REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

MODULE 3: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

INTRODUCTION: Geographic Information System consists oftwo

distinct disciplines, namely GEOGRAPHY and INFORMATION
SYSTEM. Here the word “Geographic” deals with spatial objects or
features which can be referred or related to specific locations on the
earth surface which may be natural or man-made features. Likewise
the word “Information” deals withthe large volume of data about
particular object on the earth surface. The data includes a set of
qualitative and quantitative aspects with the real world objects. The
term “System” is used to represent systems approach where the
complex environment is broken down into their component parts for
easy understanding and handling, but is considered to form an
integrated whole for managing and decision making.
Geographic information systems have emerged in the last decade as an essential tool for urban and
resource planning and management. Their capacity to store, retrieve, analyze, model and map large areas
with huge volumes of spatial data has led to an extraordinary proliferation of applications. Geographic
information systems are now used for land use planning, utilities management, ecosystems modelling,
landscape assessment & planning, transportation & infrastructure planning, market analysis, visual impact
analysis, facilities management, tax assessment, real estate analysis and many other applications.

GIS: It is computer based software used

for mapping, analyzing, displaying,storing,
and managing the geographical data. This
provides solutions to real world problems
and help in planning for the future. GIS
extract useful information from digital
maps, aerial photographs, satellite images
and Global Positioning System (GPS) data
along with tabular database information.
Geographic (exact location on land
and water) information can be associated
with a place name, a street address,
township, a zip code, or coordinates of latitude and longitude. All government bodies require geographic
information; at least 70% of all information used by local governments is geographically referenced.

Some of the major objectives of GIS are to

➢ Maximizing the efficiency of planning and decision making.
➢ Integrating information from multiple sources.
➢ Facilitating complex querying and analysis.
➢ Eliminating redundant data and minimizing duplication.
➢ Capacity to integrate information from many source.
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 REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24
GIS Terminology
Some of the terms used in GIS are briefly explained below:
1. Data planes: These are discrete sets of data such as an imagery, a thematic map, a topographic sheet, a
page of field survey data each constitutes a data plane.
2. Themes: These are the maps containing different types of information like a toposheet contains contour,
roads, railway tracks, forest boundaries etc.
3. Registration: It means to associate a digital image file with locations in physical space using the points
of interest such as roads, places, bridges, or buildings. Scales may different images may vary along with
traditional and rotational errors. This process of correction and development of an invariant spatial
relationship between different data planes is called as registration.
4. Database: This is the spatially registered set of data constitutes a spatial database. In addition, each spatial
object has an associated attribute. This could be a name, a number, a range of values etc.
E.g., A contour has a number, a road has a name, and such attributes also form a part of the database.
5. Spatial objects: All spatial objects can be represented by points, lines and polygons. A city is a point, a
road is a line and a forest area is a polygon. The manner in which these fundamental units are represented
are defined by the spatial data model.
Ex., K.R circle is a point object; DD Urs road is a line object and Kukkarahalli lake is a polygon object.
6. Scale: Relationship between distances on an image with that of distances on real ground surface.
7. Resolution: This is the smallest element which can be distinguished in a data set. In case of imagery, this
usually is the pixel size or a multiple to the pixel size. This may be taken to mean the smallest mappable
feature.

COMPONENTS OF GIS
A GIS is divided into three components to create successful output of useful images. They are:
1. Hardware 2. Software 3. Organizational Setup
GIS can function properly if these three components are maintained in balance.
1. Hardware components of GIS
Digitizer Disk Drive

Central Processing Unit

Plotter or Visual Display Tape

Printer Unit (VDU) Drive

i. CPU: Central Processing Unit is linked to disk drive, which provide space for storing data &
programs.
ii. Digitizer: It is a device used to convert data from analog to digital form and stores into a computer.
iii. Printer or Plotter: Plotter is a hardware device in which we provides the data to a plotter, then it
processed and present results on a paper.
iv. Tape Drive: It is used to store data or programs on magnetic tape for communicating with other
systems.
v. VDU (Visual Display Unit): It is used to control the computer and other peripherals. It is otherwise
known as terminal or workstation.

