten. out perceptible results, and the Spartan women became
all Greece for their development, and beauty. They cherished a passionate love strength, of country. Nothing appeared to them so shameful as and the Spartan mother could hear unmoved cowardice, of sons and husbands slain in battle, if they died facing
the admiration of
the enemy.
in form, and destructive of the best our nature, the system of Sparta admirably subserved its purpose. It made the Spartans a powerful band of warriors, secured them continual supremacy in
Though crude
instincts of
Laconia, and raised them for a time to the leadership x>f " The Greece. It produced Leonidas. Spartan educa-
GREECE.
45
simple in
eral
its
tion," to quote Thirlwall's excellent summary, "was its objects ; it was not the result of any gen-
view of human nature, or of any attempt to unfold various capacities; it aimed at training men who were to live in the midst of difficulty and danger, and
could be safe themselves only while they held rule over others. The citizen was to be always ready for the de-
home and abroad and he was, therefore, to be equally fitted to command and to obey. His body, his mind, and his character were formed for this purpose, and for no other and,
fense of himself and his country, at
;
;
hence, the Spartan system, making directly for its main end, and rejecting all that was foreign to it, attained, within its own sphere, to a perfection which it is impossible not to admire." may call the system of Sparta martial education.
We
At
(B.)
PYTHAGORAS.
proper to notice the labors of a educator who in spirit, though not by birth, was great allied to the Dorians. It is Pythagoras. He is an inwhether we regard the keen peneteresting character,
tration of his intellect, his moral excellence, his system of education, or the influence exerted by him upon his
this point it is
contemporaries.
As he
few mythical
stories
left no written records, not a have been connected with his origin,
and many of his teachings are involved in obscurity. He was born about 580 B. c., on the island of Samos. After spending many years in private study, he sought to increase his store of knowledge by travel. In Egypt he came into possession of the wisdom of the priests, by which his subsequent teachings were perceptibly influ-
46
" The enced. spectacle of Egyptian habits," says Grote, " the conversation of the and the initiation into
priests,
various mysteries or secret rites and stories not accessible to the general public, may very naturally have imand given him that pressed the mind of Pythagoras,
turn for mystic observance, asceticism, and peculiarity of diet and clothing, which manifested itself from the
same cause among several of his contemporaries, but which was not a common phenomenon in the primitive Greek religion." Subsequently he founded a school at to wide influCrotona, in Southern Italy, that attained
ence and celebrity. He was careful to receive only students of character and ability. They lived together as one family or brotherhood, the expense being defrayed
from a common fund. The course of study, which was into two parts distincomprehensive, was divided It was only and the esoteric. guished as exoteric
after the satisfactory completion of the former prelimithat the stunary course, which occupied three years, studies of the dent was admitted to the
esoteric course,
profounder and to a closer fellowship with the great
master himself.
from grasping the true Pythagoras was not very far The key-note of his system was idea of education. He wished to introduce into human life the harmony. universe at large, harmony which he discovered in the and which produced the music of the spheres. He of body and soul harmony between aimed at
harmony
in social life harmony parents and children harmony between man and God. He recognized the innate evil tendencies of our nature which generate discord and " At birth," says in education he sought a remedy.
; ;
'
GREECE.
4.7
Karl Schmidt, in summarizing the views of Pythagoras on this point, "man is very imperfect, and naturally inclined to arrogance ; through an uninterrupted education, lasting throughout the whole life, he must be freed from these innate evils, and be elevated to purity of
heart and mind.
Early training to abstinence in
eat-
parthrough hearty friendship, and profound scientific culture, lead in this direction. The work of man on earth is to attain to true
ing, sleeping, and speaking, to ticulars, to mutual improvement
temperance in
all
knowledge to knowledge of those subjects which in their nature are unchangeable and eternal. And wisdom has no other end than to free the human spirit through instruction from the slavish yoke of sensual desires,
to conduct it to a likeness with God, and to make it worthy to enter hereafter into the fellowship of the As for all things, so also for men, harmony is gods. the end of life."
The course of study in the school of Pythagoras embraced mathematics, physics, geography, metaphysics, and medicine. Especial prominence was given to mathematics, which Pythagoras regarded as the noblest
science.
Number governed
is
the beginning, and
involved in
the creative processes in all cosmical motion
and phenomena.
science was not fruitless.
The devotion of Pythagoras to this To him we owe the discovery
nuse of a right-angled triangle
of the geometrical truth that the square of the hypoteis equal to the sum of
the squares of the other two sides. Religion formed the basis of moral action.
oras,
Pythag-
by a profound insight into
nature, reached the con-
ception of one God, the universal Ruler.
Him
it is
48
prominent and night, offerings were regularly made. Temperance, and moral purity were courage, obedience, fidelity, the virtues constantly enforced by precept and
were the duty of man to serve. Keligious ceremonies Crotona ; and morning, noon, in the school at
among
exacted in practice. Pythagoras believed in the metemof the souls of deceased men psychosis or transmigration On one occasion, seeing a dog into the lower animals. to beaten and hearing him howl, he desired the striker " It is the soul of a friend of mine, whom desist, saying,
I recognize
as saying
:
by
his voice."
Ovid represents Pythagoras
What
In some new
death, but ancient matter dressed varied vest ? figure and a Thus all things are but altered, nothing dies ; And here and there the unbodied spirit flies, By time, or force, or sickness dispossessed, And lodges where it lights in man or beast.
then
is
was kid upon music because of its harthe soul. At night the pasmonizing influence upon and in the the day were banished by song sions of
Much
stress
incited to the duties of the day. morning, song gently method of instruction was dogmatic. The asThe a sufficient test of sertion of Pythagoras was held as This circumstance gave rise to the expression truth. himself said it which put an end to all ipse dixithe In many particulars, the system of Pythagdiscussion. It was oras showed its affinity with the Doric spirit. morals ; severe in discipline ; partial to physistrict in
^
cal training
method and aristocratic was this last fact that brought the in tendency. conflict with the school into disfavor, and then into open
;
authoritative in
It
GREECE.
4.9
At length the building in which Pythagoras taught was set on fire by a mob; and whether he escaped by flight or perished in the flames is uncertain. This was the end of the school which for
masses of Crotona.
a considerable period
lectual,
and
political influence in
had exerted a strong moral, Southern Italy.

ATHENS.
intel-
(c.)
Attica was a small but beautiful district in Central
was hardly equal to one of our countime of its greatest prosperity, it did ; not number more than half a million people, of whom
size it
ties
Greece.
In
and, at the
nearly four hundred thousand were slaves. significant in size and population, it was in
Though
in-
Athens, the
capital of Attica, that the restless and brilliant genius of the Greek wrought out the most perfect form of heathen civilization. Nowhere else in Greece did education, both in its theoretical and attain so
practical aspects,
high a development.
The beautiful was an object of constant endeavor in Athenian life. The taste was highly cultivated. The city was filled with model statuary the drama received a frigidly chastened form the Acropolis was crowned with architectural magnificence. beautiful soul in a
; ;
beautiful
tion.
It
body this was the chief end of Attic educawas attained by a harmonious union of
physiis
cal
and
intellectual culture.
purpose of education
This conception of the indeed incomplete ; but it has
the merit of laying stress upon important elements that in other ages and countries have been too often neglected. The educational system of Athens has produced results that are worthy of admiration,
s
50
dates from the time of prosperity of Athens lived in the sixth century before Christ. Solon, He was counted among the seven sages of Greece, and of Athens, as Lycurgus was of Sparta. was the
The
who
lawgiver
Appointed
code of Draco,
to draft a constitution to replace the cruel he established laws noted for their wis-
dom and
pawn
humanity.
their children
Parents were forbidden to sell or an unnatural and barbarous cus-
tom previously
quired
tolerated.
Education was encouraged.
In addition to intellectual training, the youth were reto learn a business or trade that would serve as a
means of
livelihood.
his sons a practical This measure of Solon's then- support in his old age. for the prosperity of the state, laid a solid foundation
father that neglected to give claims upon training, forfeited all
Any
and brought labor into honor
at a
time when
it
was gen-
erally held dishonorable. But we pass to the time of Pericles, the golden age
of Greece, for the closer study of Attic education. The social condition of Athens, Pericles himself has portrayed in his
" famous funeral oration. enjoy," he says, " a form of which does not copy the laws government of our neighbors ; but we are ourselves rather a pattern In name, from its to others than imitators of them. the benefit of the few but of administered for not
We
being
but with regard to concerns their private difits laws, all enjoy equality, as ferences while with regard to public rank, according as each man has reputation for anything, he is preferred
the many,
it is
called a
democracy
of for public honors, not so much from consideration on the ground of poverty, party as of merit ; nor, again, is he while he is able to do the state any good service,
GREECE.
51
. .
.
prevented by the obscurity of his position. Moreover, we have provided for our spirits the most numerous recreations from labors, and
by celebrating games
sacrifices
through the whole year, and by maintaining
everything every our lot to reap with no more peculiar enjoyment the good things which are produced here, than those of the rest of the world
land
is
elegant private establishments, the gratification daily received from which drives away sadness. Owing to the greatness too of our from city,
imported into
it;
and
it is
likewise."
who constituted about of the population, were allowed the advantages of education. Female education was The neglected. wife was servilely subject to the husband. As a rule, it was only women without character who sought to inone
fifth
In Attica, only the freemen,
crease their charms by intellectual culture. The state had no further connection with education than to maintain a general supervision over the schools,
and
to pro-
vide gymnasia for the physical training of the youth. Education was an individual interest and it was left to ; the wisdom or ability of the father to determine what
But, as the popular sentiment was highly favorable to the cause of learning, education was general the freemen. Even those
school-training, were not left wholly without culture ; for, in the democratic city of Athens, the people mingled freely together, and the numerous works of art had an elevating influence.
culture his sons should receive.
who
among
received no formal
The education of the Athenian youth extended through eighteen years, which were divided into three The first period included the donearly equal periods.
52
mestic training. Among the poor, the mother was the teacher but among the wealthy, nurses were employed. These had entire supervision over the child, and were
;
its
constant companions. the children of Athens
It is interesting to
know
that
more than two thousand years the same devices in use to-day, ago were entertained by be named rattles, dolls, swings, among which may little wagons, and toy houses and balls, stick-horses,
ships.
The boyhood education began with the seventh year. The boy was then removed from the nurse's care, and
of a pedagogue, usually an aged placed under the charge and trustworthy slave, under whose care he remained the rest of his education. The pedagogue
throughout
functions of servant, guardian, performed the important He attended his charge in counselor, and moral censor. walks and amusements, and accompanied him to and from school. Instruction was given by private teachers. comfortable rooms in which The better class
occupied
while those without means they received their pupils ; in public places, receiving but little imparted instruction and writing were the subjects remuneration.
Beading
first
studied.
structor
employed
In teaching reading, the Athenian inthe alphabetic system, and encount-
the difficulties growing out of the dissimilarity as between the names of the letters and their sounds
ered
all
wax tablet and combined in words and syllables. The pupil the earliest writing-materials. stylus were
imitated a copy set
by the
teacher.
After these element-
arithmetic, gramary studies were sufficiently mastered, and literature were taken up. The "Iliad" and mar, of " the Odyssey" were among the earliest reading-books
GREECE.
the Greek.
53
These, with other poetical and prose works, were carefully studied, extended portions being copied with the pen, and memorized for declamation. Geography was learned chiefly from the second book of the "Iliad," which contains the well-known catalogue of ships, and describes the various districts from which the
Grecian forces came.

the age of twelve or fourteen, the sons of the poor usually relinquished study, in order to learn a trade or engage in work, while the sons of the wealthy entered
At
upon a higher
course,
embracing grammar, poetry,
music, rhetoric, mathematics, and philosophy. Much of this higher instruction was given in the gymnasia, which, at first, places of physical exercise only, became
at length centers of intellectual culture also.
A gymnastic
its
training ran parallel with mental cult-
ure through
whole extent.
This training was given

or in public gymnastic
schools, designed
by
private teachers in their
own
schools.
The elementary gymnastic
Here the exclusively for boys, were called palaestra. exercises consisted in running, jumping, wrestling, and
universal.
other similar sports. The art of swimming was almost " He knows neither the alphabet nor swim-
ming," was a Greek expression for an ignoramus.
The
later physical training was received in the state gymnasia. The exercises assumed a more character,
manly and consisted of leaping, running, wrestling, throwing the javelin, and hurling the discus or quoit. This was the classic course of gymnastics, and is known by the name pentathlon. The gymnastic discipline of Athens had a different purpose from that of Sparta. The Athenian sought beauty of body and with what success, the
;
54
model forms of Grecian statuary bear lasting witness. The Spartan aimed at strength and endurance but, in connection with these qualities, he often developed a coarseness that appeared to the refined Athenian taste
;
almost brutal.
Music formed an important part of education. It was believed to exert a very ennobling influence upon the mind and character. Poems were set to music and
sung. The principal musical instrument was the cithara, a stringed instrument corresponding to the modern
guitar, to
which it has given name. The flute, though used at banquets and public festivals, was less always popular, because it distorted the face and was unsuited " He who to vocal accompaniment. followed music as a profession," says Falke, " was looked upon as a mere and enjoyed but little respect ; but, as a part of laborer,
education and culture, singing and playing the cithara were an ornament to the freeman. Already, in Homer's
day, Achilles sang and played; and to Epaminondas, the disciple of philosophers, the victorious leader of
and army, it was imputed as an honor that he was good musician, and even dancer. Music was not introduced into the schools as a means of pleasure and amusement; but it was supposed to have a purifying and educating power. It was studied for the elevating influence which it exerted upon the soul."
state
The moral education
of the Athenian was defective.
It lacked a true religious basis. The gods of the Greeks were merely deified men, beautiful, indeed, in body and
mind, but stained with ignoble passions. The Greek could not rise above his gods. In many points, however, the moral education of Athens is worthy of com-
GREECE.
55
mendation.
religious
rites
Patriotism and courage, respect for the of the city, modesty and urbanity of
manner, a constant regard for outward propriety, were of the Athenian carefully inculcated. The refined taste
abolished grossness from his vices ; and, like the Parishe sinned in ian, his counterpart in the modern world,
an
aesthetic
way.
at frontier
At
eighteen the youth entered the military service
They were placed as guards and were subject to severe discipline. posts, later they were formally enrolled among the
of the state.
Two
years
voters,
and
admitted to the privileges of full citizenship. The oath " I will administered on this occasion was as follows not bring reproach upon our sacred arms, nor desert the
:
comrade
at
sanctuaries
my side, whoever he may be. For our and laws I will fight alone or with others.
My
condition.
country I will leave, not in a worse, but in a better I will at all times submit willingly to the
judges and established ordinances, and will not consent I will honor the that others infringe or disobey them.
ness
established religious worship. "
!
The gods be
my
wit-
Athenian education, though far above any system Its fundamental preceding it, is by no means ideal. The beautiful, as an aesthetic conidea is not correct. The moral and ception, is not the supreme end of life. The worth of the useful are of higher significance. man was not fully grasped in Attica. Slaves were excluded from all education, and women were held in servile subordination. Education in Athens was particularistic. Its aim was not a manhood of typical and universal perfection, but the beautiful Athenian and
;
56

it
hence
had not breadth enough

of
to
become the educa-
tional system of our race.
The system
cation.
Athens has been
called (Esthetic edu-
(D.)
SOCKATES.
After the Persian war, Athens declined.
This nat-
The teachers degenerated urally affected education. into sophists, who were less concerned about depth of
knowledge than beauty of
est superficiality
style,
truth than with plausibility.
and less occupied with This unmanly and dishon-
was vigorously opposed by Socrates, one of the most eminent characters of Grecian history. He was born at Athens, 469 B. c., his father being a
sculptor.
Socrates pursued the same occupation for

;
some years with success

quished
it
but he subsequently
relin-
to devote himself to study. His personal " his appearance was unattractive ; projecting eyeballs, his depressed nose, with upturned and dilated nostrils,
unwieldy body, gave to his whole appearance satyr, altogether in keeping with the tone of his discourse, which not seldom breathed forth a vein of latent mockery, and pursued, with bitter expressions of scorn and irony, every arrogant pretender to wisdom and virtue." He possessed a strong body, and was capable of great endurance. He took part in the Peloponnesian war as a heavy-armed soldier, and
his large,
somewhat of the
won
by his strength and His wife Xanthippe was a notorious scold, for courage. which, no doubt, she had too much occasion; but he endured her railing with a truly model patience and
the admiration of his associates
resignation.
GKEECE.
Socrates left
57
two of
his
no writings but Plato and Xenophon, most distinguished disciples, have given full
;
accounts of his teaching.
He did
not establish a private
gymnasia and public walks, conversing with whoever was willing to listen to him. At a later period, when his reputation had been established, a circle of youths gathered around him as disciHe affected great ignorance and his superiority ples. over others he based on the fact that he alone was conschool, but frequented the
;
scious of ignorance.
Often a tiresome talker and an endless quibbler, Socrates yet held many noble truths that placed him in advance of his age. He believed that the world was
created
this
by one almighty God same great Being that it

;
through virtuous living ; capabilities and immortal nature, is the noblest part of man ; and that virtue, and not wealth, is the secret of
" Then shalt thou, my Aristodemus," he happiness. " understand that there is a whose
says,
it is maintained by our duty to serve him that the soul, with its vast
that
is
being
eye
open to sound extended to all places, extending through every all time, and whose bounty and care can know no other bound than those fixed by his own creation." In reference to the immortality of the soul, he says " No man of sense will believe what the myths teach respecting
is
;
:
pierceth throughout all nature, and
whose ear
another
life
but that a
new
sojourn, analogous to that
which is promised us, awaits the soul truly immortal, It is necessary, is, it seems to me, what we may believe.
then, that one should venture himself
upon this thought, and delight himself with this hope. Let him take confidence in his soul, he who has renounced as foreign
58
the pleasures of the body, he who has loved science, he who has adorned his soul with its true beauty temperance, strength, liberty, truth ; and let him hold
justice,
himself ready for departure from the world, against the
hour when destiny
shall call for
him."
The
pedagogy
in a history of principal significance of Socrates He is is found in his method of teaching.
the inventor, or, at least, the chief representative of the developing method. "Without a fixed system of philoso-
phy, he
made
truth the object of his inquiry.
He
plied
his interlocutor
with skillful questions, forcing him to Were careful definition and fundamental principles. these in any way defective, the fact was pointed out
with unpretentious but merciless and exasperating perSocrates forced sistency. "With little positive instruction, his hearers to the utmost mental activity and productiveness.
and
it is
" "I produce no wisdom, myself," he says, thrown up to me that I ask others correctly
if
as questions without answering anything myself,
were incapable of proper replies. The reason is, that God compels me to help others bring forth, while withI am by no means holding that power from me. Hence, a wise man, and have no wisdom as the product of my own spirit to show. But those who have been with me have made incredible progress, as appears to them and And so much is certain, that they have to others. never learned anything from me, but have only themselves discovered very much that is beautiful, and have In this production, God and I have held it fast.
helped."
his
It only remains to speak of the sad circumstances, of death. His virtue and his obtrusiveness became
GREECE.
offensive to the Athenians
at length
:
59
an indictment was " Socrates is guilty bronght against of crime first, for not worshiping the gods whom the worships, and for introducing new divinities of his
;
him
in these terms
city
own
is
The penalty due for corrupting the youth. ; next, The trial took place before a court of five death."
hundred and fifty-seven judges. Socrates might easily have disproved the charges, but he conducted his defense in such a preposterous and exasperating manner that he was found guilty and condemned to death by He refused to make his escape from prison. poison. The last day of his life he spent in discoursing with his
friends
upon the immortality
of the soul.
When
the
hour of death came, he quietly drank the hemlock, and passed away with the calmness and dignity becoming
the philosopher. " " Xenophon concludes his Memorabilia of Socrates with these words : " Of those who knew what sort of a
man
Socrates was, such as were lovers of virtue, continue to regret him above all other men, even to the present day, as having contributed in the highest degree
to their
advancement in goodness.
To me, being
such
as I have described him, so pious that he did nothing without the sanction of the gods ; so just, that he wronged
no man even in the most trifling affair, but was of servwho enjoyed ice, in the most important matters, to those that he never preferred pleashis society so temperate,
;
ure to virtue; so wise, that he never erred in distinguishing better from worse, needing no counsel from
others, but being sufficient in himself to discriminate between them ; so able to explain and settle such ques-
tions
by argument; and
so capable of discerning the
60
character of others, of confuting those who were in to error, and of exhorting them to virtue and honor
me,
of
as the best and happiest any one disapproves of my opinion, let him compare the conduct of others with that of Socrates, and determine accordingly." I say,
he seemed
be.
to
be such
if
men would
But
(E.)
PLATO.
The most
distinguished pupil of Socrates was Plato.
This philosopher, born in the year 429 B. c., traced his descent to Solon, and Codrus, an ancient king of Athens. In youth he received a careful education, and devoted
himself for a time to poetry; but, after becoming acquainted with Socrates in his twentieth year, he gave himself up wholly to the study of philosophy. In pursuit of knowledge, he traveled in Egypt, and then in
Italy,
where he
visited the school of Pythagoras.
At
length, after many changes of fortune, he returned in his fortieth year to Athens, his native city, and devoted
himself to gratuitous teaching.
"With his philosophy,
which was
idealistic,
we have
nothing to do.
"Plato," says Lewes, "was intensely melancholy. That great, broad brow, which gave him his surname, was wrinkled and somber. Those brawny shoulders
were bent with thought, as only those of thinkers are smile was the utmost that ever played over his bent. As sad as Plato,' became a he never laughed. lips with the comic dramatists. He had many adphrase mirers scarcely any friends. In Plato, the thinker predominated over the man. That great, expansive intellect had so fixed itself upon the absorbing questions
'
GREECE.
of philosophy that
it
61
left for
had scarcely any sympathy

first
other matters."
To
Plato belongs the honor of
subjecting edu-
cation to a scientific examination. " a " work
This he does in his

state,
Republic
Utopian
sketching an ideal
Though yet containing withal many noble thoughts. possessing considerable interest, his views remained
without any perceptible effect upon Grecian education, and may therefore be passed over briefly.
According
"
1.
to Plato, the soul consists of three parts
ure,
wild, but capable of being tamed ; 2. The spirit, the element of courage, which may be enlisted on the side of either good or evil ; 3. The philosophic element " the source of wisdom, cult" The of education is to control
appetite,
is
The
which
and
love.
duty
the appetite, and so to balance the other elements of the soul that each may tend to the perfection of the other."
Plato
made education the
business of the state, re-
minding us of the Persian and Spartan systems. All interests, whether of the family or of the individual,
were subordinated to the state. community of wives, caste system children, and property was advocated. was proposed, the people being divided into rulers, warOf these, only the first two riors, and common people. were to be educated. Moral education was made promiTales and myths were to be made vehicles of nent. moral instruction, and whatever in poetry or sculpture tended to immorality was to be rigidly excluded from the state. The cardinal virtues were courage, truthfulness, self-control, honor to parents, and love for one's The course of study embraced arithfellow-citizens. metic, geometry, astronomy, harmonics, and philosophy
62
TEE ANCIENT CLASSICAL NATIONS.
which was looked upon as the queen of all sciences. Gymnastics was commended, not simply for bodily deits happy influence upon the Dancing was added to the ckssical cycle of gymnastic exercises, though such forms as might be prejuMusic was dicial to good morals were condemned. commended. Dramatic and epic poetry were to highly " To be banished from the republic. lyric poetry," says Bitter, "he is more favorably disposed, but requires that it, abstaining from all seductive ornament or sentiment, and recommending nothing indecent or unbecomdue reverence, the praises of ing, should only sing, with and heroes. This species of poetry he allows to be gods
velopment, but also for

soul.
which
cultivated in the state under the direction of authority, is experienced in good."

(F.)
ARISTOTLE.
"We conclude our inquiry with a study of the profoundest thinker that
totle,
Greece produced.
whom
an able
German
This is Aris" the writer has called
Alexander of the intellectual world." He was born at In youth he went to Stagira, in Macedonia, 384 B. c. he was a member of Plato's school for Athens, where twenty years. His eminent abilities soon became the subject of remark, and he was called by the philosopher " the intellect of his school." Unlike his great theorizAristotle was a careful and practical invesing teacher, his genius and industry in tigator, and he succeeded by circle of knowledge as it then excompassing the whole isted. He created the science of logic, and made valuable contributions to
ing.
many
other departments of learn-
GREECE.
63
when his fame as a phihad become established, he was appointed losopher He enjoyed the teacher of Alexander the Great. esteem of both Philip and Alexander, and rehighest ceived at their hands many marks of distinguished favor among these may be mentioned the restoration of his native town, Stagira, which had been destroyed by war, and the erection there of a gymnasium for his
At
the age of forty-seven,
Though having the royal pupil under his charge less than four years, he did much in molding his mind and character, and the effects of his teaching were afterward discernible in the conqueror's
philosophical lectures.
life.
"When about
opened
;
fifty,
Aristotle returned to
as the
a school
known
a circle of disciples as nues and this fact has given to his school of philosophy the name Peripatetic. In the morning he gave to
Athens and Lyceum. He lectured to he walked about the shady ave-
upon some abstruse subject ; in the afternoon he delivered a popular lecture to a wider " As to the unfavorable circle of hearers. reports of the character of Aristotle," says Kitter, "we have alselect pupils a lecture
ready weighed the greater part of them
means
; they by no imputation of low or dishonorable justify any In his works, on the other hand, we see him feelings.
the calm and sober inquirer, who does not, like Plato, pursue a lofty ideal, but keeps carefully in view the
proximately practicable, and
is
not easily misled into
any His
extravagance, either of language or of thought. principal object is to examine truth under all her
aspects, never to step beyond the probable, and to bring his philosophical system in unison with the general
(54:
and confirmed by comopinions of men, as supported and experience." mon sense, observation, Notwithstanding his greatness, Aristotle was hemmed
in
by the
limitations of his age.

is
The end
of education
the useful and happy citizen. "While atwith him undue importance to the state, as Plato had taching the rights of done, he still recognized, in some degree, and the individual. The state was to mainthe family tain a general supervision over education, while the details were to be left to individual preference and judgto the prevalent view of the time, ment.
According
slaves
women and
Physical
;
of education.
2.
The order
;
were to be shut out from the benefits of education should be 1.

3. Scientific.
Moral
The purpose
of phys-
ical training,
however, was
not, as in Sparta, the devel-
of healthful opment of brute force, but the production In moral education, correct vigor and manly courage.
were to precede theoretic teaching, the child beof the virtues that were ing brought up in the exercise matter of precept. Dialectics, or the to form later the art of disputation, was the basis of scientific training, since it served as a mental gymnastic and led to the acsciences. of the Drawing was inhabits
higher the moral nature of man, was ing no connection with not regarded as of much importance. Khetoric, philosdue attention. " Music, acophy, and politics received with singing, so far as it is subservient to
philosophic quisition sisted on as a useful means of developing the sense of forms, as havthe beautiful. Mathematics in its
companied
reason of its great education, ought to be encouraged by in which respect, however, its apinfluence on manners, narrow. But it has other uses ; it tends is
plication
very
ROME.
65
to purify the passions of the soul, as is especially the case with tragedy, and is good for recreation and for a
resource in leisure."
The
acquisition of
knowledge was
looked upon as naturally agreeable, and the method of from the proceeding from the known to the unknown,
concrete to the abstract, was clearly pointed out. The theories of these three great thinkers, Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle,
made no
visible impress
upon the
This study of their educational practice of their time. views has been interesting and necessary only as showcould ing the height to which the heathen intelligence
attain.
The
are of
no great use
educational theories of these philosophers to us, except as containing here and
there a valuable hint and preparing the way for a fullorbed conception of education. The heathen world
could not produce a system of education suited to the wants of Christian civilization.
2.
ROME.
Ancient
it
Rome
has a history extending through
years. During this long period passed through various stages of development. From a condition of weakness and barbarism, it rose to be the
more than a thousand
imposing mistress of the world and the chief representaIt gathered into its arms the tive of human progress.
elements of Grecian and Oriental culture, and, as its end drew nigh, it scattered them freely over the rest of
Europe.
Rome
has been the bearer of culture to the

trace the course of education through
modern world. To
the whole extent of
Roman history would prove tedious, and bring us no compensating advantage. Our inquiry
66
must be limited to a single typical period. This we find in the age of Augustus, when Roman character and Roman culture produced their richest fruits. It is the age
of Cicero and Yirgil.
Roman
history and
striking
character,
which
lies at
the basis of
Roman
It is in culture, deserves a passing word. Both are incontrast with Grecian character.
with teresting, but one-sided and defective. The Greek, his restless, lively, emotional nature, was aesthetic, worthe beautiful; the Roman, with his rugged
shiping
the useful. These strength, was practical, reverencing of character are complementary of each other; types
and when united and ennobled by Christianity, they present the highest form of manhood. The Roman, no doubt, received from nature someafterward thing of this practical tendency, which was
fostered
by outward circumstances.
The
small colony
that first settled
on the banks of the Tiber was
hemmed
in
by was repressed.
hostile communities.
Freedom of development Unless they consented to give up their
their very existence, the Roindividuality, or perhaps mans were forced to conquer a place in Italy. This
warlike spirit necessity called forth an aggressive,

at the
and awakened an ardent patriotism and the factors which produced thrifty industry. These are Rome's prosperity. To the Roman, life was serious; The finest feelings his manner was stately and grave. of humanity, the domestic and social affections, the refined pleasures of literature and art, were sacrificed for
;
same time
it
the sterner duties of framing laws, constructing aqueducts and highways, declaring wars, and leading armies. The spirit of conquest characterized the Romans, and
ROME.
67
they should be taught the nature of the state and the regulaOur country has borne and tions of our forefathers. educated us on the condition that we consecrate to its
service the best
utilitarian in all their views and aims. " The Utilitarianism determined education. children of " are the Komans," says Cicero, brought up that they some time be useful to the country, and hence may
made them
powers of our
spirit, talent,
and under-
standing; therefore we must learn the arts through which we can serve the state, for I hold that to be the greatest wisdom and the highest virtue."
The family life of Rome marked a notable advance over that of Greece and the Oriental countries. The
worth of
woman began
to receive proper recognition.
Polygamy was not tolerated. In theory, the husband was unlimited master, and even held the right of life and
death over his children
;
but, in practice, the wife,
by
her virtues and
tact,
softened the sternness of his au-
thority and arrived at undisputed control in the houseThe type of womanhood produced in the best hold. of Rome was admirable. Its leading traits were days
attractive dignity, strong motherly instincts, and lovely domestic virtues. Not diamonds or pearls, but her. two
rosy-cheeked boys, were Cornelia's most precious jewels.

tastefully frugally, and found delight in caring for her chilFor the first six or seven years she was their dren.
The Roman matron managed her household
and
and with the utmost fidelity she formed and moral sentiments. It was not till the age of degeneracy had set in that Roman mothers intrusted their children to nurses and pedagogues. Elementary instruction in school began with the
only teacher
;
their language, ideas,
68
seventh
embraced reading, writing, and year, and The teacher of the primary school was arithmetic. The general custom was to teach the called literator.
names and order of the letters before their forms a method that Quintilian properly criticises. In connection with spelling and reading, great care was bestowed upon pronunciation. By degrees the easier poets were read and explained, and choice passages were learned by heart. Writing was taught by inscribing a copy on a waxen tablet or board, and allowing the pupil to follow the outline of the letters with the stylus. After which reading and writing came the art of reckoning, to was attached because of its value in busiimportance The fingers and an abacus of pebbles were extenness.
employed; and, through repeated mental exerthe pupil was accustomed to compute with rapidcises, In one of his odes, Horace presents us a picture of ity. Home with slate and boys passing along the streets of
sively
satchel, not unlike
what may be seen
in the
modern
town.
The
school regulations were exacting, and the dissufficiently severe.
cipline was
Obedience and modesty
were, looked upon as important qualities. The pupils were required to be neat in dress and cleanly in person, On entering the and to observe a quiet decorum. the teacher with a respectful school-room, they greeted
The Corporal punishment was employed. was the ordinary instrument of punishment but, in case of grave faults, the rod or whip was also used. The primary training of the child ended with the twelfth year, when he was handed over to the literatus The in order to receive more advanced instruction.
salutation.
ferule
ROME.
69
Greek language was taken up, and grammar was careFor the culture of the understanding, fully studied.
the best writers, particularly the poets, were employed, among whom may be mentioned Homer, Virgil, JEsop,
were committed to was attached to history, memory. Especial importance and several Romans have won celebrity by the extent and accuracy of their historical knowledge. Poetry, and criticism were other subjects oratory, philosophy,
and Cicero.
Poems and
orations
studied under the literatus.
The schools were private enterprises. The teachers of the primary schools did not stand in high esteem, as the literator was often a person who had failed in other The literati, however, were frequently able
,
callings.
and distinction, especially if they were called to the instruction of the imperial princes. The public schools were not generally patronized by The moral tone of these the higher classes of society. schools was low and the vitiated air, with which the rooms were filled, was felt to be prejudicial to health.
to attain to wealth
;
it was common to employ private tutors ; or, as case of ^Emilius Paulus, the conqueror of Macein the donia, to keep Greek teachers permanently attached to
Hence
the house.
At
fifteen or sixteen, the
young Roman assumed
the dress of manhood, known as the toga virilis. It devolved upon him to choose his calling, and to direct
his subsequent studies in reference to
it.
Agriculture,
arms, politics, law, and oratory were open to him. In his choice the young Roman, with his utilitarianism,
was determined more by the prospect of accumulating

wealth than by the dignity of the calling.
Agriculture,
70
which was held in great esteem, was selected by those
who
The
art of
lacked ability to achieve success in other pursuits. war was acquired in the field ; politics, law,
and oratory were learned in the forum, courts, and senate, under the guidance of some distinguished patron. Eloquence, as the surest road to popularity and success, was studied with assiduity. Theory and practice were combined. wide course of reading was pursued in
; for, according to a saying of Cicero's, the orator ought to know everything. Such is a history of education in Home during .the
this connection
golden age.
It is the period which followed the subjuof Greece, and the absorption of Grecian literagation ture and art. It stands in decided contrast with the
rough simplicity of the earlier and purely Roman civilization, which was intensely utilitarian, and hostile to the The elder Cato may be rehighest forms of culture.
garded as the embodiment of this earlier Roman spirit. He used his influence to repress the influx of Grecian
learning.
He
wrote to his son

it,
prophet had said
" Believe me, as if a that the Greeks are a worthless and

:
If this people diffuse their literature incorrigible race. among us, it will corrupt everything." His fears, not of the literature of the Greeks, but of their vices, were
and as has happened at later only too well founded in the world's history, brilliant culture went periods
;
hand in hand with deep moral degradation.
The
educa-
tional practice of this earlier period is well exemplified by Cato. As Plutarch tells us, this sturdy Roman
taught his son to read, "although he had a servant, a
very good grammarian, called Chilo, who taught many others ; but he thought not fit, as he himself said, to
ROME.
71
have his son reprimanded by a slave, or pulled, it may nor be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson
;
would he have him owe
to a servant the obligation of
so great a thing as his learning ; he himself, therefore, taught him his grammar, law, and his gymnastic exercises.
Nor
did he only show him, too,
how
to
throw a
dart, to fight in armor, and to ride, but to box also, and to endure both heat and cold, and to swim over the
most rapid and roughest rivers. He says, likewise, that he wrote histories, in large characters, with his own
hand, that so his son, without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about his countrymen and forefathers
nor did he less abstain from speaking anything ; obscene before his son, than if it had been in the presence of the sacred virgins, called vestals."
In completing this sketch of Roman education, which has been called practical, it only remains to present the views of two or three distinguished Romans who have treated of the subject in their writings.
(A.) CICEEO.
Cicero, the distinguished orator and philosopher, is perhaps the best representative of his age, combining in himself the highest Roman and Grecian culture.
Born
c., of a noble family, he was under the best teachers of the time. At sixteen he assumed the manly gown, and studied He afterward traveled in law, oratory, and philosophy. Greece and Asia for the purpose of study. At Rhodes he studied oratory with Apollonius, a celebrated rhetorician, at whose request he once delivered a declamation in Greek. When he had finished, the auditors were
in the year 106 B.
educated at
Rome
72
profuse in their praises; but Apollonius, after main" You have taining a sorrowful silence for a time, said
:
my praise and admiration, Cicero, and Greece my pity and commiseration, since those arts and that eloquence, which are the only glories that remain to her, will now
be transferred by you to Rome." After his return to them Italy, he filled several important offices, among the consulship, in which his services were so eminent that he received at the hands of his grateful country-
men
the proud
last, after
many
of "father of his country." At changes of fortune, he was murdered by

title
emissaries of Antony, against series of philippics.
whom
he had delivered a
character of Cicero has been admirably por" "With the nicest knowledge of men trayed by Eitter without which no orator can be great, he and things,
:
The
and benevolence, love remained true to him through the for his friends, who various changes of his fortunes unwearying diligence, and a shrewd and comprehensive forecast of future events, and the inevitable consequences of the present To be as great as he was brilliant in position of affairs.
combined a
fine sense of justice
political life,
he only wanted that perfect enthusiasm
which
own
engendered in the mind by confidence in its resources, and resolute firmness in the moment of
is
action."
During
his later years, Cicero
employed
his leisure
in writing a number of philosophical works, in several of which he has set forth more or less completely his
views of education.
should be
just,
He demanded of
teachers that they
and neither too mild nor too severe. Punishment should be resorted to only after other means
ROME.
of discipline have failed;
it
f3
should have nothing de-
grading in its form, and should never be administered in anger, as it is then impossible to observe moderation.
from the
says,
The pupil should be made to feel that correction springs Cicero held noble desire to do him good. views of man. "The man who knows himself," he
" will find within himself traces of the divine
;
and,
while he considers himself an image of the Deity, he will be careful to avoid those feelings and actions which The soul is derived would injure this great gift.
. . .
immediately from the Deity. It retains ties of relationship with celestial beings and hence it comes to pass that, amid all animated nature, man is the only creature which possesses the knowledge of a Supreme Being.
;
possession of this knowledge is, then, sufficient to man to point to his upward origin. Nature has placed in us certain necessary and elementary notions,
entitle
The
which form the
basis of all true
wisdom and
science."
Education should begin with the earliest childhood; and during this sensitive period the amusements and surroundings should be favorable to refinement and in-
The memory should be cultivated ; and, to telligence. this end, extracts from Grecian and Roman writers
should be learned by heart. Religion is wisely placed at the basis of moral culture. The young man should
him.
choose a calling for which his tastes and abilities fit The study of Greek was held important ; but the
which Cicero himself was deficient, were but lightly esteemed. The study of politics and philosophy was looked upon as the highest intellectual
natural sciences, in
pursuit.
74

(B.)
SENECA.
Seneca, who has been placed by a distinguished author among the heathen " seekers after God," lived during a period of great moral degeneracy a fact that
renders the purity of his philosophical teachings all the more remarkable. He was born at Cordova, in Spain, two years before the beginning of the Christian era.
quite young he was taken by his father to Rome "The things taught," says Canon be educated. " were Farrar, chiefly arithmetic, grammar both Greek and Latin, reading, and the repetition of the chief Latin poets. There was also a good deal of recitation and of theme-writing on all kinds of trite historical subThe arithmetic seems to have been mainly of a jects. very simple and severely practical kind, especially the computation of interest and compound interest; and the philology generally, both grammar and criticism, was singularly narrow, uninteresting, and useless. Of what conceivable advantage can it have been to any human being to know the name of the mother of Hecu-
When
to
ba, of the nurse of Anchises, of the step-mother of
An-
chemolus, the number of years Acestes lived, and how many casks of wine the Sicilians gave to the Phrygians ?
Yet
these were the despicable minutiae which every schoolmaster was then expected to have at his fingers' ends, and every boy-scholar to learn at the point of the
ferule
moment
which was only fit to be unlearned the was known. For this kind of verbal criticism and fantastic archaeology Seneca, who had probably gone through it all, expresses a profound and very
trash
it
rational contempt."
After traveling some time in Greece and Egypt,
ROME.
75
Seneca returned to
Rome
and pleaded in the courts of
He was subselaw, meeting with eminent success. banished to Corsica for eight years, which pequently " riod he spent in philosophical studies. There is no " where man can not dwell land," he wrote at this time, no land where he can not uplift his eyes to heaven ;
wherever we
are, the distance of
the divine from the
human
So, then, so long as my eyes are not robbed of that spectacle with which they can not be satiated, so long as I may look upon the sun and
remains the same.
moon, and fix my lingering gaze on the other constellations, and consider their rising and setting and the spaces between them and the causes of their less and
greater speed while I may contemplate the multitude of stars glittering throughout the heaven, some station-
some revolving, some suddenly blazing forth, others dazzling the gaze with a flood of fire as though they fell, and others leaving over a long space their trails of light while I am in the midst of such phenomena, and mingle
ary,
;
myself, as far as a man may, with things celestial while my soul is ever occupied in contemplations so " sublime as these, what matters it what ground I tread ?
Upon
his recall to
Rome, he was appointed
tutor to
Nero ; but, in spite of the excellence of his instruction, he was unable to control the depraved passions of his He was finally condemned to death in the year pupil.
a standing testimony to the injustice and corruption of his age. Some of Seneca's teachings are in striking accord " he with Scripture truth, " God is near us," he says ; dwells within us who watches divine spirit is in us.
65
A. D.
over us and observes our evil and our good.
With-
76
out God, no
is
man
can be good."
He
believed that
man
It is the office of educanaturally inclined to evil. correct the evil tendencies of our nature. tion to The
teacher should exert a purifying and elevating influ-
ence upon his pupils, leading them by precept and example to virtue. In punishment there should be
no anger, which destroys the benefit of chastisement. "Who condemns quickly," Seneca says, "condemns willingly; and who punishes too much, punishes imIn deah'ng with pupils, differences of character should be taken into consideration. The destiny
properly."
man is thought and action; and both capacities should be cultivated. multiplicity of studies, ending in superficiality, should be avoided, and thorough work
of
narrow compass insisted on. The study of nature was regarded as important for it is here that the works of the Deity are investigated and wisdom acquired for the proper ordering of life. Gymnastics was held as serviceable when pursued with moderation but, when employed to form the athlete, it was thought to exhaust the mind and render it unfit for study. The faithful and competent teacher stood high in Seneca's estimation. " What the " who instructs us in the teacher," he says, sciences imparts to us in noble effort and intellectual culture is worth more than he receives for, not the
in a
;
; " ;
matter, but the trouble

labor, is paid for."
(c.)
not the desert, but only the
QTJINTILLAN.
Quintilian, the celebrated writer on rhetoric, was born at Calahorra, in Spain, about the year 42 A. D. and, like most other great men of his time, he was educated
;
ROME.
at the metropolis.
77
He
devoted himself for a time to
the practice of law, in which he achieved considerable success ; but he finally abandoned this calling to become a teacher of oratory, in which he won a high and endur-
ing reputation.
was invested by Yespasian with consular dignity, and granted an allowance from the first Roman teacher that public treasury. He was the and honored with the title was salaried by the state
"professor of eloquence."
He
He
taught in
Rome
for
many twenty years, and numbered among he wrote his distinguished names. In his later years " Institutes of a Oratory," in which he has presented valuable treamost complete scheme of education the
his pupils
tise
on the subject that has come down
to us
from
an-
tiquity.
He
tive capacities cherish the best
entertained a favorable opinion of the naof children, and admonished parents to
hopes of their offspring. Nurses should as they have speak correctly and have good morals, The charge of children at the most impressible period. chosen for the children should pedagogues subsequently
ability, which Quintilian or they should at least be conscious of greatly preferred, their want of learning, and thus remain themselves
either be
men of acknowledged
docile.
as they
would naturally acquire Latin
Children should begin with the Greek language, yet the study of
;
the vernacular should not be long deferred, lest a pure should not be postpronunciation be lost. Education as was customary at that time, till the seventh poned, with the earliest childhood. but should
year,
begin
Amusements should be
utilized as
means of
instruction.
Care should be exercised not to give the child a distaste for learning. Something can be learned during this
78
early age
;

" and whatever " is an
is
gained in infancy," Quin-
The forms acquisition to youth." and names of the letters should be learned simultaneously and whatever devices in the way of playthings might facilitate this knowledge should be employed.
tilian says,
;
Writing should be learned by following copies cut in wood or inscribed in wax. In learning to read, the child should advance slowly, mastering the elements Public schools should be preferred to private fully.
instruction
; for, without exposing pupils to any greater danger, they supply the stimulating influence of asso-
ciation, friendship,
and example.
The
disposition
and
Precocity is often deceptive, lacking solidity and endurance. Integ"That rity and self-control should be taught early.
ability of each pupil
should be studied.
boys should suffer corporal punishment," Quintilian says, "I by no means approve ; first, because it is a dis-
and a punishment for slaves secondly, beif a boy's disposition be so abject as not to be amended by reproof, he will be hardened, like the worst of slaves, even by stripes and, lastly, because, if one who regularly exacts his tasks be with him, there will not be the least need of any such chastisement." Under the literatus, the pupil should pursue grammar, composition, music, geometry, astronomy, and literature. Greek and Latin authors should be read with judicious criticism and all necessary historical explanations. Lastly, the student should pass to the rhetorician to complete his course. Special regard should be had to the moral character of the teacher and to his qualifications. The teacher of eminent abilities is the best to teach little things as well as great things, and he is likely to have a
grace,
;
. .
.
cause
ROME.
79
better class of pupils. Severity in criticism should be to say," Quintilian tells us, "with "I used avoided. regard to some compositions, that I was satisfied with
them
I should not allow a character."

pils
for the present, but that a time would come when them to produce compositions of such
The natural tastes and capacities of pushould be regarded, though not to too great an exshould strengthen what is weak and supply tent.
We
what
is
deficient.
III.
CHRISTIAN EDUCATION BEFORE THE REFORMATION.

