   

 
Metallurgy
of

Iron & Steel




 

     
 

      
   

 2019   
  

  

ISBN:978-969-9654-7

 
  
 

75300  17667

Cell: 03312116235

email: maerajjami@gmail.com
 




 


     


IRON AND STEEL' is the first ever book on Metallurgy written in Urdu

Language by Engr. Muhammad Yaqoob Bhuri, who possess more than 40

years of experience in the steel making industry.

This publication does not only intend to be beneficial for students, faculty

and professionals in the field of metallurgy, but also for non-engineering

personnel related to iron and steel industry.

FAIZAN STEEL, the fastest growing manufacture of Quality Steel Billets,

Re-Bars and other products, is proud to have attained services of Engineer

Muhammad Yaqoob Bhuri for over a decade and is further proud to have

been presented the opportunity to support and publish this book.

FAIZAN STEEL
 

 SUBJECTS   
9 Iron ores  1

10 Production of iron   2

10 Blast furnance 

 3

11 Blast furnance equipment 


 4

13 Blast furnanceproduction process  

 5

15 Chemistry of pig iron  

   6

15 Desufurization de phosphorization  7

17 Direct reducing iron DRI     8

18 Raw material for DRI       9

18 Medrix process 

 10

20 Steel   11

20 Effects of elements in steel   12

22 Steel production     13

22 Basic oxygen furnance (convertor) 

( )  
 14

24 Refractory for convertor 

 15

25 Raw materil for convertor   

 16

29 Sequnce of process BOF   17

30 Chemical reaction in convertor  

 18

30 Sub lance system 

 19

33 Electric arc furnance 

  
 20

34 Refractory for EAF 

  
 21

36 Raw material for EAF   

   22

40 Production process of EAF 

  
  23
49 Induction furnance 
 
 24

52 Refractory of induction furnance 

 
 25

55 Production process of IF 
 
  26

59 Secondary steel making  

   27

59 Equipment of sec. steel making  

   28

63 Continuous casting  29

63 Tundish /tundishcar  / 30

64 Refractory for tundish  31

65 Copper Mould 

 32

67 Secodary cooling  33

68 Electro magnetic stirring (EMS)    34

71 Casting defects 
   35

73 Rolling process  36

73 Hot rolling 
 37

73 Flat product  

  38

74 Long product  

 
 39

75 Rolling defects 
 40

76 Cold rolling  41

 
76 Pickling  
 42
 
77 Annealing   
 43

77 Galvanizing   44

79 Thrmo mechnical process TMT 

 45

79 Iron Crbon Diagram 

    
 46

81 Some International Standard     47

85 Refrences 
 48
 


 (Iron &Steel)     
 (Metallugy)     





         
  
 
 

  ,      
 
 
     
     
       
 
       
 30-35
 
         
   
       

 
  
 


    (  )
     
 (  )
    
 ( )   

  
 
  
   
      


( ) 

0323-2782912

0336-2782912

 
 
     

 


 (ferrous & its alloys)     1 )
Non ferrous metals (2



 (aluminium)  ( tin) ,(zinc) 
  ,(nickel)  ,(copper) 
 
  

 
 
    

       (Iron) 
   
   2500  
symbol: Fe (pure)

Atomic No 26

Atomic weight: : 56

Melting point : 1535 0C

Boiling point : 1550 oC

Density: 7.87 gm/cu cm at 20 0C

Electro +ve vity 1.8


  )    
 ore( 



         
(Iron Ore) 

  
    
  4.2 %   


 2

(Fe3O4- Magnetite Ore) 
 
  (i)


. 

 40-70 %
 
(Fe2O3 Hematite) (ii)
 

  
    45-65 %

.    
(Fe2O3.H2O-Limonite) 
 

      45-55 % 
  25% 
   
 


 

. (porous material) 
   

(Blast furnace route)    (i)

(DRI] Direct reduced iron)    (ii)
 3

(Blast furnace route)   (i)


   
   
  
  
 

  (1)
 (5)   (4),  (3)  (2) 
top(5)bosh(4)hearth(3),bottom(2) foundation(1)

(1)
(foundation) 


    
 

  

  
 
 
  7000  

(bottom) (2)

carbon  fire bricks   

   

 
 
 blocks
(hearth) (3)

 
(molten metal &slag)    

  1.5  refractory(tuyers)
  
 carbon blocks 
fire bricks

(bosh)   (4)

.
        
    
    

   
  
 
 bosh plates350mm 

  


 
fire bricks  
 stack or shaft   bosh
  
 refractories      
 (hearth)
 

    
   (top) 


 4

(B.F.equipment) 

(1)
transfer car 

(storage yard)  (2)


iron ore (3)
(coke bin) (4)

(scale car)   (5)

(skip car)  (6)


(skip car bridge)  (7)
(small bell)  (8)
(large bell) 
(9)

(stack) (10)

(bosh)  (11)

(tuyers) (12)

(notch)  (13)
(hearth)(14)

(iron notch)  (15)



(dust catcher)   (16)


(stove)(17)
  
   
  

mill scale  (coke) (2)(iron ore) (1)
(lime & lime stone)  
(4)
 5

(iron ore) 

   
  (Fe3O4- Magnetite Ore) 
(Fe2O3      
 
 

  
 
 Hematite)

(coke)
       
 

   reducing action   


   
 coking coal 


       
  1650-2000oF
  



      
   
 
     
     
 
    
   


   

(vii) (vi) 
  (v)(vi) (iii) 

 (ii)  (i)

  

(flux) 

(CaO)
        
   

   , 
 (slag)     
(CaCO3)


  

 
     
  
      


25-30% 

 4-6% (ore dust)(fine ore)    

(sintering)  


   250-300 mm   

  

      exhauster  
 
 750-880
   
100%
    
     

 
 

 

 6



(Blast furnace process)  
 
, ,
,  ,     

 
 
(largebell)  
    (smallbell)
    
 
      
  

   
  
   
   
    
 
  200oC 
   1800 oC 
  

tap        (slag) (molten pig iron)

 slag notchhole
 



   

 
    (iii) 
    (ii)    
 (i)

   
 
 combustion    
 
               

    


 7

 
 
     
 
  
       
Fe2O3 +3C = 2Fe + 3CO

 
   
  

 
(i)3Fe2O3 + C = 2Fe3O4 + CO begins at 460 oC

(ii) 2Fe3O4 +2C = 6FeO +2CO begins at 595 oC

(III) FeO +C = Fe + CO begins at 870 oC

or (iv) FeO + CO = CO2 +Fe

 8

  
 (endothermic reaction)   