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 REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24
2. Software component consists of five basic modules as follows:
i. Data Input and Verification System: This is also called as data capture subsystem. It deals with getting
inputs given by the use or input from Global Positioning System (GPS) or from scanning photographs
from Remote Sensing or processing digital data received from satellites. The data is stored in computer
in the digital form.
ii. Data Base Management: This deals with the efficient storage.
iii. Data Output & Presentation: This deals with retrieval and manipulation of data.
iv. Data Transformation: It deals with the transformation of data from one form to another which
mainly works on TWO operations such as maintenance data and its utilization.
v. User Interpretation: GIS system should be proceed with eco-friendly language that the user can
understand easily and it can proceed with command where it is used.

3. Organizational Context: It is nothing but the way the information flows go the way in which the
analysis is done. The organizational context involves three sub components such as
i. Data: It is the information being used for the analysis.
ii. People: The people involved in the analysis and the creation of information system.
iii. Methods: the step procedures which are used for the analysis and in the making of the information
system.

APPLICATION/FUNCTIONS OF GIS
To understand the advantages and importance of GIS in a better way, it is very important to know the
applications and uses of GIS. A GIS enables us to better understand and evaluate our data by creating graphic
displays using information stored in our database. Major areas of GIS applications are:
1. Electric/gas utilities: The GIS is used on a daily basis by the cities and utilities to help them in mapping,
in inventory systems, track maintenance, monitor regulatory compliance, or model distribution
analysis, transformer analysis and load analysis.
2. Environment: The GIS is used every day to help protect the environment. An environmental
professional uses GIS to produce maps, inventory species, and measure environmental impact or trace
pollutants. The environmental applications for GIS are almost endless.
3. Forestry: Nowadays, managing forests is becoming a more complex and demanding challenge. With
GIS, foresters can easily see the forest as an ecosystem and manage it efficiently.
4. Geology: Geology use GIS every day in a wide variety of applications. The GIS can also be used to
study geologic features, analyses soils and strata, assess seismic information, or create 3D displays of
geographic features.
5. Hydrology: The GIS can also be used to study drainage systems assess groundwater, and visualize
watersheds and in many other hydrologic applications.
6. Mapping: It is an essential function of a GIS. People in a variety of professions use GIS to help
others a skilled cartographer to made maps with a GIS.
7. Military: Military analysts and cartographers use GIS in a variety of applications such as creating base-
maps, assessing terrain and aiding tactical decisions.
8. Risk management: A GIS can help with risk management and analysis by showing us which areas
are likely to be prone to natural or manmade disasters. When such forthcoming disasters are identified,
preventive measures can be developed that deal with different scenarios.

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 REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24
9. Site planning: People around the world use GIS to help them locate sites for new facilities or locate
alternative sites for existing facilities.
10. Transportation: A GIS can be used to in managing transportation infrastructure or in managing
logistical problems. They can help in monitoring rail systems and road conditions or finding the best
way (route) to deliver our goods or services.
11. Water/Waste water industry: People in the water/waste water industry use with the planning,
engineering, operations, maintenance, finance and administration functions of their water/waste water
networks.
12. Web mapping: Google Maps and Bing Maps are the specific websites give the public access to huge
amounts of geographic data.

LIMITATIONS OF GIS
A GIS has many beneficial applications, however, like other technological systems, there are also
some limitations to its use. The following are some examples:
i. Data for a specific area may lack spatial or temporal continuity.
ii. GIS data are relatively expansive than traditional data.
iii. Collection of data can be very time consuming.
iv. GIS often relies on the quality of available data which may introduce serious errors.
v. GIS data may also be subject to misuse or misinterpretation.
vi. Learning time on GIS software and systems can be long, because it easily becomes the objectives
of the study rather than just a tool.