1.
THE RELATION OF CHRISTIANITY

THE
TO EDUCATION.
controlled
education of paganism was imperfect. It was by wrong principles, and confined within too
all its fullness.
narrow
limits.
vidual in
It did not grasp the worth of the indiIt never freed itself from the
narrowness of national character.
aimed
at
tion, at
Grecian education forming the beautiful Greek Roman educaforming the practical Roman. But, with the
;
in history.
advent of Christ into the world, there came a new era New truths were thrown into the world
which were destined to change its character. " In lowliness and humility," says Dr. Philip Schaff, "in the form of a servant as to the flesh, yet effulgent with .divine glory, the Saviour came forth from a despised corner of the earth; destroyed the power of evil in our
nature
;
realized in his spotless
life,
and in
his suffer-
lifted the ings, the highest idea of virtue and piety; world with his pierced hands out of its distress ; recon-
mankind to God, and gave a new direction to the whole current of history." "With his coming, the world
ciled
started
upon the period of
its final
development.
When
RELATION OF CHRISTIANITY TO EDUCATION.
81
the truths announced by him have exhausted their force the end. upon mankind, then conies The wide-reaching influences of Christianity have has placed profoundly affected education. Christianity foundation. In education upon a new and immovable that God is the common Father of all men, it
teaching
removes from education the fetters of national limits and prejudices. It gives the world the great thought beof the brotherhood of mankind a thought whose In making realized. nign effects have not yet been fully one a child of God, stamped with the impress of every due importance the divine Christianity attaches
image,
to the individual.
makes him the object of redempthe heir of eternal life. He tion, the steward of God, Chrisin himself. is made to possess an endless worth teaches that all men are alike before God, who tianity " is no With this mighty truth, respecter of persons." class and caste it sweeps away the false distinctions of have weighed so heavily upon Oriental countries. which In enforcing the law of brotherly It abolishes slavery. seeks to overthrow the injustice and
It love, Christianity
the duty of personal oppressions of society. Inculcating sancit seeks to abolish the vices which were holiness, the philosophy, religion, and society of the tioned by Greancient world, and which polluted and undermined civilization. It elevates marriage into a Roman
cian
and
divine
rite.
It
makes the wife the friend and com-
their union symbolizing that of panion of her husband, Church. Children are looked upon as Christ with his of God. Christ took them up in his arms and the
gift
blessed them.
So
far
from having the right
to expose
his children to death, according to the universal
custom
82

"
among pagan nations, the parent is required to bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord."
These are some of the great truths of Christianity which have changed the character both of civilization and of
education.
2.
THE FOUNDER OF
CHRISTIANITY.
its
The
life
of Christ, apart from
religious signifi-
cance in the world's redemption, is well worth a careful It is now nearly nineteen centuries since his study.
birth.
During
its
this vast period, the
world has moved
forward in
sum
The gigantic process of development. of human knowledge has been immeasurably in-
new arts and sciences have arisen, yet the life The of Christ stands forth in unapproachable beauty. minds of modern times, with the docility of the greatest
creased,
acknowledged
Galilean fishermen, have paid him the tribute of reverThe brilliant and skeptical Rousseau ent admiration. that " the life and death of Jesus Christ
The great German, Herder, said, are those of a God." " Jesus Christ is in the noblest and most perfect sense one will deny the the realized ideal of humanity."
No
intellectual greatness of Napoleon, yet he has said of Christ : " His birth and the story of his life, the pro-
foundness of his doctrine, which overturns

culties,
all
diffi-
and
is
their
most complete solution
his gospel,
the singularity of his mysterious being, his appearance,

his empire, his progress through all centuries and kingdoms all this is to me a prodigy, an unfathomable
mystery.
Christ."
I defy
life
you
to cite another life like that of
Human
is
an unbroken unity, and our early
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY.
83
years, like the infant oak, contain the elements of our
future being. As childhood is a peculiarly susceptible and imitative period, the influences and training belonging to it are largely determinative of our destiny. Leav-
ing out of account Christ's divine nature, before which

as a mystery, we may trace, as in the case of other men, those influences which contributed to his in-
we bow
spiritual development. Nazareth, his native town, is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills. Flowers grow upon the slopes and
tellectual
and
in the hollows
birds
fill
breezes blow from the

is
the air with songs ; refreshing sea, and a bright canopy of blue
stretched over the landscape. favorable surroundings, Christ
In the midst of these
grew up
in
sympathy
with Nature ; and, in after-years, he was able to draw wonderful lessons from " the birds of the air and the
tion
As the Jewish system of educahad changed but little, the domestic circle at NazaFrom Joseph he reth was probably his only school. received formal instruction in the Jewish law, while the gentleness and piety of Mary were not without influence in molding his character. He profited, no doubt, by the weekly synagogue service, and, on his annual visits to the holy city, dwelt fondly upon its wondrous
flowers of the field."
associations.
with its deep religious are apparent throughout Christ's subsequent significance, career. At twelve years of age, he confounded the
results of this training,
The
doctors in the temple ; afterward he repulsed the repeated assaults of Satan in the wilderness ; he vindicated
his Messiahship by the testimony of the prophets ; he baffled the cunning of the Pharisees by his profound
81
ple,
acquaintance with Scripture. When he taught the peohe. called forth the testimony that "never man
spiritual truths.
spake as this man." He announced new and profound In a word, he raised himself abo've all
others
whom
millions yet to-day regard as their grandest
Buddha, Confucius, Mohammed to say nothing of Greek and Roman sages are not worthy to be compared with Christ. In his manner of instructing his disciples and the multitudes that gathered around him, Christ has given us valuable lessons in method. His heart goes out toward his hearers in the tenderest sympathy he " was moved with compassion toward them, because they were as sheep not having a shepherd." His teaching is adapted to the capacity of his hearers, and is usually connected with some outward circumstance that renders it more impressive. He observes the order of Nature, and seeks only a gradual development " first the blade,
teachers.
;
then the
ear, after that
the full corn in the ear."
With
his disciples,
upon the practical and fundamental truths of religion, building, as it were, a

he
insists chiefly
substantial
Spirit " One finds in his beautiful completion. programme," " neither literary studies nor course says a French writer,
was
framework in the beginning, which the Holy to conduct afterward to a harmonious and
of theology.
moment of
fishermen
And yet, strange as it may seem, when the those unlettered action arrives, the disciples have become orators that move the multi;
tudes and confound the doctors profound thinkers that have sounded the Scriptures and the human heart; writers that give to the world immortal books in a lan-
guage not their mother-tongue."
THE FOUNDER OP CHRISTIANITY.
85
teachings of Christ which affect education have been considered. It is true, as Paroz has said, already that " Jesus Christ, in founding a new religion, has laid
The
the foundations of a
new
education in the bosom of
own person the humanity. moral development toward which we are to perfect tend a development which the wisdom of the ancients scarcely caught glimpses of and he has opened to us,
has exhibited in his
He
by
his death
and
resurrection,
by
his
word and the Holy
Spirit, the way toward this ideal. way, the truth, and the life,' and
He
we
is
indeed 'the
can say of those
who would
what
*
banish him from education and the school Paul said of the Jews hostile to Christ, that they are the enemies of the human race.' The testimony of Karl Schmidt is no less striking and emphatic " By word and deed," he says, " in and with his whole life Christ is the teacher and educator Henceforth there is no higher wisdom of mankind. than that exhibited by Christ, that God is a spirit, and that they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth no greater truth than this, that God
St.
':
:
dwells essentially in man, that God is the true, divine ' Thou shalt being of man ; no diviner duty than this
:
love the Lord thy
God with
all
thy heart, and with

is
is
all
thy soul, and with all thy mind. This great commandment. And the second
the
first
and
it,
like unto
thy neighbor as thyself.' That is absolute truth, doctrine for all time, in the appropriation and realization of which lies the task of mankind, while
shalt love
Thou
in the person of Christ himself the absolute example is given as to whither this truth leads, what it accomplishes,
and
how
it
appears in taking form."
86
S.
BRIEF SURVEY OF THE PERIOD.
The first period of Christian education extends to the Reformation of the sixteenth century. During this long period Christianity did not completely control soand education. Always encountering determined opposition, and having weak and fallible men as its representatives, it has never achieved faultless results. At first its violent contrast with existing customs and morals, and afterward its union with the state, gave it At a one-sided tendencies and crippled its efficiency.
ciety
with the uncultured masses of Northern Europe, and its perversion by a self-seeking, political, and often corrupt priesthood, tainted it with superstition and tyranny.
later period, its contact
Notwithstanding
unfortunate
tendencies
in
the
Church during the first period of Christian educaThe greattion, indispensable work was accomplished. est political power of the earth was brought under the influence of Christianity. The young and vigorous nations of the north of Europe, which at a later time were to be the representatives and bearers of Christian The relics of culture, were converted to Christianity. ancient literature, which were to perform an important office in quickening and forming modern Christian culture, were preserved in the monasteries, and multiplied
by
tireless copyists.
The beginnings
classes,
of popular educauniversities
tion
were made.
as
A thirst
for knowledge was dissemi-
nated among the higher
and
were
part,
founded
centers of intellectual culture.
In
the course of study, both for primary and secondary
BRIEF SURVEY OF THE PERIOD.
87
education, was fixed ; and the mistakes and one-sidedness of educational effort have remained for our instruction.
It is proper to say a word here in reference to the Teutonic race, which received the precious boon of civilization and Christianity from falling Rome, in order
to purify, preserve,
and disseminate
tribes,
world.
The Teutonic
it throughout the the noblest branch of the
great Aryan family, possessed at the beginning of our era certain characteristics that brought them into sym-
pathy with Christianity, and prepared them for its As compared with the Romans in hearty adoption. point of culture, those brave German tribes ranked as
barbarous
;
and nobility of
but, in force of character, purity of morals, feeling, they were far above the Romans.
recognized, in a high degree, the worth of the individual, and were warm defenders of personal freedom. They possessed a deep religious nature, and great rever-
They
Women were held in high Their respect for marriage and their purity of morals were portrayed by Tacitus, in order to shame the
ence and love for the truth.
esteem.
licentiousness of
Rome.
In addition to
all
this,
the
Teutonic races possessed great physical and intellectual vigor, which fitted them to take up the world's develop-
ment
where antiquity, with strength exhad left it. They became the leaders in art, hausted, science, commerce, government, religion, and culture, in all which they made new and extended conquests.
at the point
It is the
Teutonic nations that are chiefly to claim our
attention hereafter.
cation, as
terest.
They are the great leaders in eduare in every other weighty human inthey
58
4.
EDUCATION IN THE EARLY CHURCH.
After these general remarks,
we proceed
to trace the
history of education during the period under consideraEducation in the early Church is tion more in detail.
first
to be considered.
We
shall discover
among
the
primitive Christians an unmistakable incompleteness in educational training ; but, at the same time, we shall
find the highest purity of life and the most self-sacrificing devotion that have been manifested, perhaps, in the
After contemplating the vicious history of our race. of heathen countries, and turning even from our society
cultured civilization, it is delightful to conthe beautiful characteristics of the primitive Chrissider With the early Christians, the adoption of tian life.
Christianity meant the complete exemplification of its Says Justin Martyr, who was born precepts in the life.
own more
about the end of the first century, himself one of the most distinguished Christians " We who once delighted in lewdness now embrace chastity; we who once embraced magical arts have consecrated ourselves to the good and unbegotten God we who loved above all things the gain of money and possessions now bring all that we have into one common stock, and give a portion to every one that needs we who once hated and killed one another now pray for our enemies, and endeavor to conciliate those who unjustly hate us. Now, whosoever are found not to live as Christ taught, let it be
:
known that they are not Christians, though should profess with their tongues the doctrines of they
publicly
Christ."
The marriage relation was almost ideal in its beauty. According to apostolic injunction, marriage between believers only was allowed. Again we let one of the
Church
fathers speak.
:
Tertullian,
who
lived in the
" How second century, says intimate the union between believers! Their hopes, their aspirations, their desires, all the same. They are one in faith and in the
service of their Lord, as they are also in flesh and in heart. In mutual concord they read the Scriptures,
and
fast
and pray together, aiding and sustaining each

;
by mutual instruction and encouragement. They go in company to the house of the Lord they sit toother
gether at his table. In persecution and in want, they bear their mutual burdens, and participate in each other's
They live together in mutual confidence, and in the enjoyment of each other's In the freedom society. of mutual confidence they administer to the sick, relieve
joys.
the needy, distribute their alms, and each freely engages in his religious services without concealment from the
other.
Unitedly they offer their prayers to God, and knowing no rivalry but in these acts of devotion. In such scenes of domestic bliss, Christ resing his praise,
To two so united he grants joices and adds his peace. his presence ; and where he is no evil can abide."
Education among the early Christians has been beau" The tender solicitude tifully portrayed by Coleman.
of these early Christians for the religious instruction of their children," he says, " is one of their most beautiful
characteristics.
dawn
They taught them even at the earliest of intelligence the sacred names of God and the Saviour. They sought to lead the infant minds of their children up to God, familiar narratives from
by
Script-
90
ore, of Joseph, of young Samuel, of Josiah, and of the holy child Jesus. The history of the patriarchs and
prophets, apostles and holy men, whose lives are narrated in the sacred volume, were the nursery-tales with
which they sought

children.
to
form the tender minds of
their
As
it
ents
made
of the child expanded, the partheir sacred duty and delightful task daily
the
mind
him in the recital of select passages of Scripture relating to the doctrines and duties of religion. The Bible was the entertainment of the fireside. It was the
to exercise
first,
the
last,
the only school-book almost, of the child
and sacred psalmody, the only song with which his infant cry was hushed as he was lulled to rest on his mother's arm. The sacred song and the rude melody of its music were, from the earliest periods of Christian antiquity, an important means of impressing the infant heart with sentiments of piety, and of imbuing the susceptible minds of the young with the knowledge and
the faith of the Scriptures. Even in the earliest period of Christianity, there were those who, like our divine Watts in modern times, ' condescended to lay aside the
scholar, the philosopher,
and the wit, to write
little
poems of devotion adapted to the wants and capacities of children.'"
The purpose
of these early Christian parents, as of
the ancient Jews, was to train up their children in the In order that the children might be exfear of God.
posed as little as possible to the corrupting influence of heathen associations, their education was conducted
within the healthful precincts of home. As a result, they grew up without a taste for debasing pleasures; they acquired simple domestic tastes ; and, when the
91
time came, they took their place as consistent and earnest workers in the Church.
Such was the character of education among the

primitive Christians.
It is defective, indeed, subordi-
nating and even sacrificing the intellectual to the moral and religious elements of our nature but the type of character it produced was truly admirable. The beauty of this character made its impression upon an age notorious for its vice. It extorted unwilling praises from the celebrated heathen orator enemies of Christianity. " What wives these Christians have " "A exclaimed,
;
" noble testimony," says a writer of note, to the refining power of woman, and the most beautiful tribute to the
gentle, persuasive influence of her piety tiquity, heathen or Christian, furnishes."
which
all
an-
(A.)
CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS.
The catechetical schools, which sprang up naturally in this primitive period, were designed to prepare canIn the apostolic period, didates for Christian baptism. new converts to Christianity were received into the
church by baptism after a very brief course of instrucThe tion and upon a very simple profession of faith. for example, received at most only a Ethiopian eunuch, few hours' instruction as he rode along in his chariot,
and was baptized upon the confession, " I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God." But as Christianity spread, and converts from among the Jews and heathen became more numerous, it was found advisable, for the sake of greater unity, purity, and intelligence in the Church, to give candidates for baptism more extended
92
This instruction, which extended from a few months to three years, was given by a special Church officer under the name of catechist, and embraced the fundamental truths and doctrines of Christianity. The
instruction.
candidates, called catechumens, or learners, studied the
ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, and other portions of Scripture, as well as a short confession of faith
containing the chief articles of Christian belief.

instruction
The
was
at first
imparted
privately at
some con-
venient place, but afterward in the Church or schoolbuildings.
The most
celebrated of the catechetical schools was
that of Alexandria, founded in the second century. It was in this city that Christianity came into closest con-
Many of the candidates apfor admission into the Church were representaplying tives of heathen learning. In preparing them for
tact
with heathen culture.
was necessary that the instruction assume a more complete and scientific form. In addition to this,
baptism,
it
the Alexandrian school devoted itself to the education

of Christian teachers. It became, in fact, a theological seminary of high order, in which, along with specifically Christian instruction, philology, rhetoric, mathematics,
and philosophy were studied. The attitude of this school toward heathen learning is thus expressed by Clement, one of its earliest and most distinguished teachers " The Mosaic law and heathen philosophy do
:
not stand in direct opposition to each other, but are related like fragments of a single truth, like the pieces, Both prepared as it were, of a shattered whole.
. . .
the way, but in a different manner, for Christianity." The school had no public buildings ; and the teachers,
EDUCATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.

several
93
were very distinguished, taught in their private houses. They received no fixed salary, but were supported by gifts from their pupils.
of
whom
"At
happened that
Alexandria," says Neander, "where it often men of education, even the learned, and
those habituated to philosophical reflection, applied to receive instruction in Christianity, it was necessary that the catechists should be men of liberal education, qualified to
follow
meet the doubts and objections of pagans, and to them on their own position. Able and learned
;
laymen were therefore selected here

tant theological school
and
this class of
catechists led afterward to the formation of
among
the Christians."
an imporAlex-
andria was the birthplace of scientific Christian theology-
5.

tendency in the
It is necessary to notice a peculiar
Church which exerted for nearly a thousand years an important influence upon education. This was the ascetic tendency, which disdains the present world in the
interests of the
world to come.
This tendency has been

as " other-world-
forcibly characterized
liness."
life is
by George Eliot
;
It fails to grasp the great truth that
human
an organic unity that eternal life is but a continuation of temporal life ; and that on earth, as well as in heaven, we are in the presence and service of God. Asceticism, which manifested itself in various forms of self-abnegation or physical torture, was based upon the idea that the body is the seat of sin. Hence it was concluded that by imposing restraints and suffering upon
94:
the body, by which its natural force was weakened, the soul was enabled to attain to a higher degree of sanctity.
The two
principal classes of ascetics were the hermits,

;
who withdrew from society to live in solitude and the monks, who lived together in monasteries under the vow of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The latter
was far the more numerous class, and been perpetuated to the present.
its
existence has
Traces of the ascetic spirit are to be found in the primitive Church ; but it was not till late in the fourth
century that it reached a complete development. It then remained dominant throughout the middle ages.
in the zigzag
was a phase of human development necessary march of progress, and indispensable to At all events, it was the ultimate attainment of truth. The heathen world had long been ata natural one.
Perhaps
it
much relative importance to the earthly a natural reaction, the Church, when it came By to assert itself in opposition to prevailing beliefs and
taching too
life.
customs, unduly contemned the present world in magThis one-sided, othernifying the world to come.
worldly spirit exerted a wide-reaching influence, laying

its
natural world was
hand upon every important human interest. The made to possess no value. Religious and interests became the all-absorbing doctrines, forms, subject of human thought and activity. The priesthood were elevated into a false importance, which was used by them to increase their power. Science was sunk in
theology.
saints
;
entific
logical
History gave place to marvelous legends of and the principle of authority controlled all sciEducation was stamped with a theothought. bias that fettered it for ages. In fact, this ascetic

spirit
95
may be regarded as the controlling principle in Christian education prior to the Reformation. " In the first stage of its development," profoundly observes Karl Schmidt, in speaking of the Church, " it
was religion
interests.
especially that
dominated
all intellectual
religious impulse in Christianity was so and weighty that the human spirit found in it powerful
The
and its exemplification complete satisfaction. There was a great withdrawal of man within himself, into that part of his nature that unites him to God, and that belongs, not to the perishable, but to the imperishable ; not to the visible, but to the in visible world. The supernatural laid hold of men's minds with mighty ener-
gy.
as the son of heaven, became a stranger upon and esteemed the splendor of this world as of little value. The world in all its beauty had been tested by antiquity, and had not afforded the lasting peace promised of it. Heaven now took its place, and the citizen of heaven displaced in a measure the citizen
Man,
this eacth,
This one-sided apprehension of man as a heavenly being, this complete sway of the transcendental, forms the leading characteristic of the world before
of earth.
the Reformation, in which period Christianity appeared as an abnegation of the world. Only the world of reis truth. The natural world is destitute of worth, ligion
and escape from it is the end of life. Hence the worlddisowning asceticism, fasting, celibacy."
This ascetic, transcendental movement very soon found advocates among the most influential of the
Church
early as the beginning of the third century, Tertullian, presbyter of Carthage, attempted to exclude the Church from all intercourse with the world.
fathers.
As
96
He
rejected the study of heathen philosophy and literature as destructive of Christian simplicity, and promotive of pride, overwiseness, and immorality. ence and literature delight you," he says, " we
abundance of
truth,
verses, sentences,
no
artistic
seek science,
we
and songs ; but simplicity. ... If you melodies, have it, but not from Athens. What
"If scihave an no fables, but
has Athens to do with Jerusalem, the Academy with the Church ? Our doctrine comes from the porch of Solo-
mon, according to whose teaching the Lord
is
to be
need not investigate sought in simplicity of heart. further after we have found Christ ; we need not seek
further after
We
received the gospel." Says Chrysostom, a distinguished Church father of the fourth century : " Parents ought to give their children a name having a Christian signification, in order
we have
may subsequently be a source of good influence. Mothers ought to care for the bodies of their children, but it is necessary also that they inspire their offspring with love for the good and with fear toward God. And fathers will not limit themselves to giving their children an earthly vocation, but will interest themselves also in their heavenly calling. The most beautiful heritage that can be given children is to teach
that
.
.
it
them to govern their passions. Never ought they to hear licentious conversation at home. Let us take care
to develop modesty in them, for nothing torments youth so much as what is contrary thereto. Let us have for
we have for our houses, servants go with a light into places where there is inflammable material, as hay or straw. They should not
our children the same fear that
when
be permitted to go where the
fire
of impurity
may
be
97
kindled in their hearts and do them an irreparable inknowledge of the Scriptures is an antidote jury.
against
the
unreasonable inclinations of
youth and
against the reading of pagan authors, in which heroes, the slaves of every passion, are lauded. The lessons of
the Bible are springs that water the soul. children are everywhere surrounded with bad
As our
examples,
Bad
the monastic schools are the best for their education. habits once contracted, they can not be got rid of.
This
is
the reason
God conducted
Israel into the wilder-
ness, as into a monastery, that the vices of the
Egyptians
yet the Israelites were conNow our chiltinually falling into their old habits! dren are surrounded by vice in our cities and are unable
there to resist bad examples. In the monasteries, they do not see bad examples ; they lead there a holy life in
might be unlearned.
And
peace and tranquillity. Let us take care of the souls of our children, that they may be formed for virtue, and
not be degraded by vice." The same one-sided religious tendency comes out strongly in the long and interesting letter of St. Jerome
Laeta, a friend of his, upon the education of her He lived in the latter half of the fourth daughter.
to
century. single extract will suffice to indicate the of the whole letter. "Let the companion she spirit
chooses," he says, "be not well-dressed or beautiful, or with a voice of liquid harmony ; but grave, and pale, and meanly clad, and of solemn countenance. Set over
and modesty, and her, by her own examto rise up by night for prayer and psalms, to ple, sing her morning hymns, and to take her place in the ranks,
faith,
her an aged virgin, of approved

conduct, to teach
and habituate
98

at the third, and sixth, and to light her lamp and offer up and, again,
like a Christian warrior,
ninth hours
her evening sacrifice. Let the day pass, and the night find her at this employment. Prayer and reading, and prayer, must be the order of her life ; nor reading
will time travel slowly
when
it is filled
by such engage-
ments."
The
the fifth
ascetic
tive in St. Augustine,
tendency found an ardent representawho has been called the Paul of With great vehemence he rejects all century.
heathen science in Christian education. " Those end" with less and godless fables," he says, which the productions of conceited poets swarm by no means accord with our freedom ; neither do the bombastic and polished falsehoods of the orator, nor finally the wordy God forbid that trifles subtilties of the philosopher.
and foolishness, windy buffoonery, and inflated falsehood should ever be properly called science " Again he says " young man exclaims, in reading a scene of Terence, What is it not permitted us to do what the gods dare to do?' This reasoning is carried on by many young people. We learned beautiful words in our authors, but we learned more easily to commit bad
! :
'
actions.
Intoxicated pagan masters
made us drink
in
the cup of error, and beat us when we refused. Was there then no other means to teach us our language and " to ?
cultivate our
It
mind
would be a mistake, however, to suppose that all the fathers of the Church shared this narrow spirit. There were not wanting those who held broader and juster views, and who advocated an education that comprehended the valuable elements of heathen
culture.
99
For example, Basil the Great, of the fourth century, " In the combat which we have to deliver for the says and Church, we ought to be armed with every resource, of poets, historians, and orators to this end the reading
:
is
very useful.
We
may compare
the lessons of
fruits of a tree, and the producholy Scripture to the tions of pagan wisdom to the foliage which shelters the fruit and gives grace to the tree. . . . Moses cultivated his intelligence by studying the science of the Egypand Daniel adorned his mind with that of the
tians,
Chaldeans.
But there is a choice
to be
made among
pagan
sirens.
reading,
It is necessary to close the ear to bad authors. as Ulysses did to the seductive songs of the
habit of reading bad actions leads to doing bad acts. It is necessary to reject the shameful stories of the gods, as we are to shun the voluptuous music of the pagans."
The
(A.)
MONASTIC SCHOOLS.
of asceticism, monasteries were By the seventh century they were
all
Under the impulse

rapidly multiplied. scattered throughout
the countries that had once
composed the Koman Empire. The Benedictine order, founded in the sixth century, was the largest and most
influential brotherhood.
As
long as the monasteries re-
tained their purity they were in many respects sources of blessing to the world. They became asylums for the
staoppressed; fortresses against violence; missionary tions for the conversion of heathen communities; rehomes for the arts and sciences. positories of learning ; and transmitted to later ages much of They preserved the learning of antiquity.
100 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION BEFORE THE REFORMATION.
now disappeared, the monasteries engaged in educational work. The Church regarded education as one of its exclusive functions, and
the heathen schools had
As
under
its
direction nearly
all
instruction had a theologi-
Purely secular studies were pursued only in the interests of the Church. The course of instruction in the convent or monastic schools
cal or ecclesiastical aim.
embraced the
so-called seven liberal arts,

:
which were
divided into two classes
the tri/vium included Latin
grammar, dialectic or logic, and rhetoric ; and the quadrivium, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Reading and writing were included in grammar, and
arithmetic and music were sometimes substituted for
the other studies of the trwium, which was the
first
and most popular course.
Seven years were devoted to
the completion of the course in liberal arts. Latin, the of the Church, was made the basis of educalanguage
tion, to the universal neglect
of the mother-tongue.
The works
used.
of the
Church
fathers were chiefly read,
though expurgated copies of the Latin classics were Dialectic or logic was based somewhat remotely on the writings of Aristotle. At a later period, logic was rigidly applied to the development of theology, and
gave rise to a class of scholars called the school-men. These busied themselves with theological and philosophical subtilties,
lous.
many
of
of
which now appear
ridicu-
The works
works based upon metic was imperfectly taught, importance being attached to the supposed secret properties of numbers. Geomewas taught in an abridged form, while astronomy try did not differ materially from astrology. The study of
Quintilian and Cicero, or later them, were used in rhetoric. Arith-
1Q1
music consisted chiefly in learning to chant the hymns of the Church.
The
relation in
is
which these
liberal studies stood to
thus indicated by Rhabanus Maurus, an educational writer of the early part of the ninth century : " Grammar teaches us to understand the old poets and historians, and also to speak and write correctly. "With-
theology
one can not understand the figures and unusual in the holy Scriptures, and consecan not grasp the right sense of the divine quently
out
it,
modes of expression
Word.
so
Even prosody should not be
neglected, because
many kinds of versification occur in the Psalms; hence, industrious reading of the old heathen poets and
not to be neglected.
repeated exercise in the art of poetic composition are But the old poets should be pre-
viously and carefully expurgated, that nothing may remain in them that refers to love and love-affairs and the
heathen gods. Rhetoric, which teaches the different kinds and principal parts of discourse, together with the
rules belonging to them, is important only for such youths as have not more serious studies to pursue, and
should be learned only from the holy fathers. Dialectic, on the contrary, is the queen of arts and sciences.
it reason dwells, and is manifested and developed. It is dialectic alone that can give knowledge and wis-
In
dom
it
alone shows what and whence

;
we
are,
and
teaches us our destiny
through
it
we
learn to
know
good and
!
evil.
And how necessary is it to

be able to
a clergyman,
meet and vanquish may is important on account of the heretics Arithmetic secrets contained in its numbers the Scriptures also encourage its study, since they speak of numbers and
in order that he
;

measures.
Geometry
circles of all
is necessary, because in Scripture kinds occur in the building of the ark and
Solomon's temple. Music and astronomy are required in connection with divine service, which can not be
celebrated with dignity and decency without music, nor on fixed and definite days without astronomy."
(B.)
CATHEDEAL AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS.
Besides the convent or monastic schools, there were two other classes of schools that owed their origin to the Church during the middle ages. They were the cathedral and the parochial schools. The cathedral schools, though previously existing to some extent, received
their
perfected
organization
through Bishop
in the eighth century. The priests connected with each cathedral church were organized into
Chrodegang
was
a monastic brotherhood, one of whose foremost duties to establish and conduct schools. These were de-
signed chiefly for the instruction of candidates for the priesthood, but were, at the same time, accessible to
others.
The
instruction in these schools
was very much
the same as in the convent-schools, embracing the seven liberal arts, but laying a little more stress on religious
subjects.
The
rate parishes
parochial schools were established in the sepaunder the supervision of the priest. They
were designed to acquaint the youth with the elements

of Christian doctrine, to prepare them for intelligent participation in public worship, and especially to introduce them into church-membership. Their function
was similar to that of the

primitive Church.
catechetical schools of the
Reading and writing did not usually
1Q3
form any part of the course of study.

was rough
used.
The
discipline in
these, as in all the other schools of the
middle ages,
unsparingly
and
severe,
the rod
being
Neander thus speaks of the interest of the Church in " The third Council of the instruction of the people
:
sixteenth canon that every should either in person, or by the agency of wellbishop instructed ministers of the Church, so administer the
its
Yalence in 855 decreed in
word of preaching, both
in the city and in the country that there should be no want of wholesome churches, exhortation for the people ; for when God's Word is not
is
furnished to the faithful, the soul
deprived of the eleof Tours, in his pasHerard, Bishop toral instructions written in the year 858, directed that
ment
of
its life.
the priests should expound before all the faithful the doctrines of the incarnation of the Son of God ; of his
passion, his resurrection,
and ascension
of the effusion
Holy Spirit, and the forgiveness of sins to be obtained through the same Spirit, and the baptism into the bosom of the Church ; that they should warn people
of the
against sins, particularly sins of the grosser sort, and instruct them in the nature of the virtues. . The ne. .
establishing schools for the promotion of religious instruction and of the prerequisite culture was also acknowledged. In the year 859 the Council
cessity of
of Langres and the Council of Savonnieres decreed that, wherever God raised up able men for teachers, all
be made to found public schools, so that the fruits of both kinds of knowledge, spiritual and secular, might grow in the Church ; for it is a lamsuitable efforts should
entable fact, and a most disastrous evil, that the true

understanding of Scripture has already become so far lost that the lingering remains of it are now scarcely to
be found.
But the
defects
we have
already noticed
in the constitution of the
Church were the true reason
why
a sufficient
number
found capable, or inclined

structions.
of the clergy were never to be to study and apply these in-
of the clergy who came in immediate contact with the people possessed no other
The majority
qualification for their office than a certain skill
and ex-
pertness in performing the ceremonies of the Church. The liturgical element would thus of necessity tend continually to acquire an undue predominance, suiting as it did the prevalent idea of the priesthood ; while the
didactic element an element so important for promoting the religious knowledge which was so neglected among the people would, on the other hand, retreat
more and more
into the background."
(c.)
CHARLEMAGNE.
intel-
The
labors of
Charlemagne for the moral and
lectual elevation of his people were intelligent and fruitful. sought to multiply educational facilities on a
He
large scale
and he even went so far
as to
contemplate
the organization of a popular school system. He endeavored to enlist the interest of the clergy and monks
in education, as they were at this time the chief representatives of learning. He opposed their worldliness and immorality, and exacted a faithful discharge of their
The monasteries and bishops were urged to imthe schools already existing, and to establish new prove ones wherever needed. The sphere of the parochial schools was enlarged ; and the village priests were reduties.
105
quired to teach not only religion, but also reading, arithmetic, and singing.
Charlemagne thus speaks in a circular letter addressed to the bishops and convents: esteem it useful not only that care should be exercised to live or-
"We
derly and religiously in the bishoprics and monasteries intrusted to our care by the grace of God, but also that all those who by God's help are able to teach should
give instruction in the sciences. ter to do than to know, yet it

order to be able to do.
. .
.
For although
is
it is
bet-
necessary to
know
in
Hence, we admonish you
not only not to neglect the study of the sciences, but also to strive after the ability to fathom easily and cer.
But, since there tainly the secrets of holy Scripture. are in the same allegories, figures, and the like, it is evi-
dent that he will best understand them in their true

spiritual sense
Hence,
let
who is well instructed in the sciences. men be chosen for such work who possess
willingness and ability to learn, and art to teach." Charlemagne exhibited a great thirst for knowledge,
and was himself a model of diligence in study. He invited to his court from all parts of Europe the most distinguished scholars, of whom Alcuin, of England, the most learned man of his time, is best known. With these he maintained interesting and intimate relations, presiding at their assemblies and sharing in their disHe established a model school at court, and cussions. sometimes visited it in person to note the progress of the pupils. It is related of him that he once placed the on his diligent pupils on his right, and the idle ones left when he found that the latter were chiefly and, " Besons of noble parents, he addressed them thus
;
:
IOC CHRISTIAN EDUCATION BEFORE THE REFORMATION.

cause
you
are rich
and the sons of noblemen, you think
that your riches and birth are enough, and that you have no need of those studies which would do you so
much
ure
;
honor.
tell
You
think only of dress, play, and pleas-
you that I attach no importance to this and wealth which bring you consideration and, nobility if you do not speedily make up by assiduous study for the time you have lost in frivolity, never will you obtain anything from Charles."
;
but I
The
educational activity stimulated

successors.
by Charlemagne
largely died away during the agitated reigns of his weak
and grasping
(D.)
SECULAR EDUCATION.
middle ages, secular eduIt assumed two directions the one was the offspring of chivalry, and may be termed knightly education ; the other arose from the business necessities of the cities, and may be termed burgher or town education. These secular tendencies were in part a reaction against the one-sided religious character of the ecclesiastical schools, and in part the
latter half of the
In the
cation
:
came
into prominence.
natural product of peculiar social conditions. these conditions were will now be examined.
What
Society during the middle ages may be divided into three classes: ecclesiastics, embracing the clergy and
monks
warriors, including the nobles
and knights and

;
producers, comprehending mechanics, tradesmen, and During a great part of the middle ages, the peasants.
ecclesiastics exerted a tyrannical
domination over the
other two classes, holding in their hands, as they did, the keys of knowledge and salvation. The pope assumed
107
absolute temporal as well as absolute spiritual dominion. was punished with excomOpposition to the Church
munication sometimes with the interdict, which forbade the exercise of every religious function within a given territory ; and, in extreme cases, with the to utter decrusade, which exposed whole provinces
;
struction.
"With the crusades, during which great multitudes rushed with fanatical zeal to the Holy Land to rescue
the sepulchre of our Lord from Mohammedan hands, there began a noteworthy change in the social relations
of Europe. ble cost of
civilization.
The
life,
crusades,
though
at
an almost incredi-
contributed largely to the progress of They enlarged the contracted sphere of

arts
human knowledge.
sciences,
and
popular thought.
a
Foreign lands, and new customs, were introduced into the circle of The knightly class was brought into
new importance, was largely increased in numbers, and admirably ennobled in its aims. The crusades led to the emancipation of many serfs, and elevated them to
the rank of free peasants. They quickened commerce, increased and strengthened the trade, and manufacture ; and extended the power and influence of class
;
burgher
the
cities.
The knightly and burgher

self-consciousness
classes attained
to a feeling of
and independence.
at least,
They emancipated
from
themselves, to
;
some extent
ecclesiastical tutelage
and
this naturally led to a
change in education.
(E.)
KNIGHTLY EDUCATION.
contrast
Knightly education stood in the sharpest with that of the Church. It attached importance to
what the Church schools neglected and condemned. Physical culture received great attention polished manners were carefully cultivated and a love of glory was "Women were held in worshipful constantly instilled. as the embodiment of honor and virtue. The regard native tongue was cultivated. Nature was not made to
; ;
stand in unnatural opposition to spiritual interests, but, on the contrary, inspired the noblest sentiments and
purest joys.
Knightly education was usually divided into three For the first seven years, the young equal periods. candidate for knighthood remained in the paternal castle under the care of his mother. After that age, he was
usually sent to live with some friendly knight, where, in constant attendance upon the chatelaine or her lord, he
learned music, chess, and knightly manners. At fourteen he was made squire or attendant, and his physical
and military education became more exacting. Everywhere, in the pleasures of the chase, the excitement of tournaments, and the dangers of battle, he was the faithful companion of his master. Having proved himself
worthy during a long probationary period, the young squire, at the age of twenty-one, was formally elevated, with solemn and imposing ceremonies, to the knightly After a season of fasting and prayer, and the order. celebration of the Lord's Supper, he took the vow to speak the truth, defend the right, honor womankind, and use his sword against the infidels of the East and then he received, at the hand of a knight or noble lady, his spurs, gauntlets, and suit of armor. Such was the education of the knight. Almost the sole intellectual element entering into it was music and
;
1Q9
At one time, this was very prominent; and poetry. one of the richest literary treasures coming down to us
from the middle ages is the large collection of knightly songs comprehended under the term Minne, or loveThese songs were employed, during the long poetry.
nights of winter or the prevalence of stormy weather and deep snows, to relieve the monotony of life within
the castle walls.
The newspaper, works
of fiction, the-
and highly developed music the great resources of modern life against ennui were then wanting. Apart from tales of adventure and a few rude games, minstrelsy was the only resource left the company of the castle. Accordingly, they were
atrical or literary entertainments,
accustomed to gather at night in the principal hall around the great log-fire and as the men sat by their
;
ale-cups or
worked
at replenishing
the ladies apart stitched their embroidery,
perhaps one just welcomed to the lute, and, with rude accompaniment, poured forth song after song, or related by the hour his rhythmical
tales.
and some knight, friendly shelter, took up

their quivers,
As
tiful flower of
a specimen of the Minne-songs the most beauknightly education the following lines
:
will suffice
The woodlands with my songs As still I seek to gain The favor of that lady fair
resound,
Who
causeth
all
my
pain.
My
fate is like the nightingale's,

all
That singeth
night long,
While still the woodlands mournfully But echo back her Bong.
HO
What
care the wild woods, as they wave,
For all the songster's pains ? "Who gives her the reward of thanks For all her tuneful strains ?
In dull and mute ingratitude
Her sweetest songs they hear Their tenants roam the desert wild, And want no music there.
;
(F.)
BUEGHER SCHOOLS.
The growth of the cities and the increasing power of the trading and artisan classes have already been noticed. "With the growing importance of these two there came the conscious need of an education classes,
would have immediate reference to the practical life. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were Out of this need arose a class of schools indispensable. which have borne different names, as town, burgher, or writing schools. In addition to the elementary studies just mentioned, geography, history, and natural science were pursued, in a small way, in connection with the mother-tongue. Latin also was early introthat
wants of
duced.
Notwithstanding the fact that the burgher
schools were secular institutions, both in origin and aim, the clergy as the only authorized teachers claimed the
This claim, which was often by the civil magistrates, frequently occasioned strife, in which sometimes the one party and sometimes the other was successful. Where the civil authorities maintained ascendency, they appointed teachers whose duties were prescribed by a contract. The principal
right to control them.
resisted
teachers,
who were engaged
for one year at a time,
em-
Ill
so
The salaries were their assistants. ployed and paid the necessaries small that they barely sufficed to procure led a wandering life, The teachers generally of life.
moving from
in search of employment. The city to city or vagrant, was itinerant teacher, known as bacchant of pupils called a crowd
sometimes accompanied by
B C
As
habits of purloining shooters, whose to their popuother articles of food did not contribute nor to the elevation of the profession of teaching. larity,
fowls and
instructhere were no school-houses at this period, or tion was given in churches, municipal buildings, first schoolThe other houses rented for the purpose. was built in Berne, in 1481. house
(O.)
FEMALE EDUCATION.
outside ages, female education,
Here of the knightly order, was generally neglected. a few women and there, in connection with nunneries, but these cases attained distinction by their learning, the knightly class, where were exceptional. Among was held in honor, great attention
During the middle
women were
high
culture. Not only were the young paid to female eminstructed in the feminine arts of sewing, knitting, also received an but they broidery, and housekeeping, addition to reading and intellectual training which, in
women
with included an extended acquaintance writing, often French and Latin.
The
for their The only provision entirely neglected. which were deinstruction was in the parochial schools, to religious voted almost exclusively, as we have seen, The peasants were indeed wanting in the instruction.
peasant
class,
during
all
this period,
were almos
made

educational impulse.
They
failed to see
toil,
how
education
would help them

provement.
(H.)
in their
drudging
and hence were
not responsive to any effort for their intellectual im-
BRETHREN OF THE COMMON
LIFE.
In the fourteenth century a brotherhood, founded by Gerhard Groot, and known as Hieronymians, or Brethren
of the
Common
Life,
devoted themselves to the work of
education, with special reference to the poorer classes. Without assuming monastic vows, the members of this
brotherhood led a
selfish
life
of purity, and labored with un-
devotion for the good of others. Establishing a community of goods, they supported themselves by the
of their
work
own hands. By
its
pure and
self-sacrificing
life, the brotherhood rapidly grew in popular favor, was extensively patronized, received papal recognition and
protection,
and soon spread over the northern part of Germany. It maintained its existence till the sixteenth
Special emphasis was laid upon religious education, be seen from the following words of the founder :
century.
as will
Spend no time either on geometry, arithmetic, rhetoric, All these branches" logic, grammar, poetry, or astrology.
"
how much more, then, should a spirit; Christian pass them by, since they subually-minded Of the sciences of serve in no respect the life of faith
Seneca rejects
!
the pagans, their ethics may not be so scrupulously avoided, since this was the special field of the wisest of
them, as Socrates and Plato. That which does not improve a man, or, at least, does not reclaim him from
evil, is positively hurtful.
Neither ought
we
to read
H3
in order pagan books, nor indeed the Holy Scriptures, into the mysteries of Nature by that merely to penetrate
order departed conPractically, however, the this religious narrowness, and devoted siderably from to the elementary instruction of the itself not
means."
simply
the higher education. The two most people, but also to celebrated members of this order were Thomas a Kemand Nicholas Cusanus, who interested himself with
pis,
success in educational work, as well as in reformatory measures for abuses in the Church. " In the schools of the brotherhood," says Johannes " Christian eduCatholic writer, Janssen, a
painstaking
cation
was placed high above the mere acquisition of culture of the knowledge, and the practical religious of active piety, was youth, the nurture and confirmation considered the chief object. All the instruction was and the pupil learned penetrated with a Christian spirit, to regard religion as the most important human interest,
At and the foundation of all true culture. the same time, a considerable amount of knowledge and a good method of study were imparted, and the love for literary and scientific pupil acquired an earnest
activity.
From
all
into quarters studious youth poured
these schools."
(l.)
THE
SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT.
to be considered to comsingle point remains This in the middle ages. plete our review of education To the awakening is the growth of the scientific spirit.
But a
of this
two principal causes contributed. The first of these was the increase of human knowledge of the cities, growing out of the crusades, the growth
spirit,
and the
social elevation of the laity
the other was the

schools.
influence of the Arabian or
Mohammedan
(j.)
MOHAMMEDAN LEARNING.
After the establishment of Mohammedanism in the seventh century, it was carried by the force of arms over large portions of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Empires were established, in which learning kept pace with political
power.
The
caliphs of
Cordova and Bagdad beless
came
rivals in their
patronage of learning, no
than
in political power and ostentatious The writluxury. ings of the Greeks, especially those of Aristotle and
Euclid, were translated into Arabic. Flourishing schools were established in all the principal cities, notably at Bagdad and Damascus in the East, and at Cordova, Salamanca, and Toledo in the "West. Here grammar, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, chemistry, and medicine were pursued with great ardor and success.
The Arabians
and
nitric
originated chemistry, discovering alcohol,

acids.
and sulphuric
They gave
algebra and
trigonometry their modern forms; applied the pendulum to the reckoning of time ; ascertained the size of
the earth by measuring a degree, and made catalogues of the stars. For a time, they were the intellectual
leaders of Europe. Their schools in Spain were largely attended by Christian youth from other European countries,
who carried back with them to their homes the Arabian science, and through it stimulated intellectual In the eleventh century, activity in Christian nations.
having imparted its intellectual treasures to the Christian world, Arabian learning began to decline, and has since
fallen into utter insignificance.

(K.) KISE
H5
OF THE UNIVERSITIES.
The
richest fruit of this
newly awakened
scientific
spirit in Europe was the founding of the universities. They arose independently of both Church and state. In
the beginning they consisted of free associations of learned men and aspiring youths, who were held together
alone
by
their
mutual
interest in science.
In
this
way
the University of Bologna had its origin in the twelfth century for the study of law, and the University of Salerno shortly afterward for the study of medicine. Toward the close of the twelfth century the University of
Bologna numbered no less than twelve thousand students, most of whom came from distant countries. During this century the cathedral school of Paris was enlarged into a university, in which the study of theology was predominant. This became the most distinguished seat of learning in Europe. At one time it was attended by more than twenty thousand students, who for the purpose of better government were divided into bodies according to nationality. They had special halls called colleges, in which they lodged and boarded under official superThe professors were divided into the four facvision. ulties philosophy, theology, medicine, and law which have since been retained in universities, though the studies in each department have been greatly enlarged. The moral tone of the universities was low there were brawls, outbreaks, and abominable immoralities. "The students," say the Vienna statutes, "shall not spend more time in drinking, fighting, and guitar-playand the regular courses of ing, than at physics, logic, lectures and they shall not get up public dances in the
; ;

streets.
Quarrelers,
wanton persons, drunkards, those
that
go about serenading at night, or
who spend
their
leisure in following after lewd women ; thieves, those that insult citizens, players at dice having been prop-
warned and not reforming, besides the ordinary punishment provfded by law for those misdemeanors, shall be deprived of their academical privileges and exThese prohibitions give us a clear insight into pelled." the university life of the time, for it was not worse at Yienna than at Paris and elsewhere. The influence and power of the universities were
erly
and, though originally free associations, they were soon brought into relation with the Church and the state, by which they were officially au" thorized and endowed with privileges. Although the
speedily recognized
;
universities
"yet
associations," says Karl Schmidt, as intellectual forces they were soon drawn into
were free
the various spheres of life, and Church as well as state, princes as well as cities, rivaled each other in winning
their influence
by bestowing favors upon them.
First,
the Church sought to attach them to itself, in order to join to the power of faith the power of knowledge the
:
first
privileges that the universities received proceeded from the popes. . . . On the other hand, the emperors
desired and sought the development of a free secular culture, in order to procure for their might and power
an intellectual foundation and they hastened, therefore, to circumvent the ecclesiastical influence, and to give the new universities an independent position. Thus, in November, 1158, Frederick I. gave the University of Bologna a privilege, whereby the students from abroad were granted his protection, and a court of their own
;

'For if already all those that do merit in every way our praise and prosays, tection, we hold it proper with especial grace to defend those against all injury, whose science enlightens the
good,' he
l
was allowed them.
servants.'
world, and teaches subjects to obey God, and us as his "
After the establishment, in the twelfth century, of the three universities already spoken of, similar institutions, modeled particularly after the University of Paris,
sprang up in the various countries of Europe.
The
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were founded in the following order Prague, 1348 ; Vienna, 1388 ; Erfurt, 1392 Leipsic, 1409 ; Kosuniversities of
: ;
German
tock, 1419
stadt,
Greifswald, 1456
Freiburg, 1457
Ingol-
Tubingen, 1477; and Mayence, 1477. Thus, it will be seen that they were established in quick succession an unmistakable proof of the growing sci-
1472;
entific interest of the age.
(L.)
SUMMARY.
tion
Here our review of education before the Reformamust end. Education did not have a complete and
beautiful development. It was unworthily enslaved to other interests, and both in theory and practice it showed its servile condition. Yet the long, dark period of the
middle ages was not without blessings for mankind. It was the winter that gathers strength for the blossoming of spring and the fruit-bearing of summer. The foundations of future progress were laid. tions were placed in possession of
ilization.
The Germanic
na-
Christianity and civ-
One-sided tendencies worked themselves out, and have since remained for the instruction of our race.
US
The work of this period was largely negative. If the middle ages have not taught us what to do in education, they have at least showed us a good deal to avoid. And, as the history of our race proves, this negative work has
always to be done before humanity makes any signal Heathenism had to exhaust its intellectual progress.
strength before the world was ready to accept Christianity.
IV.
EDUCATION FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.

THE Reformation
greatest event in modern history.
of the sixteenth century is the Its vast influence
upon human development is surpassed only by the advent of Christ. It marks the close of a long, dark night,
and dates a new era in human progress. It was not, however, an isolated fact.
There were
many
for
it,
concurring circumstances which prepared the way and gave it power in the world. The revival of
which had its central point in the downfall of Constantinople in 1453, exerted a favorable influence. It opened the literary treasures of Greece
classical learning,
and Rome, provided a new culture for the mind, awakened dissatisfaction with the scholastic teaching of the Church, and tended to emancipate thought from subto ecclesiastical authority. The invention of gunpowder brought about an important and wholesome
jection
change in the organization of society.

influence and
It destroyed the
power of the knightly order, elevated the producing class, and thus became a mighty leveler. Before this invention a single knight, clad in a full suit of armor, and mounted upon a powerful charger, was
120
a
FROM THE EEFORMATION TO THE PRESENT
TIME.
match for a whole company of
foot-soldiers.
The
strength of armies was measured by the number of But after the invention of gunpowder, in the knights.
fourteenth century, which made the humblest footman with a musket more than a match for the proudest The discovery of knight, chivalry necessarily declined.
America, and of a sea-passage to the East Indies, exerted an elevating influence by enlarging the circle of knowlCorrect views of the earth supplanted the Ptoleedge. maic system. The commercial activities of the world began to move in new directions, and to assume enlarged But the most important of all was the inproportions. vention of printing, about the middle of the fifteenth At once supplanting the tedious and costly century. method of copying books by hand, it multiplied the sources of knowledge, and brought them within reach
of a larger circle of readers. Each of these circumstances was a lever to lift the world up to a higher plane. The Reformation broke the fetters yet holding it, and
started it forward in a
new
course of intellectual, moral,
and religious development.