(coke)  

       
2C + O = 2CO

 
 (exothermic reaction)  
   
  
 
     


CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 begins at 870 oC

   
     
 
FeS +CaO = CaS +FeO +CO

 (MgO)(Al2O3) (silica) 

  
 

 
  
 
    800 oC 
 
 
    
800 oC         

    

  (Al2O3) (SiO2)    
     1600-1800 oC
 
SiO2 + 2C==Si + 2CO


      2500 oC 

 
        
     
 
      
      
 
(i) 3Fe2O3 + CO --- 2Fe3O4 + CO2

(II) 2Fe3O4 + 2CO --- 6FeO+2CO

(iii) FeO +CO --- Fe +CO2

 9


   
 

Fe2O3 + 3CO ---- Fe +3CO

   

     

2CO --- C +CO2

 
        

  

       
 
  
 
  
 
 (pig iron)   
    


    
 
      3.5--4.3%
 
         
 

 
          
 
(chemistry of pig iron)    
 

3.4--4.3 %  (C)
 
0.50 %  (Mn) 
  

0.40 %  (Si)  

0.02 % 
  
 (S) 
0.08 %  
  
 (P)

  
     

 
    
(pig casting machine)  (i)



(mixer) (steel plant)     (hot metal )  (ii)
   
  
   
    

desulphurization &      hot metal 
 
 
 dephosphorization
 10

Pretreatment of hot metal 

   

(torpedo car)   

 
 desulphurization & dephosphorization 

   TORPEDO
 dephosphorizationdesulphurization

  
       
  
 


  



   
     
 
  

    
   (refractory lance)  

MgS    
  
 


  
   CaP2O5 CaS
 
 

 steel plant 
 11




      dephosphorizationdesulphurization

 
  


       (i)
   ii 
        
 


 
   

  
  


    DRI   

 
 mini steel mills 
 12

Directly Reduced Iron (D R I)     

 


     
      

800-1000 oC        

   
   
  D R I     
 
 
   

 
 

     


 
  
 
    
  
800--1050oC    
  HBI 
(hot briquetted iron )



   

CO2 +C == 2CO

Fe2O3 + CO == Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + CO == FeO +CO

FeO + CO == Fe + CO2
 13

  
  DRI    
  
 
 

Total iron 65--67 %

SiO2 +Al2o3 2--3 %

CaO + MgO 0.5 - 1.0 %

Sulphur 0.02% max.

Phosphorous 0.04 %max

Coal 
Ash 23--25 % Fixed Carbon +40 %

Calorific value 5200 k cal. / mol

   
    
   
total iron 91-93 % metllic iron 80--84 %

carbon 0.25 % gangue 3--4 %

sulphur 02 % phosphorous 0.035--0.05 %

 


    i
  
  

       
    ii
 

  
    III
 (vertical kiln)

    
    (iv)


   
  
   
  
   
 
 Hot briquetted iron (HBI)
 HYL  (2) Medrix (1)   
 
  medrix
 14

Medrix Process

    

  

 (recycle)  
  pallet    
 

   
      

    (HBI)   
 (DRI)   

  (reoxidize)
 15

 
(chemical composition of iron ore)   
Iron ore Pellet

Total iron 65--67 % 64--65 %

SiO2 +Al2O3 2--3 % 4--6 %

Cao + MgO 1-2 % 2--3 %

Sulphur 0.025 % 0.028 %

Phosphorous 0.045% 0.045 %

size 12--16 mm

Avg. cold crushing strenth kg/cm2 200

(chemical composition of natural gas)  

   
(D R I)  
      Methane 85--93 %

Total iron 92 % Carbon di oxide 0.1--5 %

Metallic iron 81--85 % Ethane 3--8 %

Gangue 6--8 % Propane 1--4 %

Carbon 1.2--2.5 % Nitrogen 0.3--1.0 %

Sulphur max. 0.003 %

Phosphorous max. 0.06 %

 16

Steel  
        
    
  4.3 % 
 
  0.025--1.8 %
 
    

  
low carbon steel     (1)
carbon steel    (2)
high carbon steel    
 (3)
 
   
Low alloy steel(i)

High alloy steel(ii)

 
   
 
     
  
 
    
       
     
    
   

 
Carbon 

 
   
(strength & hardness)
  (welding)   (ductility)        
 
Manganese 


  
 
    
  
  


 
 (welding)  (ductility)       
  
  



Silicon  
 
  
 

  
   
       
   
 

 
 17

Sulphur 
   transversecracks  

 

 

 cracks      

  
     

   

     
Phosphorous

  
    
   
    
 
  
     
    
 
  
   


Alluminium  




  
 
         
 
 
      


    
 
  austenite grain 


Copper 
 
       
    
 

 

 
   

surface quality   
 0.20% 

Chromium

  
  
      
  
  nickle   
   
  
    

          



Nickle

  
   
 
  

 
 impact strength
 18

Niobium 

 
 
tensile strength   
  yield strength
 
  grain   
yield strength  


  
 19

Steel making    

    
Basic oxygen furnace   
  
 
Electric steel making  
   

  (refractories)  

   

 
  BOF 

    
  
 
 

   
  
  
   
 
 

     

 

 


 


  
 
 
    

 oxygen bottom blowing process

B O F Plant 
   



    



  
  
  
  

 
  
   
 


   
        
  
  Hood  
 

  

 20




        




      
 
   
    storage bins    

       bins 
   




          



  
 pretreatment plant     

    

 
 

 
   
  
  

 
  
   
     

 
 

 21


    
   



 
    
   
  
  


  
  Copper tip  
 
   


   
  
     

 
 
 
   
   
 
 
 
 copper tip 
   
 

  


    


 
 
    
 
 
 

 

 
     
  
 
    
  
   
 1030oC
  
 
 
Q=2.2D*L

Q=   
 
D= 
     
 
 L=
 22


 
 
  
27 

Q= 2.2*8*27 =475 gallons per minutes

15oC 
 
  
 formula 
 


  
   
 
  
  

   

 


 
 reducing action     
   


   
     40-50  

    
 

 90%  
 
 
 
 
    

  

 23
 
 

   safety linnig 
      
 
       
      


 
   
   
      24
   

  
 

  
  dolomite+magnesite  
     


   dolomite+MgO       80--95%  MgO
   
90--95%  MgO 
   
 
  