1.
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING AND THE HUMANISTS.
The revival of learning was so intimately related to the Reformation, and to the educational advancement dating from that time, that it calls for consideration in
/
some
detail.
It
had
its
origin in Italy.
The
three great
a
Italian writers of the fourteenth century

caccio,
less
Dante, Boc-
and Petrarch,
all
of
whom
had made
more or
re-
profound study of the ancient classics

as its pioneers.
may be
garded
The widely extended
scientific
REVIVAL OF LEARNING AND THE HUMANISTS.

spirit,
which has already been noticed
at
some
length,
prepared the way for its rapid spread. The first Greek to introduce the literary treasures of his country into Italy was Manuel Chrysoloras, who received from the
city of Florence, in 1396,
an appointment as teacher. This was the humble beginning to be followed by great

results.
When
14-53,
Turks, in
Constantinople was captured by the many Greek scholars took refuge in
Italy. The times were propitious for them. Noble and wealthy patronage was not lacking, and under its fostering care they became for a time the teachers of Europe. They succeeded in kindling a remarkable enthusiasm for
antiquity. Manuscripts were collected, translations were made, academies were established, and libraries were
founded.
of ancient learning
Several of the popes became generous patrons Nicholas Y. founded the celebrated ;
Vatican Library, and collected for it a great number of Greek and Latin manuscripts and under Leo X. Rome
;
became a center of ancient learning. Eager scholars from England, France, and Germany, sat at the feet of
Italian masters, in order afterward to bear
beyond the the precious seed of the new culture. Alps The revival of letters produced different results in
different countries.
Everywhere
its
it
emancipation of the
strongly to paganize
human mind, but

adherents.
contributed to the in Italy it tended
Ardor for antiquity

was despised
became
at last intoxication.
;
Infidelity prevailed in the
highest ranks of the Church as a superstition ;
Christianity
shameful forms.
said to
immorality abounded in the most The heathenism of Athens was re-
vived in Christian Kome.
The remark
that
Leo X.
is
have made to Cardinal
Bembo
well accords with
122
FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT
TIME.
the prevailing spirit of the time : " All the world knows how profitable this fable of Christ has been to us." The
wide-spread infidelity made it necessary for the tenth Lateran Council to establish the doctrine of the immortality of the soul dispatched to
by
Eome
a special decree. When Luther was as envoy of the Augustine brother-
hood, he was one day at table with several distinguished

prelates.
Among
Their conversation, as he tells us, was impious. other things, they boasted that at mass, instead of the sacramental words which were to transform the
bread and wine into the body and blood of our Saviour, " Bread they mockingly pronounced over the elements,
thou
wine thou art, art, and bread thou shalt remain and wine thou shalt remain." Blasphemy was never
;
more shameless.
The simple language of the Scriptures, which was offensive to the devotees of the ancient classics, was subject to outrageous parody,
and
its
sublime truths were
The translated into the terms of heathen mythology. Ghost was written the "breath of the heavenly Holy " zephyr ; the expression to forgive sins was rendered
"to bend the manes and the sovereign gods"; and Christ, the Son of God, was changed into "Minerva, sprung from the head of Jupiter." The representatives of the Church, even those of the highest station, were The Yatican became the guilty of monstrous crimes. scene of treachery and murder, and the dissolute entertainments given in the pontifical palace surpassed the
impure
ness.
groves
of
antiquity in
horrible
licentious-
Such was the
state of belief
Home
at a
time
when
and morals prevailing in ancient learning and the fine arts
REVIVAL OP LEARNING AND THE HUMANISTS.

were cultivated in a high degree.
exclaim
"
:
123
Eaphael have been, yet his childhood falls at the iniquitous time of Alexander VI. Yea, how often in one and the same hero of art were united the most beautiful and the most hateful, the noblest and the most debased, pious devotion and detestable Into what sins he fell sensuality and sank, when his love for Nature and de!
strangely united in one and the same land, at one and the same time, the most splendid and the most horrible What an angelic child must
!
How
Well may Kaumer
generated into unrestrained and godless

as his life
lust,
antiquity and his art
became truly pagan " But we gladly turn from Italy

!
in order to contem-
learning in Fortunately for the world, the Germanic mind did not lose its earnestness and depth in studying the literary treasures of The new
plate the results that followed the revival of
Germany.
was cultivated with
as
much
antiquity. zeal in
learning
Germany
as
beyond
the Alps, but its results were utilized in the interests of a purer Christianity. The Greek and Hebrew Scriptures were studied as well as the classics of Greece and Rome.
Critical editions of the
Old and
New
Testaments were
published by able scholars, and thus the means were supplied for discovering and correcting the abuses introduced into the Church by the papacy. The traditions of the middle ages were broken, dissatisfaction with the ex.
isting state of the Church was awakened, and the reformers were supplied with an invincible weapon. In Italy the new learning became a minister of
infidelity
;
in
Germany, of
religion.
The
conflict
revival of learning in
with the monks.
Germany led to a bitter The monasteries at this period
TIME.
had sunk to a wretched condition. Instead of the learning and purity that characterized them in an earlier age, they had become nests of ignorance and depravity. Sensual indulgences had dulled the intellect and broken the " The monks had a pleasant time energies of the body. " of it," says Luther every brother had two cans of beer and a quart of wine for supper, with gingerbread, to make him take to his liquor kindly. Thus the poor things came to look like fiery angels."
;
The monks,
as the representatives of the established
order of things, scented danger in the new learning. They foresaw that its continuance would unmask their
ignorance, destroy their influence, and
work
their ruin
hence, their opposition became as desperate as it was unintelligent and hopeless. They protested that all
heresies originated in Hebrew and Greek, particularly in " The New the latter. Testament," said one of them,
Greek is a new "is a book full of serpents and thorns. and recently invented language, and we must be upon our guard against it. As for Hebrew, my dear brethren, it is certain that all who learn it immediately become Jews." The monks, particularly of the Dominican
order, pursued like beasts of prey various representatives of the new learning. They were met, however, with a
courage and truth before which they had to reTheir ignorance and depravity were unmasked by Reuchlin and Erasmus. Almost crushing was the effect
spirit of
coil.
The Letters of Obscure Men," and put forth by a coterie of humanists, of whom Ulric von Hiitten was the leader. With irresistible wit this
of a satire
known
as
"
exposed the profligacy, gross ignorance, coarse They gluttony, and blind fanaticism of the monks.
satire
125
ally
staggered under the blow, and no other attack so effectubroke their hold upon the people.
There are two or three humanists whose labors for

the cause of learning and Christianity are worthy of consideration. At the same time, we shall get further views
of this conflict with the monks, and of the sad condition of the Church.
(A.)
AGEICOLA.
This able scholar, the father of German humanism, was born, in 1443, near Groningen, Germany. His real name was Husmann (that is, houseman or husbandman), which, according to a custom of the humanists, he Latinized into Agricola. For a time he was a pupil of Thomas a Kempis then he passed several years at the University of Louvain subsequently he studied at Paris, and afterward in Italy, where he attended lectures of the most celebrated literary men of the age. His learning and eloquence gave him a wide reputation and, upon his return to Germany, several cities and courts vied with one another in the effort to secure his services. At
;
;
upon the solicitation of Dalberg, Bishop of "Worms, who was an old and intimate friend, he establength,
lished himself at Heidelberg.
He
divided his time be;
tween private studies and public lecturing and, through his labors and influence, he was largely instrumental in
transplanting the learning of Italy into his native land. " At a " when the worst Latin time," says Kaumer, prevailed in Germany, and such a degree of ignorance that
good Latin was not in the least appreciated, and bad taste was admired, it was Agricola alone who began to feel those mistakes, and to have a desire for a better
126
TIME.
form of speech." He understood French and Italian, and set great store by his mother-tongue. At the age of forty-one he began the study of Hebrew, in order to be able to read the Old Testament in the original. The following extract will not be without interest, as
showing Agricola's opinion of the schools of his time. Having been called to take charge of a school at Ant" school is to be committed to me. werp, he writes school is like That is a difficult and vexatious thing. a prison, in which there are blows, tears, and groans without end. If there is anything with a contradictory name, it is the school. The Greeks named it schola the Latins, Indus literarius literary that is, leisure but there is nothing further from leisure than the play school, nothing harder and more opposed to play. More
:
correctly did
it
receive
that
from Aristophanes the name
is, place of care." phrontizerion He refused the school offered him, but he gave the authorities of Antwerp the following sensible advice: " It is necessary to exercise the greatest care in choosing
Take neither a theologian a director for your school. nor a so-called rhetorician, who thinks he is able to speak of everything without understanding anything of
Such people make in school the same figure, to the Greek proverb, that a dog does in a according It is necessary to seek a man resembling the bath.
eloquence.
phoenix of Achilles
to speak,
that
is,
who knows how

same time.
;
to teach,
and to
act at the
If
you know
such a man, get him at any price for the matter involves the future of your children, whose tender youth receives
with the same susceptibility the impress of good and of bad examples."

In another
127
letter Agricola has given interesting rules " " 1 advise to study in regard you," he says, to study the science that teaches justness in philosophy ; that is,
:
in expression. Philosophy is thought, and precision Moral philosophy is to into moral and natural. divided be drawn not alone from Aristotle, Cicero, and Seneca,
but also from the facts of history.
Thence one
rises to
rule the Bible, whose divine precepts are to serve as the has recognized clearly the end of life. No other study
of
life,
philosophy ; " It is of these branches of necessary to study both in order to learn at the philosophy in the classic authors,
and can hence claim exemption from error. "Natural philosophy is not as necessary as moral it is scarcely more than a means of culture.
same time the
art of speaking well. " I advise the motheryou to translate the classics into
In this way one learns to tongue as exactly as possible. find easily the necessary Latin expressions for what one
has thought in his own language. " It is necessary to ponder well in the mother-tongue what is to be written in Latin ; and, before seeking or-
naments of
"
cise
we should learn to write correctly. style, Whoever wishes to study with success must exer-
himself in these three things : in getting clear views of a subject ; in fixing in his memory what he has understood ; and in producing something from his own
is necessary to read with care, and to seek to. understand the scope as well as the details of books. too much time in Nevertheless, it is not well to spend one often finds their elucidation clearing up obscurities
;
resources.
" It
further on.
One day
another. gives light to
128
FROM THE REFORMATION TO

" It
is
TIIE
PRESENT TIME.
necessary to exercise one's self in composition
when we produce nothing, what we have learned remains dead. The knowledge that we acquire ought to
be like seed sown in the earth, germinating and bearing
fruit.
"
But
to produce,
arrange at pleasure the ideas
and then ability to already know. " In order to invent, it is very important that we have general ideas, under which all our knowledge may be classified. Then it is a great help to know how to analyze and consider a subject in all its aspects. Whoever understands well these two things, classification and analysis, may attain to the facility of speech characteristic of the Greek sophists, and speak extemporaneously upon a given subject as long as he wishes."
. .
two things are needed ability to committed to our memory, deduce something new from what we
:
(B.)
KEUCHLIN.
Reuehlin
may be
justly regarded as the father of
modern Hebrew studies. When he published his Hebrew grammar, in 1506 the first work of the kind produced in Germany he did not make a mistake in " Exegi repeating the well-known boast of Horace "I have erected a monumentum aere perennius" monument more durable than brass." He was born at Pforzheim, Germany, in 1455. In 14Y3 he went to the University of Paris, where he studied Greek under a native, and made the acquaintance of John Wessel. His religious views were molded to some extent by Wessel, of whom Luther has said " If I had known the writings of Wessel, my adversaries could say that I have only
: :

followed him, so
129
much do our minds agree. I experience and I do not doubt the truth of my teachings, great joy, when I see how we are constantly in harmony, and say the same things almost in the same words." After leaving Paris, Reuchlin taught philosophy, Latin, and Greek at Basel; subsequently he became professor at Tubingen. In 1498 he was sent to Italy on an embassy and, on the occasion of a solemn audience before the papal court, he delivered an address in such admirable Latin that the pope exclaimed, "This man certainly deserves to rank with the best orators of France and Italy " While in Koine, Reuchlin employed all his leisure in studying Hebrew under a learned Jew, and in collecting Greek and Hebrew manuscripts. At this
;
!
time Argyropolos, a distinguished Greek, was delivering lectures in Rome upon the literature of his native country. As Reuchlin one day entered the hall with a number of his friends, he was asked by the lecturer whence he came, and if he understood Greek. He replied, " I am a German, and not wholly unacquainted with your " language." He was given a copy of Thucydides," and to explain it. This he did with such ease and requested
eloquence that Argyropolos exclaimed in astonishment, " Our and exiled Greece has
fugitive
the Alps
in
"
already fled beyond
The motive that urged him to prosecute his studies Hebrew is thus explained by Reuchlin, in a letter to Cardinal Hadrian: "I devoted myself to the Hebrew
language because I perceived the great value which it would have for religion and true theology. To this end
I have always directed them more than ever.
my
labors,
As a true
and continue to direct worshiper of our Lord,
130
I

all
TIME.
have done
for the restoration and glorification of
the true Christian Church."

" endeavored " But to Reuchlin," says D'Aubigne,
promote the cause of truth
as
he immediately gained the he had to deal. His thirst for knowledge was only equaled by his zeal in communicating what he had learned. He spared neither labor nor money to introduce into Germany the editions of the classic writers as they issued from the Italian presses, and thus the usher's son did more to enlighten and
confidence of
all
writings. By his engaging address,
his lofty stature, his
much by his life as by his commanding person,
with
whom
his fellow-countrymen than rich corporations or
princes.
mighty His influence over youth was very extensive, and who can estimate all that the Reformation owes to
in that respect ? " Melanchthon, the illustrious collaborator of Luther, was his adopted son and pupil. In the year 1510 began a prolonged and acrimonious
him
controversy about
ish rabbi,
Hebrew
literature.
A baptized Jew-
John Pfefferkorn, with the zeal of a proselyte, appealed to the Emperor Maximilian to have all Jewish
books except the Bible destroyed. Reuchlin, having been solicited to give his opinion, advised the destruction
of only such books as were written against Christianity. " The best " to convert the Israelites way," he added, would be to establish two professors of the Hebrew lan-
guage in each university, who should teach the theologians to read the Bible in Hebrew, and thus refute the Jewish doctors." This position exposed Reuchlin to the most virulent attacks from the monks but the friends of learning rallied to his support, and after nine years'
;
conflict
gave him the victory.
131
Luther appreciated tlie importance of Reuchlin's work, and wrote to him shortly after the defeat of the Dominican monks as follows " The Lord has been at
:
work in you, that the light of holy Scripture might begin to shine in that Germany where for so many years, it was not only stifled but entirely extinct." alas
!
(c.)
ERASMUS.
his day.
Erasmus was, perhaps, the acutest scholar of
In his early youth he exhibited unusual precocity, and gave promise of future distinction. When a young
pupil at Deventer, he was one day enthusiastically em" You will one braced by his teacher with these words, day attain the highest summit of knowledge." Agricola,
who saw him at the
age of twelve years, was so impressed
by the young scholar's appearance that he said to him, " You will one day become a great man." These predictions
Rotterdam, in 1467. Having an early age, he was placed in a been convent by his guardians with a view, it is said, of seizlife in a monastery ing upon his patrimony. Though him beyond measure, he prosecuted his was distasteful to
at
left
were fulfilled. Erasmus was born

an orphan
at
He made considerable studies with extraordinary zeal. which he taught himself, while attainments in Greek, his Latin was as polished as Cicero's. Having been sent
to the University of Paris by the Archbishop of Camwith great sucbray, he studied theology and literature
Afterward he traveled in England, France, and Germany, everywhere receiving the homage accorded to native genius and vast acquirements. In Italy temptmeming positions were offered him by the pope and by
cess.
132
TIME.
bers of the papal court
; but, rejecting all overtures that his independence, he located at Basel, might compromise In this in the hope of learned leisure and retirement.
he was disappointed for he was dragged into religious controversies, which cost him his popularity and peace of mind, and filled his latter days with bitterness. Erasmus contributed to the Reformation in several ways. At a time of religious persecution, he preached a tolerance far in advance of his day. He advocated
;
orthodoxy in Christian life rather than in speculative "Let us have done," he says, "with theotheology. There is an excuse for the fathers, refinements. logical
because the heretics forced them to define particular points but every definition is a misfortune, and for us
;
Is no man to persevere in the same way is sheer folly. not know how the to be admitted to grace who does
from the Son, and both from the Spirit ? or how the nativity of the Son differs from the procesFather
differs
sion of the Spirit

sins against
less
me,
God
Unless I forgive my brother his Unwill not forgive. me my sins.
I have a pure heart unless I put away envy, hate, I shall not see God. But a man is pride, avarice, lust
not damned because he can not
tell
whether the Spirit
has one principle or two. Has he the fruits of the Spirit ? That is the question. Is he patient, kind, good, Inquire if you will, gentle, modest, temperate, chaste ? but do not define. True religion is peace, and we can
not have peace unless we leave the conscience unshackled on obscure points on which certainty is impossible."
The most valuable service that Erasmus rendered the Reformation was his publication of the New Testament in Greek. It was a scholarly work, and one of the most

beautiful fruits of the revival of letters.
133
The work was
undertaken in the interests of a purer Christianity. " It " to lead is my desire," he said, in his preface, back that
ain.
cold dispute about words called theology to its real fountWould to God that this work may bear as much
fruit to Christianity as it has cost
me
toil
tion
"
!
and applica-
Though accomplishing no
little
for the purification
of the Church, Erasmus was by no means qualified to become a thorough reformer. He lacked courage and
heroic devotion to truth.
frankly, truth.
"As
to
me," he confessed
"I have no
inclination to risk
all
strength for martyrdom ; and, if trouble come, I shall imitate St. Peter. Popes and must settle creeds. If they settle them well, emperors
BO
We have
my
life for
the
not
much
the better
To
this confession
I shall keep on the safe side." corresponded his conduct when the
if ill,
conflicts of the
Reformation began.
He avoided
taking a
and duplicity, Finally, by he lost the confidence of both Lutherans and Romanists, and exposed himself to bitter attacks from both
his indecision
parties.
positive stand.
In his numerous writings, Erasmus has repeatedly touched upon educational topics. He always displays keenness of penetration and soundness of judgment.
thus inveighs against the superficial imitation of Cicero then prevalent : " You are charged," he says to the Ciceronians, " with a very difficult task ; for, besides the errors of language that have escaped Cicero, the
copyists have
He
sown his works with a multitude of misand many of the writings attributed to this author takes, are not authentic. Finally, his verses translated from
134:
TIME.
the Greek are worth nothing. And you would imitate all that, the good and the bad, the authentic and the
non-authentic
ficial
;
Certainly, your imitation is very superunworthy of your master. Your imitation is servile, cold, and dead, without life, without movement, without feeling it is an apishness in which one discovers none of the virtues that have made the glory of
!
it is
Cicero, such as his happy inspiration, the intelligent disposition of his subjects, the wisdom with which he treats
each subject, his large acquaintance with men and affairs, and his ability to move those who hear him. These are
what should be imitated in Cicero

tate him,
and, in order to imimust, like him, identify ourselves with the age in which we live, that we may be able to adapt our language to it otherwise, our speech has no longer that
;
we
seal of reality
which animated the discourse of Cicero." In reference to reading an author in class, Erasmus " The teacher ought to explain only what is strictly says for understanding the author; he ought to necessary resist the temptation of making on every occasion a display of his knowledge. The end of this rule is to con:
centrate the attention of the pupil upon his author, to bring him into contact with him. Too many digressions break the force of the author, and prevent the pupil
from f eeling and enjoying that inspiration,

to quicken
so well suited
him who
breathes
it
freely."
Erasmus advocated the study of history, geography, natural history, and agriculture. In doing so, he was in advance of his time. Yet he found the worth of these studies, not in themselves, but in the light they would throw upon classic literature. Luther, who was probably the first to recognize the intrinsic worth of the natural
RELATION OF THE REFORMATION TO EDUCATION. 135

sciences, says
:
" "We are at the
dawn
of a
new
era, for
we
are beginning to recover the knowledge of the external world that we had lost since the fall of Adam.
Erasmus
is
indifferent to
it
he does not care
to
know
how
But, by the of God, we already recognize in the most delicate grace flower the wonders of divine goodness and the omnipofruit is
developed from the germ.
tence of God.
We see in his creatures the power of his

and the thing stood
fast.
word.
He commanded,
moment
See
It is that force display itself in the stone of a peach. and the germ that it incloses is very tender ; very hard,
but,
let
when
out the
mus
has come, the stone must open to young plant that God calls into life. Eraspasses by all that, takes no account of it, and looks
the
objects as cows look
upon external
upon a new
gate."
2.
THE RELATION OF THE REFORMATION TO EDUCATION.
(A.)
THE CONDITION OF THE CHURCH.
After the foregoing sketch of concurring circumstances, particularly of the revival of letters, we return In order to appreciate fully to the Reformation itself.
great influence upon education, it is necessary to have a clear conception of the sad condition of the Church and schools at the opening of the sixteenth century. In
its
our study of humanism,

prevailing at the court of
we have
seen the skepticism
Leo X., and the ignorance and vice existing in the monasteries. The same unnatural and ruinous elements were found in all ranks of the Church. It was a time of great moral and intellectual
136
TIME.
degeneracy. Learning had died out among the clergy ; the schools were neglected ; superstition and ignorance will let contemporaries characterized the masses.
We
distinpresent the details of this sorrowful picture. guished theologian of Germany, writing in 1503, says " The study of theology is despised ; the gospel of Christ, as well as the admirable writings of the fathers,
:
of faith, piety, temperance, and other vireven by the better heathen of the miracles of God's grace toward us, and of the merits of And such people, Christ, there is profound silence.
is
neglected
tues, praised
who understand neither philosophy nor theology, are elevated to the highest dignities of the Church, and are made bishops of souls. Hence the pitiable decline of
the Christian Church, the contempt of the clergy, and the utter want of good teachers. The infamous life of the clergy deters honest parents from consecrating their sons to this office. They completely neglect the study
of holy Scripture, lose taste for
its
become lazy and lukewarm

possible.
in their office,
beauty and power, and content
themselves with dispatching divine service as quickly as
With a man who owes them money, they more earnestly and circumspectly than with their speak
Oppressed with a sense of weariness in their office, they turn to play, rioting, and debauchery, without minding in the least the popular contempt. How can it be possible, under the circumstances, for the laity to respect them and religion at all ? The gospel calls the way to heaven narrow, but they make it broad and
Creator.
jovial."
After visiting the churches and schools of Thuringia, by order of the Elector John, Melanchthon writes
:
RELATION OF THE REFORMATION TO EDUCATION. 137

" What can be offered in justification, that these poor peohave hitherto been left in such great ignorance and ple stupidity? My heart bleeds when I regard this misery.
I
Often when we have completed the visitation of a place, go to one side and pour forth my distress in tears.
not
And who would
mourn
to see the faculties of
man
so utterly neglected, and that his soul, which is able to learn and grasp so much, does not even know anything
of
its
Creator and Lord ? "
After the visitation of the churches of Saxony, in " 1528, Luther wrote in the preface of his Small Cate-
chism": "The pitiable need which I recently witnessed, compelled me to prepare this catechism on Christian doctrine in such simple form. Alas what
as visitor, has
!
a sad state of things I witnessed The common people, especially in the villages, are utterly ignorant of the Christian doctrine ; even many pastors are wholly un!
qualified to teach ; and yet all are called Christians, are baptized, and partake of the sacrament, knowing neither the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, nor the Ten Command-
ments, and living and acting like irrational beasts. Nevertheless, now that the precious gospel has appeared O you again, they readily learn to abuse all freedom.
bishops
!
how
will
you ever answer
to Christ for
having
so shamefully neglected the people, and for not having exercised one moment your office that
you might escape
all
evil?"
addition to
Another passage or two from Luther must suffice, in what has already been said, to indicate the
state of education at the
it
wretched
tion.
" Is
time of the Reformanot truly pitiable," he says, " that a boy
has been obliged to study twenty years or longer to learn
138
TIME.
enough bad Latin to become a priest and read mass ? And whoever has accomplished that has been called blessed, and blessed the mother who has borne such a child and jet he has remained a poor, ignorant man all his life long, unfit for any useful vocation. Such teachers and masters we have been obliged to have everywhere, who have known nothing themselves, and have
;
been able to teach nothing good or useful yea, they have not known the way in which one should learn and Elsewhere he says " Is it not obvious that a teach." boy can now be instructed so that he knows more in his fifteenth or eighteenth year than all the universities and convents have hitherto known ? Yea, what have they taught in the universities and convents but to become
; :
blockheads?
man
has studied twenty, forty years,
and has learned neither Latin nor German. Of the shameful, licentious life, by which the generous youth have been destroyed, I say nothing."
(B.)
PRINCIPLES OF PROTESTANTISM.
principles of Protestantism are faThe two great truths underlying
1.
The fundamental
vorable to education.
the Reformation are

2.
Man
is justified
by
faith alone
The Bible
tice.
the only rule of religious faith and pracIn the Protestant Church, all become by faith
is
kings and priests unto God. The only mediator between God and man is Jesus Christ ; and, through him, all believers, without the intervention of priest, saint, or
pope, have immediate access to the Father. "With the Scriptures and his conscience for guides, every man is
elevated to the freedom and dignity of ordering his own The feeling of individual responsibility religious life.
RELATION OF THE REFORMATION TO EDUCATION.

is
139
Intel-
awakened, and the
spirit of
inquiry fostered.
The Bible must be studligence becomes a necessity. ied ; teachers must be provided ; schools must be established.
Protestantism becomes the mother of popular
education.
Justification by faith goes further. It makes Christ, and not the Church, the center of Christianity. Personal union with him constitutes the Christian. Religion
consists in exemplifying his principles in all the relations of life ; in being pure, humble, temperate, honest, lov-
ing; in being like the great Teacher himself. It involves a thorough transformation of individual character.
It does not withdraw man from the ordinary callings and relations of life it makes him a steward of God in the world, and exalts his daily labors in the house;
hold, in the school-room, in the workshop, on the farm, into a divine service. The Protestant view restores
Nature, as a subject of investigation, to
its rights.
The
whole
circle of
knowledge
whatever
is
ever prepares for useful living
elevating, whatheld in honor. Priis
mary and secondary schools are encouraged; the best methods of instruction, based upon a study of man's nature and not upon the interests of the Church, are sought
out
;
education
is
based upon a broad and solid foundais
tion.
Protestantism
" In rendering
man
the friend of universal learning. responsible for his faith, and in
placing the source of that faith in holy Scripture," says " the Reformation Michel an able French
Breal,
scholar,
contracted the obligation of placing every one in a condition to save himself by reading and studying the Bible.
Instruction
became then the
first
of the duties of charity
and
all
who had
charge of souls, from the father of a
140
TIME.
family to the magistrates of cities and to the sovereign of the state, were called upon, in the name of their own
salvation,
and each according
to the
measure of his
re-
Thus Protestsponsibility, to favor popular education. a connection of ideas whose philosophic antism, by
value can not be here discussed, but whose practical consequences were of inestimable value, placed in the
service of education the
most
effective stimulus
most powerful men."
interest that can
and the be brought to bear upon
8.
THE REFORMERS.
(A.)
LUTHEK.
The greatest of the Reformers, whether we consider his relation to the Church or to education, was Martin
"I a glowing tribute. " a true will call this Luther," he says, great man ; great in intellect, in courage, affection, and integrity ; one of
Luther.
Carlyle has paid
him
hewn
our most lovable and precious men. Great not as a obelisk, but as an Alpine mountain, so simple, honest, spontaneous, not setting up to be great at all ;
there for quite another purpose than being great Ah, yes, unsubduable granite, piercing far and wide into he
!
heavens; yet in the clefts of beautiful valleys with flowers

!
it
fountains, green
and
fact,
right spiritual hero
and prophet
for
once more a true son of Nature and
these centuries, and many that are to will be thankful to Heaven." yet,
whom
come
Luther was born at Eisleben, Germany, November His father was a miner in humble circum10, 1483. stances. The home-training which he received was se-
THE REFORMERS.
vere and hardening. His father sometimes whipped " for a mere trifle till the blood came." At school,
him
he came under the prevalent cruel discipline, and was he tells us, fifteen times during a single forenoon. After studying at schools in Magdeburg and Eisenach, he entered the University of Erfurt at eighteen, and in three years took his degree of Master of Arts. He was designed by his father for the law but, finding
flogged, as
;
a copy of the Bible in the university library one day, he was moved by its contents, and resolved upon devoting himself to the monastic life. He entered the Augustinian convent at Erfurt. in profound study, passed
Here he spent three years
through great spiritual trials, and laid the foundation of those doctrinal convictions which were shortly to shake the world. In 1508 he was
called to a chair in the University of Wittenberg,
and
the following year he
commenced
holy Scriptures.
"This monk,"
lecturing upon the said the rector of the
" will university, puzzle our doctors and bring in a new doctrine." About the same time he began to preach, his hearers. " His
profoundly moving words," Melanchthon said, " were born not on his lips but in his soul." In 1511 he made a visit to Rome, and observed the
After his return to Witprofligacy of the papal court. tenberg the sale of indulgences by Tetzel aroused his
indignation, and he prepared ninety-five theses, in which he maintained that only God can forgive sin. He nailed his theses to the church-door, October 31, 151 7, and
offered to defend them against the world. This was the birth-hour of the Reformation. He was soon brought
to
open rupture with the Church, and

before the Imperial Diet at
in
1521 he was
summoned
Worms to answer
142
TIME.
It was here that he made that noble which marks a turning-point in history, and Confronted ushers in the era of personal freedom. the authority of the pope, the opinions of Church by fathers, and the decrees of councils, Luther was called " Unless I am proved to be in error," upon to recant. " from Holy Writ, or by clear he replies, by testimony and overpowering reasons, I can not and will not recant, because it is neither safe nor advisable to do anything Here I stand I can not do otheragainst conscience.
for his doctrines. declaration
wise.
" help me. Amen It would extend this sketch too far to follow Luther
God
through all the mighty labors and struggles of his subsequent conflict with the papacy. The result is well known. Sustained by the almighty Power upon which he so confidently relied, he conducted the Reformation Civil and religious liberty were to a successful issue. to the world. In spite of the rage of his enemies, given
he was permitted to pass away peacefully in 1546. The necessities of the Reformation gave Luther an
intense interest in education.
already inadequate in
tion
The schools of the time, number and defective in method,
were crippled during the early stages of the Reformaby the excited and unsettled condition of society. new generation was growing up without education. The establishment of schools became a necessary measure for the success and permanence of the Reformation. The appeal had been made to the Word of God, and it was necessary to teach the masses to read it. Preachers and teachers were needed for the promulgation and defense of the gospel enlightened and pious rulers, for As early as 1521, the government of city and state.
THE REFORMERS.
143
Luther made an appeal of marvelous energy to the authorities of the
German
consider
cities for
its
the establishment of
pioneer character, in connection with its statement of principles and admirable recommendations, the address must be regarded the most
schools.
If
we
important educational treatise ever written. "With Luther education was not an end in
a
itself,
but
means
to
more
effective service in
church and
state.
If people or rulers neglect the education of the young,

inflict an injury upon both church and state they become the enemies of God and man they advance the cause of Satan, and bring down upon themselves the curse of Heaven. This is the fundamental thought that
they
Luther's writings upon education. The extract presents his views in brief compass following " The common " does not think that he man," he says,
underlies
all
:
under obligation to God and the world to send his Every one thinks that he is free to bring his son as he pleases, no matter what becomes of up God's word and command. Yea, even our rulers act as if they were exempt from the divine command. No one thinks that God has earnestly willed and commanded that children be brought up to his praise and work a thing that can not be done without schools. On the contrary, every one hastens with his children after worldly gain, as if God and Christianity needed no pastors and preachers, and the state no chancellors, councilors, and
is
son to school.
scribes."
In his letter to the councilors of the German cities, Luther says " But even if there were no soul, and we had not the least need of schools and the languages for
:
the sake of the Scriptures and of God, this one reason
144

suffice to cause the establishment of the
TIME.
should
very best
namely,
schools everywhere, both for boys that the world needs accomplished
also,
and
girls,
men, and women
outward temporal prosperity, so capable of properly governing the and people, and the women of superintending country the house, children, and servants. Now, such men must come of boys, and such women of girls therefore, the object must be rightly to instruct and educate boys and
for maintaining
its
that the
men may be
girls for these purposes."
ily
Luther wisely insisted upon the maintenance of famdiscipline as a measure of public safety and pros-
" What is a " other than a colcity," he asks, perity. a city be well govlection of families ? How, then, can erned, where there is no government in the family ; yea,
where neither child nor servant is obedient ? Likewise, a district what is it other than a collection of cities, towns, and villages ? "Where now the families are badly governed, how can a whole district be well governed ? Yea, the result must be tyranny, witchcraft, murder,
;
Again, a principality is a collection of districts and duchies, a kingdom a collection of prinThese cipalities, an empire a collection of kingdoms.
theft, disobedience.
are all
father and
their
trict,
composed of separate families. Where now mother govern badly, and let children have
there can neither city, town, village, diskingdom, nor empire be well and
own way,
principality,
peacefully governed.
For the son
will
become
a father,
judge, mayor, prince, king, emperor, preacher, schoolmaster ; if he has been badly brought up, the subjects
will
become
like their master, the
members
like their
head."
THE REFORMERS.
Luther
"
set a
145
office
high estimate upon the
of teach-
preachers, lawyers, and physicians ing. come from," he asks, " if the liberal arts were not taught ? From this source must they all come. This I say, no
Where would
one can ever sufficiently remunerate the industrious and

pious teacher that faithfully educates children, as the
heathen Aristotle has
said.
And
yet people shamefully
despise this calling among us, as if it were nothing, and at the same time they pretend to be Christians If I
!
were obliged to leave off preaching and other duties, there is no office I would rather have than that of school-teacher for I know that this work is with preaching the most useful, greatest, and best and I do not know which of the two is to be preferred. For it is difficult to make old dogs docile and old rogues pious, yet that is what the ministry works at, and must work
;
:
at,
some may break,
in great part, in vain; but young trees, although are more easily bent and trained.
Therefore, let it be one of the highest virtues on earth faithfully to educate the children of others who neglect it themselves."
Luther justly looked upon learning as a source of " wealth and power to a community. Therefore it will " to exercise be proper for the civil authorities," he
says,
the greatest possible care and industry in regard to the young; for, since the interests of the city are committed,
to their trust, they
would not do well before God and

all
the world
if
they did not seek with
their
might
to
promote
Now, the prosperity of a city prosperity. does not consist alone in vast treasures, strong walls, beautiful houses, large supplies of muskets and armor
its
;
yea,
when
7
these things are found, and fools exercise
146
TIME.
authority, it is BO much the worse for the city. best and richest treasure of a city is that it have
The
many
pure, learned, intelligent, honest, well-educated citizens, for these can collect, preserve, and properly use whatever
is
good."
any phase of education that Luther Everywhere he exhibited the same " If we sense. strong good survey the pedagogy of Luther in all its extent," says Dittes, " and imagine it fully realized in practice, what a splendid picture the schools and education of the sixteenth century would present "We should have courses of study, text-books, teachers, methods, principles, and modes of discipline, schools and school regulations, that could serve as models for our own age. But, alas! Luther, like all great men, was and what little understood by his age and adherents was understood was inadequately esteemed, and what was esteemed was only imperfectly realized." Luther could not devote himself directly or chiefly As was once the case with to the cause of education. " the apostle Paul, " the care of all the churches was upon him. It was through his writings and personal influence that he affected education. The great need he saw during the visitation of the churches in Saxony led
is
There
scarcely
left
untouched.
him, in 1529, to prepare his catechisms for the instrucIn 1534: he published his tion of both clergy and laity. translation of the Bible, which had an almost incredible
educational influence
upon Germany. The people
seized
upon
with avidity, and in the course of a few years half a million copies were in circulation. It fixed nearly the German language, which had previously been broken Roman writer of the time says up into rival dialects.
it
THE REFORMERS.
"Even shoemakers, women, and ignorant people, who have learned only a little German, are eagerly reading the New Testament as the fountain of all truth and that, moreover, with such frequency that they know it
;
by
heart.
in this
They also way conceive
carry
in a
about in their pockets, and few weeks such a high opinion

it
of their knowledge that they dispute not only with Catholic laymen, but with the priests and monks, and
even with doctors of theology, about faith and the

gospel." Luther's efforts in behalf of education were not fruit-
Germany was aroused by his apIn 1525 he was commissioned by the Duke of Mansfield to establish two schools in his native town, Eisleben, one for primary and the other for secondary instruction. Both in the course of study, and in the methods of instruction, these schools became models after which many others were fashioned. As a direct and comprehensive result of Luther's educational endeavors, the forms of church government adopted by the various Protestant cities and states contained provisions for the establishment and management of schools. In a few years the Protestant portion of Germany was supplied with schools. They were still
less.
All Protestant
peals.
defective in almost every particular ; but, at the same time, they were greatly superior to any that had pre-
Though no complete system of popular was established, the foundation for it was laid. To this great result Luther contributed more than any other man of his time and this fact makes
instruction
;
ceded them.
him
the leading educational reformer of the sixteenth
century.
148

MELANCHTHON.
TIME.
(B.)
Philip Melanchthon has been honored with the
title
Preceptor Germanics. Excepting Luther, no other reformer did so much for education in Germany. His
name was Schwarzerd, meaning Hack earth ; but was translated by Reuchlin into the more euphonious Greek equivalent, Melanchthon. He was born at Bretten, Germany, in 1497, where he received his early " I education from a strict but faithful schoolmaster. " who was an excellent had a teacher," he tells us, gramWhenever I marian, and held me rigidly to grammar. made mistakes I received blows, yet with moderation. In this way he made a grammarian out of me. He was a good man he loved me as his son, and I him as my
real
this
;
father."
His precocity and thirst for knowledge were remarkReuchlin admired the young scholar's ability, and one day playfully brought him a doctor's hat. Erasmus had a high opinion of him. " My God " he exclaimed, " what promising hopes does Philip Melanchthon give
able.
!
who, yet a youth, yes almost a boy, deserves equal What esteem for his knowledge of both languages
us,
!
sagacity in argument, what purity of expression, what a rare and comprehensive knowledge, what extensive reading,
what a delicacy and elegance of mind does he not

"
!
display
Melanchthon attended the University of Heidelberg, and took his bachelor's degree there at the age of fifteen. About this time he prepared a Greek grammar, which was not published, however, till several years
later.
He
spent six years at the University of Tiibin-
THE REFORMERS.
gen,
first as
14.9
a student and afterward as a lecturer.

to the chair of
In
1518 he was called

sity of
Greek
at the
Univer-
Wittenberg. His small stature, youthful look, and timid manner, made at first an unfavorable impression; but his introductory lecture captivated his hearers, and established his reputation. Luther, in particular, was delighted, and wrote to his friend Spalatin as fol-
Philip deli vered a very learned and chaste adon the fourth day after his arrival, and that too with such applause and admiration on every side, that you need not trouble yourself further in commending him to us. We must look away from his exterior appearance we rejoice in his gifts, at the same time that we are amazed at them and we heartily thank our gra:
lows
"
dress
cious prince, as well as your own assistance." warm affection and lasting intimacy soon
sprang
up between Luther and Melanchthon. They were complements of each other. This fact has been well exhib" Luther ited by D' Aubigne in the following parallel
:
possessed warmth, vigor, strength ; Melanchthon, clearness, discretion, and mildness. Luther gave energy to Me-
lanchthon, Melanchthon moderated Luther. They were like substances in a state of positive and negative elecIf Luther tricity, which mutually act upon each other.
had been without Melanchthon, perhaps the torrent would have overflowed its banks Melanchthon, when Luther was taken from him by death, hesitated and gave way, even where he should not have yielded. Luther did much by power Melanchthon perhaps did no less by following a gentler and more tranquil method. Both were upright, open-hearted, generous both ardently loved the Word of eternal life, and obeyed it with
; ; ;
150

and
devotion that
TIME.
a fidelity lives."
governed
their
whole
During his whole remarkable industry.
Melanchthon was a student of often arose as early as two or three o'clock in the morning to pursue his studies, and many of his works were written between that hour and dawn. Literature was his passion, and it was against his will that he was drawn into theological controversy. On one occasion a Frenchman visited him at his home in Wittenberg. He found Melanchthon in the nursery, where he was rocking the cradle with one hand, while he held a book in the other. Observing the surprise of his guest, Melanchthon praised domestic life, and the gratitude of children toward God, in such appreciative terms that the stranger went away greatly edified. Melanchthon earnestly desired the diffusion of learn"I apply myself solely to one thing," he says, ing. " the defense of letters. By our example we must excite youth to the admiration of learning, and induce them to love it for its own sake, and not for the advantage that may be derived from it. The destruction of learning brings with it the ruin of everything that is good reThe ligion, morals, and all things human and divine.
life
He
better a
man is, the greater his ardor in the preservation of learning ; for he knows that of all plagues ignorance is the most pernicious." He says again " To neglect the young in our schools is just like taking the spring out of the year. They, indeed, take away the spring
:
from the year who permit the schools to decline, because And a religion can not be maintained without them.
terrible darkness will fall
upon
society, if the study of
the sciences should be neglected
"
!
THE REFORMERS.
151
Melanchthon exerted an influence upon the educational progress of

all,
he was
attended.
First of in various ways. was largely an able teacher, whose instruction Two thousand students, from all parts of
Germany
and Europe, thronged his lecture-room at Wittenberg, and of bore away the precious seed both of the gospel ancient learning. His personal relations with students
were peculiarly cordial. He welcomed them to his home, and gave them individual encouragement and aid" that I love all the " I can truthfully affirm," he says, students with a fatherly affection, and feel the greatest
solicitude for their welfare."
Many
of the leading edu-
cators of Protestant Germany, among whom may be mentioned Camerarius, Michael Neander, and TrotzenHe contributed to the dorf, were once his students. advancement of learning by his text-books. Besides a Greek and a Latin grammar, he published works on and physics, and prepared annologic, ethics, rhetoric, These tated editions of the principal ancient classics.
works, written in a clear and scientific form, soon became popular, and some of them held their place in the
schools for
more than a hundred
years.
To him we
are
is
indebted for the well-known definition, "Grammar the science of speaking and writing correctly."
To Melanchthon belongs the honor of having produced the first work on dogmatic theology in the ProtIt appeared in 1521, and is known as estant Church. Luther set a high estimate upon the Loci Communes. " Whoever wishes to become a this work. theologian
now," he says, enjoys great advantages ; for, first of which is so clear that he can read all, he has the Bible, Then let him read in addition it without difficulty.
"
152
TIME.
the Loci
Communes of Melanchthon
let
him read them
diligently and well, that he may impress them upon his mind. If he has these two things, he is a theologian, from whom neither the devil nor heretics shall be able To him the whole field of theto take away anything. lies open, so that he is able to read anything he ology
pleases after that with edification."
In 1528 Melanchthon drew up the " Saxony School
Plan," which served as the basis of organization for many schools throughout Germany. Among other things, he " There are now abuses in the schools. In
says
:
properly taught, we have the teachers should see to it First, prepared that the children learn only Latin, not German, or order that the young
this
many may be
form
Greek, or Hebrew, as some have hitherto done, burdening the children with a multiplicity of studies that were
not only unfruitful, but even hurtful. It is also plain that such teachers do not consider the good of the children, but take up so many studies for the sake of reputation.
Secondly, the teacher should not burden the children with too many books, and should, in every way, avoid multiplicity in his instruction. Thirdly, it is
necessary that the children be divided into classes." Three classes or grades are recommended. In the first,
reading, writing, music, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer were to be taught ; in the second, Latin grammar and the easier Latin authors, in connection with continued
religious instruction
;
in the third, Latin
grammar was
completed, the more difficult Latin authors were taken

up, and versification, rhetoric, and logic were introduced. Latin, at length, became the language of daily
intercourse.
THE REFORMERS.
ZWESTGLI
153
(c.)
AND CALVIN.
the other leading re-
A few words
formers.
must
suffice for
Zwingli and Calvin both appreciated the im-
portance of education, and contributed directly to its The ecclesiastical polity which Calvin advancement.
established in Geneva, in 1541, provided teachers to give
instruction in the ancient languages. As early as 1524, the same year that Luther made his appeal to the authorities of the
German
cities,
Zwingli published a
little
work on teaching, which

suggestions. struction is
exhibits a considerable degree of pedagogical knowledge, and contains some valuable
As
with
all
made prominent.
says,
the reformers, religious in" Although it is not in
human power," he
" to bring the heart of
man
to
believe in God, even with an eloquence greater than that of Pericles ; and, although our heavenly Father alone, who draws us to himself, can accomplish that
faith, as Paul teaches, comes by hearing, the hearing of the "Word of God. Therefore, namely, we must seek to instill faith in youth by the clearest and
work, yet
commonest words from the mouth of God,

time praying that
at the
same
He who
alone begets faith would en-
lighten him whom we instruct. It also seems to me not discordant with the teaching of Christ, if we lead the
young through
visible things to the knowledge of God, before their eyes the beauties of the whole placing world, and showing them under the mutations of Nature
Being who holds the manifold world in Then we may lead them to see that it is not possible for Him, who has so wisely and beautifully ordered all things, to neglect the work of his
the immutable
such admirable order.
154:
TIME.
hands, since even among men we blame the father who does not watch over and provide for his household.
Thus
will the
is
young understand
all things,
that the providence of

all
things without spirit has once been growing weary. instructed in this way, it can never fall into properly undue anxiety or hurtful lusts ; for it then knows that
If the
God
over
and orders
human
all things are to be obtained from God, and that it would be an offense to desire from him anything unworthy."
4.
ABSTRACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
(1550-1100).
ens and deepens.
After the Reformation, the stream of history broadVarious influences, often in conflict
with one another, control the course of events. During the period extending from the middle of the sixteenth
to the beginning of the eighteenth century, three leading tendencies are apparent in education. These may
be characterized
as the theological, the humanistic, and the practical. As the theological tendency, however, maintained an ascendency over the others in the schools, it is allowed to give name to the period. The human-
tendency, which was not very marked, was an echo from the revival of learning. The practical tendency
istic
was a reaction against the sterile learning cultivated by theology and humanism. The period under discussion was one of extraordinary theological
lectual
activity.
large share of the intel-
strength of the age was turned to theology. Every phase of religious truth, particularly in its doctrinal
and speculative
aspects,
was brought under
inves-
ABSTRACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.

tigation.
155
Theology was elevated into a
science,
and
doctrinal systems were developed with logical precision, " and extended to trifling subtilties. Theology was
most fully developed," says Kurtz, in speaking of the " seventeenth century, and reared like a mighty Gothic dome with astonishing acuteness, harmonious in its minutest parts, and firmly knit together as a whole. But the tendency to an extremely subtile development and which sprang from the precise definition of doctrines, of the preceding century, became continucontroversies
ally
more
one-sided.
Hence,
it
called into existence a
dialectic scholasticism,
which was in no way
inferior to
that of the most flourishing period of the middle ages, either in the greatness or minuteness of the careful and
acute development of its scientific form, or in the full and accurate exhibition of its religious contents."
this great effort to reduce the whole body of religious truth to an infallible logical statement was attended with unfortunate results. Theologians became
But
bigoted and intolerant. In their efforts to give Christian doctrine a scientific form, they lost its spirit. Losing its
freedom and life, Protestantism degenerated in measure into what has been called " dead ortholarge doxy." The intellectual apprehension of elaborate creeds was made the basis of Christian fellowship. Christian life counted for little, and the Protestant world broke
earlier
up
into opposing factions.
Says Kurtz,
who
is
disposed
to apologize for this period as far as possible: "Like mediaeval scholasticism, in its concern for logic theology
almost
lost vitality. Orthodoxy degenerated into orthodoxism externally, not only discerning essential diversities, but disregarding the broad basis of a common
;
156
faith,
TIME.
and running into odious and unrestrained controit,
versy ; internally, holding to the form of pure doctrine,
but neglecting cordially to embrace sistently with it."
and
to live con-
The
ion,
schools, which stand in close relation to religwere naturally influenced in a large measure by the
theological tendencies of the age. Theological interests imposed upon the schools a narrow range of subjects, a
mechanical method of instruction, and a cruel discipline. The principle of authority, exacting a blind submission of the pupil, prevailed in the schools of every grade.
The young were
regarded, not as tender plants to be
carefully nurtured and developed, but as untamed animals to be repressed and broken. "Education," says " in the form that it had assumed in the sixteenth
Dittes,
century, could not furnish a complete human culture. In the higher institutions, and even in the wretched
town schools, Latin was the Moloch to which countless minds fell an offering in return for the blessing granted to a few. A dead knowledge of words took the place
Latin school-books of a living knowledge of things. the book of Nature, the book of life, the supplanted
book of mankind. And in the popular schools youthful minds were tortured over the spelling-book and catechism. The method of teaching was almost everywhere, in the primary as well as in the higher schools, a mechanical and compulsory drill in unintelligible formulas the pupils were obliged to learn, but they were not educated to see and hear, to think and prove, and were not led to a true independence and personal perfection the teachers found their function in teaching the prescribed
;
text,
not in harmoniously developing the young
human

being according to the laws of Nature
157
a process, moreunder the ban of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. The discipline answered to the content and spirit of the instruction it was harsh, and even barbarous the principle was to tame the pupils, not to educate them. They were to hold themselves motionless, that the school exwhat took place in their ercises might not be disturbed minds, and how their several characters were constituted, the school pedants did not understand and apover, that lay
;
preciate."
This
cation.
is
In other particulars,
grades.
the darker side of the theological influence. it was favorable to the cause of edu-
It led to a multiplication of schools of various
Country schools, town schools, Latin schools, or gymnasia, and universities, sprang up in Protestant countries under the religious impulse, and in Catholic countries through a spirit of rivalry with their oppoThe country or village schools were connected nents. with the local church, and were usually taught by the
The subjects sexton, or some other subordinate officer. of instruction were originally the catechism and singing, but to these were subsequently added reading, writing,
and arithmetic. The schools were designed for both boys and girls, who were instructed sometimes together, and sometimes separately. The following order of the Elector of Brandenburg, issued in 1573, shows us the " primitive form of these schools Every Sunday after:
noon, or, with the approval of the pastor, once during the week, the village sextons shall read to the people,
but especially to the children and young servants, the Small Catechism of Luther, without change, and teach
them
to
pray
also,
they shall question them according
158
TIME.
what they have learned. Likewise, before and after the reading and repeating of the catechism, they shall sing and teach the young people good,
to convenience as to
Christian, German psalms ; and, where there are chapels, they shall conduct these exercises alternately in the chapels and in the parent churches, in order that the
youth in
all
the villages
may
be instructed according to
and not be neglected." With the town schools it was somewhat better. The range of instruction was of a higher order the theological influence was felt in a less degree the needs of But these practical life were better kept in view. schools were still very far from being models. They did not emancipate themselves from the mechanical methods and cruel discipline then in vogue, and the " The teachers, as a rule, were unfit for their vocation. majority of them," says Dittes, "were people who on account of bodily infirmity or mental incapacity, often also on account of laziness or dissoluteness, had suffered shipwreck in life, and had now taken to teaching as a
their need,
; ;
last resort, particularly
unsuccessful artisans, students,
and deposed clergymen." Everywhere the teachers were poorly paid. Their salaries consisted in part of eggs and butter, and to maintain a li velihood they were forced to
" engage in other pursuits. They played the violin at carried on in a small way dances, kept beer-gardens, some kind of trade, or in summer hired out as daylaborers. The school ordinances of the time contain
sharp clauses in reference to the scandalous lives of the teachers, as well as against their rough discipline, and
admonish them to fidelity in duty and to becoming conduct in and out of school. But this was mostly in vain
;

for,
159
where
fitness is
wanting among teachers, ordinances

itself by the by the name, Latin The leading repre-
are of but
little utility."
In the Latin schools humanism asserted

of theology. As indicated formed the chief subject of study.
side
sentatives of the humanistic tendency in the second half of the sixteenth century were Trotzendorf, Michael Ne-
ander, and
John Sturm. They were all influenced by Melanchthon, with whom they maintained more or less
intimate relations.
As
directors of celebrated schools,
they exerted a strong influence upon the higher education of their time. Trotzendorf taught at Goldberg,
and Sturm at Strasburg. As Sturm most completely the humanistic tendency represented of his age, it is worth while to consider his educational work in some detail.
Neander
at Hfeld,
(A.)
JOHN STURM.
;
John Sturm was born at Schleiden, Prussia, in 1507 he died at Strasburg in 1589. After teaching at Louvain and Paris, he was appointed rector of the gymnasium at Strasburg, over which he presided for forty
boasted of his institution that it reproduced years. the best periods of Athens and Rome ; and, in fact, he succeeded in giving to his adopted city the name of
He
New
In religion he was a Calvinist, and he is justly regarded as the greatest educator that the Reformed Church produced during this period. " " His ideal of education," says Raumer, we have
Athens.
knowledge, and eloquence. He wished, and with equal clearness he adopted means to its attainment. . . The man was
already learned
clearly
piety,
knew what he
160
TIME.
of one piece, a whole man a man of character, in whom strength of will was admirably united with force and
tact in execution.
Hence,
it is
not to be wondered at
his cotemporaries,
that
Sturm found recognition among

school
and enjoyed their highest confidence.
In 1578 the
numbered several thousand pupils, Strasburg them about two hundred of noble birth, twentyamong
four counts and barons, and three princes. Not simply from Germany, but from the most different countries, from Portugal and Poland, Denmark, France, and EngBut his pedagogical land, youths were sent to Sturm. was not limited to the Strasburg Gymnasium activity in wide circles he exerted by counsel and example, and
;
through his pupils, a very great influence as a second Preceptor Germanice" The course of study at the Strasburg Gymnasium was
divided into ten
classes.
As
this institution
became a
model for many other
classical schools, it is well to pre-
thus gain a sent briefly the work of each class. into the Latin schools of this period, and clear insight are prepared to appreciate both their excellence and
their defects
:
We
Tenth
catechism.
Class.
The
declensions and conjugations.
alphabet, reading, writing. Latin The German or Latin
Ninth
continued.
life.
Class.
Latin declensions and conjugations Memorizing of Latin words used in common
Irregularities of formation were introduced. Eighth Class. Continuation of words in common
use.
parts of speech. Declension and conjugation in connection with sentences. Composition of Latin
The
phrases.
Some
letters of
Cicero were read and ex-

plained.
style.
161
Toward the
close of the year,
exercises in
Seventh Class.
Latin syntax, with a few rules and
examples from Cicero.
Rules to be constantly applied
Exercises in composition. in reading Cicero's letters. On Sunday, translation of German catechism into classic
Latin, in which, however, such terms as Trinitas, sacra-
mentum, and laptismus might be employed.