  

burned impregnated high MgO     
   
      
 
bricks
 
  
 
   cone 
     
   
 
 
low iron magnesite bricks     

 

  
 
    

    aluminium&ferro alloys  
  

            

hole  

  
      
 rings
 
  
  
   
  
 (adjust)  
    


 

 40 --80 
  
   500

  gunning machine
  
 
 
 24

  
 
 


 
  

   
   
      
     

     1200oC 
   5--10oC/min  

 

    
  
  


Raw material for convertor  
 
 30%  
  70% 
 hot metal  

 
calcium floride 
lime stonelime

 
 
      
  

        
     


  
       

 
   
     

 
   
 
     
  
 
 70--80 
   
  
     



 
 25

 
 
 

         
 


 

       
    

 
    
           


 
 

  acidic 
 
    slag basicity

 
 
     

     6--7
  
    
            
 

 26

    
 

Impotant exothermic reactions in steel making

 BTU at 77oF/ lbs

Fe3C+1/2 Fe =3Fe +CO 4661 /lbs C

Fe3C +O2 ==3Fe+CO2 15007 / lbs C

CO +1/2 O2 == CO2 4358 / lbs C

Fe3Si + O2==3Fe +SiO2 12677 / lbs Si

Mn + 1/2 O2 == MnO 3015 /lbs Mn

Fe +1/2 O2 == FeO 2057 / lbs Fe

Fe2O3== 2Fe +3/2O2 2219 / lbs Fe2O3

2CaO +SiO2 == Ca2SiO4 485 / lbs CaO

3CaO + SiO2 == Ca3SiO5 289 / lbs CaO

 
manganese    
 
  
    0.80%     
  
   
  
    
 
     

   
   

   
       
  
 
 
 
 
  
    
  
   0.8%

          
     

    
 
   
 
      
 
  MnS+FeO==MnO+FeS

Slag free hot metal 

 
 
 
 
    
  

 
 
    
   (i)


0.5 %   1.0%  
     (ii)
  Al2O3 
 

 27



 
   (iii)
     
 
    
 (iv)
 low yield point    (v)
    


 
     
      
:  
   

  
 
250   
  
    
  (i)
 

 (ii)

 
 (iii)

       
 100 
 
   
    
   
 
 
     
   
 
         

 

    
   
 
 


  
  
 
 :1
 
(i)

    

    
    
  
 
  
  

    :2

(2)
 
   
  
 


      

    
  (3)

   
  
 28
  



Flux material 

 
  40--100    
70%   
 :Lime 


 
    
SiO2 0.5--2.0%   
 

CaO 96.0--92.0 %  


 

MgO 1.0--3.0 %  

L.O.I .0.50--1.50 %  
Sulpher 0.04--0.1% 
 
 
 
 15     

    1/2"--1/8"1.5"-2.0"
10 
   
    
CaO.MgO 
 15--25% 
     viscocity   (melting point)
 
    
   



CaF2  
 
      

 
10 %   
 70 %  
 

   20 % 

  
  
   

 
   
 
  
 29




 
250  
     
  
    
  20000
50     


  
  
 

 

 
99.8%    

 
 
   0.22%
0.005%


strain           
    aging
    
 
   
  
 
 
  
 
 
 
    
 120--220 psi 
  
  150--250 psi
 
 

   
        
   
 


Use of iron ore  


 
      


  
       

 
  
  (Pallets)  
   
      
      
          
 
65%    (Fe)    

  
  
 30

 

      
 
  
  
   
   
    
(1)


  
  (2)


 (3)
 

     
   (4)
 

   
        (5)
    

sequence of operation 

   

    
 

 
 
     
 

 
    

 

 
  
 
 
    
 
  
  
 
 
 
  
     
 

   

    
  
 
     
   
   
   
          

  
      
   
 

     
  
  
 31
 
    
       


  
 
 



  


Chemical reaction in BOF

 
Refining agent     

  
  
  
  


  
       30%
   

     
  
 
  
Si +O2 == SiO2

 
,      

 
  
 
      

 32


Sub lance system 
 ,
,,  ,    ,    
  
  



     
 
      
   
    
  
 
       
 
   ,, ,  ,     
  
 
 
    
 computer moduling 
 valve control  sensors 

 

 
 
   


 
     
 
 
 (oxygen activity) 

(Static Dynamic Module)  

      


(Static dynamic module) 


     SDM
  
   
 
 

 , (hot metal)     
 ,  ,  
  
  
   ,       


 
       



    
      

  
 (desulphurization)  
  
    
 
  

  
 33

Dynamic module   


     

  
 (probs) 
 
   
 (Temperature sample carbon) TSC
(Temperature sample oxygen  

  
  

   TSO
(samples)  
      
  
      
 
          SDM  


       (tap to tap time)

    
(lining life) 
 34

Electric Steel Making   


            
Induction Furnace 
(ii) Electric Arc Furnace  (i)
 
Electric Arc Furnace  
  
    
  
 
  
 EAF 
  
  
5 -100 MW    
  
  
 
  
   
  1550 oC    
  

 

 
  

  

,
        
 
       ,
    
 35


          
 
 
   
      
 

    
 

        
 
  
 

 
     

 
 , , 

 
 
 
 

 
       EAF 
 

 
  
 
    

     
  
    
 


   
 
 
  
 
   
  
 


   

 
Description of Arc furnace    

  'D'  '  
 rocker      
     

    
   

 
        
 
   
 

 
 
   
   



    
 arc
 
      
  

  
  
 36

   

 
    
 (1)
 
 
 
  
       

 

 
    
 
  
  (2)
     
    

 

   
     
250   
60---70 

E A F refractory 


  EAF 


   
    
  

      basic  acidic  
 
  

 
acidic refractories

 (quarzite)

      (fire clay) 
( silica)  


basic refractories

  
    (magnesite)
    (dolomite)  

   


( silica) 

milky lime
 

 quartz
   
  



(fire clay)  
 
 
     

hydrated allumina silicate  

 
 37


  
(dolomite)



 

  
 CaCO3.MgCO3   
  

chromite  


    FeO Cr2O3
 
  
  
 ( Mg.Fe)O.(Cr.Al.Fe)2O2formula 
Mullite & high Allumina 
 

  
 
 60--75 % 
 
   
Al2O3.SiO2 

 
 
 
 
  

  
  
  
  
    
 
   
  
 
  
 
 

      
 




    
 EAF
 
roof(vi)tap hole (iii)side wall    (ii)hearth(i)
 38
 
   


   
 safety linning    
          sodium silicate    
  
   sodium silicate   
      


     


   
    

Basic linning    

  
magnesite bricks    
   
  
     

  magesite crush     
   
  
 
    
    

          
high alumina fire clay              

       bricks
  castable   
   

     
 
    

Raw material   

   EAF
  steel scrap
DRI  iron ore iron scrap    



 
    
aluminium   ferro alloys mill scale
 


   
    
( ) 
 39

  

steel scrap

      
          
  
           

 EAF

   
  
(% of recovery)  (v)  
 (iv) (iii)(ii)  (i)
 heat   
         
  

 
   
 
        
   
  
  
 

: :   :2 :1:
 :
 :2
 :1   

mill scale emergency casting iron drops
HMS 1 & 2   

   
         


              
   

              
 
:returned scrap

 
   
 

 

bundle scrap 1 

   
 
    
   
      

   
  

 40

bundle scrap2 


  
      

          
  

machine shop turnings  

  
   
     
 
alloy scrap

    

   


   
 
  
 
 
 
 
       
 

  
Directly reduced iron( D.R.I.)
 

  
    

  
 
 
      


Fe -Total 90--94 %

Fe -metallic 83--89%

Metallization 92--95 %

Carbon 1.0--3.5%

phosphoras 0.005-0.09 %

Sulfur 0.001-0.03 %

Gangue 2.8--6.0%

Bulk density 16--19 tons/m3

Apparent density 3.4--3.6 tons/m3

Discharge temp 40 oC
 41


 

 
      , 

, 
        
 

   
 , ,  
    

  
  
 


 
:  
  

     
 
   
 
 4.0
   
 
 1.2
 
  
   
 
 0.8
  
 
 0.2
  
 
0.05
oxidizing raw material   

Iron ore  

  
 
  
  
    
   
Mill scale


  
   

  
  
Fe3O4
 

 

 
  
Gaseous Oxygen

 
 
  
 
 
   
 EAF 
95 % 

 
  
  
 
 42

ferroalloys & deoxidizers   


    
  
 
  
 



  
Arc Furnance Process 
  
    
    
      
 
         
 
   
 
     


   
 
  
 
    
     
 
  
  
 
 
melter makes slag and slag makes steel 
 
    
 
 
Acidic Process  

    oxidizing   

   
  
        
   
   

    



 
  
    
  
 
  
Basic Process  


  
  
   
  
   
  

CaO +SiO2 ==CaSiO3

   

4.5:12.5:1    SiO2 CaO
 

 43

   
  

 

Oxidizing 
single slag process 

Rimming, Sami killed,Killed Steel  
    
 
 

      
  
 
 
     

   
 
  
  
 
 
 
 :
 
  
 
   
    
    

 
 
Single reducing process

 
 
 
  
   

  
     
 
  
 



Double reducing slag process    
  

 

  

      
 
 
   
 




    
  (I)
      (II)

  
 
   (III)

 44

 recovery   
  
  (iv)

Composition Range Source Component

40 - 60 % Charged CaO

5 - 15 % Oxidation product SiO2

10 - 30 % Oxidation product FeO

3-8% Charged as dolomite MgO

Charged - slag fluidizer CaF2

2 - 5% Oxidation product MnO

Absorbed from steel S

Oxidation product P

  
Basic Arc Furnance Process 

   

    
  
   
  .1

  .2
 

  .3
 
 )  .5
( 

 .6

 .7

( 
  )  .8
  
        
     

   ,         
    

.   

 45

   
 
 
    
   
 
       
   
 
 
    
   
  
   
  
      

        
    
  
20--25
     
       
  (1):  


  
   (2)
   
 
      (3)
 
 
   
    
   (4)

 
    (5)
 
  
  
  
     
   (i)

  
  
 
     
        (ii)


   
     

      
    
  (iii)
     
  (iv)
    
     
 (v)
 
 mill scale 
    
 (vi)
  iron ore 
 46

      
    

 
   
 

 
    
(basic furnance practice)   (vii)
  
     
  
 
  


Melting process
 



   
  
 
  
    

 

  
        (1):    

 


  
 

1/3     (2)
   
 
  

    

  
 

    
   (3)
 



 


 2/3  
     
 

 

 
   

   
  

    
 
 
  
  (4)

      
  
  
    
    
 
           

  
    
   
 
     
  
      

  
 
        
 (5)
    
 
 
 47

 
  
  

 (6)
     
 

oxidation during melt down

 refining process   

   
  
  
    
    
 

 
   
       
 
    
 


 
  
   
     
 
 
    
    
 

 
 

 (iv)   (iii) 
  (ii) 
  (i)


.   
   
 ;
   (v) 
 
  
  
     (vi)
  

Refining 



 
 
            



 

   

   
    

  
     
    
   
  
 
 48

Low to Medium Power UHP FURNACE

75 - 85 % 50 - 60 % Electrical Energy

5 - 10 % Burners INPUTS

15 - 25 % 30 - 40 % Chemical Reactions

100% 100% Total Input

50 - 55 % 55 - 60 % Steel Output

8 - 12 % 8 - 10 % Slag

5-6% 8 - 10 % Cooling Water

17 - 30 % 1-3% Miscellaneous

7 - 10 % 17 - 28 % Offgas

carbon boiling 

     
   
 
    
  

 
   
    
  
 
  
(agitation) 
 
       
   
    

  
    


  
   
 
 
 
      (stainless steel)


    
     
  exothermic      endothermic
  
 49

 
    
  :
   
 
 
   : 
 
   
  
  
       
     
 

 


 
   
   

     , 
  
 

,  

   ,  ,,
  
  
 
  
   


   fluidity 
  
  
   
  
     
      
 

   

   
    

 
    
   
    
 
     
         
    
  
 50


  
 

  
 

 , , 
  ,  

   
   
   
 
 
   
60% 
  
  

  
  300
   

 
  52 
 
  


 
  392--450 kwh/t  (IISI) 

   
   



   

 
      
    
  
 
   1540oC

      
  
  

C +FeO == Fe+CO

  
   
 
 
      
   1540oC 

  
 5--10 oC 
  

 1590--1620 oC
 
    
 


  FeMn 



 
   
   
   
     
 
  
      
 
 
 51

  
     (1)
 
  (2)
 
   
  H2O,CO2, C (3)
C +1/2O2 == CO  

H2+1/2O2==H2O


           
  

   


 
       
 
 
 
 
     

  
   