Review. Translation of Cicero's letGerman. Translation of Latin poetry. On Saturday and Sunday, translation of catechism, and reading of some letters of Jerome. Greek begun. Fifth Class. Study of words designating things
/Sixth Class.
ters into
unknown
Cicero,
to the pupils. Versification. Mythology. and Yirgil's Eclogues. Greek vocabulary. ExTranslation of ercises in style and Latin versification. oratorical extracts into German, and afterward back On Saturday and Sunday, one of Paul's into Latin.
epistles.
Well acquainted with Latin and Fourth Class. Greek grammar, the pupils were required to read a great The sixth oradeal, to learn by heart, and to explain. tion against Yerres was read, because it. contains almost Greek all kinds of narration. Epistles of Horace.
grammar continued, with

Reviews.
epistles.
reading.
Exercises in style.
Reading and paraphrasing some of Paul's

Class.
Third
Cluentio.
Reviews.
Rhetoric.
Oration pro
Select orations of Demosthenes.
The
Iliad
or Odyssey. Paul's epistles. Exercises in style. Translation of oratorical extracts from Greek into Latin, and
from Latin into Greek.
Composition of poetry and
let-
162
ters.
TIME.
Terence in the four higher these authors to be acted.
Representation of the comedies of Plautus and All the plays of classes.
Second Class. The pupils explained, under the direcPetion of the teacher, the Greek orators and poets. Remarkculiarities of oratorical and poetical language. Dialectic and rhetoric studied in able passages copied.
connection with orations of Cicero and Demosthenes.
Exercises in style.
tion.
Oratorical composition and declama-
Memorizing and recitation of the Epistle to the Romans. Representation of the comedies of Terence and Plautus, and some drama of Aristophanes, Euripides,
and Sophocles. First Class. Dialectic and rhetoric continued. YirHorace, Homer. Translation of Thucydides and Weekly dramatic entertainments. All written
gil,
Sallust.
artistic. Reading and explanation of Paul's epistles. This course has the merit of being well fitted together, and of harmoniously tending to the desired end. It is
composition to be
carefully graded throughout, each class furnishing a defiYet it has obnite preparation for the succeeding one.
vious and serious defects.
its scope. to Latin and given unjustifiable prominence Greek, while many other important studies are wholly History, mathematics, natural science, and neglected.
is
It
too narrow in
An
is
the mother-tongue are ignored.
great gap is left between the gymnasium and life a gap that could not be In aiming to reproduce filled even by the university. Greece and Rome in the midst of modern Christian civilization, Sturm's scheme involves a vast anachronism. " to " And what a strange mistake," exclaims Paroz,
1(33
wish, to confine the scientific culture of a nation in the
forms of a foreign language
would have been necessary
at the start to
In order to succeed, it overcome the
resistance of a young, vigorous, popular, national language. But such a result was neither possible nor desirable.
The
future belonged to the mother-tongue;
and true modern culture, the culture suited to modern needs and to the genius of the people, was not found in the Latin gymnasia of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it lay germinally in the religious work of the
is, in the translation of the Bible, in hymns, and catechisms, and in those poor popular sermons, schools in which the mother-tongue was spoken. "We are astonished to-day that Sturm did not make the German language a branch of instruction, and that he even despised French and German, although he somewhere acknowledges that Luther and Philippe de Comines have written as well as the most celebrated of the
period
that
ancients."
to America.
Sturm's influence extended to England, and thence " No one Says a recent English writer
:
who
acquainted with the education given at our princlassical schools, Eton, Winchester, and Westmincipal ster, forty years ago, can fail to see that their curriculum
is
was framed in a great degree on Sturm's model.
Dur-
ing our own generation the subjects of school-teaching have been largely multiplied, and we can afford to look down on the humanistic scheme as narrow and incomplete
;
but
it
had
at least this merit, that it
was a
well-
considered plan, harmonious in its arrangement, with its The master of each parts well fitting into one another.
class
knew
precisely
what the boys confided
to
him were
164
TIME.
expected to learn. When they proceeded to the university, the preliminary instruction which they took with them had been well denned."
(B.)
THE UNIVERSITIES.
were affected most, perhaps, by the These institutions influences of the period. theological were established in considerable numbers for the promuluniversities
The
gation of particular types of theology. The universities estabh'shed between 1550 and 1700, with their ecclesiastical relations, are as follows: Strasburg, Lutheran,
1621; Geneva, Reformed, 1558; Jena, Lutheran, 1557; ; Helmstadt, Lutheran, 1576 Altorf, Lutheran, 1575 ; Herborn, Reformed, 1654 ; Gratz, Catholic, 1586 ; Paderborn, Catholic, 1592 ; GiesDillingen, Catholic, 1554
;
sen,
Lutheran, 1607;
Rinteln, Lutheran, 1619; Salz;
Minister, Catholic, 1631 1632 ; Banaberg, Catholic, 1648 ; burg, Reformed, 1655 ; Kiel, Lutheran, 1665 pruck, Catholic, 1670 Halle, Lutheran, 1694. Of Helmstadt, Altorf, Rinteln, and Duisburg were
burg, Catholic, 1622;

briick, Catholic,
OsnaDuisInnsthese,
subse-
quently dissolved.
No
important changes were made in the organization
of the universities.
The
course of instruction, which
continued in the hands of the four faculties of philosophy, theology, law, and medicine, remained narrow.
History and the modern tongues were entirely neglected ; mathematics received but little attention physics,
;
astronomy, and natural history the only natural sciences recognized were taught out of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and
Pliny; and medicine out of Hippocrates and Galen. Even Greek was accorded only an inferior position. In
ABSTEACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
165
the universities, as in the gymnasia, Latin was the chief "Thus was the circle of studies," subject of study. " at the schools as at the universities exsays Raumer,
tremely restricted, as compared with the range of subIt is clear, as I have repeatedly rejects in our time. marked, that all the time and strength of the youth were
forcibly concentrated upon the learning and exercising Grammar was studied for years in order to of Latin. learn to speak and write Latin correctly; dialectic, in
order to use
it
logically
It oratorically.
Facility
and rhetoric, in order to handle was sought by means of debate,
The clasdeclamation, and representations of Terence. sics were read in order to collect words and phrases
from them for speaking and writing, without
particular
six-
concern for the thought." The state of morals at the universities of the
teenth and seventeenth centuries was very low.
ness, drunkenness, disorder,
Idle-
in an unparalleled degree.
and licentiousness prevailed practice of hazing was and new students were subjected to shocking universal,
The
The following graphic description, conindignities. tained in a rescript of Duke Albrecht of Saxony to the University of Jena in 1624, would apply equally well to " before unany other university of the time
:
Customs
heard of," he says, "inexcusable, unreasonable, and wholly barbarian, have come into existence. When any to any of our person, either of high or low rank, goes universities for the sake of pursuing his studies, he is
by the insulting names of pennal, fox, tape-worm, and the like, and treated as such and insulted, abused, derided, and hooted at, until, against his will, and to the his parents, he great injury and damage of himself and
called
;
166
TIME.
has prepared, given, and paid for a stately and expensive And at this there happen, without any 'entertainment.
or man, innumerable disorders and excesses, blasphemies, breaking up of stoves, doors, and windows,
fear of
God
throwing about of books and drinking-vessels, looseness of words and actions, and in eating and drinking, dangerous wounds, and other ill deeds ; shames, scandals, and all manner of vicious and godless actions, even
sometimes extending to murder or fatal injuries. And these doings are frequently not confined to one such feast, but are continued for days together at meals, at lectures, privately and publicly, even in the public streets, by all manner of misdemeanors in sitting, standing, or going, such as outrageous howls, breaking into houses and windows, and the like ; so that by such immoral, wild, and vicious courses, not only do our universities
perceptibly lose in good reputation, but many parents in distant places either determine not to send their children
at all to this university
founded with such great ex-
pense by our honored ancestors, now resting in peace with God, and thus far maintained by ourselves or to
take them away again." The custom of hazing was broken
universities
up
in
Germany
about 1660, after which time the moral condition of the
showed a marked improvement.

(C.)
THE
JESUITS.
chiefly
"Within the Catholic Church education was promoted by the Jesuits. This order, established by Ig-
natius Loyola, found its special mission in combating the Reformation. As the most effective means of arrest-
ing the progress of Protestantism,
it
aimed
at controlling
167
education, particularly among the wealthy and the noble. In rivalry with the schools of Protestant countries, it
and earned were praised They and Bacon says " Take example by the schools of the Jesuits, for better do not exist. When I look at the diligence and activity of the Jesuits, both in imparting knowledge and in molding
activity,
developed an immense educational

its
for
schools a great reputation. patronized even by Protestants.
me of the exclamation of Agesilaus concerning Pharnabazas: 'Since thou art so noble, I would thou wert on our side ' "
the heart, I bethink
!
organization was perhaps the most compact that has ever existed. Only men of marked ability were admitted to it, and on entering they gave up their personality in
The
complete consecration to the interests of the
order.
The
will of the general
was supreme, and from
his headquarters in
Rome he could direct the movements
of the society with absolute precision and certainty. more formidable foe has never faced Protestantism. The
following are some of the principles of the organization, as given by Pascal 1. The end sanctifies the means.
:
Mental reservations are allowable in making promises and in taking oaths. 3. Philosophically, every
2.
transgression against a divine commandment is sin theologically, only such violations as are perpetrated
with
full consciousness of the
wrong, and a
set pur-
pose to break God's law.
From
the time of
its
organization the Jesuit so-
Its principles ciety worked with indomitable energy. and methods were covered up by an attractive religious
zeal.
Not only
estant
Europe aided
Catholic but also a portion of Protits growth, and in the course of a
168
TIME.
few years the order arrived at immense power. More than any other agency it stayed the progress of the Reformation, and it even succeeded in winning back
territory already conquered
by Protestantism. Although employing the pulpit and the confessional, it worked chiefly through its schools, of which it established and controlled large numbers. Education in all Catholic countries gradually passed into its hands. In 1710 the order had no less than six hundred and twelve colleges, one hundred and fifty-seven normal schools, twenty-four These instituuniversities, and two hundred missions. tions had a large patronage. In 1675 the College of Clermont numbered three thousand students. " The " Jesuits," says James Freeman Clarke, spread over Euin a few years, taking possession of the pulpits, the rope schools, and the confessionals. They were most accomand popular preachers, and filled anew the deplished
serted churches.
They supplanted other
priests in the
care of consciences, and their schools were filled with the children of all classes, for they taught not only gratuitously but well."
brilliant success.
sacrifice of its
But the order could not continue in its course of In spite of the ability, zeal, and self-
members, it excited opposition by its ambitious schemes and increasing power. After having been banished from nearly every country of Europe, the order was finally abolished by Pope Clement XIV., in
1773.
Though
energy and
since revived and possessed of former zeal, it is not so powerful.
"With this rapid sketch before us, we can study the Jesuit system of education with greater interest and This system, based on a draft prepared by profit.
169
Loyola himself, was elaborately set forth in a " plan of " studies prepared in 1588; and, though it underwent some slight modification in 1832 to accommodate it, in
some degree,
to
essential change. eral education, it
modern needs, it has remained without Whatever its defects as a system of gen-
was admirably suited to Jesuit purposes, and in some particulars it embodied valuable principles. Every member of the order became a competent and
a thorough course in the and theology. During the philosophy, progress of his later studies he was required to teach. In the Jesuit schools there was a lower and a higher
practical teacher.
He received
ancient
classics,
The lower course, which closely to Sturm's, occupied six corresponds years, the classes
course of instruction.
being arranged as follows

1.
2. 3.
Rudiments of Latin grammar. Middle grammar class.
4.
5.
The
Latin syntax. humanities.
" at. knowledge of syntax," " is not the " plan of studies," above referred tlie says to, end of grammar ; pupils ought to learn Latin as a living language; they ought to be able to read, speak, and
Rhetoric (two years). Arithmetic, history, and natural science occupied a very subordinate place. As the language of the Roman Church, Latin was the principal subject of study. Great
thoroughness was aimed
write
it."
Ancient
literature
was esteemed, not for
its
study of classic au" " can have for us only a secondthors," says the plan," ary end, namely, to form the style; we wish nothing more. Style will be formed essentially after Cicero.
its style.
thought, but for
"The
170
TIME.
Pupils, both in speaking and in writing, will make use of classic phrases." Greek was cultivated with success.
Jesuits were hostile to the mother-tongue ; and, distrusting the influence of its associations, they assidu-
The
ously endeavored to supplant it. Says the "plan of " " All use of the studies mother-tongue should be for:
bidden.
Those who make use of
it
ought to bear a mark
of humiliation, to which a light punishment also should be added, unless the pupil succeed the same day in throwing the double load upon a comrade whom he has
detected, in school or
upon the
street,
committing the
same
fault."
The
religious
element of education was strongly

:
is shown by the following extract the "plan of studies," "ought to be "Religion," says the base and summit, the center and soul of all study,
emphasized.
This
of
all
education.
young man make ator and of his Saviour, and that he increase in morality as he develops in intelligence. The teacher should serve as example to his pupils; he will fear to give them He will recommend offense, and will pray for them. them with great confidence to the Holy Virgin and to
erine, etc. That humility will be cultivated which seeks, not the glory of the world, but of God. "What touches on vice will be held vile and bad. The will of every
It is necessary first of all that the progress in the knowledge of his Cre-
the patron saints of youth, to Saint Joseph, Saint Cath-
which
one will identify itself with the will of the superior,* is to be respected and followed as the will of
Christ.
The
and
teacher will see to
it
that the pupils read,

. . .
recite,
offer mentally certain prayers.

* The general of the order.
The

pupil that neglects his religious duties will be punished; he will be compelled to pass some time in prayer, or on
second mass. Pupils that disthemselves by their devotion should be publicly tinguish
festival days to attend a
praised." The studies
justed to the pupil's ability.
were few in number, and carefully adIn all cases short lessons and thorough work was the rule. The memory was atand, to this end, reviews were tentively cultivated made at the close of each week, month, and term. To gain influence with the higher classes, from which they desired to draw their chief patronage, the Jesuits cultivated elegant manners, and encouraged physical trainstrict watch, which ing by means of gymnastics. often assumed the form of hateful espionage, was kept
;
over the pupiL

in extreme cases,
Corporal punishment, resorted to only was administered, not by a member of
the order, but by a corrector kept for that purpose. The " plan of studies " explains this precaution : " Pupils," it says, "that in view of their age or exterior
will soon
appear weak, insignificant, and perhaps contemptible, be youths and men, who may attain to po-
sition, fortune, or power, so that it is possible we may be obliged to seek their favor, or to depend upon their will this is why it is important to consider well the manner of treating and punishing them." The Jesuits made much of emulation, and in their eager desire to promote it they adopted means that could not fail to excite jealousy and envy. Says the " plan of
;
studies
"
"
He who knows how
to excite emulation has
found the most powerful auxiliary in his teaching.
Let
the teacher, then, highly appreciate this valuable aid,
172

let
TIME.
and
him study
to
make
the wisest use of

all
it.
EmuIn
lation
awakens and develops
the powers of man.
order to maintain emulation, it will be necessary that each pupil have a rival to control his conduct and criti-
him ; also magistrates, quaestors, censors, and decurions should be appointed among the students. Nothcise
ing will be held more honorable than to outstrip a fellowstudent, and nothing more dishonorable than to be outstripped.
Prizes will be distributed to the best pupils
with the greatest possible solemnity. Out of school the place of honor will everywhere be given to the most
distinguished pupils." The higher course of instruction usually extended
through six years.

ics.
Two
years were devoted to philoso-
phy, including psychology, logic, ethics, and mathematFour Aristotle furnished the leading text-books.
years were given to theology, including holy Scripture, Hebrew, and the writings of the scholastics. It only remains to sum up in a word the results of
The Jesuit system of education, investigation. based not upon a study of man, but upon the interests of the order, was necessarily narrow. It sought showy
this
results
with which to dazzle the world.
A well-rounded
development was nothing. The principle of authority, suppressing all freedom and independence of thought, prevailed from beginning to end. Religious pride and intolerance were fostered. While our baser feelings were highly stimulated, the nobler side of our nature was wholly neglected. Love of country, fidelity to friends, nobleness of character, enthusiasm for beautiful ideals, were For the rest, we adopt the laninsidiously suppressed. " The Jesuits did not aim at of Quick developing guage
:
REACTION.
all the faculties of their pupils, but merely the receptive and reproductive faculties. When the young man had acquired a thorough mastery of the Latin language for all purposes when he was well versed in the theological and philosophical opinions of his preceptors when he was skillful in dispute, and could make a brilliant display from the resources of a well-stored memory, he had reached the highest points to which the Jesuits sought to lead him. Originality and independence of mind,
;
its own sake, the power of reflecting, and of forming correct judgments, were not merely neglected, they were suppressed in the Jesuits' system. But in what they attempted they were eminently successful, and then* success went a long way toward secur-
love of truth for
ing their popularity."
5.
REACTION AGAINST ABSTRACT THEOLOGICAL

EDUCATION.
Hitherto
we have
considered the darker aspects of
the seventeenth century, but there is a brighter side which is now to claim our attention. By the side of
narrow theological and humanistic tendencies, there was developed a liberal progressive spirit, in which lay the hope of the future. It freed itself from traditional opinions, and pushed its investigations everywhere in In England Bacon set forth his search of new truth. inductive method, by which he gave an immense impulse to the study of Nature in France Descartes laid a solid foundation for intellectual science and in Ger" many Leibnitz quickly reached the bound and farthest limit of human wisdom, to overleap that line and push
; ;
174:
TIME.
onward
among made in
into regions hitherto unexplored, and dwell Great progress was yet undiscovered truths."
the natural sciences.
Galileo invented the tele-
moons of Jupiter. Newton scope, and discovered the the law of gravitation, and explained the discovered circulation of theory of colors. Harvey found out the Torricelli invented the barometer, Guericke the blood.
Pascal ascertained the air-pump, Napier logarithms. has weight, and Koemer measured the vethat the air of Kepler announced the laws of planetary
locity
light.
motion.
land.
Louis
XIY.
established the
II. the
of Sciences, and Charles
French Academy Koyal Society of Eng-
The progress in literature was no less marked. Upon

two European nations the golden age of letters shed its In England, Bacon, Shakespeare, and Milton luster. " No wrote in France, Corneille, Moliere, and Eacine.
;
" other country," says Macaulay, could produce a tragic a comic poet equal to Moliere, a poet equal to Eacine, trifler so agreeable as La Fontaine, a rhetorician so skillBesides these, who were easily first, ful as Bossuet. whose 'Provincial Letters' created a there were
Pascal,
standard for French prose; Fenelon, whose 'Telemachus' who has still retains its wonderful popularity ; Boileau,
been styled the Horace of France Madame de Sevigne, whose graceful letters are models of epistolary style; and Massillon, who pronounced over the grave of Louis XIV. a eulogy ending with the sublime words, God
; '
alone
' '
is
great
All over Europe the

to a sense of
its
human mind, gradually coming native dignity and power, was emancitraditional
pating
itself
from
and
ecclesiastical authority.
REACTION.
175
Reason was asserting its rights. independent and investigating
In the presence of
spirit,
this
the imperfections
of the existing education its one-sidedness, its narrow and unpractical course of study, its unworthy aims, its mechanical methods and cruel discipline could not
escape attention. Prophetic voices were raised against it, its leading defects were noted, and many of the prin-
and methods now employed in our best schools were given to the world. Says Karl Schmidt " Books, words, had been the subjects of instruction during the
ciples
:
period of abstract theological education. The knowledge of things was wanting. Instead of the things themselves, words about the things were taught and
these,
taken from the books of the
'
ancients
'
about
stars,
the forces of Nature, stones, plants, animals astronomy without observations, anatomy without dissection of the
human
body, physics without experiments, etc. Then appeared in the most different countries of Europe an
intellectual league of
men who made
it
their
work
to
torn away from dead words to living nature, and from mechanical to organic instruction. They were indeed
only preachers in the wilderness, but they were the pioneers of a new age." These now come before us.
(A.)
MONTAIGNE.
in 1533.
Montaigne, a celebrated writer of France, was bom Great care was taken with his education. At
an early age he was intrusted to a German tutor who did not understand French, and who employed Latin in communicating with his pupil. As a result, he was able
at the
age of six years to speak Latin. At thirteen he completed his studies at the College of Guienne, at Bor-
176
TIME.
deaux, and subsequently studied law. At twenty he was elected a member of the Parliament of Bordeaux, and
was afterward chosen mayor of the city. But possessed of ample means, and having no political ambition, he withdrew to his estate to live in philosophic retirement. " " It was here that he produced his celebrated Essays tracts on all sorts of subjects caught up apparently by chance, and written in an easy colloquial style. In his essays, which abound in unpretentious wisdom, Montaigne repeatedly touches on education. His views, which are far in advance of his age, exhibit a He points out with sinstrong reactionary tendency. clearness and force many of the defects of the pregular
He grasped the true idea of educavailing education. " It is not a " it is not a tion. soul," he says, body that we are training up, but a man, and we ought not to divide him."
In- reference to the study of languages, he says " Fine speaking is a very good and commendable qualbut not so excellent or so necessary as some would ity,
:
make
it
and I
am scandalized
that our whole life should

first
be spent in nothing eke.
I would
understand
my
language, and that of my neighbor with whom most of my business and conversation lies. No doubt Greek and Latin are very great ornaments, and of very great
own
use
but
we may buy them
too dear."
does not set a high estimate upon the knowledge which the student acquires under the humanistic scheme. " when he comes back " Do but observe he
He
him,"
says,
from school, after fifteen or sixteen years that he has been there, there is nothing so awkward and maladroit, so unfit for company or employment and all that you
;
REACTION.
he has got is, that his Latin and Greek have only made him a greater and more conceited coxcomb than when he went from home. He should bring his
shall find
soul replete with
good literature, and he brings it only swelled and puffed up with vain and empty shreds and snatches of learning, and has really nothing more in him
than he had before."
Montaigne strongly inveighs against the mechanical methods in vogue. " It is the custom of schoolmasters," he says, " to be eternally thundering in their pupils' ears as if they were pouring into a funnel, while the pupils' business is only to repeat what their masters have said. Now, I would have a tutor correct this error, and that at the very first he should, according to the capacity he has to deal with, put it to the test, permitting his pupil himself to taste and relish things, and of himself to choose and discern them, the tutor sometimes opening the way to him, and sometimes making him break the ice himself that is, I would not have the tutor alone to invent and speak, but that he should also hear his pupils speak."
;
the cramming process then current, particularly " Too much learnthe Jesuits, Montaigne says : among ing stifles the soul, just as plants are stifled by too much
Of
by too much oil. Our pedants from books and carry it on the tip plunder knowledge
moisture, and lamps
of their
their young. lips, just as birds carry seeds to feed care and expense our parents are at in our education point at nothing but to furnish our heads with knowl-
The
toil but not a word of judgment or virtue. leave the conand labor only to stuff the memory, but
edge
We
science and understanding unfurnished and void." In reference to discipline, Montaigne says: "Educa-
178
TIME.
tion ought to be carried on with a severe sweetness quite contrary to the practice of our pedants, who, instead of
tempting and alluring children to letters by apt and gentle ways, do in truth present nothing before them but rods and ferules, horror and cruelty. Away with than which I this violence away with this compulsion dulls and degenerates a certainly believe nothing more well-descended nature. If you would have him apprehend shame and chastisement, do not harden him to
! !
them."
Interesting and valuable extracts might be indefinitely multiplied, but one more, relating to the chief " This subject of study, must suffice. great world," says Montaigne, "is the mirror wherein we are to behold
ourselves, to be able to know ourselves as we do. In short, I would have this to be the
ought to book my
attention
;
young gentleman should study with the most

for so
many humors,
so
many
sects, so
many judgments,
opinions, laws, and customs, teach us to judge right of our own, and inform our understandings to discover their imperfection and natural infirmity, which is no So many mutations of states and trivial speculation.
kingdoms, and so
fortune, will
many turns and revolutions of public make us wise enough to make no great
wonder of our own. So many great names, so many famous victories and conquests drowned and swallowed
in oblivion, render
our hopes ridiculous of eternizing our names by the taking of half a score of light-horse,
its
or a paltry turret, which only derives its The pride and arrogance of so ruin.
pomps and ceremonies,
memory from many foreign the tumorous majesty of so many
courts and grandeurs, accustom and fortify our sight
REACTION.
179
without astonishment to behold and endure the luster of
our own.
So many millions of men buried before
us,
encourage us not to fear to go seek so good company in the other world."

(B.)
BACON.
Francis Bacon, who has done more perhaps for the advancement of knowledge than any other man of modern times, was born in London in 1550. He was of deh'cate constitution, but endued with remarkable intellectual power. From childhood he manifested a philosophical turn of mind, and it is related of him that he stole away from his playmates to indulge his thought and spirit of investigation. Queen Elizabeth, delighted
with his youthful precocity, playfully called him her
young Lord Keeper.
At
thirteen
he was matriculated
at the University of Cambridge, and it was not long till his keen penetration detected the faults belonging to
the higher education of the time. lie found himself, " amid men of to use his own language, sharp and strong wits, and abundance of leisure, and small variety of
reading, their wits being shut up in the cells of a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their dictator, as their persons were shut up in the cells of monasteries and colleges ;
and who, knowing little history, either of nature or time, did, out of no great quantity of matter, and infinite agitation of wit, spin cobwebs of learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, but of no substance or
profit."
He
remained
at the university three years.
After
spending some time
where he made the acof many distinguished persons, he returned quaintance

in Paris,
180
TIME.
to England, and devoted himself to the study of law, in which he speedily made profound attainments. Owing
to the opposition of his uncle, Cecil,
sition of
who
held the po-
prime minister, he was kept for a time from of prominence and emolument. In 1590 he any post was made counsel-extraordinary to the queen a position of more honor than profit. Two years later he entered Parliament as member from Middlesex. His legal and political functions did not wholly absorb the energies of his mind, and in 1597 he published a volume of " Essays," which alone would have sufficed to give
him an honorable
place in English literature. After the accession of James I., in 1603, Bacon rose That year he was elerapidly in position and honor.
vated to the order of knighthood, and in the following

year he was appointed salaried counsel to the king a mark of favor almost without precedent. In 1613 he was advanced to the office of attorney-general. In 1617
he was created Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England a dignity of which he was proud. The following year he was made Lord High Chancellor, the summit of his ambition and political elevation. In these positions, Bacon's conduct was not above He truckled to the king he was guilty of reproach. gross ingratitude to Essex, one of his greatest benefactors; and, worst of all, he was convicted on his own He was condemned to confession of accepting bribes. an enormous fine, and to be confined in the Tower pay during the royal pleasure but these penalties, after he
; ;
was imprisoned two days, were remitted by the king, who was not free himself from implication in the crimes The rest of Bacon's days were spent of his chancellor.
REACTION.
in poverty, disgrace, and repentance.
181
He
died in 1626,
about five years after his
fall.
The numerous works of Bacon, written in the leisure moments snatched from official duties, established his
reputation throughout Europe as the leading English philosopher. He has repeatedly touched upon education
in his writings, and everywhere with the hand of a master. He holds a prominent place in the line of educational reformers. "This significance," says Raumer, " Bacon receives as the first to say to the learned men
who
and toiled in the languages and writings of and who were mostly only echoes of the old antiquity, Greeks and Romans, yea, who knew nothing better than There is also a present only open your to be such to recognize its splendor. Turn away from the eyes shallow springs of traditional natural science, and draw from the unfathomable and ever freshly flowing fountain Live in Nature with active senses ponder of creation. it in your thoughts, and learn to comprehend it, for thus you will be able also to control it. Power increases with
lived
'
:
"
knowledge.' Bacon's first great philosophical work, published in " 1605, was the Advancement of Learning." It was the
aim of
this
work
to take a complete survey of the field
of knowledge, for the purpose of indicating what departments of learning had received due attention, and what
subjects yet needed cultivation. To use his own words : " I have made, as it were, a small globe of the intellectual as truly and faithfully as I could discover ; with world,
a note
and description of those parts which seem
to
me
not constantly occupate, or not well converted by the

labor of man."
182

In
this
TIME.
work lie was naturally led to treat of various He regarded it as a defect in the aspects of education. universities of the time that they were devoted to professional studies rather than to general learning. liberal culture is insisted on as the basis of a professional
" judge," he says, that learning should be referred to action, they judge well ; but in this they
career.
" If
men
fall into
the error described in the ancient fable, in which
the other parts of the body did suppose the stomach had been idle, because it neither performed the office of motion, as the
limbs do, nor of sense, as the head doth
but
yet, notwithstanding, it is the stomach that digesteth and distributeth to all the rest : so, if any man think
philosophy and universality to be idle studies, he doth not consider that all professions are from thence served
and supplied.
And
this I take to
be a great cause that
hath hindered the progression of learning, because these fundamental knowledges have been studied but in pasFor, if you will have a tree bear more fruit than hath used to do, it is not anything you can do to the boughs, but it is the stirring of the earth and putting
sage.
it
new mould
faith.
about the roots that must work

to
is
it."
Bacon held learning

" It
be conducive to religious an assured truth," he says, " and a conclu-
sion of experience, that a little or superficial knowledge of philosophy may incline the mind of man to atheism, but a further proceeding therein doth bring the mind
back again to religion
when
in the entrance of philosophy, ; for, the second causes, which are next unto the senses, do offer themselves unto the mind of man, if it dwell
and stay there, it may induce some oblivion of the highest cause but when a man passeth on farther, and seeth
;
REACTION.
183
the dependence of causes and the works of Providence, then, according to the allegory of the poets, he will easily
believe that the highest link of Nature's chain needs be tied to the foot of Jupiter's chair."
must
Learning should inure to the good of mankind. Men have entered into a desire of learning and knowl" sometimes edge," Bacon says, upon a natural curiosity
"
and inquisitive appetite, sometimes to entertain their minds with variety and delight, sometimes for ornament and reputation, and sometimes to enable them to victory of wit and contradiction and, most times, for lucre and profession and seldom sincerely to give a true account
;
of their gift of reason, to the benefit and use of man : as if there were sought in knowledge a couch, whereupon
to rest a searching and restless spirit, or a terrace for a wandering and variable mind to walk up and down with
a fair prospect
raise itself
strife
upon
or a tower of state, for a proud mind to or a fort or commanding ground, for
and contention ; or a shop, for profit or sale ; and not a rich storehouse, for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate"
Bacon censured a priori or speculative philosophy which seeks to deduce all truth from the inner resources of the mind. " The wit and mind of man," he says, " if it work upon matter, which is the contemplation of the creatures of God, worketh according to the stuff, and is limited thereby but, if it work upon itself, as the spider worketh his web, then it is endless, and brings forth indeed cobwebs of learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, but of no substance or profit." "While not indifferent to graces of style, Bacon criti;
cised the excessive humanistic tendency of his time.
184:
TIME.
He
regarded this tendency as operative in bringing

possible," he asks, to discredit learning, operation capacities, when they see learned
is it
learning into discredit. " but this should have an
"
How
even with vulgar men's works like the
first letter of a patent or limned book, which, though it hath large flourishes, yet it is but a letter ? It seems to me that Pygmalion's frenzy is a good emblem or portraiture of this vanity, for words
are but the images of matter ; and, except they have life of reason and invention, to fall in love with them is all
in love with a picture." * The Novuin Organum, part of a vast, unfinished work called the Instauratio Magna, was published in
one as to
fall
1620, and contains the principles of the Baconian or inductive philosophy. It is written in the form of aphorisms, the first of which are here given as indicating the
character of the whole
work
Man, the minister and interpreter of Nature, can act and understand in as far as he has, either in fact or
I.
"
in thought, observed the order of Nature ; more he can neither know nor do. " II. The real cause and root of almost all the evils in
science
the
is this, that,
powers of "III. There are two ways of searching after and discovering truth the one, from sense and particulars, rises directly to the most general axioms, and resting upon these principles, and their unshaken truth, finds out intermediate axioms, and this is the method in use but the other raises axioms from sense and particulars
:
the
falsely magnifying and extolling mind, we seek not its real helps.
* Pygmalion, a sculptor of the island of Cyprus, cherished a settled aversion to women, but fell in love with an ivory statue.
REACTION.
185
till
by a continued and gradual ascent, at the most general axioms, which

hitherto untried."
at last it arrives
is
the true way, but
acteristic features of the
Investigation, experiment, verification, these are charBaconian philosophy. It urges

to quit barren, transcendental speculation for fruit-
men
bearing research in Nature. It is intensely practical ; it has made Bacon the father of experimental philosophy ; it has been potent in turning modern thought into
new
tific
channels, and has contributed largely to the scienand material progress of the present. Bacon's significance in philosophy, and, it might be added, also in " It was education, has been admirably stated by Lewes Bacon's constant endeavor, as it has been the cause of
:
his enduring fame, to teach men the real object of science, and the scope of their faculties, and to furnish
them with a proper method whereon

might be successfully employed.
these faculties
thus not only Stands out clearly in history as the exponent of the longagitated antagonism to all the ancient and scholastic
thinkers, but also as the exponent of the rapidly increasing tendency toward positive science. He is essentially
He
modern.
tacks
All his predecessors, even in their boldest atupon ancient philosophy, were themselves closely
which they opposed. Kamus the child of Aristotle, though he raised his hand against his father ; but Bacon was modern in culture, in
allied to the spirit of that
is
object,
and in method." His thoroughly modern
spirit is
shown
in the fol-
lowing remarkable passage, the truth of which, after a lapse of two hundred and fifty years, is rapidly gaining recognition, and changing the character of our educa-
186
tion
:

"
TIME.
The
is
" which opinion," he says,
men
cherish of
antiquity altogether idle, and scarcely accords with the term. For the old and in creasing years of the world should in reality be considered antiquity, and this is rather the character of our own times than of the less advanced age of the world in those of the ancients. For the latter, with respect to ourselves, are ancient and elder with respect to the world, modern and younger.
;
And, as we expect a greater knowledge of human affairs and more mature judgment from an old man than from
a youth, on account of his experience, and the variety and number of things he has seen, heard, and meditated
upon, so we have reason to expect much greater things of our own age (if it knew but its strength and would essay and exert it) than from antiquity, since the world
has grown older, and
its stock has been increased and accumulated with an infinite number of experiments
and observations.
ation that
We must also take into our considerobjects in
Nature fit to throw light have been exposed to our view and upon philosophy discovered by means of long voyages and travels, in which our times have abounded. It would, indeed, be
many
mankind if the regions of the material the earth, the sea, and stars, should be so proglobe,
dishonorable to
digiously developed and illustrated in our age, and yet the boundaries of the intellectual globe should be confined to the narrow discoveries of the ancients."
extract
is
This one of the aphorisms of the Novum Organum. "We must content ourselves with but one more pas-
sage, though Bacon's works are a rich mine of educaIt is a criticism upon the principle of tional wisdom.
authority
which reigned
in the schools of the time, to
REACTION.
187
the repression of free and fruitful inquiry. "In the " all universities," he says, things are found opposite to the advancement of the sciences ; for the readings and
exercises are here so
into
any
one's
:
managed that it can not easily come mind to think of things out of the com-
mon
here and there, one should venture to use a liberty of judging, he can only impose the task upon himself without obtaining assistance from his fellows ; and, if he could dispense with this, he will still
road
or
if,
find his industry and resolution a great hindrance to his For the studies of men in such places are fortune. confined, and pinned down to the writings of certain
authors
is
from which,
if
any man happens to
differ,
he
presently reprehended as a disturber and innovator." Bacon had an unswerving faith in the power of
truth, and he confidently looked forward to a time when his philosophical and educational reforms, replete with blessings to the world, would be approved and adopted.
The following prediction, whose fulfillment has established the character and mission of the prophet, is sub" I have held up a light in the obscurity of phihe says, " which will be seen centuries after I losophy," am dead. It will be seen amid the erection of temples,
lime
tombs, palaces, theatres, bridges, making noble roads, cutting canals, granting multitude of charters and liberties for
comfort of decayed companies and corporations ; the foundation of colleges and lectures for learning and the education of youth ; foundations and institutions of
orders and fraternities for nobility, enterprise, and obedience; but, above all, the establishing good laws for
the regulation of the kingdom, and as an example to the
world"
188

(C.)
TIME.
MILTON.
in
John Milton, the sublimest poet of all times, was born London, in 1608. The highly eulogistic lines of Dry:
den hardly surpass the truth
Three
poets, in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy, and England did adorn. The first in loftiness of thought surpassed ; The next in majesty ; in both the last. The force of Nature could no further go : To make a third, she joined the other two.
His
father, as Milton himself tells us,
was a man of
the highest integrity, and his mother a woman of most virtuous character, especially distinguished for her neigh-
borhood charities. After a good preliminary training, Milton was sent to Cambridge, where he made diligent use of his time. In the following interesting passage, he tells us something of his studies, and the dawning consciousness of his greatness " I must say that, after I
:
had, for my first years, by the ceaseless diligence and care of my father (whom God recompense !), been exercised to the tongues,
suffer,
and some science
as
my
age would
by
sundry masters and teachers, both at
home and
-im-
at the schools, it
was found
that
that,
whether aught was
posed on
me by them
had the overlooking, or be-
taken to of mine
own choice, in English, or other tongue, or versing, but chiefly the latter, the style, by prosing certain vital signs it had, was likely to live. But, much
favored to resort, perceiving that some
in the private academies of Italy, whither I was trifles which I
at twenty, or thereabout,
. . .
latelier,
had composed
met with
acceptance above what was looked for ; and other things,
REACTION.
189
which I had shifted

veniences) to patch
books and conwere received with up among them, written encomiums, which the Italian is not forward to bestow on men on this side of the Alps I began thus to assent both to them, and divers of my friends at home, and not less to an inward prompting, which now grew daily upon me, that, by labor and intense study (which I take to be my portion in this life), I might,
(in scarcity of
perhaps, leave something so written to after-times as they should not willingly let die."
In one of his controversial tracts, replying to certain calumniations, he depicts his personal habits as follows " Those morning haunts are where they should be at home ; not sleeping or concocting the surfeits of an irregular feast, but up and stirring in winter, often ere the sound of any bell awakens men to labor or devotion in summer, as oft with the bird that first rouses, or not
: ;
much
read,
tardier, to read
till
good authors, or cause them to be
the attention be weary, or the memory have its full fraught. Then, with useful and generous labors, preserving the body's health and hardiness, to render
lightsome, clear, and not lumpish obedience to the mind, to the cause of religion and our country's liberty, when
require firm hearts in sound bodies, to stand and cover their stations, rather than see the ruin of our Protestantism, and the enforcement of a slavish life." It would carry us beyond our limits to follow the
it shall
career of Milton through the troublous times of the Commonwealth, and the dangers and sufferings of the Restoration; to speak of his embittered controversies
and domestic
trials
and to portray him, old and blind,
in the elaboration of "Paradise Lost," the cherished
190
TIME.
thought of a lifetime. Of this last period, in a poem on his own blindness, he has spoken in words of wonderful power and beauty
:
old and blind me as smitten by God's frown, Afflicted and deserted of my kind, Yet I am not cast down. I
am
Men
point at
weak, yet strong ; not that I no longer see ; Poor, old, and helpless, I the more belong, Father Supreme to thee.
am
murmur
Oh
I seem to stand
Trembling, where foot of mortal ne'er hath been, Wrapped in the radiance of thy sinless land, Which eye hath never seen.
Yisions come and go Shapes of resplendent beauty round me throng ; From angel lips I seem to hear the flow
;
Of
soft
and holy song.
Milton belongs to the educational reformers.

letter to
In a
Samuel Hartlib, he has presented

a brief but comprehensive
his views
;
upon education in
to use his
. .
.
form or, he has " set down in writing language, that voluntary idea, which hath long in silence
own
itself to me, of a better education, in extent and comprehension far more large, and yet of time far shorter and of attainment far more certain, than hath been yet in practice." His definition of a liberal education is contained in
presented
the following sentence
"I
call,
therefore, a complete
REACTION.
191
and generous education that which fits a man to perform and magnanimously all the offices both justly, skillfully, private and public, of peace and war." " to " The end, then, of learning is," he says, repair
first parents by regaining to know God and out of that knowledge to love him, to imiaright, tate him, to be like him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace of faith, makes up the highest per-
the ruins of our
fection.
body found
But because our understanding can not in this itself but on sensible things, nor arrive so
knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creature, the same method is necessarily to be followed in
clearly to the
And seeing every nation affords discreet teaching. not experience and tradition enough for all kinds of learning, therefore we are chiefly taught the languages of those people who have at any time been most inall
wisdom ; so that language is but the instrument conveying to us things useful to be known. And though a linguist should pride himself to have all
dustrious after
the tongues that Babel cleft the world into, yet
if
he
have not studied the solid things in them, as well as the words and lexicons, he were nothing so much to be esteemed a learned man as any yeoman or tradesman competently wise in his mother dialect only." In the latter part of this admirable passage, Milton emphasizes substantial learning as contrasted with the current, wellnigh empty study of words, which he elsewhere charac" terizes as pure trifling at grammar and sophistry." In the same connection, he protests against the imposition of tasks beyond the strength and years of the
192
pupil.

"
TIME.
We do amiss," lie says, " to spend seven or eight
years merely in scraping together so much miserable Latin and Greek as might be learned otherwise easily and delightfully in one year. And that which casts our
proficiency therein so much behind is our time lost partly in too oft idle vacancies given both to schools and universities
empty
final
; partly in a preposterous exaction, forcing the wits of children to compose themes, verses, and
which are the acts of ripest judgment, and the work of a head filled by long reading and observing with elegant maxims and copious invention. These are not matters to be wrung from poor striplings, like
orations,
blood out of the nose, or the plucking of untimely fruit ; besides all the ill habit which they get of wretched barbarizing against the Latin and Greek idiom, with their
untutored Anglicisms, odious to be read, yet not to be avoided without a well-continued and judicious conversing
among pure
authors, digested,
which they scarce
taste."
In the following extract Milton arraigns the methods and studies pursued at the universities, and shows the unsatisfactory results for the cause of learning and the duties of active life " And for the usual method of
:
to be an old error of universiteaching ties, not yet well recovered from the scholastic grossness
arts,
deem
it
most easy '(and those be such

sense),
ices, at first
of barbarous ages, that, instead of beginning with arts as are most obvious to the
they present their young, unmatriculated novcoming with the most intellective abstractions of logic and metaphysics so that they having but
;
newly
left
those grammatic
flats
and shallows, where
they stuck unreasonably long to learn a few words with
REACTION.
193
lamentable construction, and now on the sudden transported under another climate, to be tossed and turmoiled
with their unballasted wits in fathomless and unquiet deeps of controversy, do for the most part grow into hatred and contempt of learning, mocked and deluded all
with ragged notions and babblements, while they expected worthy and delightful knowledge ; till poverty or youthful years call them importunely their several ways, and hasten them, with the sway of friends, either to an ambitious and mercenary, or ignorantly
this while
zealous divinity: some allured to the trade of law, grounding their purposes not on the prudent and heavenly contemplation of justice and equity, which was
never taught them, but on the promising and pleasing

thoughts of litigious terms, fat contentions, and flowing fees others betake them to state affairs, with souls BO
;
unprincipled in virtue and true generous breeding, that
and court-shifts, and tyrannous aphorisms, apto them the highest points of wisdom instilling pear their barren hearts with a conscientious slavery, if, as I
flattery,
rather think,
delicious
it
be not feigned
others, lastly, of a
more
and airy spirit, retire themselves, knowing no better, to the enjoyments of ease and luxury, living out their days in feast and jollity, which indeed is the wisest and safest course of all these, unless they were with
more
integrity undertaken.
these are the
And
these are the errors,
fruits of mis-spending our prime youth at the schools and universities, as we do, either in learning mere words, or such things chiefly as were letter
and
unlearnt"
Having thus pointed out the

schools,
9
errors
common
in the
Milton continues in the following beautiful and
TIME.
oft-quoted passage: "I shall detain you no longer in the demonstration of what we should not do, but straight
hill-side, where I will point you out the right path of a virtuous and noble education ; laborious, indeed, at the first ascent, but else so smooth, so
conduct you to a
green, so full of goodly prospect and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus was not more
charming."
"We
will not follow Milton
through the vast scheme
of studies which he proposed a scheme that included " His nearly the whole range of literature and science.
proposals indeed," says Quick, "like everything conThe reader, nected with him, are of heroic mold.
especially if he be a schoolmaster, gasps for breath at the mere enumeration of the subjects to be learned and
Milton himself was conscious of " the vastness of his plan, and he concludes his " Tractate " I believe that this is to Mr. Hartlib with the remark,
the books to be read."
not a
bow
for every
man
to shoot in that counts himself
a teacher, but will require sinews almost equal to those
which Homer gave Ulysses."