Mn+FeO==MnO+Fe

 
     
 
 
30--40 %   
 
 
 
       

 
  
  
   
   
  
 52


 
Induction Furnance 
  
  
   contact 
 

 joule   (2)(1)
Electromagnetic induction  (1)
 
 

   
joule    

induction electric 
Eddy current  
  
 current
 
joule heating 


     
 Resistivity heating
Q  12*R :      
Q=Heat 


I=Ohms

R=Rsitivity 


     
      
    
 
 

        
Features of induction furnance  
 
 
  
 
 
   
    crucible
  

  
  
   
   
  
100  
 

 
  
 
   
 

 53



    
,   , ,  
 

          
 
 
   



 
 
 :1
 
coreless induction furnance

channel induction furnance 

 
  :2

 
coreless induction furnance

   
   
     
 
  

 
 
   
   
  

 
      
  

 
    

 
channel induction furnance 


 
    
 
steel shell  
 
 

 54


  
  
  
 

 
      
   
  
   
 
       

     

 
    
  
     
 
  

  

Advantage of induction furnance  
 
 
Higher yield   

 
  
  
Faster startup  


    
   

 
 
 
 
Flexibility 
         
 
 
  

Natural stirring 


     
  
clean casting 


    
   

 

   

 







 
Compact installation 
   
  
 

 55


      
     
 


  
  55--75% 
  
 
 
Dis advantage of induction furnance 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 


  
    
 
  EAF
 

  
   
    
   

   



   
 
 
  
 
   
 
      
 
          
  5--7 %      

     

     
      



 
           

   

     

     
   
 56

 
       /
  

    
 

 
 
    
  
   


 
 
Selection of lining for induction furnance   
 

  

  
 
 
   
       
 
 

 

 
 
  (i)

 
    
         (ii)

   
         (iii)

 57


  
0.7--1.5%   
 
  
 
 
 


    Neutral lining  
    
  
 
    
      
  
  

      
 
 
      

      4%   
  , , , 
 ,  
   .1

   
 
  
  0--3 %
 3   
 
     .2

  Neutral 4%
  W,Mo,Ni,V,Ti, Cr,Mn    .3

 
 
   
Silica 99.76%  

Allumina -- Al2O3 0.02 % 
Ferric Oxide 0.04% 
 



Magnesium Oxide 0.12%  
 
Sodium Oxide--Na2O 0.03%   

Loss of ignition 0.02% 
Size 0--7mm 

 58

 
  
Ferric Oxide 0.04% 
 
Allumina -- Al2O3 85% min 
Silica--SiO2 3% max.  

Ferous Oxide 0.03% max   




Magnesium Oxide 11--13%  
 
Density 2.98gCm3 
Grain size 0--6mm  
 
Refractoriness 2150 oC   
Compressive strength 1500 oC *2 hrs 60MPa  

Thermal shock Excellent

resistance


  
 
 
 
  
 
 
   
 
   
   
 
  :2  
 :1

 


 
     -- 
 :1

     
      
  

   
 
    
   

 
  
  
    
 
 59


    
      
 
  
 

      
  
  
   

  

 
 
Production process of IF 

   
 



     

  

   
 
    
  
   

 
 
  
 
      
     

          
 
  
 60

Secondary steel making  

   
 

  
    
 
     ingot




1950
vaccum     vaccum degassing  

 
   0.003 %degassing
   
    
    
 
  
     
   
 1550 oC  
super heating   
 
  
   1600--1650oC

    
     
 
 
 
 
      
 
    

 
 

   (2) (kilo)   
  (1)

 

   (3)
 
 VOD,CAS-OB 
 
 
 
 
  
     
 
 
 FeNb,FeMo,FeTi
   
 
  
   
         inert gas(i)
 
     (ii)
    vaccum treatment (iii)
 
 61



  
    
    
 (iv)

   

  
  (v)
  
  equipmemnt   
 
   
    
    

   
 
Tapping  


 
       

   60oC 
   

    0.5oC       

  
  
  

  6oC      
   
 
 



    12 oC  
  100   


     CAS-OB  
   
  1.5oC
  
   
  
3oC 
 

Alloy addition      
  
        
   
  
  
 
 (iv)    (iii) (ii)   (i)
          (i)
  
 
 
 


       
   

   
 62

 
 
  

  
 
   
 
    

 

 
  
 

 

 
 
    
  
  10%  
    60-100mm
  melting point 
      
 FeMn,FeSi,SiMn.FeCr 
  

 
     
FeNb,FeV,Few,FeMo

     

   
/   
  
   
  (II)   (i)
  
 
   5000      ,    (i)
 
  


  
  ,, ,   (II)
Element addition 

    
 

m(additive) =(X%Ni-Y%Ni) *ladle mass / 100%

  m(additive)

   X% Ni
 Y% Ni
 63


  
   
 
  
       

      

      
 


 
 
      
m(additive)=(Xreq.-Yavail.)*steel weight/recovery%


m ( FeMn) = (1.45-0.10)*25,000/50
 

   = m(FeMn)



 = Xreq

  = xm
FeMn  = recovery%

FeMn   650  25 
 

  6%  
 
c%= 650*6*60/100*25000

   
       0.10%
   

            



agitation 
 64

Equipment of sec. steel making    

 

   
         inert gas(i)
 
     (ii)
    vaccum treatment (iii)
 


     
    
 (iv)

  

 
 
  (v)
  
  equipmemnt   
RH Degassing

 
 
Desufurisation
 (iii) Degassing   (ii) Decarburissing 
   (i)
Chemical heating 
 
  (v) Dephosphorisation
(iv)
Alloying  
  (vi)
 65

Vaccume Oxygen Degassing (VOD)

 (iii)
     (ii)
 (i)
 

(vi)   
  (v)  
  (iv)


Tank degasser+O2
  
  (iv)
 
  
(iii)
   (ii) (i)

Ladle furnance
Electrical heating
 
  (i)
Desulfurisation by slag/metal raction 
 (ii)
homoginization of 
  (iv) slag managemen
 (iii)
 
  
   ladle
Buffer between melting & CCM for sequence

Ladle furnance  

 
 
        

      
  



  
 
 



    
 

  
 
         



  
 
  , 
 , 
     
 
   
    

 66
 
    
R H Degassing 



 


  
 
 
  
 
  
   
  



    
  

 

 ,    
   ,   
 

     
   R H Degassing 
    

 
         
  
 
  
      


    


  
  6.94 tons/CM
1600oC  

   
      