(D.)
EATICH.
simply an enlightened
Ratich was not, like Montaigne, Bacon, and Milton, critic; he was also a practical
educator, and sought to remedy existing evils by the actual introduction of reforms. Though he erred in
the application of his principles, and his efforts resulted in failure, yet he has the honor of having made substantial contributions to the permanent stock of pedagogic truth. He laid the foundations well, but failed in rearing the superstructure.
REACTION.
195
at "Wilster, in Holstein, received his classical training at the Hamburg Gymnasium, and afterward studied theology and philosophy at the University of Rostock. Compelled
Wolfgang Ratich was born
1571.
He
to give up his purpose of becoming a preacher on account of some impediment of speech, he devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and mathematics.
He spent eight years at Amsterdam, where he elaborated his educational views, and offered his method to Prince Maurice, of Orange. The prince wished to restrict him
to the teaching of Latin, but, unwilling to accept this condition, the enthusiastic reformer carried his secret to
Basel and Strasburg, as well as to several courts, in search of a patron. In 1612 he addressed a memorial
to the Electoral Diet, at Frankfort, in 1. ised, with divine help, to show
might acquire,
which he promand old in short time, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and
How young
other languages.
lished, in
2. How a school, not only in High but also in other languages, might be estabGerman,
which
all
the arts and sciences might be
taught.
3.
How
in the whole country a uniform lan-
guage, government, and religion might be easily introAt the same time duced and peaceably maintained.
he attacked the current education, and insisted that the young should learn to read, write, and speak their
mother-tongue correctly, before beginning the study of
other languages.
pretensions of this memorial were by no means modest, but it attracted so much attention that a commission of learned men was appointed to investigate
The
Ratich's claims.
His views were reported on favorably.
Helvicus, a celebrated
German
scholar of the time, ex-
196
TIME.
" "We are," he says, pressed himself in strong terms. " in in his report, bondage to Latin. The Greeks and
Saracens would never have done so
if
much
for posterity
they had spent their youth in acquiring a foreign must study our own language, and then tongue.
We
the sciences.
Ratich has discovered the art of teaching By this method languages will be quickly learned, so that we shall have time for science ; and science will be learned even better still, as the nataccording to nature.
ural system suits best with science,
which
is
the study of
Nature."
Finally, after repeated failures, Hatich succeeded in getting Prince Ludwig, of Anhalt-Kothen, interested in his scheme, and in 1619 received at the hands of the
prince every facility for opening a model school turn for which he made extravagant promises.
in re-
A print-
ing-house, provided with type in six different languages, was opened for the publication of text-books ; and a
number
drill in
the
of teachers were set apart to receive a special new methods. It was given out that He-
brew, Greek, and Latin would be learned in less than half the time required in other parts of Germany, and
besides with
much
less trouble.
Kothen responded readily to -the for pupils, and a school was opened with two appeal
inhabitants of
The
hundred and thirty-one boys and two hundred and two In the three It was divided into six grades. girls. lowest only the mother-tongue was to be used in the fourth Latin was taken up, and in the sixth Greek. Besides language, arithmetic, singing, and religion were The teacher of the lowest grade was to be an taught. " form affable man, who, as stated in the plan, should
;
REACTION.
197
the speech of these young pupils by daily prayer, short biblical proverbs, and easy conversations ; and correct by
constant practice the faults acquired out of school." In teaching the mother-tongue, Ratich began with
the letters of the alphabet, which he regarded as the simplest element of grammar. As he drew each letter slowly on the blackboard, he directed attention to its form and name ; and, in order to deepen the impression,
he compared its shape with other objects (as o with a The ring), and required the pupil to make it himself. next step was in forming syllables and words, which were likewise to be written and pronounced. The transition to reading was made without delay, and in a novel manner. The teacher took some easy and interesting book like Genesis, and read it through before the class, going over each chapter twice, and requiring the pupils to follow with eye and finger. Then, turning again to the beginning, he read over the first chapter; after which the pupils were permitted to read, each one pronouncing four lines. Reading having been learned in this way, the study of grammar was begun. The teacher first read and explained some section of the grammar, for example, that treating of nouns then the pupils read the same one or more times after which they took up the book previously used in reading, and with the
; ;
aid of the teacher pointed out the substantives. In this way all the principles of grammar were exemplified. In Latin, as in the mother-tongue, grammar followed
reading. Terence was the favorite author for beginners. translation of some one of his plays was first placed
in the pupil's hands.
" The master then," to use Quick's convenient condensation of the tedious German account,
198
TIME.
twice over. the

first
"translated the play to them, each half-hour's work At the next reading the master translated
half-hour,
and the boys translated the same
piece the second.
Having thus got through the
play,
they began again, and only the boys translated. After this there was a course of grammar, which was applied to the Terence, as the grammar of the mother-tongue
had been to Genesis.
Finally, the pupils were put through a course of exercises, in which they had to turn into Latin sentences imitated from the Terence, and
differing
from the
original only in the
number
or per-
son used."
The
school at
these methods
Kothen did not have the success that would seem to assure on the contrary, it
;
turned out a complete failure. Several external causes concurred in bringing this about. Ratich displeased his
all Calvinistic, by his uncompromishe offended his colleagues and supporters by his arrogance, and he provoked unfriendly His school was soon in disorder. And, havcriticism. ing fallen into a quarrel with the prince, he was thrown into prison, from which he obtained his release only " upon signing a declaration that he had claimed and promised more than he knew or could bring to pass." After his failure and humiliation at Kothen, Ratich endeavored for many years to establish his system elsewhere but, during the commotions of the Thirty Years' "War, he was able to accomplish but little. His theories, however, are not to be judged by his failure as a teacher.
patrons,
who were
;
ing Lutheranism
of his educational principles are excellent ; and, though he failed in the attempt to apply them, they
Many
have survived, and enter into the education of the
REACTION.
present.
199
fol-
His chief educational maxims are the
lowing: 1. Everything after the order or course of nature. All teaching that is forced, violent, or contrary to nature, is harmful.
2.
Teach only one thing
at a time.
There
is
nothing
that hinders the understanding to learn many things at once.

3.
more than the attempt

It thus sinks
Often repeat the same thing.
deeply
into the understanding.

pil's attention
first in the mother-tongue. The puthus fixed only upon what he has to learn, and not upon the medium through which he
4.
Everything
is
learns
5.
it.
Everything without compulsion. Compulsion is against nature, and also renders studies hateful to the
young.
6.
Nothing should be learned by
rote.
This
is
hurt-
ful to the understanding.

7. There should be uniformity in all things, in methods of teaching, as well as in the form of text-books. 8. First the thing itself, then the manner of the
Rules without matter confuse the understanding. Teach everything by experiment and analysis. Nothing should be received on mere authority the reason and evidence should be examined and apprehended. These principles, though liable to abuse, are a valuable contribution to pedagogy. They show the pedaof Ratich, and establish his claim to an gogical insight
thing.
9.
;
honorable place
ture of his " Ratich, as
among educational reformers. The nawork has been thus summed up by Paroz
:
we have
just seen, is dissatisfied
with the
200
past,
TIME.
and commences in Germany the reaction against
the defective system of study inaugurated and perfected by men like Luther, Trotzendorf, Sturm, and the Jesuits
a system whose base, middle, Latin, a servile imitation of Cicero.
and summit was His attempts were
unskillful,
and his principles commonly exaggerated.
It is not astonishing, therefore, that he succumbed in an undertaking above his strength, and when he had the
age against him, instead of for him, as the men whom I have just named. Nevertheless, he has brought out, like Montaigne, a truth which no force will henceforth be able to overthrow, namely, that the old methods if
call an empirical instruction based on memory and imitation are defective, and that it has become necessary to reform our instruction by methods based on nature, and by the adoption of new subjects, such,
we may so
for example, as the mother-tongue."

(E.) COMENITJS.
The most
celebrated educational reformer of the
Amos Comenius. He was born in Moravia, March 28, 1592. His family belonged to that body of Protestants known as Moravian Brethren. Though few in number, this body has albeen distinguished for simplicity of faith, earnest ways These characteristics were piety, and missionary zeal. in Comenius, and they imparted to his early developed long life of labor and trial peculiar beauty.
seventeenth century was John
As with many
of his early years.
ents,
other illustrious men,
little is
known
quite young he lost his parand was brought up under the care of guardians.
When
He
received the limited instruction in reading, writing,
REACTION.
201
arithmetic, and the catechism imparted in the primary It was not till the age of sixteen schools of the time.
that he began the study of Latin, then the staple of "Yet, by the goodness of God," he says, learning.
" that taste bred such a thirst in

all
me
that I ceased not

to labor for
from that time, by

the repairing of
means and endeavors,
my
lost years."
It was, perhaps, a fortunate circumstance that he entered upon the study of Latin so late. was better
He
able to judge of the
methods and
recognized
discipline to
which he
had
of the prevalent and busied his youthful fancy in devising imerrors, provements. He thus portrays the schools of his time " They are the terror of boys, and the slaughter-houses of minds places where a hatred of literature and books
to conform.
He
many
is
contracted,
where ten or more years are spent in learn-
ing what might be acquired in one, where what ought to be poured in gently is violently forced in and beaten
in,
where what ought

is
to
be put
clearly
and perspicu-
ously
it
presented in a confused and intricate way, as if were a collection of puzzles places where minds are
fed on words."
Comenius completed his studies at the College of Herborn and the University of Heidelberg. In 1616 he was ordained to the ministry in the Moravian Church, and was placed over the congregation in Fulneck. Along with his pastoral duties, he had charge of a recently established school, and began to consider more Here he married, and fully the subject of education. for two or three years he led an active and happy life the only period of tranquillity he was ever to enjoy in
his native country.
The Thirty Years' War broke
out,
202
TIME.
and made troublous times. In 1621 Fulneck was taken by the Spaniards, and Comenius lost all his property.
Instigated by the Jesuits, the Austrian Government proscribed the evangelical pastors, and forced them to fly.
Comenius took refuge for a time in his native mountthe persecution waxed hotter, he fled to On crossing the border, he devoutly Lissa, in Poland. knelt and prayed God that the truth might not be
ains, but, as
quenched in his native land. At Lissa he found employment in the Moravian Gymnasium, of which he seems to have become rector. He applied himself with new ardor to his educational studies. He acquainted himself with the best educational writings of the age, perusing
among
others the
works of Katich and Bacon. He was greatly impressed " " Yet," he says, by them. observing here and there some defects and gaps as it were, I could not restrain myself from attempting something that might rest upon an immovable foundation, and which, if it could be found out, should not be subject to any ruin. Therefore, after many workings and tossings of my thoughts, by reducing everything to the immovable law of Nature, I lighted upon my Didactica Magna, which shows the art of readily and solidly teaching all men all things." In this work, which was not published for several years, Comenius made a comprehensive and profound study of education, and announced those principles which were
destined to transform the schools of
all
Christian lands.
next set about reforming the methods of teach" If ing Latin. Too much time was given to words. so much time is to be spent on the language alone," he
says,
He
"when
is
the boy to
know
about things
when
REACTION.
will
203
he learn philosophy, when religion, and so forth ? consume his life in preparing for life." To this evil, he prepared his "Gate of Tongues remedy Unlocked" (Janua Linguarum, Reseratab), the character of which he fully sets forth in the following extract " My fundamental principle an irrefragable law of didactics is that the understanding and the tongue should
He
will
The human being advance in parallel lines always. tends to utter what he apprehends. If he does not apprehend the word he uses, he is a parrot ; if he apprehends without words, he is a dumb statue. Accordingly,
under one hundred heads, I have
classified
the whole
universe of things in a manner suited to the capacity of boys, and I have given the corresponding language. I have selected from lexicons the words that had to be introduced, and I include eight thousand vocables in one
first simple, and thereafter gradually become complex. I have used words, as far as practicable, in their primary signification, accord-
thousand sentences, which are at
ing to the comprehension of the young, but have had to seek for modern Latin words where pure Latin was not
to be had. I have used the same word only once, except where it had two meanings. Synonyms and contraries I have placed together, so that they may throw light upon one another. I have arranged the words so as to bring into view concords and governments and declension."
this passage shows, the It sessed several great merits.
As
" " Gate of Tongues poswas suited to the pupil's

;
capacity
it
above
all, it
him along by easy gradations and, him things in connection with words. taught
carried
Its success
was instantaneous and immense.
It
was
204
*"ROM THE REFORMATION TO
THE PRESENT
TIME.
translated into Greek, Bohemian, Polish,

ish,
German, Swed-
rian,
Belgian, English, French, Spanish, Italian, HungaTurkish, Arabic, and one of the languages of India.
It is now time to speak of a scheme to which Comenius long gave affectionate thought and zealous labor. Its realization he believed for many years was to consti-
tute his principal life-work.
This scheme, suggested to
him by Bacon, was the
publication of a work that would embrace and fully exhibit the whole circle of knowledge. This vast undertaking, which Comenius believed would be very helpful to the advancement of science, was obviously beyond the powers of any one man.
Hence
his practical
mind suggested
which
all
the establishment
of an institution, in
departments of learning should be represented by the ablest scholars, and from

this encyclopaedia of knowledge was to proceed. was in relation to this great pansophic scheme that Comenius was invited by the English Parliament to London. He went there in 1641, and promising measures were taken to open a " universal college." " But," " a rumor as he tells us in his own account of the visit, that Ireland was in a state of commotion, and that more than two hundred thousand of the English had been slaughtered there in one night, the sudden departure of the king from London, and the clear indications that a most cniel war was on the point of breaking out, threw all our plans into confusion, and compelled me and my
which
It
friends to hasten our return."

this juncture Comenius was invited to Sweden. was kindly received at Stockholm by the illustrious statesman, Oxenstiern, and Chancellor Skyte, of the UniHis didactic and pansophic schemes versity of Upsala.
At
He
REACTION.
205
were fully discussed. " For four days," he says, " these two men held me in debate, but chiefly Oxenstiern, that
who questioned me as to my princiboth pansophic and didactic, with a greater peneples, tration and closeness than had been exhibited by any of
eagle of the North,
the learned with

first
whom
I had
come
in contact.
For the
three days didactic was the subject of his examination, and he brought the interviews to an end with the
'
:
From youth up I have perceived following remarks a certain violence in the customary method of school
but I could never put my finger on the place where the shoe pinched. When sent by my king, of glorious memory,* as an embassador to Germany, I conferred with many learned men on the subject and when I was informed that Wolfgang Ratich had attempted a reform of method, I had no peace of mind till I had the man before me but he, instead of a conversation, presented me with a huge book in quarto. I swallowed that annoyance, and, having run through the whole volume, I saw that he had exposed the diseases of the
studies,
; ;
schools not badly ; but, as for the remedies, they did not seem to me to be adequate. Your remedies rest on " firmer foundations ; go on with your work.'
The pansophic plans of Comenius were not encouraged by Oxenstiern and, as a result of this conference,
;
he was induced to prepare a work in which his principles should be carefully wrought out in reference to teaching languages. For this purpose, he took up his residence at Elbing, in Prussia, where he was supported by De Geer, a wealthy and intelligent Dutchman. Here, after four years of labor, he produced his " Latest
* Gustavus Adolphus.
206
TIME.
Method with Languages " (Methodus Linguarum NoIn this work he points out three evils in the vissima).
1. That words are taught without being understood 2. That boys are introduced at once into the intricacies of grammar; and, 3. That they are required to make impossible leaps, being forced
current teaching of Latin:

;
prematurely into works above their comprehension. In this connection, he laid down the important principles that words and things should be learned together that
;
theory should not be dissevered from practice, and that study should advance by easy gradations.
No
call to
signed him by
sooner had Comenius accomplished the work ashis Swedish advisers, than he received a
reform the schools of Transylvania, in Hungary. Accordingly, he went, in 1650, to the town of Patak, where he established a model school. This he designed, under the patronage of wealthy friends, to develop into a pansophic institution but it appears that he never organized more than the lower classes. He remained at Patak four years, which were char;
by surprising literary activity. During this short period he produced no less than fifteen different works, among them his ""World Illustrated" (Orbis
Pictus), the most famous of all his writings. This work " the contained, as stated in the title-page, pictures and
acterized
names of
all the principal things in the world, and of all the principal occupations of man." It admirably applied the principle that words and things should be learned
It contained not only a simple treatment of together. in general, but also pictures to illustrate the subthings The philosophic basis of the work ject of each lesson.
is
presented by Comenius in the following extract:
REACTION.
" The foundation of
all
207
learning consists in representing
clearly to the senses sensible objects, so that they can be apprehended easily. I maintain that this is the basis of
all
other actions, inasmuch as
speak wisely unless wished to say or do.
we could we comprehended
For
it is
neither act nor
clearly what we certain that there is noth-
ing in the understanding which has not been previously in the sense ; and consequently, to exercise the senses
carefully in discriminating the differences of natural obthe foundation of all wisdom, all eloquence, jects, is to lay
and
all
" had an enormous trated circulation, and remained for a long time the most popular text-book in Europe.
good and prudent action."
The " "World
Illus-
In 1654 Comenius returned to his former home at Here one more misfortune awaited him before the close of his eventful career. When that town was plundered by the Poles, in 1656, Comenius lost his house, books, and, above all, his manuscripts, which em" This bodied the labors of many years. loss," he said,
Lissa.
" I shall cease to lament only when I cease to breathe." After several months' wandering in Germany, he was
offered an asylum in Amsterdam by Laurence de Geer, the son of his former patron. Here, in comparative ease, he spent the remaining years of his life, devoting
himself to teaching as a means of support, and to the promulgation and defense of his educational views.
Through the
liberality of friends,
he was enabled
to
publish a complete edition of his works. His last days were somewhat imbittered by envious attacks upon his
character and methods, but in all his trials he exhibited a meek, forbearing, Christian spirit. He died in 1671,
at the
advanced age of eighty years.
208
"
TIME.
Comenius," says Raumer, "is a grand and venerable Wandering, persecuted, and homefigure of sorrow. less, during the terrible and desolating Thirty Years'
War, he yet never despaired, but with enduring truth, and strong in faith, he labored unweariedly to prepare
youth by a better education for a better future. Suspended from the ministry, as he himself tells us, and an
exile, he had become an apostle to the Christian youth ; and certainly he labored for them with a zeal and love worthy of the chief of the apostles." Such, in imperfect outline, was the life of this great man. But, in order to appreciate him fully, we must
turn for a
moment to the
Unlike
consideration of his educational
many of his predecessors, he did not confine himself to the enunciation of isolated principles.
principles.
first of all an immovable foundation, and on he erected his system with close logical sequence. His reforms were as thorough as they were comprehen-
He
sought
this
sive.
He
in
all
man
his faculties
conceived of education as a development of he based all his methods on the

;
order of nature; he regarded the perfect man as the end of all culture. " The right instruction of youth,"
he says, "does not consist in cramming them with a mass of words, phrases, sentences, and opinions collected from authors, but in unfolding the understanding that many little streams may flow therefrom as from a living fountain. Hitherto the schools have not labored that the children might unfold like the young tree from the impulse of its own roots, but have been contented when they covered themselves with foreign branches. Thus they have taught the youth, after the manner of ^Esop's crow, to adorn themselves with strange feathers. Why
REACTION.
shall
209
we
not, instead of
?
of Nature
Not
dead books, open the living book the shadows of things, but the things
themselves, which make an impression on the senses and the imagination, are to be brought before youth. By actual observation, not by a verbal description of things,
must instruction begin.

ops a certain knowledge.
From such
observation devel-
Men must
be led as far as
possible to draw their wisdom not from books, but from a consideration of heaven and earth, oaks and beeches ;
is, they must know and examine things themselves, and not simply be contented with the observations and testimony of others." This brief extract contains the two fundamental truths upon which all correct education must rest. The following principles, gleaned from the works of Comenius, will exhibit his greatness as an educational reformer, and also the extent to which the improved
that
education of the present is indebted to him 1. Education is a development of the

:
whole
man.
2.
Educational methods should follow the order of
Nature.
3.
Both sexes should receive equal

is
instruction, since
the end of education
individual development.
Teachers 4. Learning should be made agreeable. should always have something interesting and profitable to communicate to their classes. School-houses should
be made comfortable and attractive. 5. If the superstructure is not to

tion
totter, the
founda-
must be
laid well.
6.
Many
studies are to be avoided as dissipating the
mental strength.
210
TIME.
7. There should be an easy gradation in studies, the one leading naturally to the other. 8. Things naturally connected in themselves should be joined together in teaching. 9. Nothing should be taught that is not of solid
utility.
10. Studies should
be adapted to the capacity of the
pupil. 11.
first
Nothing
is
to
be learned by heart that
is
not
thoroughly understood. 12. Let nothing that admits of sensible or rational
demonstration be taught by authority. 13. Let no task be assigned until the method of doing it has been explained.
14.
In the sciences the student should have the ob-
mother-tongue is to come first, next the languages of neighboring nations, then Latin as the language of the learned world. Theologians and physicians should study Greek.
16.
jects studied before him. 15. In languages the
than by rule.
tice.
Languages are to be learned by practice rather Rules should follow and confirm prac"Words should be learned in connection with
17.
things. 18.
; simple, 19. Things to be done should be learned
The object first, then the expression. The concrete should precede the abstract the complex the nearer, the more remote.
"
the
by doing " Mechanics," Comenius says, understand this well ; they do not give the apprentice a lecture upon their trade, but they let him see how they as masters
them.
do
then they place the tool in his hands, teach him to
REACTION. use
it,
211
and imitate them.
by doing, so on."
Doing can be learned only writing by writing, painting by painting, and
20. Religion is of supreme importance ; and, in addition to religious instruction, the young should be accustomed to the exercise of Christian virtues, such as
temperance, justice, compassion, patience, and so on. 21. Discipline should aim at improving the character.
22.
The
teacher should be an example, in person and
conduct, of what he requires of his pupils. Of these principles, the first two are fundamental.
Nearly
all
of
them were
directly opposed to the practice
of the seventeenth century ; many of them are now regarded as axiomatic truths, and are rapidly reforming and elevating the schools of Christendom. They entitle
Comenius
to rank
among the
world's greatest educa-
tional reformers.
The school system proposed by Comenius is not un. worthy of mention. It embraced four grades of schools. The first was the domestic school, in which the child was to learn the use of its senses, acquire its native language, and gain a rudimentary knowledge of things in general. The next was the vernacular, or popular school. This the child attended from the age of six to twelve, and studied reading, writing, arithmetic, singing, the Then followed the catechism, history, and geography. Latin school, in which the young student devoted six
years to grammar, physics, mathematics, ethics, logic, and rhetoric. Lastly, the university, as the home of all
branches of learning, formed the natural completion of

the system.
212

close this sketch of the life
TIME.
and educational with an extract from his last principles of Comenius work, written when he had attained the advanced age of seventy-seven. It shows us the great, unselfish spirit that animated him in his labors, and sustained him in "We
his trials
God," he says, who has willed that I should be my long a man of aspiration. For be its form in aspiration after the good, whatever may flows from the source of all the heart, is a stream that good from God. I have said that I have undertaken I all my labors for the Lord and his people from love and accursed be am not conscious of any other motive, every hour and every moment that was otherwise em:
" I thank
my
"
life
ployed
One
of
my
chief concerns related to the im-
provement of schools, which I undertook and continued many years from a desire to deliver the youth from the toilsome labyrinths in which they were entangled. Some
a minister, as if regarded this foreign to the office of Christ had not bound together the two injunctions,
' ' sheep and Feed my lambs,' and laid them upon the beloved Peter. To Christ, my eternal love, I has placed such affection give unending thanks that he to his lambs in my heart, and has given me, to some de*
Feed
my
gree at
least, his blessing.
hope and confidently exreforms will spring into

is past,
pect from
light,
my God
that
my
when
the winter of the Church
the rains
;
have ceased, and the flowers come forth in the land
when God grants his flock shepherds after his own the flock of the heart, who will feed not themselves but Lord and when the envy that is directed against men while living will cease when they are dead."
;
REACTION.
213
(F.)
LOCKE.
at Wrington, near Bristol, in His father served as captain in the Parliamentary 1632. army during the Civil War. After receiving a preparatory training at Westminster School, he proceeded to Oxford, where he took his bachelor's degree in 1655. He was endowed with a penetrating and practical mind, and, like Bacon at Cambridge, he early found fault with Oxford on account of its extreme conservative tenden" That " cies. university," says Lewes, was distinguished then, as it has ever been, by its attachment to whatever
is
John Locke was borne
old
the past
is
is its
model, the past has
its affection.
That there
a
much good
in this veneration for the past,
Nevertheless, a university which on being behind the age, was scarcely a n't place for an original thinker. Locke was ill at ease The philosophy upheld there was scholasticism. there.
will gainsay.
itself
few
piqued
On such food, a mind like his could not nourish itself. Like his great predecessor, Bacon, he imbibed a profound contempt for the university studies, and in after-life
regretted that so
much
of his time should have been
wasted on such profitless pursuits." After taking his degree Locke studied medicine, not with the view of becoming a practitioner, but of im-
proving his feeble health. In this study he made noteworthy attainments, as is shown in the following encomium, which is quoted more particularly for its reference to his intellectual and moral character. Says Dr. Thomas Sydenham, in a work on medicine " You know likewise how much my method has been approved of by a person who has examined it to the bottom, and
:
214

is
TIME.
who
our
common
friend
mean Mr. John Locke
consider his genius, and penetrating and exwho, act judgment, or the purity of his morals, has scarce any
if
we
and few equals, now living." After spending a year at the court of Berlin, as secretary to the English envoy, Sir William Swan, he returned to Oxford, where he then made the acquaintance of the Earl of Shaftesbury. By this nobleman, who appreciated his extraordinary ability, he was introduced into the society of the great, whom he attracted by his
superior,
unusual colloquial powers. But, in all his associations with people of rank, he did not lose his independence
of character.
He
even ventured on one occasion to ad-
minister a delicate but effective rebuke.
One day
three
or four lords engaged in a game of cards in his presence. After looking on for some time, he took out his note-
book, and began to write attentively. Having been asked by one of the nobles what he was writing, he re" plied My lord, I am endeavoring to profit, as far as I am able, in your company ; for, having waited with im:
greatest geniuses of this age,
patience for the honor of being in an assembly of the and at last having obtained
write
the good fortune, I thought I could not do better than down your conversation and, indeed, I have set down the substance of what hath been said for this hour
;
or two." The rebuke was taken in good part and, giving up their game, the lords entered into conversa;
tion better suited to their character.
Locke superintended the education of the Earl of

Subsequently he was charged with Shaftesbury's son. the delicate task of choosing a wife for his pupil, and
was fortunate enough to make
happy
selection.
The
REACTION.
215
education of the oldest son by this marriage, a boy of bright parts, was intrusted to Locke ; and, as in the case
His of the father, the result was highly gratifying. afterward became an author of some reputation. pupil In acting as tutor in the Earl of Shaftesbury's family,
Locke had
his acute understanding specifically directed
to the subject of education, and it was in the observations and experience of these years that he developed
the independent views afterward embodied in his educational treatise, presently to be noticed. Locke lived on terms of close intimacy with the Earl
of Shaf tesbury, and was appointed by him to an imporThis fact involved him in the tant government office.
political troubles of his
generous patron
and,
when that
nobleman was banished from England, Locke deemed it prudent to follow him. During his voluntary exile in Holland, Locke was unjustly accused of writing certain
under
seditious tracts against the English Government; and, this suspicion, he was deprived of his place as
His surstudent of Christ-Church College, Oxford. render by the Government of Holland was demanded
by the English envoy, but he escaped by

ment.
conceal-
In 1688, with the accession of William and Mary, Locke found it safe to return to his native land. Here, the year following, he published his great philosophical
work,
"
An
Essay concerning
to
Human
Understanding,"
which was designed

capabilities of the
establish
It
the limitations and
mind.
had a wide circulation not
only in England, but also in France and Germany ; and everywhere it exerted an immense influence upon philosophic thought.
216
TIME.
In 1693 he published a treatise entitled " Some Thoughts concerning Education." Two years later he received from King William the appointment of Commissioner of Trade and Plantations but, after serving several years in this position, he was obliged by failing health to resign, and to seek the fresh air of the country. He retired to Gates, in Essex, and spent the few remain;
ing years of his life in peaceful retirement. in 1704.

"
He
died
From
After a brief biographical sketch, Raumer says this account of Locke's lif e, we are able to an:
As a phyticipate the nature of his pedagogical views. sician, whose duty it was to keep an invalid pupil from dying, he was obliged to pay especial attention to
health
;
as a
man who
held several public
offices, asso-
most distinguished statesmen, and educated a statesman's son, he attached more importance to the practical side of education than to mere learning he could not avoid recognizing the principles of the nobility, especially that of honor, likewise their views of what belongs to an educated nobleman, and imbibing antipathy toward learned pedantry."
ciated with the
;
"Locke is a thorough Englishman," says Karl Schmidt, "and the principle underlying his education is the principle according to which the English people
have developed. Hence, his theory of education has in the history of pedagogy the same value that the English
nation has in the history of the world. He stood in strong opposition to the scholastic education current in
his time, a living protest against the prevailing pedantry; in the universal development of pedagogy he
gives impulse to the
movement which grounds education
REACTION.
217
principles, and lays stress upon and the formation of character." breeding Locke begins his " Thoughts concerning Education " " sound mind in a sound body is a with these words short but full description of a happy state in this world he that has these two has little more to wish for and, he that wants either of them, will be but little the better
upon sound psychological
The attainment of this for anything else." dition is the end of education.
happy con-
According to Locke, education in its widest sense is the molding force of life. The early surroundings and impressions of childhood are of weighty consequence. " which makes the " It is education," he says, great difThe little, or almost insensible, ference in mankind.
impressions on our tender infancies, have very important and lasting consequences ; and then it is, as in the fountains of some rivers, where the gentle application of the hand turns the flexible waters into channels that make them take quite contrary courses and, by this little direction, given them at first, in the source, they receive different tendencies, and arrive at last at very remote
;
and distant places." Locke did not set much store by mere bookish learnwas to form ing. In his mind, the function of education
noble
well equipped for the duties of practical life. " You will He says wonder, perhaps, that I put learning last, especially if I tell you I think it the least part. When I consider what ado is made about a little . .
: .
men
Latin and Greek, how many years are spent in it, and what a noise and business it makes to no purpose, I can still hardly forbear thinking that the parents of children
live in fear of the schoolmaster's rod,
10
which they look
218

instrument of education
business.
;
TIME.
on
as the only
as if a
language
whole How else is it possible that a child should be chained to the oar seven, eight,
or two were
its
or ten of the best years of his life, to get a language or two, which I think might be had at a great deal cheaper rate of pains and time, and be learned almost in
. playing ? Reading and writing, and learning, I allow to be necessary, but yet not the chief business. I imagine you would think him a very foolish fellow that
. .
should not value a virtuous, or a wise man, infinitely before a scholar. Not but that I think learning a great
help to both, in well-disposed minds ; but yet it must be confessed, also, that in others not so disposed it helps them only to be the more foolish, or worse men. I
say this, that,
when you
consider of the breeding of
your son, and are looking out for a schoolmaster, or a tutor, you would not have (as is usual) Latin and logic only in your thoughts. Learning must be had, but in
the second place, as subservient only to greater qualities. Seek out somebody that may know how discreetly to
frame his manners

as
place
him in
hands, where you may,
much
as possible, secure his innocence, cherish
and
nurse up the good, and gently correct and weed out any bad inclinations, and settle in him good habits. This is
the main point
and, this being provided for, learning be had into the bargain." may " Virtue as the first and most necessary of those endowments that belong to a man or a gentleman," was based on religion. "As the foundation of this," says " Locke, there ought very early to be imprinted on his
;
a true notion of God, as of the independent Supreme Being, Author and Maker of all things, from
mind
REACTION.
219
loves us, and gives
whom we
us
all
receive
all
our good,
who
things ; and, consequent to this, instill into him a love and reverence of this Supreme Being. This is
enough to begin with, without going to explain this matter any further, for fear, lest by talking too early to him of spirits, and being unreasonably forward to make him understand the incomprehensible nature of that Infinite
Being, his head be either filled with false, or perplexed with unintelligible notions of him. Let him only
be told upon occasion that God made and governs all things, hears and sees everything, and does all manner of good to those that love and obey him." Locke attached great importance to the care of the body, and devotes the first part of his book to a consideration of the hygienic laws to be observed. He concludes his observations with these remarks " And thus I have done with what concerns the body and health, which reduces itself to these few and easily observable rules Plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic not too warm and strait clothing especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water
:
:
the
to wet." The wisdom of these rules, except has been sufficiently established. The disposition and native capacity of pupils should be considered in the work of education. Children are
and exposed
last,
not to be regarded as insensible objects to be dealt with in a blind, mechanical way, but as living creatures to be " He therefore that carefully nurtured and developed. " should well is about children," says Locke, study their
natures and aptitudes, and see,
by often
trials,
;
what turn
they easily take,
and what becomes them
observe what
220
FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.
is, how it may be improved, and what he should consider what they want, whether they be capable of having it wrought into them by industry, and incorporated there by practice and whether it be worth while to endeavor it. For, in many cases, all that we can do, or should aim at, is to make the best of what Nature has given, to prevent the vices and faults
their native stock

it is fit
for
is most inclined, and give the advantages it is capable of. Every one's natural genius should be carried as far as it could, but, to
to
which such a constitution
it all
in vain
attempt the putting another upon him, will be but labor and, what is so plastered on, will at best sit but ; untowardly, and have always hanging to it the ungracefulness of constraint and affectation."
imposed upon pupils should be wisely powers and attainments. Locke condemned the practice then in vogue of requiring verses and essays on abstract subjects necessarily beyond the The study of language should be pupil's capabilities. combined with an acquisition of substantial knowledge. " The " learning of Latin," he says, being nothing but the learning of words, a very unpleasant business both to young and old, join as much other knowledge with it as you can, beginning still with that which lies most obvious to the senses such as is the knowledge of minerals, plants, and animals, and particularly timber and fruit-trees, their parts and ways of propagation, wherein a great deal may be taught a child, which will not be
exercises
The
adjusted to their
useless to the
man
but,
more
especially, geography,
astronomy, and anatomy. But, whatever you are teaching him, have a care still that you do not clog him with too much at once or make anything his business but
;
REACTION.
221
virtue, or reprove him for anything but vice, or some apparent tendency to it." Of foreign languages Locke maintained that French
downright
but these languages first, then Latin should not exclude attention to English. The mother" This I think tongue has the highest claims upon us. " that if a will be agreed to," says Locke, gentleman is to study any language it ought to be that of his own
should be learned
;
country, that he may understand the language which he has constant use of with the utmost accuracy." And
" Since it is English that an English gentleman again, will have constant use of, that is the language he should
chiefly cultivate, and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his style." Locke thought that the importance of a knowledge
of Latin was overrated.
Though regarding
it
indispen-
he disapproved of forcing Latin upon children who would find no use

sable to the wealthy English gentleman,
it
for
" Latin I look in subsequent life. lutely necessary to a gentleman," he says
upon
;
as abso-
" and indeed
much
custom, which prevails over everything, has made it so a part of education that even those children are
to it, and made spend many hours of their time uneasily in Latin, who, after they are once precious gone from school, are never to have more to do with it
whipped
as long as they live. Can there be anything more ridiculous than that a father should waste his own money, and
his son's time, in setting

at the
him
to learn the
Roman
lan-
same time, he designs him for a guage, when, wherein he, having no use of Latin, fails not to trade, forget that little which he brought from school, and which it is ten to one he abhors for the ill-usage it pro-
222
TIME.
cured him ? Could it be believed, unless we had everywhere among us examples of it, that a child should be forced to learn the rudiments of a language, which he is never to use in the course of life that he is designed to, and neglect all the while the writing a good hand, and casting accounts, which are of great advantage in all conditions of life, and to most trades indispensably neces"
sary
Locke maintained that the best way to learn a language, whether ancient or modern, was by practice
rather than
by rule. He attached less importance to than was common in his day. " I would fain grammar have any one name to me that tongue, that any one can learn to speak as he should do, by the rules of grammar.
Languages were made not by rules of art but by acciAnd he that dent, and the common use of the people. will speak them well has no other rule but that, nor anything to trust to but his memory, and the habit of speaking after the fashion learned from those that are
to speak
allowed to speak properly, which, in other words, is only ' by rote. It will possibly be asked here, Is
of
its
grammar then
has
place too.
no use ?'...! say not so grammar But this I think I may say, there is
;
more stir a great deal made with and those are tormented about
it
it
to
than there needs, whom it does
not at all belong ; I mean children, at the age wherein they are usually perplexed with it in grammarschools."
If space allowed, it would be interesting and profitable to extend these quotations further, for Locke's treatise
abounds in wise and suggestive thought. But we conclude this sketch with the following excellent sum-
REACTION.
223
Locke's aim was to give a boy a romary from Quick bust mind in a robust body. His body was to endure hardness, his reason was to teach him self-denial. But
:
"
this result was to be brought about by leading, not driving him. He was to be trained, not for the university, but for the world. Good principles, good manners, and discretion, were to be cared for first of all intelligence
;
and actual knowledge last of all. His spirits were to be kept up by kind treatment, and learning was never to be a drudgery. "With
and
intellectual activity next
regard to the subjects of instruction, those branches of knowledge which concerned things were to take prece-
dence of those which consist of abstract ideas.

drill in
The
prevalent grammar of the classical languages was to be abandoned, the mother-tongue was to be carefully studied, and other languages acquired either by
the
In everyconversation, or by the use of translations. the part the pupil was to play in life was steadily thing to be kept in view; and the ideal which Locke proposed was not the finished scholar, but the finished gentleman."
The
ological
ical
reaction hitherto considered against abstract the-
and humanistic education was chiefly philosoph-
realistic. pass now to the consideration of another reaction that had its basis in religion, and was
and
We
common
and the Protestant Church, assumed a different form in each. though Europe had just passed through the misfortunes and sorrows of the Thirty Years' War, and men were in a condition to
it
to both the Catholic
realize the insufficiency of a religion that consisted in outward forms and mere intellectual assent to doctrinal
224:
TIME.
systems.
The need
of a religion of the heart and life

(G.)
was
felt.
JANSENISM.
This was a movement in the

in favor of
tical
Roman Catholic Church more evangelical doctrine and greater pracIt is named from its originator, Janpiety.
who was an
ardent
senius, a bishop in the Netherlands,
admirer of Augustine, and reproduced the doctrinal views of that ecclesiastical father in a work pub-
The opinions thus set lished posthumously in 1640. forth stood in sharp contrast with the prevailing pracof the Jesuits, and found a wide acceptance and vigorous promulgation. "In the view of the Jansentice
says Mosheim, "there is nothing entirely sound and uncorrupted in the practice and institutions of the Romish Church. In the first place, they complain that the whole body of the clergy have forsaken altogether
ists,"
the duties of their
office.
They, moreover, assert that the
are really apostates, and they would have them be brought back to their pristine sanctity, and to that
monks
strict
course of life which the founders of the several
orders prescribed. They would also have the people well instructed in the knowledge of religion and Christian piety. They contend that the sacred volume, and
the books containing the forms of public worship, should be put into the hands of the people in the vernacular
tongue of each nation, and should be diligently read and studied by all. And, lastly, they assert that all the people should be carefully taught that true piety toward God does not consist in external acts and rites, but in
purity of heart and divine love."
senists
In practice the Janbit-
were harshly
ascetic.
Their doctrines were
REACTION.
225
terly attacked by the Jesuits, and in the prolonged controversy that followed Jansenism was finally suppressed.
In France Jansenism had several distinguished adThe herents, among whom were Pascal and Fenelon. center of the movement in that country was Port-Royal, an ancient convent, a few miles from Paris, where a number of pious and learned men devoted themselves to study, teaching, and the practice of piety. They gave much attention to the instruction of youth, and by the use of wise methods they achieved excellent results. They prepared neat and excellent text-books on grammar, philosophy, and other branches of knowledge they
;
translated
many
of the classic authors
they produced a
large
number of devotional and practical works, in which
they exhibited a pure, chaste, and agreeable style. In connection with their primary schools, they invented and employed the phonic system of spelling. The study
of language began with the mother-tongue, and not, as had hitherto been the case in France, with Latin. The doctrine of natural depravity was strongly emphasized in the Jansenistic system, and hence a somewhat rigorous discipline was maintained. A careful and unceasing surveillance was exercised over the pupil. But the hope of a moral reformation was placed, not in rigid disciand the method of dealing pline, but in divine grace with children was reduced by a teacher of Port-Royal to
;
Speak little, endure a great deal, and pray still more." The method of conducting the Port-Royal schools " has been thus described by an old French writer Up to the age of twelve the pupils were occupied with the elements of sacred history, geography, and arithmetic,
these three precepts
: :
"
226
TIME.
under the form of amusements, in a manner to develop

their intelligence without wearying the regular course of study began.
it.
At
twelve years
of study
The hours
were fixed, but not in an absolute way. If study sometimes intrenched upon recreation, recreation also had its turn, for circumstances were taken into In winter, when the weather permitted, the account. teacher gave his lesson while taking a walk with his puSometimes they left him to climb a hill or run in pils. the plain, but they came back to listen to him. In summer the class met under the shade of trees by the side of brooks. The teacher explained Yirgil and Homer he commented upon Cicero, Aristotle, Plato, and the
and
recitation
;
The example of the teachers, and familiar instruction, all that the their conversation pupil saw, all that he heard, inspired him with a love for the beautiful and the good." We are now prepared to form some idea of the PortRoyal education, and to see its direct opposition to the
fathers of the Church.
Jesuit system. It ranges the teachers of Port-Royal by the side of the illustrious educational reformers consid-
ered in the preceding section. It simplified studies, and pleasant to the pupil ; it gave a worthy prominence to the mother-tongue ; it developed the un-
made them
stantial
derstanding along with the memory it imparted subknowledge in connection with words it devel; ;
oped the faculties, paid attention to the body, and watched over the formation of character. For the rest, the lan" In guage of Paroz is adopted persecuting the Prot:
and in suppressing Jansenism, Louis XIV. deChristianity in France of its power and freedom, prived and prepared the way for the mocking and frivolous
estants,
REACTION.
unbelief of "the eighteenth century.
227
During the past
like Cousin, Faugere, and especially Sainte-Beuve, have called the atYinet, tention of the French people to the work, too long for-
few years distinguished savants,
gotten, of Port-Koyal ; they have drawn from that source subjects of study that have had a high literary, philosophical, religious, and educational significance. If
France had developed the pedagogical work commenced by Port-Royal, it would be further advanced by almost two centuries. The whole of the eighteenth century and the first third of the nineteenth dragged themselves along in sterile philosophical and political theories ; it is
only within the past few years that good educational works are beginning to appear again in France, taking up the thread broken by Louis XIV."
After these remarks in general upon the educational

system of Port-Koyal,
religious Eollin.
it
is
distinguished educators who and educational views.
necessary to speak of two held, more or less fully, its
These are Fenelon and
(H.)
FENELON.
This celebrated author and teacher was born in the province of Perigord, in 1651. From an early age he was remarkable for industry, for his amiable disposition, and thirst for knowledge. Up to the age of twelve his
education was conducted at
home
he was then sent to
Cahors, and two years later to Paris, where his course of Destined to the clerical instruction was completed.
office
gifts nar)'
by his family, and inclined toward it by natural and disposition, he entered the theological semiof Saint-Sulpice, and won general esteem by his
228

and exemplary
character.
TIME.
application, ability,
He
was
ordained priest at the age of twenty-four, and was shortly afterward placed over an institution in Paris designed for the instruction of young
women who had
renounced the Protestant faith. "No person," says " was more than he of rendering virtue Roche, capable attractive by that touching and effective language which
and inspires confidence. he joined the merit of giving his instructions that simple, clear, and agreeable form that
addresses itself to the heart
To
this precious gift
placed them within reach of all minds." He spent ten years of his life as director of this institution, and it
was while in charge of
it
that he wrote his excellent
work on the " Education noticed at some length.

was placed
of Girls," presently to be
After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Fenelon at the head of a mission that was sent to
Poitou to labor for the conversion to Romanism of the

Protestant portion of the population. He fulfilled the trying duties of this office with gentleness and tolera-
and such was the affability of his manners and the charm of his discourse that his labors were not unattion
;
tended with success.
In 1689 he was appointed tutor to the young Duke

of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIY. This young was endowed with fine natural abilities, but posprince
sessed of an inordinate pride and a furious temper. This rendered Fenelon's task exceedingly difficult, but he discharged its duties with rare wisdom and surprising " In a short success. time," says a writer quoted by " affection and kindness made a different Roche, person
of the prince, and changed
many and
serious faults into
REACTION.
229
the wholly opposite virtues. From this abyss there came forth a prince affable, gentle, humane, moderate,
and self-controlled. Wholly devoted and regarding them as great, he only henceforth of uniting the duties of son and subthought ject with those to which he saw himself destined." The following incident shows the wisdom with which Fenelon knew how to deal with his pupil In a fit of anger occasioned by a gentle reproof, the young duke " once said to him, " I know who I am, and who you are Fenelon made no reply but on the following day, in a " You retranquil but serious tone, he said to his pupil call, no doubt, the words you spoke to me yesterday. My
patient, humble, to his obligations,
: !
duty obliges
me
who you
are nor
who
to reply to you that you know neither I am. If you think yourself above
;
me, you are mistaken your birth did not depend upon you and gives you no merit, and I have more prudence and knowledge than you. What you know you have learned from me, and I am above you by reason of the authority which the king and your father have given me over you. It was in obedience to them that I have
undertaken the
difficult and, as it seems, ungrateful task of being your teacher ; but, since you appear to think that I ought to feel particularly fortunate in discharging
this duty, I
wish to go with you

to relieve
at
once to the king and
request another instructor."
him
me
of
my
duties
and
to give
you
filled the young prince with alarm, " I am into tears, he exclaimed : and, bursting sorry for what happened yesterday. If you speak to the king, I
This declaration
shall forfeit his friendship.
be thought of
me?
you leave me, what Forgive me, and I promise

If
will
that
230
TIME.
you
will have no ground of complaint in the future." This was no doubt the result aimed at but Fenelon did
;
not yield at once, and

sincere,
pupil in painful uncerfor a day, when, assured that the repentance was tainty
left his
he resumed his duties. In the work of instructing his pupil Fenelon composed fables, compiled histories, and wrote fiction embodying valuable lessons. It was with this view that he wrote his " Telemachus," a work that has a permanent
place in the classic literature of France.
struction,
Under
his in-
which comprehended
religion, morals, philosopolitics,
phy, history, languages, literature, and prince made admirable attainments.