 1.45m 
CAS-OB Process

  
      CAS-OB
    



 Al2O3  
          

 
 
    
    
 

 
  equipment 
    
 67

  
    
      


     , , 
  
     , 
 CaSi ,

   
       

   
 
  
  
    

      
 

 
 
CAS-OB
    
   vessel 
         


 
    



  
10 oC         

   
     
 Al2O3
 
 
   
  
 
Addition of ferro alloys  
 
  
  
  
 
 
 




 adjust
 68


Carbon equivalent  

 
 
  
  
 
   
   

      
      

      
  
  

 
  
hardness   
 (CE)

        
    hard  
 
    
    
   
   

      


 
CE= C% + (Mn%+Si%)/6 +(Cr%+Mo%+V%)/5 + (Cu%+ Ni%)/15


    
 
CE= C% +Mn%/6 + 0.05

CARBON EQUIVALENT WELDABILITY

upto 0.35 Excellent

0.36--0.40 Very good

0.41--0.45 Good

0.46--0.50 Fair

over 0.50 Poor

  
    American welding society( AWS)
0.40 
 
 
 69

Continuous casting machine 

 
    
 1950 
1950 ingot  
 ,  100%  

curve       
 , 
      
 
 
 

mould(3)tundish & tundish car (2)ladle turret (1)
withdrawal roll(6)strand guide (5) secodary cooling(4)

dummybar disconnecting roll   

 (7)
  (8)straightner 

gas cutting or shearing machine 
 
 (8)
dummy bar parking area  
   (9)
 70

(1)
ladle turret




       


 
    
  
   
 
  

 
 
 
   
   
    
Tundish/tundish car  /
  
, ,,      
vessel 


        
     
    

  
 

 slide gate 
 
 
slide gate 
stopper rod

  


  


 
        

 
  
    
 71


   
  

   
  
  
 
   
 

  

   
   
 
   
 
  


Tundish refractory
 

 , 
   ,      
immersion nozle , , , 
 
Bricks linnig  
   


           
 
 
 

  
       

 
          

       
   

  
      

 
    
  
Gunning linning  
 
 
 

  
   
         
   
      
    
  binder  

 
                

        
   
    
         

 
 

 72

 

     
    

  
 

 
   

   1000-1250oC
 

      
  

Tundish boards  
      
  
 
  
  
   


    1970    
     
 
       

 
   
 
  
   
    
 
  
       
  

 (SiO2) 
 

 
     


 

   
 
 
    
 MgO1980
  

Copper Mould

  

   

   
  
     
   
 
 breakout

 

     
  
    
   
   

   cracks  

  ,,)
(  
 73

   6mm--20mm     

 
  
    
     
  10mm-11mm 
  
 

  
 
    

15
4  
 
     


 

 

 
    
  
     
   
  
   

 
   breakout   
  

 
   
  
 
 
    

 
     (2)   (1)
  
   
  (4) (3)
 

 oscillation  
     
 
 
  negative strip  
   




oscillation   
 
   
  
0.12-0.15 3-4mm
   negative strip  
 mark

  
 0.1 negative strip


  
 
mould powder 

  
           

 
   
 submerged nozzle  
 74


           

  
    
   
   

  

  
  
   
   


     
      
       

 
     
 
 

mould taper (1)
pouring practice  (2)

lubricants 

(3)
casting speed   (4)

carbon %  (5)

gap between mould & liquid steel    (6)

mould oscillation 

 (7)
  
 oscillation  lubricant 
  
   
 tearing  cracking

 
   oscillation 
  
      


       
 
 

 
 cracks  breakout
  100-150mm
    
 
       200mm 
20mm  13mm
 
 
 
 
 75

  
    220-330oC melting point 
 
 
 
Secodary cooling zone

  
 
 
  withdrawal roll 

   
    
 0.5-5.0 m 
 
 
principle of pressure   
  
 

 
 
 
 
atomization

     
 
 
cracks      


 
 
  (1)

   ,  ,  , 
  
    
  (2)
     
  
 
transverse cracks  bulging
  central cracks 
 corner cracks 
 
   tensile stressaxial profile 
 
 midway cracks  
  
 

  
 
   break out 


 

  
 ductility
   
  
 AlN
    
 
  
 
 


  
  
       ,  
  ,    (nozzle type)

liters/sq. meter .second       
   

 76


 

  
 
1200-700oC   
 

 
 
   

  

Electro magnetic stirrer   

 
     
    
    CCM
 
  
  

 


 (solidification condition)
  (micro structure )
  
 
 
    Electro magnetic stirrer   
 


  EMS
 
  induce
    
 alternate magnetic field (B)   
 


   (F= J*B)
    torque   (J)
  

    torque        
intensity of current    (i)
 (ii)
numbers of winding forming coil

(iv)frequency
system geometery  (iii)


 EMS     
  CCM     (position)    EMS

   (eddy current J)
   (rotating field)B
 
      
  (electro magnetic force F)
 77


 
 
   


     

    


 EMS





Transformer & high and low voltage distributor    
  (i)


Frequency convertor     (ii)
Monitor /controller / (iv)Stirrer  (iii)
Cooling water system  (v)
 
      
  CCM
   
        
 

 
 

 
   
    

  EMS
   
 
    EMS
F-EMS(III) S-EMS(II) M-EMS(I)

Mould-EMS(I)

 
      /  
   
  
  
      
   

 
  
  
Strand-EMS(II)


     
    

 S-EMS
 
    
 linear type
 
 (rotary type)

 
(linear type)
S-EMS


     

 78

 
 , grain   
     
   S-EMS
 
  super heating   
   
 internal cracks  
Final-EMS



 EMS  

 

   F-EMS
   lorentz force 
 
EMS  



central   
S-EMSM-EMS
 F-EMS   
  segregation
  
   
  
  

F-EMS
   F-EMS
 solidification structure 
  
   
     porosity
ratio  
 
  structure
CCM casting defects CCM

         ,   CCM
 
        
 (defects)  

  ,    , ,(shape) 
  ,   CCM
,



 
 
  (oscillation)

 
  (ferro static pressure) 
    (mechnical stress)  
 
 
  , (bending & straightening)   
, 

       (thermal stresses) 
  


     
,   
 

 
 

Types of defects in contiuous casting     
transverse corner cracks   
 
(1)

longitudinal corner cracks  

  (2)
transverse cracks  
(3)
 79

longitudinal cracks  (4)

star cracks  (5)


deep oscillation marks    (6)
 
pin holes  (7)

non metallic inclusions   (8)

Reasons  
longitudinal corner cracks    (2)
sensitive chemical composition    
insufficient narrow face taper  
 

mould powder slag layer not uniform   


poor mould level control 


high mould wear & poor mould surface  


uneven oscillation movement    
non uniform cooling   

transverse corner cracks   

 
 
sensitive chemical composition    

large face taper   



uneven oscillation movement  
non uniform cooling   


abrupt speed changes 
 80

non metallic inclusions   

dirty steel
   
inadequate mould powder 
  

large fluctuation in mould level

  

very low casting temperatue 
  
poor mould & tundish level control 
 
Star cracks   
 copper from mould plate to steel    
    

un even cooling
reasons for internal defects 
  
high temperature heat   


bad machine condition CC
secondary cooling too low

high surface reheating  

  
 81

Rolling process
 
    
    
  
 
  
 
Cold rolling (1)
  (2) Hot rolling


Hot rolling

 


, continuous casting  
flat rolling 
 strips  sheets plate

  
wire rod  
 shaft    angle 
 channel 
 bars
 girder  
  
 stock 
 
  

 
   
 plasticity phase
  
 

 
above recrystallization phase   1100-1200oC

   
 , 
Rotary furnance(iii) Pusher type furnanced (ii) Walking beam furnance (i)

   
  
 82

 
  
  
sheet plate 
  
    
 

      strips 


 
 checkered plate

  
 0.5--3.0mm   3-- 150 mm
   
 
 <600mm
   0.8--15 mm 

 ,  ,  ,
 , ,
  ,  
Long product or Sections  

Hot rolling process 


   flame scarfing      
 
(600-800oC)
 
(20--40oC)    
 

150-170 bar 
  

 
  
 
 

 20-60mm 
  
  
      crop shearing  


four to seven 4high) 4  
  (finishing mill)

 1.5- 20mm(stand

   

  500-700oC    (strip) 
 
 


   roughing stand    


 3--160mm 
 5  
  
    
 4intermediate
 8-30m
 
 83

Long product  

 

   bar
shaft  
     
  
  
   

 angle  wire rod
  rail H-beam I-beam channel

  
  



 
  roughing roll      

 guide roll cropping machine  milscale cleanig machine

 
 coiler shearing machine  finishing stand

     


 cooling bed
Roll pass designe 
 


 wire rod  
 bar  
   

 
 
  
  
 grooves

(square-oval)  
        
 (diamond-square) 
    
(false-round-oval)  
    (diamond-diamond)   
 84

   
      dimentional quality   
   
 
  temprature   sequence of roll pass    stock 
 ,

  
 roll surface quality  microstructure of steel 
 friction condition


     micro structure    
  
 
     
 
 austenite grain size  
 
 
 
    stock intermediate roll   roughing roll  
 finishing stand 
  normalize     


  normalize     
  
 

  

 
 85

Rolling defects 


      
 
 
  
  
 
 
 
    
  cavaties   
  

 


 
 86

Cold rolling 

  
    
     Hot rolling 
 
 
    descalling & pickling  
surface cleaning trimming   heat treatment  

    coiling 
 packing  
 skin pass roll  
advantages of cold rolling  


production of thinner sheet/ strip     
  
(i)
  (ii)
 (iii)
 
 
 
  
  
  1.5--5mm  
 
 
       
 0.02--0.4mm
 4   tandem mill 
     
 2-high mill 
continuous reversal mill   

   
rolling
 
Pickling  


  
     CR  HR 
  
  
      
   

   

   
   
  
  

 H2SO4 HCl batch process
         

 
 
    
  
    
 
 87
 
     /
 trimming       

 

    
  
 

  
 


Annealing 
 
        
 
  /

  strain
 

  
 
    500-600oC    



austenitic steel   
      
      
  
 

 

950oC     
   

Galvainzing  
 
 
    
     ( 
 ) 
  
    
diffusion    (Fe)
       
  


      process
    
 continuous galvanizing 
batch process
 
 pickling   (decoilling)     


       
   
 
 
      

        


 88
 
Fluxing  
 
    
       

  
     
     
    
 
 
  
  
 98%
     
   


 
 
  
   5%  
  
 
     
 
  
  440-460 oC

 
  
    
    
  
 
   
     
 


   
     
 
  
    
  
  
 
Skin pass rolling 


 
 
  
 
   

    1-3%
   
 20 high,4high,2high


 
    
 89


Thermo mechanical process 

 
 quenching   
        
 

  high strength 
     

   
  


  
 micro structure   

Ferrite 

 
  phase    
 

 
  0.2wt %10-15 HRC    280 N/mm2 

80BHN    
   
   
       
 
0.02wt % 
   
 
723 oC 


   0.8 wt%    

      723 oC

 
  
  austenite  
 
 ferrite    
 austenite phase
  eutectoid  
  cementite


Pearlite

alternative layer of ferrite and 
  

   

 
   
  88wt%  cementite
12wt% 

 
 


     727oC 

    
      

         

 
  
 
  
 
         Austenite 
 


       
  
        
  
 
1000oC

   

 
   
  

 martensite   

     
 


hardness & strength       
   
 brittleness   

   
 90
 
 

low hardablity           tempered 
 
   
     
 

   (quenching) steel

 
Martensite

 
        
 
   
  
 
 
  
   
  
   

  
 
 
  
 
  

Bainite  

    
   
 
 
 
    
 
    250-550oC  

        
    
 
 
  
    
 

    alloying elements  
 
  

 91

Hardness of various phases

Ferrite 10-15 HRC

Austenite 10-15 HRC

Pearlite 40-43 HRC

Upper Bainite 40-45 HRC

Lower Bainite 50-60 HRC

Cementite 43-45 HRC

Martensite 65-65 HRC




  1200-1250oC 
 100*100mm 
 
  deformed bar diameter   

   
 
  
 
 quenching box  

   
   
   
     

 
 

  
      

   


    bar dia 
   
  
      


  
 
     
 temper   

  

 micro structure      

  
  

  
 
  
     
 

 
 92

Some international standards 

  
Standard Carbon% Silicon % Manganese% Sulphure% Phosphrous% C.E.