its realization.
A brilliant future
to
the young
was predicted for him, but death intervened
prevent
In 1695 Fenelon was elevated to the archbishopric of Cambray, in recognition of his previous services. He devoted himself conscientiously to the duties of his diocese.
He led
time between the administration of

sonal instruction of his flock.
a life of great simplicity, and divided his affairs and the per-
Though he had
delighted
the French court
by
his eloquence,
Bossuet by his ability, through the villages of his diocese to teach the simple peasantry the catechism in language suited to their uncultured condition.
and had embarrassed yet he found pleasure in going
by
The later years of his life were rendered unhappy theological controversies, by the displeasure of the His sorking, and by the loss of his dearest friends.
resig-
rows were heavy, but he bore them with touching

nation.
" like a saint and died," says Lamartine, poet, listening to the sweetest and sublimest hymns, "
He
REACTION.
231
his
winch carried
at the
same time his imagination and
soul to heaven."
" Education of " Fenelon's work on the Girls
admirable
treatise.
It not only presents
in regard to female education, but it pedagogical principles of great wisdom,
is an advanced views abounds in general
drawn from a
profound acquaintance with child-nature. Regarding woman as intellectually inferior to man, he excludes her from politics, the law, the ministry, and
other masculine vocations.
asks,
"from
" But what follows," he the natural weakness of women? The
weaker they are, the more it is important to strengthen them. Have they not duties to perform, duties that
constitute the foundation of all
human
life
Is it not
and that sustain households, that regulate all the details of domestic matters, and that consequently decide what concerns most nearly the whole human race ? In this way they have the principal part in the good or bad morals of almost the whole world. judicious, diligent, and pious woman is the soul of a
that ruin
women
household
perity and
she establishes order in

salvation.
it
for temporal pros-
authority, are not able any effective measure for good, unless the them in having it executed."
Even men, who have all public by their deliberations to establish
women
is
aid
Female education
is
a necessity.
If a girl
left
without a proper education, and is allowed to grow up in idleness, she will naturally fall into objectionable habits, " and develop a discontented disposition. Ignorant " and idle girls," Fenelon says, always have a wandering
imagination. In the absence of solid instruction, their curiosity turns strongly to vain and dangerous subjects.
232
TIME.
read
Those possessing ability sometimes become affected, and all the books that can nourish their vanity they become excessively fond of romances, comedies, and extravagant adventures, with which unworthy love is commingled. They render their minds visionary, in accus;
toming themselves to the magnificent language of the heroes of romances they thus disqualify themselves
;
even for society for all those beautiful, ethereal sentiments, those generous affections, all those adventures invented by the novelist in order to give pleasure, have no
;
which are operative in the world, and which decide affairs, nor with the failures which we experience in every undertaking." Education should be commenced at a very early age. " In order to " remedy all these evils," says Fenelon, it is a great advantage to be able to begin the education of
relation with the true motives
girls in infancy.
This early age, which

profligate
is
abandoned
is
to indiscreet
and sometimes
women,
that in
which the deepest impressions are made, and which has consequently a strong influence on all subsequent life." This early education should have reference to the body, the mind, and character. The health should be cared for the faculties should not be prematurely developed the passions should not be inflamed, and patience and self-denial should be inculcated and practiced. As the basis of methods of instruction, Fenelon thus
; ;
portrays the nature of the mind in childhood: "The substance of the brain is soft, and it hardens every day ;
as for the
it.
mind,
it
knows nothing
everything
is
new
to
The
soft condition of the brain
makes
it
easily sus-
ceptible to impressions, and the surprise of novelty easily excites admiration, and renders children very inquisi-
REACTION.
tive.
233
soft state of
It is true, also, that this
humid and
the brain, joined to great warmth, gives it ready and continual motion. Hence comes the restlessness of children,
who
are unable to fix their
minds upon any sub-
ject, or their bodies in any place." Instruction should be made pleasant, and the utility of the subjects taught should be explained. "By all means let the child play," says Fenelon ; " let wisdom be forced upon him only at intervals, and with a laugh-
ing face
tions.
...
beware of tiring him with injudicious exacIt is necessary to explain the reason of what
should say to your pupils This is to prepare you for your future vocation this is to form your judgment ; this is to accustom you to reason justly
: ;
one teaches.
You
'
upon
all the affairs of life.' It is necessary to show them always a solid and agreeable purpose that will sustain them in their efforts, and never to pretend to control
them by a dry and absolute authority." The fondness that children have for
not be unimproved.
history should Instructive narratives should be
presented, particularly those of the Bible ; for the latter, apart from historical knowledge, have a moral and religious value. The moral and religious instruction should be watched over with special care, and the faults and weaknesses to which girls are liable should be guarded The education of woman should have regard against. to domestic relations, for whose manifold duties and
high degree of wisdom is necessary. Girls should be instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic; in keeping accounts; in the leading principles of justice and government ; and, after these fundamental
responsibilities a
studies, history, language, literature, music,
and painting
234:
TIME.
might be taught, yet in such a manner as to preserve pupils from all moral injury. Paroz concludes his study of Fenelon's treatise with the following judicious remarks " We have to-day educational works that are more complete and systematic, but this one will live because of its excellent spirit and In all ages and in every land it will beautiful style. be read with pleasure and profit. Of all the Catholic clergy who have engaged in educational work, Fenelon
:
has perhaps approached nearest to the rational princiThe ples which form the basis of modern pedagogy.
order of Nature has a place in his theology, and he to reconcile the needs of temporal life with the spirit of Christianity. This characteristic will al-
knows how
ways
assign
him
a high rank
among
educators."
(i.)
EOLLIN.
Kollin, so well known in this country cient History," was born at Paris, in 1661.
by
his
"
An-
He
was the
this
son of a poor but honest cutler,

follow the same vocation.
who
intended his son to
He
was rescued from
humble
young lege du
by a Benedictine friar, who discovered Rollin's abilities, and had him entered at the Colstate
Plessis.
Having
that ardent desire for knowl-
accompanying genius, he made rapid and early established a well-founded reputaprogress, tion. He was especially proficient in literary studies.
edge, so often
to Eollin," said his professor of rhetoric, when applied to for any prose or poetic composition ; "he will do it better than I can." Eollin studied theology three
"
Go
years at the Sorbonne, the most celebrated of the Catholic seminaries of France.
REACTION.
235
in
In 1688
lie
was elevated to the chair of Eloquence
the Royal College of France, and filled the position with zeal and success. He encouraged the study of the French
language and literature, and revived an interest in the ancient tongues, particularly in Greek. In 1694 he was
appointed rector of the University of Paris, and signalized his brief tenure of
two years by the introduction of
some
tion
In 1699 he was salutary reforms. of the College of Beauvais, and so great
made
had
principal
now become that he with students. But his life was not to run on smoothly. His adherence to Jansenism, which has already been
his reputasoon filled its deserted halls
explained, brought upon him the unrelenting persecution of the Jesuits, and he was forced to give up his position in 1712.
In 1720 he was called from his modest but busy
re-
Studies," able place in educational history. Not long afterward he completed his " Ancient History," which, despite its credulity, inaccuracy, and excessive admiration for an-
tirement to assume again the management of the uniSix years later he published his versity as rector. " Treatise on which entitles him to an honor-
charm that will always render it a and profitable work. pleasing As a man, Rollin was worthy not simply of respect but also of affection. " In Rollin's character," says a " biographer, learning was ennobled by virtue, and virtue elevated by piety. His piety was not affected was not the homage that vice pays to virtue, but that of an honest and ardent mind. He lived in what is termed
tiquity, possesses a
the Augustan age of French literature
the age of Louis
XIV.
so
much
extolled
by Yoltaire, and was contem-
236
FEQM THE REFORMATION TO TEE PRESENT
TIME.
poraneous with her most celebrated literary characters. Although not entitled to the first rank among the writers
of his
own
country, yet his attainments were great, his
talents respectable, his learning extensive,
and
his taste
purified by the models of classical antiquity. It may be affirmed that his virtues were of the first order, and what
blemishes were in his character were as small spots in a
luminous body." "We now turn to Rollin's " Treatise on Studies," in which he treats of primary education ; of the study of
language ; of poetry
;
of rhetoric
of the several kinds
of eloquence; of history; of philosophy; and of the " The management of colleges. purpose of teachers," " is not says Rollin,* simply to teach their pupils Lathi and Greek ; to show them how to write exercises, verses,
and amplifications to load their memory with historic and dates to construct syllogisms in due form and to trace on paper certain lines and figures. This knowledge, I do not deny, is useful and valuable, but as The purpose of teacha means and not as an end.
;
facts
ers, in the long course of study, is to accustom their pupils to serious work ; to make them esteem and love the
show them how to make progress to make and value of knowledge and in this them for the different pursuits to which way prepare
sciences
;
to
them
feel the use
Providence may call them. The purpose of teachers, still more than that, is to form the mind and heart of to protect their innocence to inspire their pupils them with principles of honor and probity; to' have
; ;
them form good

* The
changes.
rest of
habits;
to correct
and suppress in
this sketch is translated
from Paroz, with but few
REACTION.
237
them, by gentle means, the bad inclinations that be observed."

education.
may
Rollin laid great stress upon religious or spiritual " What is a Christian teacher charged with " the education of the young ? he asks. " He is a man
in whose hands Jesus Christ has placed a certain number of children whom he has redeemed by his blood, in
whom
he
lives as his temple,
whom he
members,
wishes to
serve
as his brethren, as his co-heirs
regards as his of whom he ;
make
God
for
kings and priests who will reign and with him and by him through all eternity.
what purpose has he confided children to them ? just to make poets, orators, philosophers, and scholars of them ? Who would dare say or even think that ? It is for the purpose of preserving in them the precious and inestimable gift of innocence which he has impressed
Is
it
And
upon
and
their souls
true Christians of them.

all
for the purpose of making is the end of education, the rest holds the place of means."
by baptism
This
What
answers
:
"
are the qualifications of a teacher? Rollin When a teacher has asked and received from
own
Jesus Christ, for the management of others and for his salvation, the spirit of wisdom and knowledge, the
spirit of counsel
and strength, the

all,
piety, and, above

is
spirit of learning and the spirit of fear of the Lord, there

;
nothing further to be said to him
this spirit
is
an
in-
ternal teacher that dictates
and and
instructs in everything, that on every occasion will show him his duties great indigive him wisdom to perform them.
and
cation that one has received

zeal for the salvation of
when he feels an ardent children when he is touched

it is
;
by
their dangers
when he
is
sensible to their faults
238
TIME.
when he
solicitude that
experiences something of the tenderness and Paul felt for the Galatians."
Rollin lays
for the
down some
excellent rules and principles

:
is to study well the genius and character of children. To wish to place them on the same level, and to subject them to a single rule,
"
1.
management of children The first duty of the teacher
to force nature. " 2. In education the highest skill consists in knowing how to unite, by a wise temperament, a force that
is
restrains children without repelling them,
and a gentle-
ness that wins without enervating them. "3. The short and common method of correcting children is with the rod ; but this remedy sometimes
becomes a more dangerous evil than those which one seeks to cure, if it is employed without reason and moderation.
The only vice, it seems to me, that deserves severe treatment is obstinacy in evil, but an obstinacy voluntary, determined, and well defined.
"5.
" 4:.
The
teacher ought never to punish in anger,
the fault which he punishes concerns him such as a want of respect or some offensive personally,
especially if
Cuffs, blows, and other like treatment, are absoforbidden to teachers. They ought to punish only lutely to correct, and passion does not correct. " 7. It is a common fault to make use of
speech. " 6.
repriquite for the slightest faults which are almost inevitaThis breaks the force of reprimands, ble to children.
mands
and renders them fruitless. " 8. "We should avoid exciting the
spite of children
REACTION.
239
by the harshness of our language, their anger by exaggeration, their pride by marks of contempt. " 9. It is necessary always to show children a substantial and agreeable end which may hold them to work, and never pretend to force them by a direct and
absolute authority.
" 10. "We should run the risk of discouraging dren if we never praised them when they do well.
chil-
Al-
though praises are to be feared because of vanity, it is necessary to make use of them to encourage children,
without cultivating that vice. "11. Rewards are not to be neglected for children, and although they are not, any more than praise, the
principal motive to make them act, yet both come useful to virtue, and a strong incentive to
tice.
may
its
be-
prac-
good fortune for young people to a continual lesson whose actions do not belie their teaching; who practice what they preach, and shun what they censure and who are admired more for their conduct than for their instrucis
" 12. It
a great
find masters
whose
life is
tion."
(j.)
PIETISM.
Pietism
is
movement
in the Protestant
a term of reproach fixed upon a worthy Church in the direction of

life. This movement was opposed and inconsistency characteristic of the orthodoxy." It was begun by Philip
a consistent Christian
to the formality of " dead
period
Jacob Spener, a man of fine natural abilities, large atAs leading pastor at tainments, and deep spirituality. Frankfort-on-the-Main, he began, in 1670, to hold meet-
24:0
TIME.
ings at his house for the promotion of biblical knowledge and the cultivation of evangelical piety. He con-
tinued his reformatory efforts at Dresden as chief courtpreacher, and afterward at Berlin as provost of the
Church of
all
St. Nicholas.
"A
return from scholastic
theology to the holy Scriptures as the living source of

saving knowledge," says Kurtz; "a conversion of the outward orthodox confession into an inner living
theology of the heart, and a demonstration thereof in these were the ways and means by which he proposed to effect the desired reform." The
true piety of life
Pietistic
movement gave
rise to a
prolonged contro-
versy, whose general influence, in spite of much bitterness and persecution, was favorable to Christian life in
the Church.
(K.)
FKANCKE.
Pietism was brought into relation with education

chiefly by August Hermann Francke, who as a successful and consecrated Christian teacher exerted a wide in-
He was born at Liibeck, on the Baltic, in 1663. received his preparatory training at the Gymnasium of Gotha, after which he attended the universities of
fluence.
He
Erfurt and Kiel, studying metaphysics, natural science,
remark of his in history, languages, and theology. reference to this period of his life throws light upon the
" prevalent method of theological study. theology," he says, "I grasped with the head but not with the
My
heart edge.
it
was more a dead science than a living knowl-
I indeed
knew how
to define faith, regeneration,

;
also, how to distinguish justification, renewal, and so on one from the other, and to prove it by passages from
REACTION.
Scripture but I found nothing in my heart of it all, and possessed nothing more than what existed in my memory and imagination. Yea, I had no other concep;
tion of theological study than that it consisted in having well in mind the theological assemblies and books, and in being able to speak learnedly about them."
After leaving the universities Francke spent a year and a half at Gotha, during which time he read the Hebrew Bible through seven times. In 1684 he went to Leipsic, where his lectures on the Old and New Testaments, differing widely from the cold, logical processes
of the universities, attracted considerable attention. He sympathized with Spener's views, and joined the Pietistic
reform.
In 1687 he went to Hamburg, where he estab-
lished a primary school that brought him valuable experience and determined the direction of his life. " Upon
the establishment of this school," he says, " I learned how destructive the usual school management is, and
how
exceedingly
difficult
this reflection
made me
the discipline of children ; and desire that God would make me
worthy to do something for the improvement of schools and instruction." In 1691 the University of Halle was founded, and
the following year, through the influence of Spener, Francke was appointed Professor of Greek and Oriental
Languages, and
church.
at the
same time pastor of a suburban
which
in Halle he accomplished a great work, stands in educational history almost without a
Here
The beginning was very humble. The poor were accustomed to assemble on Thursday before the
parallel.
parsonage to receive alms.

11
The thought occurred to Francke that the occasion might be improved for re-
242
TIME.
ligious instruction. old into his house,

spiritual
classes,
He invited the crowd of young and and along with bread he administered
learned the condition of the poorer
food.
He
and
his heart
and need.
He
their ignorance himself of comforts to admindeprived
was touched by
ister to their necessities.
He
solicited aid
from^his
a poor-box to receive contribufriends, and hung up he found in it the sum of seven florins, One tions.
day
faith the gift of a benevolent woman. With the joy of " That is a with which I he exclaimed: splendid capital, must accomplish something useful ; I will begin a school " Books were immediately bought, and a for the poor to teach the needy student of the university engaged each day. The undertaking proschildren two hours soon became too small ; more compered ; the parsonage modious quarters had to be engaged. With increasing conwants came enlarged contributions, and Francke till it assumed at length imtinued to develop his work At the time of his death, in 1727, mense
I
proportions.
it
institutions comprised the following students. 1. The Pedagogium, having eighty-two This school was designed for the higher classes, and provided instruction in religion, Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
:
French, German, arithmetic, geography, history, anatomy, nology, geometry, astronomy, music, botany, to and the essential principles of medicine. In order
school render instruction as practicable as possible, the a chemwas equipped with a museum of natural history,
in physics, ical laboratory, apparatus for experiments a departure in All this marked and a botanical
chro-
garden. Francke the secondary education of the time, and places among the educational reformers.
REACTION.
2.
243
The
Latin School of the
Orphan House, with three

hundred students,
inspectors, thirty-two teachers, four and ten servants.

3.
The German Burgher School, with four inspectone hundred and six teachers, and seventeen hunors, dred and twenty-eight pupils of both sexes. This held
the rank of a good primary school.
4.
The Orphan House, with one hundred boys, thirtyand ten

overseers.
four
girls,
5.
The Free
Table, with six hundred and fifteen in-
digent scholars.
6.
The Drug-Store and
Book-Store, with fifty-three
dependents.
T.
The
Institution for
Women, with
twenty-nine in-
mates.
The whole number

amounted
three.
of teachers, pupils, and depend-
ents in the several institutions under Francke's direction

to four thousand
two hundred and seventy1
Besides the direction of ah these institutions, a work

sufficient to
active in other ways.

fully
;
overwhelm an ordinary man, Francke was His pastoral duties were faithhe founded a printing-office that sent performed
forth before the close of the eighteenth century a million and a half of Bibles and a million copies of the New
under the patronage of the King of DenFrederick IV., he established a mission in India mark, that continued over a hundred years. Through the
Testament
;
teachers and ministers sent forth from his institutions, he reached all parts of Europe. Count Zinzendorf, the
founder of the Moravian Brethren, was one of his pupils. As professor in the University of Halle, he was instru-
TIME.
mental in effecting useful changes in the courses of study, and in elevating the moral tone of the body of
constantly sought their conversion and spiritual development. Theology became a matter of " the heart as well as of the head. gram of living " is worth more than Francke says, a pound of faith,"
students.
He
historic
knowledge ; and a drop of

spirit that
love, than
an ocean
of science."
The
is
animated Francke in his vast enter-
well worthy of our consideration. prises profound personal piety lay at the basis of all his work. He founded his institutions with a firm reliance upon God,
and depended upon prayer to bring him the necessary He regarded piety as the most essential thing in help.
education.
He
emphasized the truth that education
should have reference to the student's subsequent vocation he increased the number of utilitarian studies, and
;
laid the foundation of
modern
practical education.
In the following passages Francke expresses his views " fully and clearly in regard to education Only the he says, " is a good member of society. truly pious man,"
:
sincere piety all knowledge, all prudence, all culture is more hurtful than useful, and we are worldly never secure against its misuse. Although all children are not depraved to the same degree, yet all bear the seed of depravity within them; and, hence, a funda-
Without
mental improvement of the heart must always be labored for. In this work we must beware of fighting against
some
though many deserve especial
particular faults as if they were the only ones, alattention. Also, we must
not lose sight of the peculiarities of each character, the . differences of temperament. Piety agrees with all
. .
REACTION.
states
245
and conditions into which man

it
every condition with which
by
this very fact unlawful. dence in conduct, but this must always be subordinated
may come, for does not agree becomes It does not exclude pru-
to godliness."
Youth needs pleasure and recreation. This it finds partly in physical exercise, partly in pleasant and at the same time useful employments, especially in mechanical
employments ; partly in the examination of new and inIn all instruction teresting objects of nature and art. we must keep the pupil's station and future calling in
mind, but to all classes alike is piety necessary. Hence, it must remain in all schools the chief matter, the prinIn the instruction of those who are descipal lesson. tined to unprofessional employments and trades, the
"
most important thing after religion is an acquaintance with the indispensable arts of reading, writing, and reckoning ; but the elements of other branches of knowledge should not be neglected, especially the elements of natural science, geography, history, and government, which, however, are to be brought forward incidentally and
later."
The following
rules are taken
from Francke's
in-
structions to his teachers
upon the manner of exercising
school-discipline. They exhibit his clear pedagogical insight, his piety, and his sympathy and love for children :
1.
In exercising
discipline,
which
is
necessary and
conformable to the will of God, the teacher should pray God first of all to give him the necessary wisdom.
2.
As most
teachers seek to correct children
by
rig-
orous punishment rather than by gaining their love
through patience, forbearance, and affection
and, as
246
TIME.
young
teachers in particular are lacking in paternal solicitude and Christian gentleness, they ought to supplito fill them with love for without cate the
Lord, ceasing, the young who are confided to them, and to deliver from all harshness and carnal sufficiency.
3.
them
teacher should learn to govern himself, without which he can not properly govern others. teacher should maintain discipline over his pu4.
The
and should exhort and punish them when necessary pils, and severe, nevertheless, education should not be hard
but gentle and paternaL teacher ought never to punish a child in anger. 5. teacher ought not to be ill-humored, but cordial 6.
A A
and kind, like a

Y.
father.
Children ought not to be punished for little faults inherent in their age, but should be encouraged to be
more
8.
careful.
Christian teacher should beware of becoming the occasion of disorder which he is to punish. 9. Children should not be abused with harsh epithets.
It is contrary to the spirit of Christianity.
10.
A child ought never to be scolded because
it
can
not understand. If it is dull of comprehension, the teacher should redouble his efforts in its behalf.
11.
A teacher should study the disposition of his puand gentle natures are not to be treated hardened natures.
In avoiding too great severity the teacher should the opposite extreme, and become the sport
delicate pils, as like coarse and

12.
not
fall into
of the children.
13. With youth over fifteen years of age the teacher should abstain from harsh words, threats, and blows, by
ABSTRACT HUMAN EDUCATION.
247
which they may become imbittered. It is better to take them separately, talk to them kindly sometimes even pray with them. If these means are fruitless, let them be brought before the school board, or punished in the
presence of a colleague. Francke's long and useful life was crowned with a He bore his last sickness with Christian fitting close.
resignation.
The words
"
of the patriarch Jacob were
often
At many
his lips, Lord, I wait for thy salvation." the last hour his wife, the faithful companion of
upon
with you," she said. These were his plied.

fully fell asleep
be he relast words; and, in the midst of the hymns and prayers of assembled friends, he peaceyears, stood
by
his side.
"
The Saviour
will
" There
is
no doubt of
it,"
June
8,
1727.
6.

new movement human educa-
The
tion.*
ion,
eighteenth century witnessed a
which has been characterized
as abstract
In general, it ignores or rejects revealed religand bases its educational principles on the purely
natural.
it
Though
as one-sided
as the theological tend-
has the great merit of stimulating a careful ency, of man in the interests of correct educational study In this way it rendered invaluable service methods.
to the cause of educational progress.
This movement exhibited two entirely different tendthe realistic tendency, which emphasized the of Nature, and the humanistic tendency, which study
encies
* The German expression
is
"
abstract men&chlicke Erziehung."
24:8
TIME.
emphasized the study of words. Both of these tendencies, which had been in conflict to a greater or less
degree during the preceding century, agreed in eliminating revealed religion from education. This dual movement admits of an easy explanation. In the great process of human development extremes
tend to beget extremes. The path of human progress is zigzag. Throughout the seventeenth century, which we have just considered, a mere formal religion remained
in the ascendency. It continued the controlling factor in education, in spite of the attacks of the pietists and
educational reformers.
It long thwarted the confident
expectations of Comenius.
lost its vital
But a
religion,
which has
power, can not hold a permanent ascendency over the world. Its weakness exposes it to attack.
A skeptical
"
:
land,
movement, known as Deism, arose in Engand gradually extended over the whole of Europe.
given by Kahnis, are the followis
Its principal tenets, as
ing
a positive religion, like Judaism Christianity and Mohammedanism. It is a prejudice which the
Christians have, in common with the Jews and Mohammedans, to imagine that their religion is the only true
That which separates these religions is the posiis merely the unessential the shell. In the main point, all positive religions are at one. This main point is natural religion the religion of sound
one.
tive,
but that
common
sense."
religion. tive basis, they were lacking in certainty and authority, and in many cases prepared the way for the grossest
As
its
rejected the supernatural in principles had no other than a specula-
Deism
From the deistic or skeptical stand-point the current education of the time, unduly controlled by naratheism.
249
row
ecclesiastical influences, was judged defective. Educational reformers representing the skeptical tendency
arose,
and new movements were inaugurated.

(A.)
ROUSSEAU.
exerted a greater influ-
There are few
men who have
ence upon education than the celebrated author. JeanJacques Rousseau. He was born at Geneva, in 1712, the
son of a poor watchmaker. As a child he was feeble in body and shy in disposition, but at the same time he was endowed with remarkable vivacity in thought and feeling. He was exceedingly fond of reading, in which he was
encouraged by his father; and, among other works, of which were worthless, he early devoured Bos" Thus suet, Ovid, and Plutarch. began to be formed " that within me," he says, heart, at once so proud and so tender, that effeminate but yet indomitable character which, ever oscillating between weakness and courage, between indulgence and virtue, has to the last placed me in contradiction with myself, and has brought it to pass that abstinence and enjoyment, pleasure and wisdom, have alike eluded me." It is not worth while to follow him through the unimportant events of his life. His boyhood was by no
many
and in his " Confessions," a work written with the utmost frankness late in life, he does not attempt to conceal theft and lying. He ran away from an engraver to whom he had been apprenticed, and during the remainder of his life he was a wanderer who enjoyed but temporary seasons of repose. Throughout his career he was subject to petty misfortunes and persecutions, but his immoralities repress our
means worthy of imitation
250
TIME.
sympathy for
his sufferings and lessen our admiration " There for his genius. His life was a singular paradox. French is in our literary history," says an interesting "a celebrated writer who offers the singular author, in his works and of baseness in combination of
his conduct
;
it is
grandeur Jean- Jacques Kousseau.
Full of en-
thusiasm for the beautiful and the good, he defended and eloquence the eterwith invincible
passionate logic nal principles of justice and morality, and he committed who the most shameful and culpable acts. This man, domestic affection, friendadmirable
wrote
ship,
pages upon and gratitude, chose a companion unworthy of in a foundling hospital, and him, placed his children and harsh toward his friends, and himself showed
unjust And all the time his benefactors. ungrateful toward he believed himself moral, because he loved doing wrong, ' ' heart I do evil,' he said, but I love good. virtue. "
My
is pure.'
Kousseau has exerted his influence upon education half treatise and half romance. through a single work, " a collection of thoughts and It is, as he himself says, order and almost without connecobservations, without
tion."
It is entitled
"
Smile, or concerning Education."
in In many respects a radical book, it is flung defiantly " Go contrary to directly the face of prevalent usage.
custom," he says,
" and be right." you will nearly always in mingled truth and error, and needs The work abounds but many of its to be read with great discrimination ;
^
truths are fundamental, and ever since their publication an entrance into eduthey have been gradually forcing "Not Rousseau's individual rules," cational
practice.
says the great
German
Kichter,
"many
of which
may

be erroneous without injury to the whole, but the
of education which
fills
51
spirit
and animates the work has shaken to their foundations and purified all the schoolrooms, and even the nurseries in Europe. In no previous work on education was the ideal so richly and beautifully combined with actual observation as in his." Rousseau, was largely indebted to his predecessors, The especially to Locke, whom he frequently quotes. two fundamental truths which have perhaps exerted the 1. Nature is to be studied widest influence are these and followed. 2. Education is an unbroken unity, extending from early childhood to maturity. It is true that both of these principles had been advocated by Comenius, but it was through the charm of Rousseau's work that they made the widest impression upon the
:
Along with positions indefensible, Rousseau urges, in admirable style, wholly many of the reforms with which we are already familiar, and which have won our hearty approval. His standeducational thinking of Europe.
" point, as presented in the opening paragraph of Emile,"
is
undoubtedly wrong. "Everything is good," he says, " as it comes from the hands of the Creator everything
; ;
degenerates in the hands of man. He forces one country to bring forth the productions of another one tree
he mingles and confuses he mutilates his dog, his climates, elements, seasons; horse, his slave he overturns everything, he disfigures everything he loves deformity, monsters he wishes nothing as Nature has made it, not even man; it is necessary to train him like a riding-horse to conform him to a model like a tree in the garden." Rousseau is thus seen to be hostile to the established
to bear the fruits of another
;
;
252

tilings.
TIME.
order of
come exceedingly
seau,
Society at the French capital had beIts shallow artificial and corrupt.
conventionalities and irrational customs irritated Rous-
and with an exaggeration natural to him he made
society at large the object of indiscriminate attack.
He
maintains that civilization fosters vice, that the arts and sciences have been born of sin, and hence he seeks a
sovereign remedy for existing evils in a return to a state " Rousseau did not of nature. understand," says Paroz,
"or rather he did not believe, that the evil reigning among mankind was anterior to civilization, and that civilization is dangerous only as it departs from the vivifying and elevating principles of Christianity. It is from the heart, and not from civilization, that the bad thoughts and bad actions which trouble humanity have their issue; and to elevate man we need a principle which renews and changes the heart. Every other means after having taken civilization from man is insufficient to keep him from doing evil, it would still be necessary to deprive him of his limbs, and at last of life itself." With the intention of following Nature, Rousseau
;
carries Simile, his hero,
ment
the
first
through five periods of developembraces his infancy, the second extends
to his twelfth year, the third to his fifteenth, the fourth to his twentieth, and the fifth includes his marriage.
To each of these periods a book is devoted, setting forth the matter and method of training in detail.
Rousseau maintained that child-nature should be
in-
" People," vestigated as the basis of all correct training. " do not understand childhood. "With the false he says,
notions
we have
The
of
it,
the further
we go
blunder.
wisest apply themselves to
the more we what it is im-
253
portant for men to know without considering what children are in a condition to learn. They are always seeking the man in the child, without reflecting what he is before he can be a man." "Nature," he says again, " children to be children before they are men. requires
If
we wish
to pervert this order,
we
shall
produce
for-
ward
fruits, having neither ripeness nor taste, and cer-
tain soon to decay ; we shall have young professors and old children. Childhood has its manner of seeing, perceiving, and thinking peculiar to itself ; nothing is more
absurd than our being anxious to substitute our

its stead."
own
in
period of childhood should be devoted to physi" The development and the training of the senses. " to feel the warmth child must
cal
The
learn," says Rousseau,
and coldness, the hardness,
softness,
and weight of bodies
and other sensible qualities, by seeing, touching, hearing, and particularly by comparing the sight with the touch, and judging, by means of the eye, of the sensation which objects would
to judge of their figure, magnitude,
make upon
the lingers."
Rousseau emphasized the importance of a knowledge of things as contrasted with a knowledge of words. "The abuse of books," he Bays, "is destructive to
knowledge. Imagining ourselves to know everything we read we believe ourselves released from learn-
Too much reading serves only to make us presumptuous blockheads. Of all the ages in which
ing
it.
literature has nourished, reading

as in the present,
was never so universal

in general ever so
nor
were men
ignorant."
Rousseau holds to the developing idea in education,
254
FROM TnE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT

assails
TIME.
the practice of imparting knowledge to the the weight of authority. "Another passive pupil by from this method of advantage," he says, "resulting that we do not accustom ourlearning for ourselves is, selves to a servile submission to the authority of others ;
and
but,
grow every day more inthe relation of things, in conof genious in the discovery instruments whereas, necting our ideas and inventing the mind grows dull and by adopting all that is told us, who is always dressed and served as a
by exercising our
reason,
;
indifferent,
by
his servants
the activity
man, and drawn by his horses, and use of his limbs."
loses at length
The end of education is to develop a complete man. " all men are " In the order of Nature," says Rousseau, vocation is the estate of man ; and equal, their common for that will not fail in anywhoever is well
brought up
it.
to thing belonging
It is a
matter of
little
importance
for arms, for the to me whether pupil be destined vocation assigned Church, or for the bar. Before the
my
him by
Nature calls him to human life. To When he live is the business I wish to teach him. he will be neither leaves my hands I acknowledge that nor priest he will be first of all a magistrate, soldier, man all that a man ought to be he can be and, though
his parents,
;
;
fortune change, he will be prepared for every condition."
he were not broad. "All the education of women," " To please them, to to men. ought to be relative says,
With regard
to female education, Rousseau's views
make themselves loved by them, to bring them up when for them when they are grown they are little, to care
to console them, to render their up, to counsel them,

lives agreeable
255
of
women
It
is
and pleasant such have been the duties in all ages." difficult to resist the temptation unduly to mul-
tiply quotations
from
this brilliant book.
But we con-
clude our study with the well-known and beautiful tribute which Rousseau, deist though he was, pays to Christ " I confess " that the and his he
gospel.
also,"
says,
majesty of the Scriptures astonishes me, that the purity of the gospel speaks to my heart. Look at the books of
the philosophers, with all their pomp ; how insignificant in comparison with it Is it possible that a book at once so sublime and so simple is the work of men ? Is
!
possible that he whose history it contains is himself only a man ? Is that the tone of an enthusiast or amit
bitious sectary
What
manners
What
1
gentleness, what purity in his touching grace in his instructions

!
What
elevation in his
maxims
What profound wisdom
in his discourses
What
cacy and justice in his

!
presence of mind, what deliWhat control over his replies

!
Where is the man, where is the philosopher, passions that knows how to live, suffer, and die without weakThe death of Socrates, phiness and ostentation ?
. . .
losophizing tranquilly with his friends, is the most desirable that can be wished ; that of Jesus expiring in
agony, insulted, jeered, cursed by a whole people, is the most horrible that can be feared. Socrates, as he took
the poisoned cup, blessed him that tearfully presented it ; Jesus, in the midst of a terrible punishment, prays
for his unrelenting executioners. Yes, if the life and death of Socrates are those of a philosopher, the life and " death of Jesus are those of a God
1
256

THE PHILANTHROPE*.
TIME.
(B.)
Kousseau was only a theorizer in education. He did not undertake to put his views into practice. This was left for a group of educators who, from the name of the
first
school, are
known
in educational history as philan-
Most prominent of these were Basedow, thropinists. and Campe. Kecognizing the defects of existSakman,
out practically the ing schools, they all sought to carry reforms proposed by Comenius, Locke, and above all by Eousseau. In this undertaking they had the sympathy
number of eminent men, among whom the philosomention. pher Kant deserves especial current training of children has been thus porThe " Youth was then, for most children, trayed by Kaumer
of a
:
the instruction hard and heartlessly was beat into the memory, and likeGrammar severe. common punwise portions of Scripture and poetry. at school was to learn by heart the one hundred ishment School-rooms were gloomily and nineteenth Psalm.
a sorrowful period
;
one thought that youth could find pleasure in work, or that they had eyes for anything but reading and writing. The profligate age of Louis XIV. imposed
dark.
No
hair curled upon the poor children of the higher classes smeared with powder and pomade, by the barber and
braided coats, knee-breeches, silk stockings, and a dagchildren the severest ger at the side for active, lively
torture."
themselves against these philanthropinists set of their system was everything acThe key-note evils. evicording to nature. Some of its fundamental ideas,
The
are thus set forth dently drawn from Rousseau's work,
257
by Basedow
children far
" You should attend to nature in your
more than to art. The elegant manners and usages of the world are, for the most part, contrary These come of themselves in later years. to nature. Treat children like children, that they may remain the boy, whose acutest faculties are longer uncorrupted. his senses, and who has no perception of anything abstract, must first of all be made acquainted with the world as it presents itself to the senses. Let this be shown him in Nature itself, or, where this is impossible, in faithful drawings and models. He can thus, even in learn how the various objects are named. Coplay, menius alone has pointed out the right road in this matter. By all means reduce the wretched exercises of the
memory."
Basedow, as the founder of the Philanthropin, is worthy of some consideration. He was born at Hamburg, in 1723. His youth was somewhat irregular. He studied theology at Leipsic, but his skeptical views prevented his ordination to the ministry. He turned to teaching. Having advocated educational reform in a work published in 1771, from which the extract above is taken, he was received under the patronage of the Prince of Dessau, and placed in charge of a school in which he was to exemplify his theories. His purpose is announced in the following appeal made in 1776, two
" Send years after the founding of the Philanthropin. your children," he says, "to a happy youthful life in successful studies. This affair is not Catholic, Lutheran,
.
"We are philanthro. . or Reformed, but Christian. The sovereignty of Russia or pists, or cosmopolites. Denmark is not, in our teaching and judgment, placed
258

.
TIME.
The end of edufreedom of Switzerland. cation must be to form the European, whose life may be as harmless, useful, and contented as education can make it. It must, therefore, be provided (1) that little vexaand disease await him, and (2) that he accustion,
after the
. .
pain,
tom himself to the careful enjoyment of the good. The art of all arts is virtue and contentment. But few
.
.
exercises for the virtues, as they should
education, have yet been invented. plan for the methodical exphilanthropic authors ercise of the virtues in families and schools is one of
!
be employed in Hear, ye wise and
the few weighty books to benefit
mankind. If we were rich, we would offer a prize of ten thousand dollars for the best book of this kind appearing within two
all
years.
" For the each pupil, the clergy paternal religion of of the place will provide ; but natural religion and moof philosophy, rality is the chief part to ourselves.
which we
will see
In the Philanthropin faith in God as the the universe is first inCreator, Preserver, and Lord of Little memorizing is done with us. The culcated. not even by reproof. pupils are not forced to study, Yet we promise, by the excellence of our method and and its agreement with the philanthropinistic education mode of life, to make double the progress in study that And especially do is common in schools and
.
gymnasia.
culture of sound reason through the use of a truly philosophical mode of thinking." taken from an account of a The
we promise much
visit to
following extract, the Philanthropin, will give us some idea of the methods pursued. The punovelty and freedom of the dressed ; their hair was cut short ; their were
pils
plainly
259
throats were quite open, the shirt-collar falling back over the coat. " The little ones," says the writer of the account in question, " have gone through the oddest per-
They play at word-of-command.' Eight or ten stand in a line like soldiers, and Herr Wolke * is
formances.
officer.
<
He
gives the
says.
whatsoever he
4
word in Latin, and they must do For instance, when he says, ' Clau-
dite oculos? they all shut their eyes;
when he
says,
' Imitamini CircumspiciteJ they look about them ; * all sew like tailors ; Imitamini sutosartorem? they remj they draw the waxed thread like the cobblers.
Herr Wolke gives a thousand

drollest fashion.
different
commands
in the
" Another
'
game,
the hiding-game,' I will teach you.
Some one writes a name and hides it from the children the name of some part of the body, or of a plant, or
and the children guess what it is. Whoever guesses right gets an apple or a piece of cake. One of the visitors wrote intestina, and told the children it was a part of the body. Then the guessing began.
animal, or metal
One guessed
caput, another nasus, another
os,
another
manus, pes, digiti, pectus, and so forth, for a long time ; but one of them hit it at last. Next Herr "Wolke wrote Then came the the name of a beast, a quadruped. guesses leo, ursus, camelus, elepkas, and so on, till one guessed right it was mus. Then a town was written, and they guessed Lisbon, Madrid, Paris, London, till a
;
child
won with
St.
Petersburg.
"They had another game, which was this: Herr Wolke gave the command in Latin, and they imitated the noises of different animals, and made us laugh till
* One of Basedow's
assistants.
260
TIME.
like
we were tired. They roared like lions, crowed cocks, mewed like cats, just as they were bid."
it
The Philanthropin acquired a wide reputation, and visited by persons interested in education from various parts of Europe. The impression generally made was favorable, yet the results somehow did not answer
was
to Basedow's confident manifesto.
It
seems that he
himself was poorly adapted to carry on such an instituHis methods, well suited to young children, were tion.
more advanced and more prolonged into the period when work should have been done. His teaching systematic
did not keep pace with the development of his pupils, and hence failed to fulfill the promise it had made in
the beginning.
rally
Philanthropin, which had natuwas closed before the end of the many opponents,
The
tions to survive
several similar institucentury, yet not without leaving which it continued to exert it,
through
a salutary influence upon education.
Kant,
who had
at first predicted great results

;
from
the Philanthropin, was sadly disappointed and in his " " Padagogik he refers to it in an interesting passage. "One fancies indeed," he says, "that experiments in education would not be necessary, and that we might would judge by the understanding whether any plan or ill. But this is a great mistake. Exturn out well
in our experiments perience shows that often
quite opposite results
we
get
from what we had
anticipated.
We see, too, that,
since experiments are necessary, it is of one generation to form a complete not in the power school which, plan of education. The only experimental made a beginning in clearing the road to some extent,
was the
Institute at Dessau.
This praise at least must
61
be allowed it, notwithstanding the many faults which could be brought up against it faults which are sure to
show themselves when we come to the results of our experiments, and which merely prove that fresh experiments are necessary. It was the only school in which the teachers had liberty to work according to their own methods and schemes, and where they were in free communication both among themselves and with
all
learned
men
throughout Germany."
(C.)
THE HUMANISTS.
It is
now time
to consider the humanistic
movement
of the eighteenth century, which made the study of classical antiquity the basis of all culture. It was a reaction in part against the ecclesiasticism which fostered the ancient languages only for the sake of theology, and in part against the realistic school represented by Co-
menius, Rousseau, and especially the philanthropiniste. The distinguishing characteristic of the humanists is
the prominence which they give to Latin and Greek. These languages are made the basis of education ; and
the attempt is made to justify this prominence by their value as a means of culture, and also as studies of practical utility. It is maintained that the study of the ancient languages is unequaled in disciplinary worth, and that the literatures of Greece and Rome contain incom-
parable models of style.
Hence, the study of Latin and
Greek gives strength

the
taste.
to the faculties and cultivation to
and Greek possesses great

it
It is further claimed that the study of Latin practical worth, inasmuch as
furnishes a valuable acquaintance with English etymology and general grammar, leads to a vast storehouse
262
TIME.
and gives a better understanding of the which has its roots in the past. The humanists present,
of knowledge,
are unsympathetic with the present ; they depreciate the of modern times, and science, literature, and culture
civilization any superiority scarcely allow to Christian over that of paganism in literary productions. The fundamental principles of the humanists have
been given by Karl Schmidt

are the foundation of
all
;
"
:
1.
The
true culture
ancient languages a knowledge of ;

lie
them makes the
scholar
hence they must
at the
basis of all instruction, especially in the higher educaIn itself considered, the study of language is a tion.
means of mental culture, and hence has disciplinary But it is also related to all departments of huvalue. man learning. Greek and Latin writings are the sources of all learning, and whoever would go to the fountainhead must be acquainted with these languages. The of religion, Roman jurisprudence, original documents
the correct principles of medicine, philosophy, the prinall of rhetoric and poetry, history ciples and examples
have come to us from Greece and Rome. ... 2. The that of philosophy, hisstudy of grammar must precede
tory, aesthetics.
in teaching knowledge of not suit with the ancient the modern languages does dead language is well spoken only by a languages. few. This ability is far from being possessed by all too early pursuit of the good philologians. ... 3. natural sciences is unfavorable to a thorough acquisition of languages, for the time given to the latter must be brief and dependent adequate studies in them being deferred to riper years. The languages belong to the
Grammar is necessary to The method used language.
a thorough
263
4. It is a mis. schools, the sciences to the universities. take to suppose that the study of the ancient
languages
hurtful to practical knowledge. The broadest scholars have the greatest respect for the ancients. It is not easy
is
to
who
name, in any nation, a distinguished author or scholar is not indebted to the Greeks and Romans for his
The too early pursuit of all possuperior attainments. sible sciences at school results in shallow minds that are
thorough in nothing.
There
is
no thorough,
scientific
culture apart from the study of language." The contrast between humanism and philanthropin-
ism has been sharply drawn by Niethammer, a prominent humanist of the latter part of the eighteenth century 1. Humanism aims at general culture philanthropinism,
: ;
at utility.
2.
;
Humanism seeks to exercise and

fill it
strengthen
the
mind
3.
philanthropinism, to
with useful knowl;
Humanism demands but few subjects of study 4. Humanism exercises the philanthropinism, many.
edge.
mind with ideas philanthropinism, with things. 5. Humanism deals with the true, the beautiful, and the good,
;
the elements of
matter.
6.
human Humanism
;
culture
philanthropinism, with
sical antiquity
finds its subjects of study in clasphilanthropinism, in the present. 7. Hu-
manism regards
8.
learning as a serious employment

it,
phi-
lanthropinism makes
as far as possible,
an amusement.
leads to thoroughness in a philanthropinism, to superficiality in many.
Humanism
few things;
9.
Human;
ism cultivates the memory, the repository of knowledge

philanthropinism neglects
it.
leading representatives of the humanistic tendwere Gesner, Heyne, ency Ernesti, and Wolf. They pursued the study of the anin the eighteenth century
The
264
FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.
cient classics with great enthusiasm and success, and succeeded in giving Greek a place by the side of Latin
in the higher education.
They
raised
Germany
to the
leadership in classical learning a position it has held The college curriculum of England and ever since.
America has been largely influenced by the humanists.