ASTM A-615G40 0.06 max 0.42max

ASTM A-615G60 0.06 max 0.55max

ASTM A-706G60 0.30max 0.50max 1.50max 0.045max 0.35max 0.55max

BS4449 -250 0.25max 0.06max 0.06max 0.42max

BS4449 -460 0.25max 0.05max 0.05max 0.51max

SR 24 0.25max 0.35max 0.90max 0.04max 0.05max 0.42max

ASTM A-36 0.29max 0.40max 0.90max 0.04max 0.05max

ASTM A-572 0.23max 1.35max 0.40max 0.04max 0.04max

SAE 1006 0.08max 0.10max 0.25-0.40 0.05max 0.04max

SAE 1008 0.10max 0.10max 0.30-0.50 0.05max 0.04max

SAE 1010 0.08-0.13 0.10max 0.25-0.40 0.05max 0.04max

SAE 1015 0.13-0.18 0.10max 0.30-0.60 0.05max 0.04max

SAE 1020 0.18-0.23 0.10max 0.30-0.60 0.05max 0.04max

JIS G4801 SUP-7 0.56-0.64 1.80-2.20 0.70-1.00 0.035max 0.035max Chromium

JIS G4801 SUP-9 0.52-0.60 0.15-0.35 0.65-0.95 0.04max 0.05max 0.65-0.95

As per ASTM standard

Bar # Bar dia Bar dia Weight Weight Area. Weight Lengths/

mm inch kg/ft kg/m mm2 kg/12m 149/ton

3 10 0.375 0.171 0.56 71 6.7 149

4 13 0.500 0.303 0.994 129 11.9 84

5 16 0.625 0.473 1.552 199 18.6 54

6 19 0.750 0.681 2.235 284 26.8 37

7 22 0.875 0.927 3.042 387 36.5 27

8 25 1.000 1.211 3.973 510 47.7 21

9 29 1.128 1.542 5.06 645 60.7 16

10 32 1.270 1.952 6.404 819 76.8 13

11 35 1.410 2.410 7.907 1006 94.9 11

14 44 1.693 3.462 11.36 1452 136.3 7

 93
As per BS 4449

Size mm2 Size inch2 Area cm2 Weight kg/m Weight kg/ft

8 0.315 0.64 50.24 0.152

10 0.394 1.00 78.5 0.241

12 0.472 1.44 113.04 0.344

13 0.512 1.69 132.67 0.405

15 0.591 2.25 176.63 0.539

16 0.630 2.56 200.96 0.613

18 0.709 3.24 254.34 0.774

20 0.787 4.00 314.00 0.957

22 0.866 4.84 379.94 1.158

25 0.984 6.25 490.63 1.277

28 1.102 7.84 615.44 1.874

30 1.181 9.00 706.50 2.155

32 1.260 10.24 803.84 2.450

Mechanical properties of deformed bar 

Standard Y.S psi (mpa) min UTS psi(mpa)min Elongation %min stress ratio mpa

ASTM A-615G40 40000(280) 78000(540) *next page

ASTM A-615G60 60000(420) 90000(620) *next page

ASTM A-706G60 60000(420) 80000(550) *next page

BS4449 -250 (250) 1.15

BS4449 -460 (460) 1.05

SR 24 (250) (382)

ASTM A-36 (250) (400/500)

ASTM A-572 (345) (450)

SAE 1006 (165) (295) 30

SAE 1008 (170) (305) 20

SAE 1010 (180) (325) 28

SAE 1015 (235) (372) 30

SAE 1020 (343) (402) 28

 94

Bar # (mm) ASTM A-615G40 ASTM A-615G60 ASTM A-706G60

Elongation % min

3(10) 11 9 14

4,5,6 (13,16,19) 12 9 14

7,8 (22,25) 8 12

9,10,11(29,32,35) 7 12

14(43) 7 10

Bend (pin dia)

3,4,5(10,13,16) 3 1/2d 3 1/2d 3 1/2d

6,7,8(19,22,25,) 5d 5d 4d

9,10,11(29,32,36) 7d 6d

14(43) 9d 7d

d= diameter of bar

Formula for calculating weight of palte, square,flate bar.(1)

width(meter)*thickness (mm)*length (meter)= wt in kg/m

Formula for calculating weight of round bar (2)

diameter (mm)*diameter (mm)/162.2 =kg/m

or diameter (mm)*diameter (mm)/357.6 = lbs / m

diameter (mm)*diameter (mm)/532.12= kg/ft

diameter (mm)*diameter (mm) /1173.14 =lbs/ft

 Refrences
The making shapping & treating of steel USA 1

iron making and Steel making by R.W.YOUNG,G.J.HASSAL,J,A.DUFFY 2

Midrex process by MASAAKI, HIROSHI UEMURA, Kobelco tech review 3

BOF steel making by J.M. GAINES( AIMMP) 4

Oxygen steel making by T.W.MILLER,J. JIMENEZ,A.SHERUM (Bethelehem steel) 5

Steel making in Japan (BOF) 6

Sub lance system by PETER GOOTJES,GUIDOVAN (Denieli Corus Netherland) 7

Understanding of BOF Steel making Satyedra ISPATGURU 8

EAF by JERMY A.T.JONES (Nupro corporation) 9

EAF Steel making -Steeluniversity.org 10

Steel plant training course Carmeuse technical training 11

Utilization of pig iron in EAF by JERMY JONES 12

Using Oxygen as Electricity in EAF by ALI AKBER METTAHEDI ,SAEID AMANI(Chemtech) 13

Steel making refractories by D.H.HABBLE(USS),R.O.RUSSELL(ITV.STEEL) 14

Induction furnance review by VIVEK R. GANDHEWAR 15

Induction furnance thesis by Deptt of metallurgical & material engg. NIT Rourkila 16

Selection of refractories for Induction furnace (doc. From Indian co.) 17

Secondary steel making by steeluniversity.org 18

Secondary steel making by Substech.com 19

Continuous casting of steel from training documents of KOBE STEEL japan 20

Study of tundish powder by H.WATKINSON,K. BOLTIN British steel 21

Refratory lining of tundish by Saytyedra.ISPATGURU 22

Heat transport in mould for CCM by M.VALICKA, R.PYSZKO. (Turkey) 23

Electromagnetic stirrer (EMS)by satyedra 24

Rolling process by SOTRISIL L. OMIROU 25

Hot & Cold Rolling mills by Dr. O.RENTZ,Dr. FRANK SCHULTMAMANN (Germany) 26

Articial Defects of Rolling mills by MIRJANA FILIPOVIC (Stockholm) 27

Encyclopedia Britinica 28

Wikipedia 29

American Standard foe testing of Material (ASTM) 30

British Standard 31

S.A.E. 32

JIS 33