Their influence. has been in the ascendant for a century, and it is only within the past few years that a strong
reaction has set in and forced a partial readjustment of the college course. The fundamental principles of hu-
manism have been brought

to both scientific
and
into question, and subjected practical tests. Many of them are
found to be in part or wholly fallacious. Our knowledge of the ancient world is not dependent upon an acquaintance with Latin and Greek. It is best obtained in the exhaustive labors of great historians who have
embodied the results of their investigations in our own and other modern tongues. The treasures of ancient the immortal works of Yirgil and Homer, of literature Cicero and Demosthenes, of Horace and ^schylus are accessible in scholarly translations, which we can read with the same satisfaction we enjoy in perusing the
records of Moses, the songs of David, or the arguments of Paul. And the knowledge thus gained of ancient authors is far
students,
more satisfactory than that obtained by college-
inconsiderable fragments with grammar and dictionary. While there may be question as to the comparative excellence of style in ancient and modern writing, it is a fact beyond reasonable doubt
that the vast extension of the field of
who struggle through
knowledge in
the development of science, the marvels of invention, the truths of Christianity has made the
modern times

literature of the past
265
years greatly current of
two hundred and
fifty
more valuable than
that of antiquity.
The
thought, like a river, grows broader and deeper as it In view of the fact that flows farther from its source.
the ancient languages are not the parents of German and English, but rather elder children of the same Aryan
family,
coming to be recognized that Latin and no monopoly of general grammar, and that Greek have
it
is
the principles underlying the structure of language can be readily learned from the modern tongues. As the modern languages are not necessarily subject to the
abuse of illegitimate helps, and as they call into active exercise every faculty of the student's mind in the threefold
work
not appear to be at
of translating, speaking, and hearing, they do all inferior to the ancient languages
as disciplinary studies. It is now felt, too, that the
modern world,
in
which
we
are to play our parts, should not be ignored in our courses of instruction. Considered in its external relais to prepare us for useful Great nations are moving upon the stage of the living. nineteenth century; investigators are at work in all
tions,
the end of education
Christian lands
international relations are

;
becoming
the whole earth, bound together by and commercial interests, daily challenges our telegraphs thought. In view of these facts, many hold that it is not
closer each year
wise to require a young man to spend his best years in Greece and Rome as a preparation for intelligent living in
the nineteenth century the grandest that the world has It leaves too large a gap between the seen. college and
Hence Latin and Greek, notwithstanding the stubborn resistance of the humanists, are being gradupractical life.
266
TIME.
from their former prominence to make way and the for the mother -tongue, the natural sciences, modern languages.
ally retired
7.
EDUCATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

at the
opening of the nineteenth century, all which has gathered within its embrace the fruits of of the past, the labors, struggles, and sufferings has not only been widened, but it field of
We stand
knowledge
has been brought within the reach of the masses. Mighty to forces of Nature have been brought into subjection servants in the the will of man, and are made obedient
sown in cause of progress. The seeds of human liberty, have sprung up blood at the close of the last century, The gospel has been dissemiinto a beautiful harvest.
The sentinated throughout nearly the whole world. and a serious ment of humanity has been awakened,
awakens a general and calamity in any quarter instantly
Eeason is asserting its rights in sofruitful sympathy. in science and art, while the law of love ciety and state, in all the relations of life. is more and more
prevailing
(A.)
PESTALOZZI.
At the threshold of this century stands an who commands both our admiration and love.
educator
In the Reformareformers since the long line of educational so much for there is perhaps no other that has done tion
The devotion of his life, as well as popular education. been a power the truth of his pedagogic principles, has .for in the educational world. He was not distinguished
267
learning or ability; his were the higher talents of a noble enthusiasm for the elevation of our race, and an
inexhaustible love for man.
Following the example of our divine Master, he gave himself for the good of His labors and self-sacrifices were not in vain. others. Through the noble devotion of his endeavors, he became
the
medium through which
all
that was best in educa-
tional theory up to his time obtained nition. This great educator was John
permanent recog-
Henry Pestalozzi.
The
labors of previous educational reformers were
not altogether fruitless. Here and there might be discerned improvement in the schools. Some enlightened
rulers directed their attention to the subject of popular education ; and, as early as 1717, Frederick "William I.
of Prussia published an edict of compulsory education. But, in general, it may be said that the primary schools
dition.
of the eighteenth century remained in a wretched conThe teachers were unsuccessful students, dis-
abled workmen, discharged soldiers, and common servants. They were held in light esteem, and received but
little pay. Schools were by no means general, and those that were opened were not regularly attended. The common people were lacking in educational interest,
and looked upon the schools
as a burden.
While the
clergy generally regarded themselves as the legitimate custodians of education, they paid no adequate attention
to its interests.
Many
princes, believing that general

difficulty of ruling,
intelligence
would increase the

to
were
vast
unfavorable to the education of the masses.
work yet remained

Pestalozzi,
be accomplished.
to contribute so largely to this
who was
work, was bora January 12, 1746, in the beautiful town
268
TIME.
of Zurich.
At
six years of age
he
lost
Ms
father.
His
mother was an excellent woman, but her tenderness was

characunfavorable to the development of strength of " the side of the best of "I grew up," he says, by ter. Year after year I never mothers, as a mother's child. the stove. In short, all means came out from behind
and stimulus for the development of manly strength, of thinking, and manly manly experience, manly ways to me just in proportion as I were wanting practice, the peculiarity and weakness of my inneeded them
by
dividual character."
the did not distinguish himself at school; on fun for his companions. the butt of contrary, he became " I was the most awkward and " In all he
He
games,"
says,
most helpless of
to excel in
them
occasion to laugh nickname of Harry Queer, of Follyville.
schoolmates, and yet I wished above the rest. That often gave them One of them gave me the at me.
all
my
Most of them
were pleased with my good temper and serviceableness, of skill, and but they knew my one-sidedness and want did not interest in everything which
my thoughtlessness
me
much." His feelings were very strong. This fact, which was and of strength, at the same time a source of weakness When he was is illustrated by the following anecdote and his family were distress, in
:
once great pecuniary without the necessaries of

a friend
life,
he went to the house of
and borrowed a sum of money. On his way the home he fell in with a peasant, who was lamenting as usual by his feelings, Carried away loss of a cow. the man all the money he had borrowed, Pestalozzi
gave and ran away to escape
his thanks."
269
He was thoroughly injudicious. This fact was understood by an intimate friend named Bluntschli, who upon his death-bed gave Pestalozzi, then a young man,
you
"I die," he said; "and, when are left to yourself, I warn you never to embark in any career which, from your good-natured and conthe following advice:
fiding disposition, might become dangerous to you. Seek for a quiet, tranquil career ; and, unless you have
at
your side a
man who
will faithfully assist
you with
a calm, dispassionate knowledge of men and things, by no means embark in any extensive undertaking, the failure of wliich would in any way be perilous to
you."
Pestalozzi
first
in his first sermon, he gave

this pursuit
studied theology, but, breaking down up the ministry for law. To
he did not long remain constant. In 1 767 he purchased a farm of about one hundred acres, to which he gave the name Neuhof, and turned his attenAs might be expected from what tion to agriculture. we already know of his character, the enterprise was a failure. At an earlier period he had perused Rousseau's " mile," which made a profound impression upon him. Unmindful of his own financial embarrassment, moved by sympathy for the suffering ones around him, he opened an industrial school for the poor. He soon had fifty children under his charge to provide for. His plan was to combine study with remunerative labor. But after five years the school was closed, in 1780, leaving
Pestalozzi heavily involved in debt, but greatly enriched in educational experience. This was his consolation : " The Christian in the strength of faith and love," he
says,
" considers his property not as a gift but as a trust,
270

to his hand, that
TIME.
which has been committed

it
he may use
for the
good of others."
years were devoted chiefly to authormeans of obtaining subsistence. He produced several works in which he advanced his educational ideas, and through which he has exerted a lasting influence upon education. But we follow him in his work as a practical educator. In 1T98 Stanz, a town on Lake was burned by the French. The whole surLucerne, rounding district was laid waste, and a number of orphans were left destitute and homeless. Upon the recommendation of the Swiss directors, Pestalozzi went thither to look after them. "With only one servant he established himself in an unfinished convent, and soon had eighty children under his care. They composed a heterogeneous mass that would have been appalling to
ship as a
The next few
any one with
less
enthusiasm than Pestalozzi.
He
ad-
dressed himself with almost superhuman zeal to the " their condition. work of
he
says,
Every assistance," improving "everything done for them in their need, all
the teaching that they received, came directly from
me
my
I
hand lay on eye rested on their eye. and smile accompanied tears flowed with theirs, was mine, and their drink was mine. theirs. Their food
their hand,
my
My
my
had nothing, no housekeeping, no friends, no servants I had them alone. I slept in their midst I was the last to go to bed at night, and the first to rise in the mornI prayed with them, and taught them in bed being. This is an unselfish devotion fore they went to sleep." that makes us forget many defects of character. " was " His school-room," says a biographer, totally unprovided with books, and his apparatus consisted of
; ;
271
himself and his pupils. He was forced to adapt these means to the accomplishment of his end. He directed
whole attention to those natural elements which are found in the mind of every child. He taught numbers instead of figures living sounds instead of dead characters deeds of faith and love instead of abstruse creeds substance instead of shadow realities instead of signs." In the space of a few months Pestalozzi wrought a great change in the physical, mental, and moral condition of his pupils. They no longer seemed the same beings. The high hopes of the noble enthusiast, however, were again doomed to disappointment. In less than a year the French army returned to Stanz, and unceremoniously took possession of the convent. No choice was left PesHe was obliged to relinquish his labors, and talozzi. from his children with tears and sobs. "Imparted " with what sensations I agine," he writes to a friend,
his
;
;
feel a shipwrecked mariner, and restless nights, and draws weary the breath of coming life, but is again thrown into the immensity of space. This was my own condition. Think
left
Stanz.
Thus might
who
sees land after
of the fullness of
my
heart, the greatness of
my
success and
my ruin, the
trembling of
my plans, my disordered
him
nerves, and my mute agony." In the course of a few weeks he entered a school at
Burgdorf
as assistant teacher.
He
carried with
his
old enthusiasm and his old disregard for stereotyped methods. Ramsauer, then a pupil in the school and
afterward a faithful assistant of Pestalozzi's, has given "I us an account of the Burgdorf school. He says got
:
about as
regular schooling as the other scholars in fact, was none at all ; but Pestalozzi's sacred which,
much
272
TIME.
devoted love, which caused him to be entirely unmindful of himself, his serious and depressed state of mind, which struck even the children, made the deepest and grateful impression on me, and knit my child-like he was the subject of heart to his forever." Though envy and intrigue, Pestalozzi's labors at Burgdorf were not left wholly without recognition. The school comzeal, his
mittee of that town expressed themselves in a report as " He has shown what follows powers are hidden in the feeble child, and in what manner they can be developed. have made astonishing progress in some The
:
pupils branches, thereby proving that every child is capable of doing something, if the teacher is able to draw out his
talent,
and awaken the powers of his mind in the order
of their natural development." In 1805 he opened a school at Tverdun.

attained his greatest triumphs.
reputation, and kings
Here he
He achieved a European
and philosophers united in show-
a place of pilgrimage educators from all parts of Eufor philanthropists and In 1809 Pestalozzi had under him fifteen teachrope.
ing
him
regard.
Yverdun became
and one hundred and sixty -five pupils, besides thirtyfive adult students, who were there to learn his methods. The spirit animating the institution has thus been. dean eye-witness: "The teachers and pupils scribed
ers
by
were united by that unaffected love which Pestalozzi, who in years was a man verging on the grave, but in heart and mind a genuine child, seemed to breathe out within his influcontinually and impart to all who came had another home, ence. The children forgot that they and the teachers that there was any other world than the institution. Not a man claimed a privilege for him-

self,
273
not one wished to be considered above others. Teachers and pupils were entirely united. They not
only slept in the same rooms, and shared the labors and enjoyments of the day, but they were on a footing of The same man who read a lecture on perfect equality.
history one hour would, perhaps, during the next sit on the same form with the pupils for a lesson in arithmetic
or geometry, and without compromising his dignity would even request their assistance and receive their
hints."
In reference to his work here, Pestalozzi himself

writes
"
:
The
difficulties that
the beginning were very great.
opposed my enterprise in Public opinion was
work wholly against me. Thousands looked upon as quackery, and nearly all who believed themselves competent judges declared it worthless. Some con-
my
demned it as silly mechanism some looked upon it as mere memorizing, while others contended that it neg;
lected the
memory
some accused me of a want of

revolutionizing intentions.
for the sake of the understanding ; religion, and others of
But, thank God, all these have been overcome. The children of our objections institution are full of joy and happiness ; their innocence
guarded their religious feelings are fostered their minds are cultivated their knowledge increased their hearts inspired with a love of virtue. The whole is pervaded by the great spirit of home-union a pure fatherly and brotherly spirit rules all. The children feel free
is
;
;
their activity
and
by their occupations ; affection confidence elevate and guide their hearts."

is
incited
his touching simplicity
In the midst of his success, Pestalozzi still retained and self-forgetf illness. On one
274:

"a poor young
TIME.
occasion
man had
distance to
pay
his tribute of respect
traveled on foot a long and admiration to
arriving at Yverdun, he found that he could not pay for a night's himself so reduced at the hotel. Pestalozzi, not wishing to disturb
Pestalozzi; but,
upon
lodging the household, offered his
own bed
Some
friends, calling at his
room soon
to the wearied guest. after, were aston-
ished to see his bed occupied by a stranger. Alarmed in search of him, and found by his absence they went him at last stretched on one of the hard benches of the and totally unconscious that school-room in sound
sleep,
he had done anything but his duty."
At Yverdun Pestalozzi lost, in 1815, the noble wife who had stood faithfully by his side through the labors and trials of nearly fifty years. At the burial, Pestalozzi,
turning to the
coffin, said
with great tenderness

all
;
"
We were
shunned and despised by
sickness
and
and we poverty bowed us down,

tears.
gave " hope ?

parted,
What was it you and me strength

:
ate dry bread with that in those days of severe trial
to persevere and not lose Then laying a Bible on the breast of the de" From this source he continued you and I
drew courage and strength and peace." The sun of Pestalozzi's life, which had shone brightly for a little while in the afternoon, was to set in clouds.
Discord broke out at length among the teachers at Yverdun. After disturbing the peace and prosperity of the
its susschool for a long time, it led at last, in 1825, to returned to Neuhof, where he was pension. Pestalozzi He died February 17, 1827. a fever. prostrated with "I forgive my enemies ; During his last hours he said to my rest. I should I may they find peace, now that go
:
275
have been glad to live another month, in order to complete my last work but I also thank God for calling me away from this life. My beloved family, remain attached to one another, and seek your happiness in the
;
Subject to disaphis life was still a great triumph. pointment days, It was spent in unselfish devotion to the good of others ; and, like that of the blessed Master who went about
all his
quietness of your domestic circle."
doing good,
The
has borne a rich fruitage for the world. object of our study thus far has been chiefly to
it
brief examination of
now turn to a gain a clear knowledge of the man. some of his educational principles, " as embodied in his leading works, viz. Evening Hour of a Hermit," "Leonard and Gertrude," and "How
:
We
Gertrude teaches her Children."

rent humanistic
He
rejected the cur-
word - teaching. "A man," he says, " who has word-wisdom is less susceptible to the only truth than a savage. The use of mere words produces
men who
but
believe that they have reached the goal, because their whole life has been spent in talking about it,
who never ran toward it, because no motive impelled them to make the effort hence, I come to the convic;
tion that the fundamental error
the blind use of words

it
in matters of instruction
is
possible to resuscitate
must be extirpated before life and truth."

lies at
The
educational conception that
the basis of
Pestalozzi's system is that of a natural, progressive, and symmetrical development of all the powers and facul-
This is the completcst and being. " Sound education," grandest conception of education. " stands before me symbolized by a tree says Pestalozzi,
ties of
the
human
planted near fertilizing waters.
little
seed,
which
276
TIME.
is
contains the design of the tree, its form and proportions, placed in the soil. See how it germinates and ex-
pands into trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit! The whole tree is an uninterrupted chain of organic parts, the plan of which existed in its seed and root. Man is similar to the tree. In the new-born child are
hidden those faculties which are to unfold during life. The individual and separate organs of his being form themselves gradually into an harmonic whole, and build
up humanity in the image of God."

Pestalozzi beautifully emphasizes in reference to the higher exercises of the mind the principle of Comenius
that "things to be done should be learned by doing them." " The moral, intellectual, and executive powers of man," he says, "jnust be nurtured within himself,
and not from

cultivated
artificial substitutes.
Thus, faith must be
by our
;
own
by
;
about faith
love,
act of believing, not by reasoning our own act of loving, not by fine
thought, by our own act of thinking, not by merely appropriating the thoughts of other men and knowledge, by our own investigation, not by endless
words about love
talk about the results of art
A
"Men,
natural order
is
to
and science." be observed in education.
faculties of
fathers!" Pestalozzi exclaims, "force not the your children into paths too distant before
they have attained strength by exercise, and avoid harsh"When this right order of proness and over-fatigue.
ceedings
is
weakened and
anticipated, the faculties of the mind are lose their steadiness, and the equipoise of
their structure.
This you do when, before making them
sensitive to truth
actual objects,
and wisdom by the real knowledge of you engage them in the thousand-fold

;
277
confusions of word-learning and opinions and lay the foundation of their mental character and of the first determination of their powers, instead of truth and actual
objects,
with sounds and speech
and words."
The fundamental
which
his writings, have tially as follows :
principles of Pestalozzi, most of are contained in the extracts already given from
been summarized by Payne substanof education are to be sought in

organic, consisting of pnysical, incapabilities,
1. The principles human nature. 2.
This nature
is
tellectual,
and moral
ready and struggling
to develop themselves.
is both negative and must remove impediments to the learner's positive. development, and he must also stimulate the exercise of
3.
The
function of the educator
He
his powers.
Self-development begins with sensations received through the senses. These sensations lead to percep4.
tions which, registered in the mind as conceptions or ideas, constitute the basis of knowledge. " are the and
5.
Spontaneity
self-activity
necessary
conditions under which the
mind
educates
itself,
and
gains power and independence." 6. Practical aptness depends more on exercise than on knowledge. "Knowing and doing must, howevor. is the proceed together. The chief aim of education
development of the learner's powers." 7. All education must be based on the learner's own
observation
on
his
all
own
personal experience.
" This
is
the true basis of opposite proceedknowledge. ing leads to empty, hollow, delusive word-knowledge.
The
278
FROM THE REFORMATION TO TDE PRESENT

;
TIME.
First the reality, then the symbol
first
the thing, then
the word."
8.
What
the learner has gained by his
own
observa-
tion has
actual possession or describe in his own words. plain this is the measure of the accuracy
become an
which he can exHis ability to do and extent of his
knowledge.
9. The learner's growth necessitates advancement from the near and actual to the more remote hence, from the concrete to the abstract, from particulars to generals, from the known to the unknown. With this summary of principles, which are gradually permeating and changing modern education, we
;
whom, notwithstanding his imperfeccan not help loving. And this is the highest tions, tribute which one being, whether human or divine, can
leave Pestalozzi,
we
pay another.
(B.)
FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN.
One of the most illustrious disciples of Pestalozzi was Frederick Froebel, who was born in Thuringia, in 1782. He was the son of a Lutheran clergyman, who was so occupied in caring for a large parish that he neglected his son. Having early lost his mother, he was -intrusted to the care of a maid-servant,
little
who
exercised as
oversight as possible.
The
step-mother, that
into the house in
estranged from
grief.
his fourth year, him, and filled his
came became gradually young heart with
In due time he entered the village school to receive

his rudimentary education.
The
religious instruction
he
here received made a deep impression.
The
older
279
pupils were required to repeat to the younger ones some text of Scripture occurring in the sermon on Sunday.
Monday ; the passage for the " Seek "I first the kingdom of God." was, ye " heard these words," he says, repeated every day in a quiet, earnest, somewhat sing-song, childish tone, now
week
by
one, sion on
Froebel entered school on
now by
the whole.
The
verse
made an
impres-
like nothing before or since. Indeed, this impression was so lively and deep, that to-day every word lives freshly in memory with the peculiar ac-
me
my
cent with which
and yet since that time ; have elapsed. Perhaps the simple nearly forty years child's soul felt in these words the source and salvation
it
was spoken
Indeed, that conviction became to the struggling, striving man a source of inexhaustible courage, of
of his
life.
always unimpaired joy, and willingness in self-consecration. Enough to say, my entrance into this school was
for
me
the birth to a higher spiritual life."
Froebel's local surroundings tended to bring him The woods possessed a into sympathy with Nature.
charm for him

to loiter
and in hours of
leisure
he loved to
steal
away by babbling brooks, to gather flowers, to listen to the songs of birds, to watch the movements of
animals, and to catch the sighing of winds through the
trees.
His
view
father's house
was
closely
hemmed
says,
in
other buildings.
distant
;
"I was thus deprived," he
by "of a
me I saw the clear sky of the and felt around me the pure fresh air. mountain-region, The impression which this clear sky and this pure air made upon me has continuously remained present with me. My observation was truly directed on what was near me in Nature ; the plant and flower world became,
only above
280
TIME.
and touch it, an object of my conand thought." templation At ten years of age he went to live with an uncle, whose home was pervaded with a spirit of kindness and
so far as I could see
benevolence.
To a boy of warm, generous nature, who had been accustomed only to austerity under the parental roof, this was peculiarly grateful. He developed bodily more prostrength his sympathy with Nature became found and intelligent, and the warmth of his religious He entered the life amounted at times to enthusiasm. town school of Stadt-Ilm, where his uncle lived. The teacher, "a regular driller of the old, time -honored
;
the inner nastamp, had not the slightest conception of " and seems to have taken ture of his Payne,
pupil," says
no pains whatever to discover it. He pronounced the was quite boy to be idle (which, from his point of view, and lazy (which certainly was not true) a boy, in true) with. And, in fact, the short, you could do nothing
teacher did nothing with his pupil, never once touched the chords of his inner being, or brought out the music
to produce. they were fitted, under different handling, Froebel was indeed, at that time, a thoughtful, dreamy
hatvery indifferent student of books, cordially formal lessons with which he was crammed, and ing the never so happy as when left alone with his great teacher
child, a
in the woods."
the age of fifteen he became a forester's apprenThis man, though possessed of extensive knowltice. his protege the promised inedge, was too busy to give Thrown upon his own resources, Froebel did struction.
At
the best he could with the forester's books in teaching From a physician in a neighboring town he himself.
281
borrowed botanical books, by means of which he enlarged his acquaintance with the vegetable kingdom. " I used the long time of the forester's absence," he says, " which I was left entirely to myself, for drawduring ing a kind of map of the district in which I lived; botany, however, busied me chiefly. My church religion changed into a religious life in Nature, and in the last half-year I lived entirely in and with plants, which attracted
me wonderfully, without, however, the meaning of the inner life of the plant-world yet dawning on me. The collecting and drying of plants I carried on with
This time, in manifold ways, was de-
the greatest zeal.
voted to
tion."
my
self-education, self information,
and
eleva-
In 1799 Froebel entered the University of Jena, where he attended lectures on mathematics, botany, natural history, physics, chemistry, the science of finance, " " In forest matters, and architecture. botany," he says, I
had a
sensible, loving,
and benevolent teacher.
Through
him
and
my insight into Nature was essentially quickened, my love for observing it made more active. I shall
Having always think of this man with gratitude." loaned a part of his means to his brother, Froebel became involved in debt at the university and, being un;
suffered imprisonment for nine weeks, obtaining his freedom in the summer of 1801.
able for a time to
make payment, he
The next several years were spent in various employments without yielding him either much profit or peace He had not yet found the sphere for which of mind. Nature had fitted him. In 1805 we find him in Frankfort with an architect but, failing to see clearly how he
;
282
F R OM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.
could accomplish anything through architecture for the ennobling of man, his position did not give him satisAt length the turning-point in his life came. faction.
One day Gruner, the principal of a model school, just " Give established at Frankfort, said to him : up archiBecome an educator. tecture ; it is not for you.
We
need a teacher in our school. Make up your mind, and you shall have the place." After some hesitation he accepted the position; and the ecstasy he felt, as he stood for the first time in the presence of the school, convinced him that he had found his place. To use his own expression, " The fish was in the water." In 1808 he went to Yverdun, and spent two years with Pestalozzi. He took with him three pupils, of whom he had charge as tutor. " Thus it happened," he " that 1 was there both as teacher and scholar, edusays, In order to be fully and perfectly cator and pupil. placed in the midst and heart of Pestalozzi's work, I
pupils in the building of the "We wished to share in the castle so called. institution, with the rest ; but this wish was not granted everything
wished to reside with
my
Yet I soon came us, for strange selfishness interfered. to dwell as near the institution as possible, so that we
shared dinner, afternoon lunch, and supper, the instrucI tion adapted to us, and the whole life of the pupils. for myself had nothing more serious to do than to allow
my pupils to
take a full share of that
life,
strengthening
With this aim we shared all instrucspirit and body. and it was a special care to me to talk with Pestation, lozzi on every subject from its first point of connection, He thus beto learn to know it from its foundation." came thoroughly acquainted with Pestalozzi's system,
283
which in its essential features he cordially adopted, but which he also supplemented and improved. Afterward feeling the necessity of increasing his
store of knowledge, he studied at the Universities of Gottingen and Berlin. In 1813 he joined the Prussian army, and took an active part in the campaign against
Napoleon.
After the close of the war he established a
school at Keilhau, in which he followed " the principle of cultivating the self-activity of the pupil by connect-
ing manual labor with every study."
But
after a varied
experience, extending through fifteen years, the conviction fixed itself upon him that a change in the earliest
methods of instruction was necessary

cational reform.
to a thorough eduThis brings us to the Kindergarten, upon which the fame of Froebel chiefly rests. Carefully considering the ways of children, Froebel
saw that they delight

senses
struct.
;
in
movement
;
that they use their
that they observe
All this activity he
that they invent and conproposed to turn to account
in the interest of education.
He
said
" I can convert
children's activities, energies, amusements, occupations, all that goes by the name of play, into instruments for
purpose, and therefore transform play into work. This work will be education in the true sense of the term. The conception of it as such I have gained from the children themselves. They have taught me how I
my
am
to teach them."
at a
is a school which receives children and by systematizing their plays, very early age, their ideas, directing their activity, and giving order to their faculties harmoniously, and prepares them develops
The Kindergarten
for the
work of the ordinary
school.
The
object of the
284:
TIME.
Froebel himself, is as folKindergarten, as expressed by " It shall receive children before the usual school lows
:
age, give
them employment
suited to their nature,
strengthen their bodies, the waking mind, make'
exercise their senses,
employ
judiciously with Nature and society, cultivate especially the heart and lead them to the foundation of all livand
them acquainted
temper,
ing
to unity with themselves."
The
the child physical nature of

;
is
developed by
calisthenic exercises
its social instincts
are strengthened
by association with companions work its senses are cultivated by means

;
in amusements and
of playthings,
called gifts, such as balls, cylinders, cones, variously dis-
sected cubes, quadrilateral and triangular tablets, sticks, and mats for weaving ; and its mind is exercised by the imitative or inventive uses it is taught to make of these
objects.
The
thus
effects of
summed up by an English
the Kindergarten training have been " What the lecturer

:
Kindergarten has to show are happy, healthy, goodnatured children; no proficiency in learning of any children in their normal kind, no precocity ; but just
state.
The Kindergarten rejects reading, writing, cipher-
In it children under six build, plait, fold, act ; in short, they learn in play to work, model, sing, to construct, to invent, to relate and speak correctly, and what is best of all to love each other, to be kind
ing, spelling.
to each other, to help each other." It is interesting to look behind a great work to discover the spirit of the author, and it is also important
to
examine the principles upon which
it rests.
Froebel,
like his illustrious master, Pestalozzi,
was animated by a
285
said over his grave, " was not his ambition. Glowing love for mankind, for the people, left him neither rest
profound love for humanity. This gave to his endeavors an exalted character. " The fame of knowledge," it was
nor quiet. After he had offered his life for his native land in the wars of freedom, he turned with the same enthusiasm which surrenders and sacrifices for the high-
aim of cultivating the people and founded the celebrated institution at Keilhau youth, among his native mountains, and talked and planted in the domain of men's hearts. And how many brave men he has educated, who honor his memory and bless
est thought, to the
his
name
"
cational principles.
Froebel accepted the great body of Pestalozzi's eduHe held that education is a harfaculties
;
monious development of the human
that
its
principles are to be found in a study of Nature ; that development depends upon the self-activity of the learner ;
and that observation is the basis of knowledge. In reference to education as a development, he says with vehemence " All that does not grow out of one's inner
:
that is not one's own original feeling and or at least awakens that, oppresses and defaces thought, the individuality of man instead of calling it forth, and
being,
all
Nature becomes thereby a caricature. Shall we never cease to stamp human nature, even in childhood, like coins, to overlay it with foreign images and foreign superscriptions instead of letting it develop itself and grow into form according to the law of life planted in
it
by God the Father,
so that
it
may be
able to bear the
stamp of the Divine, and For hundreds of years we
become an image of God? Germans especially, through
286
TIME.
imitation of foreign nations, have
worn these
fetters,
which do not allow the deepest nature of the people or of individuals to move and unfold freely."
In several points, however, Froebel has supplemented
the principles of Pestalozzi. He recognized the impracfor early childhood ticability of the domestic training which Pestalozzi so warmly advocated. Most mothers
have neither the time nor qualifications to give this the importance of it, Froetraining. And, appreciating bel devised the Kindergarten, which supplies a veritable
want in education.
further placed more emphasis on the productive self-activity of the child than Pestalozzi did. All knowlis utilized at once in some form of productiveness.
He
edge gained In the language of Dr. W. N. Hailman: new intuition is to be used in new forms of "Every
expression, and to be
combined in every possible manner with previous acquisitions, in more and more comand more directly useful productions. plicated, more He keeps the learner ever busy, imitating and inventing with the ever-increasing stock of knowledge and ever
;
the aid of imitations increasing the stock of ideas with and inventions." Froebel was also the first to appreciate fully the value of women as educators. In many respects women
are better fitted for instructing children than men are. a They have greater tenderness, a deeper sympathy, to childish ways, keener perception, greater adaptability and at the same time they are more graceful and win" The destiny of nations," Froebel often repeated, ning. " lies far more in the hands of women the mothers than in the possessors of power, or of those innovators
287
who
for the most part

race, else the
do not understand themselves.

generation can not accomplish as his natural allies in
We must cultivate women, who are the educators of the

human
its
new
task."
He
regarded
women
and to his appeals they have It is chiefly through their agency responded nobly. that his reforms have been promoted in both America
his educational reforms,
and Europe.
Fortunate
is
the cause that enlists the
hearty interest and support of
women
leading ideas in Froebel's educational system have been summed up as follows : " 1. The task of education is to assist natural devel-
The
opment toward its destined end. As the child's development begins with its first breath, so must its education
also.
the beginning gives a bias to the whole afterdevelopment, so the early beginnings of education are
2.
"
As
of most importance.
3. The spiritual and physical development do not on separately in childhood, but the two are closely go bound up with each other. "4. Early education must deal directly with the physical development, and influence the spiritual devel-
"
opment through the

"
5.
exercise of the senses.
of procedure in the exercise of right these organs is indicated by nature in the utterances of the child's instincts, and through these alone can a natural basis of education
The
mode
be found.
of the child, as a being destined
to
The instincts become reasonable,

6.
"
spiritual wants. " 7. The
express not only physical but also Education has to satisfy both.
development of the limbs by means of
288

is
TIME.
movement
claims our
the
first
that takes place,
and therefore
first attention.
" 8. of Physical impressions are at the beginning the only possible medium for awakening the child's life These impressions should, therefore, be regulated soul.
as systematically as is the care of the left to chance."
body, and not be
" Like all self-educated Froebel died June 21, 1852. " he was deficient in a biographer, logical persons," says a flood of ideas clearness, especially in writing, when him ; as a practical teacher, he was wonoverwhelmed
Awkward in appearance, derfully impressive and clear. conventionalities of life, and always indifferent to the filled with one interest, one range of ideas and efforts,
he nevertheless exerted on all genuine educators who came in contact with him, irrespective of creed, station in life, or party, an almost magical influence. Although a devout Christian and religionist, he was entirely una revolutionary thinker in most resectarian
;
although
attempts at practical revolution although a cosmopolitan and lover of mankind, he was an ardent national German; and, although in in speech incoherent and theory he was most uncritical, methods for the develhardly intelligible, his system of
spects,
he kept free from
all
opment of the mind and effective."

(c.)
is
eminently practical, systematic,
CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION.
is
There can be no doubt that education
now
receiv-
at any period in the past, ing far more attention than and that it is rapidly becoming universal. Since the American and the French Kevolution, the masses of the

people in
tance.
all
289
Christian lands have been rising in impor-
Popular intelligence is everywhere reckoned an element of national power and wealth, and the stability of republics is recognized as resting
knowledge and virtue of the people.
upon the The worth of
woman is appreciated now as never before. No longer held in the base subjection of heathen countries, and excluded from the blessings of culture, she now enjoys, in
all
Her sphere
enlightened nations, excellent facilities for education. is growing larger; her education goes be-
yond a narrow
circle of dainty accomplishments ; and with cultivated mind she takes a place of wide influence in society, and stands by her husband as his friend, his
counselor,
and
his equal.
No
ple.
civilized nation
a greater or
Even
its
fails to make provision, to for the instruction of the peoless degree, the unprogressive nations of the Orient are
now
affected
by the Christian education of the West.

strange conservatism,
is
China,
with
rigor against foreign institutions. been established by Christian missionaries, especially of the Catholic Church ; and, besides a workshop at Shang-
relaxing its former Many schools have
and a polytechnic school in the province of Futschien conducted by foreign teachers, a university on the European plan was opened at Peking in 1868 under modimperial patronage. Japan has been thoroughly Since 1872 that country has had in education. ernized
hai,
school system, including primary normal schools, colleges, and univerThese schools, modeled chiefly after those of sities. America, are supplied with modern furniture and appamethods. Both ratus, and are conducted upon scientific
comprehensive
schools, academies,
13
290
TIME.
to the sexes have the same educational advantages up The courses of instruction are substanschool.
normal
tially
in the same as in schools of corresponding grade save that English and other modEurope and America, India ern languages take the place of Lathi and Greek. at the hands of England an educais gradually receiving schools to coltional system extending from elementary Public instruction now forms a universities.
leges and
and a network of schools department of the government, over the whole country. is being extended by degrees
Some
ment,
grants sionary zeal, is chiefly employed, but in the schools, the vernacular and used in daily is schools
institutions are entirely supported by the governmiswhile others, established by local effort or In the elementary in aid. receive
secondary
English
taught
Female education has but made a beginIn 1882 the total number of educational instituning. attended tions of all sorts in British India was 112,218,
intercourse.
by an aggregate
of 2,643,978 pupils, showing an averto every twelve square miles, and ten age of one school thousand of the population. In the pupils to every education by the the total
same year expenditure upon was about $6,440,000. Persia and Egypt, government under Mohammedan rule, have to though languishing some extent imported European educational ideas. But it is in Europe and America that the tendencies toward universal education have manifested themselves
most fully, and accomplished the greatest results. Though as a rule Catholic countries have lagged behind, every
Christian nation
now
provides with tolerable complete-
Greece and Italy have ness for popular instruction. of education adopted in the present century systems
291
more comprehensive and useful than were ever contemplated by Plato and Quintilian. Germany, France, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal all have at present some system of popular education and most of them have adopted the system of compulsory attendance. During the past two decades England has shown great interest in popular education, and granted
;
spection,
will
annually, in connection with a system of thorough inever-increasing subsidies to public schools. The educational systems of several of these countries
be considered more in
detail.
(D.)
GERMANY.
In no country has education received more attention,

or produced, upon the whole, better results, than in Germany. Though in subjection to the social conditions
belonging to a monarchical form of government, the German system embodies many points of excellence. In
the science and history of education, the Germans are in the lead. The principles of Pestalozzi, which found
able advocates in all parts of
Germany, have permeated
the primary schools, and given a great impulse to the professional training of teachers. Teaching is recognized as a profession ; and no one, who has not received
special training and passed a satisfactory examination, is allowed to teach in either public or private schools. As
a result of this rigorous system, Germany has a body of teachers admirably qualified for their work. The existing interest in primary education in Gerdates from the opening of the present century. Humiliated by the wars of Napoleon, Germany felt the necessity of developing greater internal strength. Fred-
many
292
erick
FROM TnE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT

William
TIME.
to the
tory,
German people
III. addressed the following wise words " have indeed lost in terri:
We
and
fallen in external
must
dor
;
see to it that
we
and hence it is attention be given to the instruction of the people." He was nobly seconded by able ministers, and the present educational system, in its essential features, was devised.
power and splendor, but we in internal power and splengain my earnest desire that the greatest
Education
is
an interest wholly in the hands of the

educational general supervision of
government.
The
by
affairs is intrusted to a Minister of Public Instruction,
school boards in the several provinces, the state. The course of study, regencies, and districts of the methods of instruction, the exthe text-books used, of teachers, the supervision amination and
who
is
assisted
appointment
every thing is directly or indirectly The schoolthe control of the general government. were constructed for other buildings, many of which are generally massive purposes during the last century, Defective in ventilation structures of stone or brick. and light, and furnished only with plain and often uncomfortable desks, these buildings are not models of The schools are well supplied with school-architecture.
of the schools
under
maps,
charts, globes,
and other apparatus, which the
teacher employs judiciously in giving instruction. The educational system of Germany embraces, under various names, three grades of schools, all of which have
received a high degree of development.

schools
(
The primary
within reach Volksschulen}, which are brought instruction in religion of the whole population, give arith(catechism and Bible history), reading, writing,
293
metic, geography, natural history, singing, and gymnastics. The instruction, which is imparted in accord-
ance with recent
scientific methods, is very thorough. All children are required to enter school at seven years of age, and to continue their attendance till fourteen, at
which time they

the state Church.
are usually confirmed as members of Through the successful enforcement
of the compulsory system, the percentage of illiteracy is lower in Germany than in any other country of Europe. In 18 72 the number of illiterates in the army was 4.6 per cent, and in the navy 2.3 per cent, while the corresponding numbers in France were 23 and 14 per cent.
In Saxony, Thuringia, Baden, and some other portions of Germany, the illiterates among the recruits do not amount to one per cent and out of six thousand recruits in Wiirtemberg there was only one that could not
;
read.
Primary instruction
is
much
better
among
the
Protestants than
among
the Catholics.
is
Secondary instruction
the
real-schools.
given in the gymnasia and

great
The gymnasia, which give
and Greek, are designed to prestudents for the university and the professions. pare The real-schools, which attach importance to the motherand modern lantongue, mathematics, natural sciences,
prominence
to Latin
students for the ordinary busiguages, aim to fit their As the gymnasia are humanistic life. ness callings of and the real-schools practical, they have been the occasion of a
warm
conflict
tendencies.
The
conflict is still
between educators of these two going on but mean;
of the age, while, in accordance with the practical spirit have been constantly increasing in numthe real-schools
ber and popularity.
The
studies in these
two
classes of
294:
TIME.
schools vary somewhat in different parts of Germany ; but the courses pursued at present in the Prussian gymnasia and real-schools are fairly representative
:
PRUSSIAN GYMNASIUM.
STUDIES.
295
the real-schools extends through nine years Pupils enter at nine years of age, and complete the course at
eighteen or nineteen ; but many give up their studies at fourteen. As a rule, they do not room or board in
when coming from a disunder the care of some trustworthy resident of the town or city, who watches over their studies and conduct out of school hours. The secondary schools charge a tuition fee, which varies
the school-buildings;
and,
tance, they are placed
from about
ing to
class.
five dollars to twenty-seven dollars, accord-
The normal
stitutions.
schools of
Germany
are excellent.
The
higher education of
woman
Though
to private inthe courses of study vary consideris left chiefly
ably, the following curriculum of the Koyal Augusta School for young ladies in Berlin will serve to indicate
The prominence the general range of instruction. given to the mother-tongue is especially commendable
:
STUDIES.
296
-FROM
THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT
TIME.
The
universities,
both for comprehensiveness and
thoroughness of instruction, stand pre-eminent. Their former subdivisions large number is due mainly to the
of Germany into separate states, each of which was ambitious to maintain an institution for superior instruction.
Many
of the universities possess a considerable
but most of them receive large subsidies ; from the state. The studies are ranged under the four
endowment
faculties of
theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, the latter comprising, besides philosophy proper, nat-
ural science, mathematics, political economy, history, rector, elected literature, and philology.
geography,
with the adminisannually by the professors, is charged German stuthe affairs of the university. tration of
dents can not become full members without having completed the course of a gymnasium or real-school.
founded during the present century are as follows: Berlin, 1810; Munich, 1826; Breslau, The Uni1811; Bonn, 1818; and Strasburg, 1872. is the largest, with a faculty of two versity of Berlin hundred and fifteen professors, and a yearly attendance
The
universities
of about five thousand students.
(E.)
FRANCE.
The
from ment were inspired with democratic ideas, and at the same time they believed that popular intelligence was the necessary for the perpetuity of the republic. Hence, in 1793 not only ordered the establishment Convention
of elementary schools throughout France, but also
interest in popular education in France dates the Kevolution of 1789. The leaders of that move-
made

attendance upon
297
at
them compulsory.
But discord
abroad, during the years immediately succeeding, prevented the execution of this wise decree.
home and wars
Having crowned himself emperor, Napoleon did not remain indifferent to the subject of general education. In 1806 he established a system of great compactness, which forms the basis of the excellent laws now in operation.
He
united
all
into one body,
which he This university, whose

master, assisted
the teaching forces of the country called the University of France.

affairs
were administered by a
grand by a university council, was divided into three branches: Primary instruction, provided in the elementary schools ; secondary instruction, provided in the lyceums and colleges ; and superior instruction, given
by the
faculties of arts, medicine, law,
France was divided into a number of districts called academies, which were presided large over by a rector, assisted by an academic council. Schools under local supervision were to be established in each
and theology.
community.
But Napoleon became too much absorbed
in ambitious schemes of conquest to put his system into
complete operation.
the Restoration, popular education languished. the system of Napoleon was retained in its esThough sential features, it was administered with a narrow sectarian
Under
and monarchical
spirit.
Under the cover
of zeal
for moral and religious instruction, education was placed in large measure in the hands of priests. priest, M.
de Freyssinous, was called to the office of grand master of the university. In a circular announcing his appointment, he sets forth the principles directing his adminis-
298
TIME.
tration
man
" In education a : calling to the head of public invested with a sacred character, his Majesty declares to all France how much he desires that the youth
of his
. . .
kingdom be brought up in religious and moThe true Frenchman never narchical sentiments.
from love of his country, nor separates love of his king to magistrates from attachment to the laws obedience and institutions which the king has given his people."
While Germany was making vigorous
efforts
to
re-
trieve its fortune through the intellectual development of its people, France, in the hands of a reactionary government, saw its educational progress effectually
thwarted.
the government of Louis Philippe after the Eevolution of 1830, there came a change for the better. of Napoleon, as transmitted from the govThe
With
system
ernment of the Restoration, was administered with a The schools were emanvigorous and progressive spirit. Each district or comcipated from priestly control. have a school, and, in order that mune was required to not be wanting, normal schools qualified teachers might School-houses were were encouraged and multiplied. of instruction were introscientific methods erected duced; an educational interest was awakened among the people. The basis of popular education was firmly
;
established.
For the encouragement of primary
teach-
ers in their unappreciated labors, Guizot, as Minister of
Public Instruction, addressed them the following beauti" I know full well that the care of the law ful words
:
will
never succeed in rendering the simple profession of district teacher as attractive as it is useful. Society can
not
make
a sufficient return to
him who
is
devoted to

this
299
is
work.
There
is
no fortune
to
be won, there
in the discharge of scarcely a reputation to be acquired onerous duties. Destined to see his life pass away his in
monotonous toil, sometimes even to encounter the inof ignorance, he would become justice and ingratitude and perhaps succumb, if he did not draw disheartened, his strength and courage elsewhere than in the prospect of an immediate and purely personal interest. It is a necessary that he be sustained and animated by prosense of the moral importance of his labors that found the austere pleasure of having served men and contributed secretly to the public weal become the worthy re;
ward which
glory to pretend borious condition ; to exhaust his strength in sacrifices who profit by them ; in a scarcely noticed by those
It is his his conscience alone gives him. to nothing beyond his obscure and la-
from word, to labor for men, and expect his reward

alone."
God
the second republic, the school laws were subto a comprehensive revision which, with jected, in 1850, minor modifications, resulted in the system now recent
Under
in force.
a graduated and thorough system of is highest educational authority superintendence. which is presided over by the the Superior Council, Minister of Public Instruction. The eighty-seven deor counties of France are divided into seven-
There
is
The
partments
teen
or academies, in each of which an academic council, under the direction of the Minister of Public Instruction, has charge of educational affairs. In
districts,
each department or county there is another council comof the academy, the posed of the prefect, the inspector
and several others; inspector of primary instruction,
300
TIME.
while in each canton or

the mayor at
its
commune a local board, with has supervision over all the head,
of
Each commune schools, both public and private. is required to have a public live hundred inhabitants
school in which the following subjects are taught : Moral and civil duties, reading, writing, the elements of the
French language and
literature, history
and geography
the elements of nat(particularly of France), arithmetic, ural science and its applications, the principles of deexsigning, modeling, and music, gymnastics, military The schools ercises for boys, and needle-work for girls.
and in 1882 the instruction of children between the ages of seven and fourteen was made comare entirely free,
pulsory.
twenty-one years of age, who has passed a satisfactory examination, is allowed to teach. Each department is required to have two normal schools, one for male and one for female teachers, with a course
Any Frenchman
Since the huof study extending through three years. the French Government miliating defeat of 1870-"T1,
has been making vigorous efforts to promote popular education; and in no other country has there been,
during the
ress.
last
decade, such
marked educational prog-
Secondary instruction is provided by the lyceums and communal colleges. Previous to 1852 the lyceums, which correspond to the German gymnasia, were excluthe chief subjects sively literary, Latin and Greek being Since that time they have undergone of instruction.
them into closer relation important changes which bring with the present age. The classes and studies of the
lyceums are
as follows
:

PLAN OP STUDIES FOR LYCEUM.
3Q1
STUDIES.
302
TIME.
deaux, Clermont, Poitiers, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Nancy, Toulouse ; and those of Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, literature at Paris, Aix, Besangon, Bordeaux, Caen, ClerPoimont, Dijon, Douai, Grenoble, Lyons, Montpellier, In addition to giving tiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Nancy. and instruction, these faculties conduct examinations, confer the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor.
(F.)
ENGLAND.
In England popular education has made less progress than in any other Protestant country of Europe. The is to be found in the conservaexplanation of this fact tive character of the people, and the aristocratic organiIt is only in recent years that the zation of society. Hence, it has hapmasses have become prominent. while popular education was left to indipened that, vidual effort and denominational zeal, the children of
the wealthy and the noble have enjoyed the advantages of the great preparatory schools Eton, Winchester, CharterWestminster, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', and Christ's Hoshouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury,
pital.
These preparatory or endowed schools, which have been justly celebrated in English education, were foundin the sixteenth century. ed, with three exceptions, are large boarding-schools, whose courses of study They raise them to the rank of the French lyceum or the German gymnasium. In accordance with the conservative character of English institutions, it is but recently
that these schools have been
much
affected
by modern
At present they are losing their educational progress. mediaeval character before the pressure for reform ; and
3Q3
though Latin and Greek still remain the chief subjects of study, increasing attention is being paid to the the natural sciences, and the modern lanmother-tongue,
guages.
The methods
of instruction are
becoming
less
mechanical ; and the principle of authority, which fora spirit of independence, is now merly repressed giving place to freedom of thought and investigation. Athletics are cultivated with great zeal. The system of
fagging, which requires students of the lower classes to perform menial services for those of the upper classes, " The still exists. best friends of these schools," says
Howard
that
is
Staunton, "confess that they contain

pedantic,
much
that
antiquated,
ive,
and
is puerile, that is obsolete, much that is obstructnot a little that is barbarous; and that, like
much
that
is
much
much
other English institutions, they are apt to confound Let, then, abuses be removed, stolidity with solidity.
let absolute
obscurantism cease, and

as
ments be adopted
ficial
commend
such improvethemselves, not to superlet
progress, but to the
most exalted wisdom."
In
schools, there are many other schools and colleges devoted to secondary instruction. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, whoso
addition to these
endowed
origin
is
lost in the
darkness of the middle ages, are
among
the most celebrated in the world.

;
They
are
Oxford comprising twenty-four and Cambridge seventeen. Each colseparate colleges, lege has a separate organization of its own, presided
similar in organization
over by a president, rector, or provost, while all are under a central or university government administered by a chancellor, in conjunction with a council elected by
the several colleges.
The universities
are maintained
by
304:
the munificent endowments, the gifts of benefactors and for graduation must founders of colleges. Candidates reside in a college for three academic years when, upon examination before the university a
;
passing Oxford and Camexaminers, they receive their degree. and still merit in bridge are both very conservative, some degree the criticisms of Bacon and Milton. Durother institutions for superior ing the present century is instruction have been founded, chief among which
in the University of London, created by royal charter 1836. Prior to the beginning of the present century, the education of the masses of England was almost entirely To Kobert Eaikes, the founder of the Sun-
satisfactory
neglected.
the honor of having first awakened day-school, belongs an interest in popular education. This he did partly " Gloucester Journal," in which through his paper, the
he maintained that ignorance was the principal source his actual of vice among the people, and partly through
of labors for the instruction of the neglected children numerhis town. His efforts led to the establishment of
ous Sunday-schools, which form the beginning of popuHe died in 1811. lar instruction. The labors of two other educators, following the
efforts of Kaikes,
instruction.
caster,
to popular gave an additional impulse These were Andrew Bell and Joseph Lan-
other invented the independently of each at monitorial system of teaching. Bell, who was born in 1787, to India St. Andrews, Scotland, in 1753, went
who
where he was appointed superintendent of a school for the orphan children of British soldiers. Unable to procure suitable teachers, he fell upon the plan, sometimes
305
adopted in the native schools of India, of employing advanced pupils as instructors. As the plan succeeded
beyond expectation, he published an account of it on his return to England, and in 1807 established in London a school in which the monitorial (or Madras) system was
employed.
The experiment was successful and as many

;
influential persons, especially
among
the clergy, became
interested in the system, the National Society was formed in connection with the Church of England for the pur-
pose of establishing schools throughout the British dominions. The work of this society, under the direction
of Bell, was prosecuted with great vigor, and in less than a dozen years one thousand schools had been opened, with an attendance of more than two hundred thousand
children.
This remarkable activity was due in part to the of Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker. Having established a school in London in 1798, he found it necessary to reduce his expenses ; and, as a means of
labors
doing
this,
he hit upon the monitorial system which
Bell had already employed at Madras. His school met with great popular favor, and soon numbered one thou-
sand pupils. It was visited by the royal family, on which occasion the king said to Lancaster, " I wish that every child in my kingdom were able to read the Bible." In view of the popularity and success of the
school, an association of Dissenters,
ish
known
as the Brit-
and Foreign School Society, was organized for the promulgation of the system of Lancaster; and the rivalry between this and the National Society of the
Established
Church
led to extraordinary efforts in found-
ing popular schools.
306
It

was not
itself
till
TIME.
concerned
about education.
1818 that the English Government At that time a com-
mittee was appointed to inspect the public schools for the upper and middle classes, and report upon their evils were exposed, and the way condition.
Many
opened for subsequent reforms. for education was made in 1834.
The first annual grant The movement toward
received a noteworthy impulse from popular education conference held in London in 1857 unthe educational a der the presidency of the Prince Consort. In 1858 was appointed by Parliament to report commission
upon the
The interest thus popular education. the government in popular education manifested by culminated in 1870 in a statute which ordered that "there shall be provided for every school district a elementsufficient amount of accommodation in public for all the children resident in ary schools available such district, for whose elementary education efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made." School women, were boards, elected by all tax-payers, including the provisions of this law ; and established to carry out
state of
invested with authority to compel they were further their children to school between the parents to send This new law has been very thirteen. ages of five and attendance has been successful. high percentage of trained teachers provided of attained, and an able body
will and the present educational progress of England of any other Protestant favorably with that
compare
country.
(G.)
THE UNITED STATES.
In the United States the sovereignty is vested, not The masses are called in the few, but in the many
307
upon to consider every kind of social and political question affecting the welfare of the country. The principles of human liberty ; schemes for internal improvetions
ment; questions of finance and education; our relawith other countries these are some of the
At
weighty matters brought before the popular mind. the polls, where every man has an equal voice, the decisions are made, and the of the government policy
determined.
These
facts necessitate a considerable degree of pop-
ular intelligence.
The
illiterate, clearly
incapable of
performing the high duties imposed on American citizens, remain ciphers in society, or become the dangerous took of designing politicians. In some form, popular
education is necessary both to a wise administration of the government and to its perpetuity. " Promote," said " as an "Washington, in his Farewell Address, object of
primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a gov-
ernment gives force
to public opinion,
it is
essential that
public opinion should be enlightened." The educational history of the United States naturally divides itself into the colonial
The
New
and national periods. and the Southern colonies present a England
striking difference in their educational development. This difference had its origin partly in the dissimilar
character and antecedents of the colonists, and partly in
the physical conditions of the two sections. In New England education early received attention, and produced excellent results in the South it was neglected.
;
As a
result, the
Southern colonies, in proportion to popu-
lation
and natural advantages, exhibited a slower devel-
308
TIME.
has not yet been recovered. opment, losing ground that As was the case in Europe during the corresponding influence in education was very period, the theological the peculiar circumstances strong but, at the same time, of establishing a home in an unsubdued wilderness, and
;
of laying the foundation of a great republic, early gave the schools vigorous life and a practical bearing.
(1.)
Colonial Period.
In Virginia popular education was almost wholly This was owing colonial period. neglected during the aristocratic spirit which existed in the to the
partly
to the scattered colony from the beginning, and partly the population. While in New England condition of the people naturally collected in towns, in Virginia the and seeking to reprocolonists, devoted to agriculture duce the conditions of the mother-country, settled on
half a century after the founding large plantations. For of Jamestown, schools were almost unknown. Education was confined to the parental roof, and successive in comparative ignorance. Sir Willgenerations grew up wrote in 1671 : "I thank God there are iam
Berkeley
no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these for a hundred years for learning has brought into the world, and disobedience, and heresy and sects them and libels against the best printing has divulged " God keep us from both
;
!
government. The apathy or hostility prevailing in regard to popular schools did not exist to the same degree in reference to the higher education. From an early date the question of establishing a college had been repeatedly discussed. after the lapse of more than three quarters of
Finally,
309
a century from the time the subject was first broached, the College of William and Mary was founded in 1692. When the enterprise began to assume definite form, a
commendable interest, both at home and in England, was manifested in its success. The Lieutenant-Governor headed the subscription-list with a generous gift, and his example was followed by other prominent members of the colony. The sum of twenty-five hundred pounds having been raised, the Rev. James Blair was sent to
England to solicit a charter for the institution. This was readily granted and, as an additional evidence of royal favor, the quit-rents yet due in the colony, amounting to nearly two thousand pounds, were turned over to the college. For its further support, twenty thousand acres of land were set apart, and a tax of a penny a pound was laid on all tobacco exported from Virginia and Maryland to other American colonies. The institution was located at Williamsburg, and the Rev. James Blair, who had been active in securing its establishment, was chosen as its first president. In the language of the " to the end that the charter, the college was founded Church of Virginia may be furnished with a seminary of ministers of the gospel, and that the youth may be that piously educated in good letters and manners, and the Christian faith may be propagated among the Western Indians to the glory of Almighty God." The course of study embraced divinity, language, and natural philos" ophy," a divinity," says Howison, shaped and molded at every point by the liturgy and creed of the English Church languages which filled the college walls with boys hating Greek and Latin grammars; and natural that philosophy, which was just beginning to believe
; ;
310
TIME.
the sun the earth revolved round the sun, rather than of the next round the earth." Such was the founding
oldest
American
forth
many
college, from able men influential in
whose walls have gone molding the destinies
literary
of our country. The conditions in Virginia were not favorable to Descended in good part from
development. the noble families, the colonists brought with them

tocratic feelings
aris-
and
of the royalists in England. of the population was unfavorable to the kindling
characteristic religious intolerance The isolated condition of
mind
lowered the the absence of schools and printing-presses of power tone of popular intelligence ; the concentration and influence in the hands of an aristocracy of wealthy and politics, land-owners, occupied chiefly with pleasure was not suited to awaken a literary spirit. With few the writers of the colonial period were born
exceptions, or educated abroad.
Instead of literary men, Virginia
orators, and produced sagacious politicians, impassioned of boundless and gracious elegant country gentlemen
hospitality. If the early colonists of Virginia
were largely adfortune in the New World, the venturers, seeking their Puritans of New England, fleeing from religious oppresdeep came to establish a permanent home.
sion,
into the extravagance of a earnestness, characterized their early history. forbidding asceticism, counted no sacrifice too great to maintain the in-
which often ran
They
convictions. tegrity of their religious
Giving up com-
faced the dangers of a winter fort, wealth, home, they the inhospitality of a barren shore. They were sea and and brave men, daring to think for themintelligent

selves,
3H
and to maintain their convictions at any cost. them had enjoyed the advantages of Oxford and Cambridge, and brought with them the precious seed of learning. They had some consciousness of their
Many
of
mission as the founders of a mighty people, and, with their eye turned to future generations, they laid the foundations broad and well. may smile at their
We
weaknesses, their superstition, and their austerity of life, but, underneath these peculiarities, we discover a
strength of character, depth of conviction, and sincerity of purpose, that command our respect and admiration. In view of these facts, it is not strange that education in Massachusetts received early attention.
tion of the Puritans
The
ac-
was prompt and vigorous.
Within
their
when number was yet small; when their homes were without comfort when they were continually menaced
;
a few years after the landing of the Mayflower,
by the
scalping-knife of the savage, they established a system of schools that placed them in advance of the most enlightened portions of Europe. In 1636 the
General Court voted an appropriation of four hundred pounds for the founding of a school, which, after its first private benefactor, the Rev. John Harvard, received the name of Harvard College. It was cheerfully and
by the New England colonies. It was opened in 1638, and sent forth its first graduating class in 1642. The standard of scholarship was not low. The requirements for entrance, in 1643, were given as
liberally sustained
When any scholar is able to understand Tully, or such like classical author extempore, and make and speak true Latin in verse and prose ; . . . and decline
follows
:
"
perfectly the paradigms of nouns and verbs in the
Greek
312
TIME.
and not before, be capable of adtongue, let him then, mission into the college." The most remarkable action, however, of the Massachusetts colony
was in relation to common
schools.
In 164:7 the General Court passed the following order, the preamble of which recalls the powerful words of Luther " It being one chief project of the old deluder,
:
of the ScriptSatan, to keep men from the knowledge as in former times by keeping them in an unknown ures,
latter times by persuading from the tongue, so in these of tongues, that so at least the true sense and meanuse of the original might be clouded by false glosses of
ing
not be buried saint-seeming deceivers ; that learning may of our fathers in the Church and Commonin the grave
wealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors " It is therefore ordered, that every township in this after the Lord hath increased them to the
jurisdiction,
number
point
of fifty householders, shall then forthwith apone within their town to teach all such children as
shall resort to
him
to write
and read ; whose wages
shall
be paid, either by the parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the major part of those that order the prudentials of the town shall appoint ; provided, those that send their children be not oppressed by paying much more than they can have tl;em taught for in other towns ; and it is further ordered^ that when any town shall increase to the number of one hundred families or householders, they shall set up a grammar-school, the master thereof being
able to instruct youth so far as they may be fitted for the university ; provided, that if any town neglect the hereof above one year, that every such town
performance
313
pay five pounds perform this order."
shall
to the next school
till
they shall
The
other colonies of the North manifested the same
shown by Massachusetts ; those of the South, following the example of Virginia, left it to individual effort. public school was established in Connecticut as as 1639. The first code early " of laws for this colony, published in 1650, required the selectmen of every town to have a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see that none of them
interest in popular education
shall suffer so
as not to
much barbarism in any of their families endeavor to teach, by themselves or others,

and apprentices
so
their children
much
learning as
may
beginning, though public action in reference to education was not taken till 1676. In that year the "town's men" of Newark were authorized to establish a school and a com-
Hampshire had substantially the educational system of Massachusetts. The colonists of New Jersey were interested in schools from the
New
them perfectly to read the English tongue." The colony of Ehode Island had a public school in 1640. By reason of their close political relations, Maine and
enable
employ
petent teacher for one year.
Pennsylvania
is
The educational history of The first plan of propraiseworthy.
prietary government, drawn up by Penn, in 1682, makes mention of public schools. In 1683, the year Philadelphia was founded, the council of the province ordered the establishment of a school. charter
granted
in 1711, contains the following preamble : " Whereas, the prosperity and welfare of any people deeducation of pend, in a great measure, upon the
by Penn,
good
youth, and their early introduction in the principles of

14
314
TIME.
true religion and virtue, and qualifying

their country
them
to serve
and themselves by breeding them in readwriting, and learning of languages and useful arts ing, and sciences, suitable to their sex, age, and degree which can not be effected, in any manner, so well as by erecting PUBLIC SCHOOLS for the purpose aforesaid." Maryland seems to have made no provision for public " for the enschools till 1723, when an act was passed couragement of learning, and erecting schools in the
North
The Constitution of several counties of this province." " in 1Y76, provided that a school Carolina, adopted
or schools shall be established
by the Legislature
for the
convenient instruction of youth, with such salaries to the masters, paid by the public, as may enable them to
instruct at low prices and that all useful learning shall be encouraged in one or more universities." No action was taken with reference to public schools till 1819. South Carolina and Georgia made no provision for pop;
ular education during the colonial period.

(2.)
National Period.
When the independence of the United States had been achieved, and a Constitution adopted, education was left to the care of the separate States. Yet the most influential leaders in the formation of the new government were outspoken advocates of education, and
interpreted that clause of the Constitution empowering " and provide for Congress to lay and collect taxes, . .
.
the
defense and general welfare of the United States," as authorizing the General Government to encourage the establishment of schools. In a message to
common
Congress, in 1Y90, Washington, after making sundry
315
other recommendations touching military organization, uniformity in currency, weights and measures, etc., continued " Nor am I less persuaded that you will agree with me in opinion, that there is nothing which can better deserve your patronage than the promotion of
:
Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of public happiness. In one, in which the measures of government receive their impression so from the sense of the community, as in immediately
ours,
it is
science and literature.
proportionably essential."
:
John Adams said " The wisdom and generosity of the Legislature in making libIn
his inaugural address,
eral appropriations in
money
for the benefit of schools,
academies, and
ters
colleges, is
an equal honor to them and
a proof of their veneration for let; and science, and a portent of great and lasting good to North and South America, and to the world. Great
is
their constituents
truth
must and
great is liberty " will prevail !
great
is
humanity
and they
on for ameliorating the condition, promoting the virtue, and advancing the happiness of man. And I do hope, in the present spirit
of extending to the great mass of mankind the blessings of instruction, I see a prospect of great advancement in the happiness of the human race, and this may proceed
to an indefinite although not an infinite degree. system of general instruction, which shall reach
Thomas Jefferson was a friend to popular education. " I look to the diffusion of light and education," he said, " as the resources most to be relied
every
description of our citizens, from the richest to the poorest, as it was the earliest, so it shall be the latest of all
the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to
316

Give
it
TIME.
take an interest.
ceive for the inestimable
to us, in any shape, and reboon the thanks of the young,
and the blessings of the

ices
old,
who
are past
all
other serv-
but prayers for the prosperity of their country, and
blessings to those
who promote it." The establishment of a national
university, to be lo-
cated at the seat of General Government, was earnestly advocated by "Washington. He repeatedly refers to the
in his official communications to Consubject, not only but also in his private correspondence with Hamgress, conceived that such an ilton, Jefferson, and others.
He
would guard American youth from the danof education abroad, and have a tendency to banish gers local and State prejudices from the national councils. In his last will he bequeathed fifty shares in the Potoinstitution
endowment of a university to be established within the limits of the District of
mac Company
Columbia."
" toward the
The plan of granting a certain portion of the public lands for educational purposes had its beginning in 1785. In the ordinance for the government of the Northwest
in Territory, the sixteenth section (one square mile) was set apart for the maintenance of every township
this action was public schools. The principle governing " and knowledge stated as follows Religion, morality, necessary to good government and the happiness
:
being
of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged." Two years later an additional to each State for the grant of two townships was made of a university. As this action was confirmed support
in 1789, after the adoption of the Federal Constitution, in every State organized since that time has received,

addition to the grant for common schools, at least townships for the promotion of higher education.
317
two In
1848 the thirty-sixth section of each township was added to the sixteenth for the support of common schools.
The Special grants have been made at different times. land granted by the General Government for educational
purposes between 1785 and 1862 amounts to nearly
140,000,000 acres. In the dark days of 1862 Congress was not unmindThe need ful of the material progress of the country.
of a more practical education than that furnished by the ordinary classical college was felt. With the view of
bringing education into closer relation with the mechanic arts and the agricultural development of our vast do-
made a grant of land-scrip to the amount acres for each senator and representative for of 30,000 the establishment of what are known as agricultural
main, Congress
colleges.
bill
tific
The
leading object of these colleges, as the
other scienstated, "should be, without excluding and including military tactics, and classical studies,
to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the
and practical education of the industrial classes The in the several pursuits and professions of life." to the several States was amount of land thus donated the 9,510,000 acres. All of the States have accepted the provisions of the grant and, in accordance with
liberal
;
act,
instituthey have either established independent with tions, or 'have connected an agricultural department
an existing college or university. Supplemented by State appropriations and in a few cases by individual munificence, this donation by Congress, though failing
318
TIME.
to reali/e the expectations of its friends, has led to the establishment of some excellent institutions.
The Bureau of Education is an office in the Department of the Interior. It had its origin in the need of some central agency to collect, preserve, and distribute
educational information.
In 1866 a memorial emanat-
ing from the National Association of State and City School Superintendents was presented to the House of and, substantially on the basis thus Representatives an act was passed March 2, 1867, estabrecommended,
;
" for the purpose of collecting such lishing an agency statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States
and Territories, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education." During its brief existence, the Bureau of Education has collected a large amount of valuable educational intelligence, which by means of annual disreports and circulars of information it has widely
seminated.
the Declaration of Independence the several colThe onies assumed the character of sovereign States. the South continued to regard education, not States of
By
as a public
but as a private
interest, to
be
left in the
hands of parents or guardians. If here and there popular education found, as in the case of Jefferson, a strong
did not prevail. Primary education was means of subscription schools, which were supplied by maintained during the winter months in every comadvocate,
it
319
For those unable to munity of sufficient population. fund was provided. In pay the cost of tuition, a public the families of the wealthy, the custom of employing
tutors generally prevailed.
Private enterprise secured
the establishment of numerous flourishing secondary while denominational zeal multiplied the numschools,
ber of Christian colleges. and leading, in By destroying the system of slavery, some measure, to a reorganization of society, the civil
war has brought the Southern

relations
States into
with the rest of the country. broken away from hurtful traditions
resources
;
harmonious The South has
veloping its material and ture with a confident hopefulness that gives vigor the change In no particular has courage to every effort. more remarkable and significant than in education. been
a sysSince the war every Southern State has adopted of poverty, tem of free public instruction which, in spite and the scattered condition of the population, prejudice, Opposition has been has made surprising progress. is hushed or overcome interest in popular education
;
it is
rapidly delooking to the fu;
it is
profound and general
vie political parties
with one
teachanother in befriending the public schools ; young the spirit of educational progress, have ers, filled with Eev. come to the front. "The great work," says the
A. D. Mayo, "has begun in earnest. Our Northern folk have no conception of the rapidly growing power
of the educational
movement
in the South.
It is polar-
izing political parties, shaking
up religious
<
sects, exciting
the drawing-rooms, pulverizing

tical,
bosses,' civil, ecclesias-
and
social."
The
spirit
of the
North and the West found
fitting
320
TIME.
expression in the Constitution of Massachusetts, adopted in 1780. "Wisdom and knowledge," says this docu" ment, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation
of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on the opportunities and advantages of education spreading in the various parts of the country, and among the different orders of the people, it shall be the duty of legislators and magistrates, in all future periods of this Com-
monwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the

sciences,
and
all
seminaries of
them
especially the
University of Cambridge, public schools, and grammarschools in the towns ; to encourage private societies and
public institutions, rewards and immunities, for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a natural history of the country to countenance and inculcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence, public and private charity, industry and frugality, honesty and punctuality in their dealings sincerity, good-humor, and all social affections and generous sentiments among the people."
;
;
Though
instruction
is
now adopted throughout
differing in details, the system of popular the United States
everywhere substantially the same. It comprehends three grades of schools the primary schools, in which
reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and English grammar are the principal subjects taught ; the secondas high -schools, graded schools, and academies, in which the higher grammar-schools, mathematics, foreign languages, history, and natural science are introduced and the colleges and universities, in which the curricula embrace the studies necessary to
ary schools,
known
321
a liberal education and professional life. To these should be added the normal schools, which are designed to give teachers a scientific training for their vocation. The primary schools and, for the most part, the sec-
ondary schools, are supported by a tax levied on
all as-
sessed property, together with the income derived from any permanent fund created by special State appropriation or grant by the national Government. Though States have one or more institutions for superior many
by annual appropriations from the public treasury, the majority of our colleges and universities are the fruit of denominational zeal and The State, usually through a individual munificence.
instruction maintained
Board of Education or Superintendent of Public Inover the public struction, exercises a general supervision while the details of management are committed schools,
to local officers, consisting of county superintendents
and
district
committees.
exists in every section strong interest in education of our country ; and, under the impulsion of this feeleffort is made to advance the public schools.
ing, every
Neat and well-furnished school-houses are rapidly supmake-shifts of the planting the log-huts and temporary
class of teachers is being depast; a better qualified various school officers manded public sentiment ; the
are held
ties
;
by more firmly
to a faithful discharge of their duis
the school term
being lengthened
better courses
of study and improved methods of teaching are being The French Commission to everywhere introduced.
the Exposition of 1876 was correct in reporting that " the education of the young which great zeal for the into the grows as the population increases, penetrates
322
FKOM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT
TIME.
public mind more and more, and manifests itself in more and more decided ways. "What may have seemed
glow of enthusiasm, a generous imhas in time assumed all the force of a logical conpulse, viction, or rather of a positive certainty. It is no longer
at first a transient
movement
of a
few philanthropists or of
it is
few
re-
an essential part of the public ligious societies, administration for which the States, the cities, and townships appropriate every year more money than any other
but
country in the world has hitherto devoted to the education of the people. Far from limiting this generosity as
much
as possible to
as to declare free for all
primary instruction, it goes so far not only primary but even sec-
ondary schools."
subject of compulsory education has naturally elicited considerable attention, and at present educators The opponents of the are divided in their opinions.
The
system say that it is essentially un-American ; that it interferes with the rights of parents ; that the difficulties of carrying it out are insuperable ; and that its absence
involves no danger to our institutions. The advocates of the system reply that ignorance is an evil which the
State should remove ; that the parent has no right to bring up his children in ignorance that the State has a natural right to enact any kws that may be necessary
;
and that the compulsory system, ; both in this country and in Europe, has produced beneficial results. The sentiment in favor of compulsory education seems to be growing. Connecticut, Massafor self-protection
chusetts, Maine, Michigan, Texas, California, and Jersey have adopted it, and in other States the subject
is
New
more
or less discussed.
323
Another prominent educational question is the coeducation of the sexes in our colleges and universities. schools and even in the secondary In the
primary
young 'of both sexes have been educated together. Begun from considgenerally erations of economy and convenience, co-education is
schools of this country, the
now
of
its
continued in these schools from a strong conviction But that the same system should apexcellence.
It is said ply to superior education is stoutly denied. that co-education in our higher institutions of learning that it does not endangers the health of young women ;
give
it
it
in life ; that training suited to their destiny a strong-minded type of womanhood ; that develops of scholarship ; that it leads to perlowers the
them a
grade
sonal attachments and matrimonial engagements; and, These arguments it gives rise to scandals. lastly, that
are chiefly theoretical, and hence it happens that they The advoare met by a series of counter-statements. cates of co-education in our colleges, after a more or less
extended observation of its workings, affirm that the that it aims system has not proved injurious to health
;
at individual
development, which
is
the true end of
that it makes young women more womanly, and young men more manly that it raises the standard
education
of scholarship, since female students usually maintain a better average than their male competitors; that if it sometimes leads to matrimonial engagements, these are
formed under the most favorable circumstances that it does not give rise to more scandals than otherwise occur that it elevates the moral tone of a college, and renders about a discipline less difficult and that, by bringing and taste between man and communion of sympathy
; ; ;
324

it
TIME.
woman,
piness.
domestic haplays the foundation for greater
"Whatever
may be thought
of the arguments on
either side, it is certain that co-education is growing in the experipopular favor. It is but a few years since
first tried, yet at present the system is adopted in nearly one third of our colleges and universities. Where it has been tried under favorable conditions, it
ment was
has rarely failed, by

dice and
its
good
results, to
overcome preju-
win popular
favor.
Our
fications.
modicollege curricula are undergoing important The old course of study, consisting almost
has apexclusively of Latin, Greek, and mathematics, to many not to be duly adjusted to the conditions peared of the present age. The growth of knowledge during
large
the past two or three centuries has been very great. number of sciences, particularly those relating to
Nature, have been added to the domain of learning. Modern nations have come into prominence, and produced literatures of incomparable worth. These facts
have necessitated an enlargement of the college course. As President Eliot, of Harvard, has well said: "The rise of new litergeneral growth of knowledge, and the and sciences during the past two hundred atures, arts, have made it necessary to define anew liberal education, and hence enlarge the signification of the degree of Bachelor of Arts, which is the customary
and
fifty years,
The leading subjects thus acquired prominence are English, the that have and, in natural sciences, and the modern languages to make room for them, nearly all of our colleges order
evidence of a liberal education."
;
have adopted parallel courses and the elective system. The process of adjustment which is now going on will,
325
no doubt, issue in courses of study well suited to the

needs of our country.
(H.)
CONCLUSION.
little doubt that the educational world a period of rapid transition. Correct views of the nature and end of education are becoming prevalent ; and, in order that educational methods may have a scientific basis, the physical and mental constitution of
is in
There can be
man
is
being subjected anew to careful investigation.
The laws governing human development have been

largely ascertained, and
teaching.
The work
now give direction to our best of education is no longer left to
novices destitute of any training except an acquaintance with the defective methods by which they were themselves instructed. Teaching is being elevated into a
profession, for which intelligence and training are recognized as necessary. There is a breaking away from tra-
and customs. Human reason, unfettered tradition or the dicta of authority, is everywhere by proving all things, and holding fast only that which is
ditional views
good.
The present
is
an age of experiment and inves-
in all Christian lands are tigation. engaged educational problems. While all this leaves the upon
Able minds
educational world in an unsettled condition, it promises well for the future. Within the past few decades truth
has
made
as
large conquests in the
domain of education.
well judge, both from the lessons of And, the past and the tendencies of the present, there will come forth from this struggle an education firmly established on a scientific basis, conditions of modern life.
we may
and better adjusted to the
INDEX.
Abstract
cies
human
education, tenden-
to,
Aristotle,
influence
of,
66-
and results, 247-249. Academies and high-schools in the United States, 320, 321. Adams, John, President of the United States, on popular education,
315.
Agricola, father of German humanism, 125 ; studies and labors of,
65.
Augustine, Saint, on Christian education, 98.
125-127
views
of,
on study and
United
schools, 126-128.
Agricultural colleges in the States, 317.
Albrecht of Saxony, on excesses of students in the University of Jena

(1624), 165, 166.
Bacon, Francis, early life and training, 179 ; studies law, enters Parliament, etc., 180; political advancement of, 180; stains on views of, on character, 180, 181 education, 182, 183 true value on graces of of learning, 183 style, 183, 184; Novum Organum of, 184, 185 ; characteristic features of philosophy of, 185 ;
;
;
Alexandria in Egypt, 36 cal schools in, 91-93.
catecheti-
extract from the Novum Organum, 186 ; value of works of, to
Antwerp, Agricola's school
in,
126.
Aristotle, pupil of Plato's, 62 ; great intellect, 62, 63; Lyceum of, in
education, 186, 187; prediction of, as to the future, 188. Barnard, Jlenry, on history of education, 7.
Athens, mode of teaching, 63 ; views and principles, 64, 65; writings of, studied in monastic
schools, 100.
Aryan or Indo-European family of

nations, 15 ; Greeks a branch of, 89 ; Teutonic tribes also, 87. Asceticism in the early Church, 93,
94.
Basedow, founder of Philanthropinists, 256, 267 ; views of, quoted, 257, 258; performances in schools failure of, 260. of, 258-260 Basil, Saint, on Christian education,
;
99.
Bell,
Andrew, educational work
of,
304.
Athens, in Attica, position and people of, 49 ; Attic idea of education, 49 ; laws of Solon, 50 ; only freemen educated, time occupied In studies, etc., 61-55; love of the beautiful, 49, 65 ; defects of,
Benedictines, 99. Berkeley, Sir William, on free schools, etc., in Virginia, 308. Bible, poetry of the, 31 ; rule of faith among Protestants, 138 to
;
be studied in schools, 139, 140. Blair, Rev. James, founds William
and
results,
54-56
Socrates, Pla-
and Mary College, Virginia, 309.
328
French Michel, Breal, quoted, 139, 140.
INDEX.
scholar,
Classical nations, ancient, position of, in history of education, 37-39.
Brahmans and Brahmanism, 16-20. Brethren of the Common Life, schools of, 112, 113. Bureau of Education in the United
States, 318.
Co-education of sexes in the United

States, 323, 324.
Coleman, on education among the

early Christians, 89, 90.
Burgher schools, character

111.
of,
110,
born in Comenius, maxim of, 1 Moravia, 200; early years and losses and training, 200, 201 prepares an edtrials, 201, 202
; ;
;
Calvin, John, interest in education, 153.

Carlyle, 140.
Thomas, on Martin Luther,
Catechetical schools in the primischools, 102. Cato the Elder, course of, as to education, 70, 71.
tive Church, 91-93. Cathedral and parochial
publishes " The Gate of Tongues," merits " " pansophic of, 203, 204 ; great scheme of education, 204 goes conference to Sweden, 204, 205 with Oxenstiern, 205 ; publishes with Languages," "Latest Method 205, 206 ; opens school in Patak,
; ;
ucational work, 202;
206
prepares
;
trated," 206
" The World Illuswork very popular,

in
Charlemagne, views and efforts hi behalf of education, 104-106.

China, genius and character of the people, 9, 10; at a stand-still, 10; aim of education in, 10, 11 ; schools and teaching, 12 ; working of system, 13 ; general result,
14, 15.
207
finds'
an asylum
; ;
Amster-
dam
in old age, 207 education, 208, 209

etc., of,
services to
principles,
209-211; school system
Christ Jesus, early life and training, 82, 83 ; mode of teaching, 84 ; the teacher and educator of mankind, 85 ; Rousseau's tribute
to, 255.
Christianity, relation of, to education, 80 ; wide-reaching influence

of,
and pious sentiments, 211, 212. Confucius, and Chinese classics, 13 ; system of teaching, 13, 14. Constantinople, conquest of, by the Turks, and results, 119-121. Crusades, in the Holy Land, effects of the, 107. Cusanus, Nicholas, one of the Brethren of the Common Life, 113. Cyrus the Great, incident in early
life of, 24, 25.
81, 82; life

of,
and teaching of
82-85.
the Founder
Chrysoloras, 121.
Manuel, in Florence,
Chrysostom, Saint, on Christian education, 96, 97.
D'Aubigne on Reuchlin, 130; on Luther and Melanchthon, 149. David, King, Psalms of, 31. Deism in England and elsewhere,
,
248.
in,
Church, early, education
88-90
pitiable condition of the Roman Catholic, at time of the Reformation,
135-138.
Cicero,
quoted, 67; education and character of, 71, 72; views and services as to education, 72, 73 ; writings of, used in the monastic schools, 100.
Education, necessity of, 2 elements entering into, 4 progress in, 6 ; nature and value of history of, 6, 7 history of, treated under three heads, 8 ; ancestral, among the
; ; ;
Chinese, 15; caste system in India, 21 ; state education in Pertheocratic among the sia, 25, 26
;
INDEX.
Jews, 32; under the priests in Egypt, 34 ; priestly education in Egypt, 35 ; patriarchal in heroic age, 39 ; aesthetic in Athens, 56
;
329
school, methods, etc., 195-200; Comenius's works on education, 202-204 ; Locke's principles and
practical in
Rome, 71 Christian education before the Reforma;
views, 217-222; further reaction based on religion, 223, 224 Port Royal school and services,
;
tion, 86, 87, 117,
118; primarily
religious in the early Church, 88-91; catechetical schools, 91,
92 during the middle ages, 93, 94 ; asceticism dominant, 94-98 views of the fathers, Chrysos;
;
225-227; Fenelon on "Education of Girls," 228, 231 ; Rollin's views and principles as to teaching, etc., 235-239 ; abstract hu-
man
249;
tendencies, and results, 247education in nineteenth
tom, Jerome, Augustine, etc., 9699 course in monastic schools, 100 ; in cathedral and parochial Neander's schools, 102, 103;
;
century, 266 et seq. ; general advance, 266 Pestalozzi's services, 266-278; Froebel's work and
;
statements,
;
103,
104;
Charle-
magne's view and efforts, 104106 secular against ecclesiastical, 106, 107; knightly, 107110; female education neglected, 111, 112; growth of scientific spirit, 113, 114; founding of universities, 115-117; education from the Reformation to present time, 119, 120; revival of learn120; labors of Agricola, Reuchlin, Erasmus, 125, 128, 131 ; relation of Reformation to, 135-138 services of Protestantism to, 139, 140; services of Martin Luther to, 140-147 ; services of Mclanchthon to, 150-1 52 ; services of Zwingli and Calvin
ing,
;
success, 278-288; Kindergarten method, 283, 284 contemporary education, great advance in, 288291; in Germany, 291-296; in France, 296-302; in England, 302-306; in the United States, 306 et seq. ; national university
;
advocated, 317; grant of public lands for, 316, 317 ; compulsory, 322 ; of both sexes in colleges,
323, 324
ture, 325.
;
hand, 325
transitional period at prospect in the fu-
Egypt, people of, advance in civilization, 32 ; people, priests, etc., 33, 34 ; priests in charge of education, 34, 35 ; change of system under Psammetichus, 35, 36. Eliot, President of Harvard College,
quoted, 324. Emile," Rousseau's, teaching as to nature, etc., 250-255. England, progress in science and literature in seventeenth century, 174; efforts in behalf of education in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, 802-306. Erasmus, eminent scholar, 131 ; services to the Reformation, 132; edition of Greek Testament, 132, 133 ; lack of moral courage, 133 ; views on education, 133-135.
154; leading tendencies, 154; abstract theological (1550154 et seq.; effect pro1700), duced, 156-158; increase of schools, 158, 159; success of Jesuit schools, 168, 169; results of Jesuit system, 172, 173 ; reto, 153,
"
action against theological teach173-175; liberal, progressive spirit of seventeenth century, 173, 174; progress in natural science and literature, 174 ;
ing,
Montaigne's views, 176-178 ; Bacon's views, 182, 183 Milton's views and scheme of studies, 190 - 194 ; Ratich's memorial,
;
Farrar, Canon, on Seneca the philosopher, 74.
330
Female education.
Fenelon,
priest,
INDEX.
See
Woman.
teacher,
Greece,
etc.,
ancient,
position,
people,
author,
39
two chief
cities of, in
227, 228
tutor of grandson of ; Louis XIV., 228, 229 ; mode of teaching, 229, 230; Telemachus on education of girls, of,- 230 ; to early 228, 231, 232 ; views as education, mode of instruction, etc., 232-234.
history of education, 39 ; study of Greek language after the fall of Constantinople, 121. Greek and Latin, on the study of,
264, 265. Groot, Gerhard, founder of the Brotherhood of Common Life,
France, progress of, in science literature in seventeenth century, 174; popular education in, 296, 297; Napoleon's views on education, 297 ; under the Restoraunder Louis Phition, 297, 298 lippe, 298 ; Guizot's sentiments, 298, 299 under the second recourse public, 299, 300 ; present
; ;
and
112.
Grote, George, quoted on Pythagoras, 46. Gymnastic training in Sparta, 41, 42 ; in Athens, 53, 54 Plato's
;
views on, 62
of, 76.
Seneca's opinion
Harvard, Rev. John, and Harvard
and
facilities,
300-302.
Francke, A. H., theologian and teacher, 240, 241 ; noble devotion to teaching the poor, 241, 242; institutions founded by, 242, 243; views on education, 244, 245 ; rules for teachers, 245 -247 ; death of, 247.
"Hazing"
Hindoos,
castes
College, 311. in German schools, 166.
character
;
of,
16,
17;
among, 17 education of children, and teachers of, 18; 20. higher education among, 19,
History of education. See Education.
Freyssinous, M. de, on education in France, 297, 298. Froebel and the Kindergarten, 278288 ; early life of, 278, 279 ; love of Nature, 279; education of, 280, 281 ; enters on educational work, 282, 2S3 ; establishes the
Humanists and revival of learning, 120 eminent names among, 125

; ;
Agricola,
125; Reuchlin, 128; humanism and Erasmus, 131 159 movement of, in theology, eighteenth century, 261 ; study
; ;
of classical antiquity basis of

culture, 261, 262;
all
Kindergarten, 283, 284; principles
and practice
of,
284-286
fundamental principles of, 262, 263; leading 264 ; system representatives, 263,
of, " Hutten, Von, and Letters of Ob-
of educational system and characof, 287, 288 ; death ter of, 288.
summary
modified, 264, 265.
scure Men," 124, 125.
Huxley, Professor, on liberal education, 3.
" Gate of Tongues," by Comenius,

203, 204.
Germany,
effect of revival of learn-
ing in, 123-125; opposition of the monks to education, 123125 ; contemporary education in, 291, 292 government supervision of education, 292 ; three grades of schools, primary, gymnasia, real
;
India, education in, 15 ; religion of, 16; people, castes, and caste sys-
tem, 16, 17; higher education

19, 20.
Israel, people of,
of, in
in,
26-32
mission
school, 292-295 ; normal schools, 295 ; universities of, 296.
the world's history, 27; education among, 27, 28 ; system of teaching, 28, 29 higher education of, 30; schools of the
;
INDEX.
prophets, 30, 31 ; religious poetry of, 31. Italy, effect of revival of learning
in,
331
Languages, value of study of anof modern, 264, 265. cient, 264 Latin and Greek, on study of, 264,
;
121-123.
of,
Jahn, Hebrew Commonwealth

quoted, 30, 33, 34.
in
265. Letters of Obscure Men," 124, 125. Lewes, G. H., on Plato, 60.
"
Jansenism, Church, 224, 225; Port Royal schools, 225, 226; opposed to the Jesuit system, 226 services
;
Roman
Catholic
Locke, John, early years and education, 213, 214; public life and " experience, 214, 215 ; Thoughts
concerning Education," 216, 217 ; principles set forth in the work, 217-219 ; views as to physical education, capacity of pupils, exercises, study of languages,
of school of, to education, 226, 227. Janssen, J., on the schools of the Brethren of the Common Life.
113.
219-
222.
Jefferson,
Thomas, on popular edu-
Luther, Martin, on Reuchlin, 131 ; on the low state of education in
cation, 315.
Saxony,
etc.,
137, 138
early life
;
Jerome, Saint, on Christian education, 97, 98.
Jesuits,
founded by Ignatius Loyola, 166; opponents of the Reformation, 167 principles and methods, 167, 168; schools of, very successful, 168; the order abolished, then re - established, 168; Loyola's plan of studies, 169 the religious element very
;
;
and struggles, 140, 141 interest in education, 142-144 on family discipline, 144 ; on teaching, 145
; ;
efforts
in behalf
of education.
colleges in
146, 147.
Lyceums and communal
France, 300, 301. Lycurgus, system of laws and education, 40, 41 ; details of system
of, 41,
45
results in Sparta, 44,
strong
in, 1
70
skill of, in teach-
45.
ing, 171, 172; emulation, length of course, and results, 171-173. Jews. See Israel. Justin Martyr, quoted, 88.'
Kahnis, on the tenets

248.
of deism,
Macaulay, Lord, quoted, 174. Magi, the, in Persia, 25. Massachusetts, early attention in, to education, 811 ; Harvard College founded in, 811, 812 ; action as
to
common
Kant, on the Philanthropin educational scheme, 260, 261. Kindergarten, established by Froemode of teaching bel, 283, 284
;
schools, 312, 313.
Maurus, Rabanus, on studies in the monastic schools, 101, 102. Melanchthon, pupil of Reuchlin, 1 30; on churches and schools of Thuringia,
in, 284.
136,
Knightly education, aim of, and course of study, 107-110. Kothen, Ratich's school at, 196-200. Kurtz, on theology in the seventeenth century, 155, 156; pietistic movement, 240.
Lancaster, Joseph, education, 305.
training, 148,
ing,
137; early life and 149 love of learn;
150;
education, 151; Plan," of, 152.
great "
influence on Saxony School
on the
Milton, John, on education, 3 ; early life and training, 188, 189 ; sad period of life, 189, 190 ; educational reformer,
labors of, for
education,
1 90 ; views on 190-192; on mcth-
INDEX.
ods and studies, 192, 193; vast
Persia, religion of, 21, 22 ; education in, 22, 23 importance of the Magi in, 25.
;
scheme of
studies, 194.
Minne-songs, what they were, 109.
Mohammedan
learning, seats of, success, etc., 114. Monastic schools, 99, 100 ; course
Pestalozzi,
on sound education, 1 ; high character of, 266, 267 per;
of study in, 100, 101. Monitorial system of teaching, 304. Monks, opposed revival of learning, 123-125 ; schools of, course of
study, etc., 99-101. Montaigne, eminent French writer, 175 ; early years and training,
sonal qualities and studies, 268270 ; devotion of, to teaching, 270, 271 school of, at Burgdorf, 271 ;
;
Yverdun, 272, 273 loses his wife, 274; death and character educational princiof, 274, 275 ples, 276, 277 these summarized
at
;
;
by Payne, 277, 278.

Pfefferkorn, John, sought to have all Jewish books, except the Bible, destroyed, 130.
views
176; "Essays" of, 176; of, on education, study of languages, etc., 176, 177; censures mechanical methods and cramming, 177 on school discichief subject of pline, 177, 178
175,
; ;
Philanthropin,
ists,
study, 178.
and Philanthropinviews and theories of, on educhief advocates cation, 256-261 of the system, 256, 257 ; Kant's
;
Mosheim, the historian, on the views

of the Jansenists, 224. Music, in Greek education, 54.
as urged by of, 247 Rousseau in "Emile," 250-256. Neander, the historian, quoted, 93 on education in Church schools,
Nature, study
opinion of, 260, 261. Phoenicians, in antiquity, 26. Pietism, name given to Spener's labors in Frankfort, 239, 240. Plato, pupil of Socrates, 60 views on education in the " Republic," 61, 62 ; made education the business of the state, course of study,
;
103, 104.
etc., 61, 62.
Niethammer, on contrast between humanism and philanthropinism,

263.
Plutarch, quoted, on education in Sparta, 41, 44 on Cato the Elder,

;
70, 71.
Normal schools
in Germany, 295.
Oriental nations, aim of education See China, India, Persia, in, 9.

Israel, Egypt.
Popular education in England, 302, 304-306 preparatory schools, 302, 303 in American colonies, 307, 308; in New England, 312;
; ;
"
" Pansophic scheme of education,
Massachusetts, 312, 313;, in Connecticut, 313; in Rhode Island, 313 in New Jersey, 313 in
in
; ;
204. Parochial schools, 102, 103. Paroz, on Sturm's system of education, 162, 163 ; on merits of Ratich, 199, 200; on services of Port Royal to education, 226, 227 on Fenelon as a teacher, 224 ; on Rousseau's views, 252.
;
Pennsylvania, 313
314.
in Maryland,
Port Royal schools. See Jansenism. Primary schools, in Germany, 292 ; in France, 300; in the United
States, 320, 321. Protestantism, principles of, 138140; services of, to education, 139,
Peasantry, education of, neglected in the middle ages, 111, 112. Pedagogue, Athenian, 52.
140.
Public
schools
in
New England
States, 312-314.
INDEX.
Puritans, in
333
;
New
England, educa-
128
ing,
services of, to
Hebrew learn-
tional views of, 310. Pygmalion, story of, 184.
Pyramids, in Egypt, 32. Pythagoras, 25 ; native of Samos, 45 ; studies in Egypt, 45, 46 school of, in Italy, 46 ; views of, and course of study, 46, 47 ; religious views of, 47, 48 ; dogmatic tone of, 48 ; end of career,
;
128-130. Revival of learning, 120 ; effect produced in Italy, 121-123. Richter, on Rousseau's views of
education, 250, 251.
Ritter, 72.
on
Aristotle, 63
on
Cicero,
Rollin, early life
49.
Quick, on the Jesuit system of teachon teaching Latin ing, 172, 173
;
and education, 234 " Treatise on Studies," 285, 236 views of, as to sound education, 236 on qualifications of teachers, 237, 238 rules and principles of,
; ; ;
;
at
Kothen, 197, 198; on John
in teaching children, 238, 239. Roman Catholic Church. See Church.
Locke's views, 223. Quintilian, born in Spain, educated in Rome, 76, 77 ; taught twenty years in Rome, 77 ; system of
Rome, age of Augustus
in, 65,
66
Roman
used
education, 77-79 ; writings of, in the monastic schools, 100.
character in contrast with Grecian, 66 ; love of utility, 67 ; family life in, 67 ; school training, 68, 69 ; higher education in,
68-70 ; general result, 70. Rousseau, J. J., early years, 249
Raikes, Robert, founder of Sundayschools, 304. Ratich, critic and educator (sixteenth and seventeenth centu-
Holstein, 194, 195 ; memoon education, 195; model school of, in Anhalt-Kothen, 196 ; mode of teaching, 196-198; failure of school, 198; educational maxims, 199; value of educational maxims, 198 ; services of, to education, 199, 200.
ries), rial
strange contradictions in life of, 250 ; " l^mile, or concerning Education," estimate of, 250, 251 ; views of, as to getting rid of evil by returning to Nature, 252 five periods of human development,
;
252, 253 ; on female education, tribute to Christ Jesus 254, 255 and the Gospel, 256. Rowe, Rev. A. D., quoted, on native schools in India, 18, 19.
;
"
Saxony School Plan," by Melanchthon, 152.
Raumer, quoted, 123, 125 on John Sturm, 159, 160; on university schools, 165; on Francis Bacon, 181 on Comenius, 208 on John Locke, 216 on current training
; ; ; ;
of children in eighteenth century, 256. Reformation, the, in the sixteenth

century, important results of, 119, 1 20 ; relation of, to education, 135, 136.
Schmidt, Karl, on Pythagoras, 47 ; on the teachings of Jesus -Christ, 86 ; on education in the middle ages, 94 ; on progress in the seventeenth century, 175 ; on John
Reformers, the Continental: Luther, 140 ; Melanchthon, 148 ; Zwingli
and Calvin, 153. Reuchlin, one of the humanists,
Locke, 216 ; on the principles of the humanists, 262, 263. Schools, catechetical, 91 monastic, 99 ; cathedral and parochial, 102 ; Neander on church schools, 103, 104; Jesuit, 167, 168; Port Royal, 225, 226 ; Kindergarten, 283, 284 ; primary in Germany, 292 ; normal in Germany, 295 ; prima;
334
INDEX.
Theology
a science (seventeenth century), 155 ; effect of, on the universities, 164, 165.
ry in France, 300 ; common in Massachusetts, 312, 313 ; primary in United States, 320, 321. Science and scientific spirit, growth of, in the middle ages, 113, 114 ; led to the founding of universities,
Thirlwall, the historian, quoted on education in Sparta, 45. Thomas a Kempis, one of the Breth-
115.
ren of the
Common
Life, 113.
Semitic race, works of, 26. Seneca, the philosopher, born in Spain, early education in Rome, 74; banished, 75; tutor of Nero, 75 ; sentiments and principles of,
75, 76. Socrates, born in Athens, personal
United States, educational needs of, 806, 307 ; two periods, colonial and national, 307, 308 educa;
tional work during colonial period, in Virginia, Massachusetts,

etc.,
308-314
principles
and
sentiments and style of teaching, 57, 58 ; trial and death of, 58-60. Solon, the Athenian lawgiver, 50 ; system and aim of education, 50-
appearance
of,
56
55.
during national period, 314 et seq. ; national university advocated, 316; public lands granted for education, 316, 317 ; popular education throughout the country much the same, 320.
spirit
Southern colonies of America neglected public education, 307 ; improvement in the Southern
States since the 319.
Universities, rise and progress of, 115, 116; influence and power of, 116, 117 ; low moral state of,
war of
secession,
Sparta, under laws of Lyeurgus, 4042 ; education in, chiefly physical, 41 ; how carried out, 42 literary
;
in the middle ages, 115, 116; how affected by theological tend164 ; disgraceful exencies,
and moral training, tem of education is
42, 43 ; sysmartial, 45 ; Thirlwall's views quoted, 45.

4.
cesses of students in, 165, 166 ; excellence of German, 296 ; instruction in the French, 301, 302 ; in England, 303, 304; in the United States, 320, 321.
Spencer, Herbert, on education, Spener, Jacob. See Pietism.
Stanz, on Lake Lucerne, Pestalozzi's school in, 270.
Staunton,
Howard,
on
English
schools, 303.
Veda," the, what it is, 16. Virginia, education in the colonial period, 308, 309 ; popular education discouraged, 308, 309 ; William and Mary College in, 309,
"
Sturm, John, born in Prussia, a noted humanist, 159 taught in

;
310
literary
development
-in,
slow, 310.
Strasburg forty years, 159; course of study at gymnasium of, 160162 ; influence of, in England and
Washington,
America, 163, 164.
George, on advantages of popular education, 307, 314.

in Virginia, 309.
Sunday
schools,
established
by
William and Mary College founded

Williams, Dr., on education in China,
Raikes, 304.
Tertullian, the Latin father, quoted, 89, 95, 96. Teutonic nations, leaders in education, 87.
11.
Wines, quoted, on Jewish education,

31, 32.
Woman,
degradation of, in Oriental
INDEX.
nations, 10, 18, 22; education of, in Sparta, 44 ; in Athens, 51, 65, 64 ; in Rome, 67 ; education of,
335
Persians, 23, 24 ; on the character of Socrates, 59, 60.
neglected in the middle ages, 111, 112 Fenelon on " Education of Girls," 228, 231; Rousseau's views, 254, 255 ; education of,
;
Yverdun, Pestalozzi's school in, 272, 273 ; Froebel's experience in,

282, 283.
in India, 290.
Zoroaster, founder of Persian religion, 21.
Xenophon, on education among the
Zwingli,
on teaching, 153,
154.
THE END.

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m

HARRIS, A. M., LL. D.

Original systems as ex-

histories (B.) Critical

which set forth the

The noteworthy arraignsys-

ments which educational reformers have put forth against existing

these compose the classics of pedagogy.

Systematic Treatises on the Theory of Edu(A.)

written from the historical standpoint; these,

The Art of Education.

details of the school-room.

on the organization and supervision of schools.

attained without a knowledge of the process

by which they have come

proposed to give special

to the history of the systems that

Again, since history is incompetent to furnish the ideal of the future,

necessary to devote large space to works of educational criticism.

the purifying process by which ideals are rendered clear and

potent, so that progress

History and criticism combined

possible a theory of the whole.

For, with an ideal toward which the entire

ment of the whole can be shown, and

united into one system.

comes the practice.

treated in special works

devoted to the devices

believed that the teacher does not need authority so

sight hi matters of education.

he understands the theory of edu-

careful study of the critical literature of education,

to select or invent such practical devices as are best

series will contain

authors, and will be under the editorship of

works from European as well as American W. T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D.

price for the

be $1.50 for the larger

volumes, 75 cents for the smaller ones.

The Philosophy of Education.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES

PBOFES80B OP MODEBN LANGUAGES AND LITBEATUBE IN BOANOKB OOLLBGB

NEW YORK APPLETON AND COMPANY

educational ideals that have prevailed have

in conformity with the fundamental

not have had

concrete relations, and by this there

given a sort of systematic unity to the details of

object of parental government

child into habits of conformity to the current religious

seeks to enforce an observance

of regulations that establish social relations founded on

the view of the world furnished in religion.

learn, therefore, to look for the explanation of

the system of education in the national ideal as revealed

and form of govern-

school, originally organized

an instrumentality of the Church,