SOURCES OF DATA FOR GIS/ GEOGRAPHICALLY REFERENCED

DATA
Geographically referenced data or
georeferencing means that the internal co-
ordinate system of a map can be related to
real ground features of geographical co-
ordinates. Geodata represents real world
features of both locations & characteristics
of spatial features of buildings, roads, land
parcels and water bodies. These
georeferenced data typically stored as
GeoPDF/ GeoTIFF within the image file.
In general, geo-referencing means digital
image information associated with
locations in physical space and its area
measurement. Geo-referencing may be
applied to any kind of object or structure
that can be related to a geographical
location, such as points of interest, roads,
places, bridges, or buildings.
Geographic locations are most
commonly represented using a coordinate
reference system, which in turn can be
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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

related to a geodetic reference system such as WGS-84. To define an objects position on the earth a spatial
reference known as georeferenced is used. In the case of a direct spatial reference the information about the
location is defined by two or three dimensional co-ordinate in the co-ordinate reference system. The
commonly used reference system at the zones like Tropic of Cancer & Tropic of Capricorn is WGS-84. In
case of indirect spatial reference system closer to everyday human experience are used as georeferenced
locations of real world objects such as administrative areas, coastal address, coastal posts & place name.

DATABASE AND ITS TYPES

Raster and Vector data model and structures
Geographic Information System is a computer system for capturing, storing, quiering,
analyzing and displaying the geographical data. The GIS can be grouped to computer system, GIS
software, Brain ware and infracture. Since late 1960‟s computer have been used to store and process
geographic data. The Geographically referenced data distinguished GIS from other information
system. Geographically referenced data describe both the location and characteristics of spatial
features on the earth surface. GIS therefore involves two geographic data component.

The GIS model can be split into two parts

1. A Model of spatial form and
2. A model of Spatial Process.
The model of spatial form represents the structure and distribution of features in geographical
space.
In order to model spatial process, the interaction between these features must be abstraction. By
applying this abstraction process the GIS designer moves from the position of observing the
geographical complexities of the real world to one of the stimulating them in the computer. These
processes involved into

a. Identifying the spatial features from the real world that are of interest in the context of an
application and choosing how to represent them in the conceptual model.
b. Representing the conceptual model by an appropriate spatial model.
c. Selecting an appropriate spatial data model within the computer.

Spatial Definition
Spatial data describes the location and shape of geographic features, and their spatial relationship
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to the features. The information contained in the spatial database is held in the form of digital co-
ordinates which describe the spatial features it mainly depends on the latitude and longitude of the
feature.
Spatial Entity

Spatial data describe the spatial situation of objects concerning their form and their relative
situation in space. Usually, the spatial relation of individual points, lines or areas is made via the
integration in a coordinate system resulting in the relation to the real world and the metrics.
Geometry data can be available as raster data (pixel) or vector data (polygons / areas, lines, sites)
Spatial Data can be encoded using following spatial entities. They are
The Spatial data can be represented through using
1. The Point
2. The Line
3. The Area
4. Network
5. The Surface
Spatial Data Model

The GIS model can be split into two parts

A Model of spatial form and
A model of Spatial Process.
The model of spatial form represents the structure and distribution of features in geographical
space.
In order to model spatial process, the interaction betweenthese features must be considered.
Computers require unambiguous instructions on how to turn data about spatial entities into graphical
representations. This process is the second stage in designing and implanting a data model. At
present there are trwo main ways in which computers can be display spatial entities. There are two
method of spatial data model. They are
1. Raster Data Model
2. Vector Data Model

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

The Raster Data Model:

The Raster data model is one of the important spatial data model described as tessellation. In the

raster world individual cells are used as the building block for creating images of point, line, area,

and network and surface entities.

➢ In the raster data model the basic building block is the individual grid cell, and the shape and
character of an entity is created by the grouping of cells. The size of the grid cell is very important
as it Raster is a method for the storage, Processing and display of spatial data.

➢ Each area is divided into rows and columns, which form a regular grid structure. Each cell
must be rectangular in shape, but not necessarily square.
➢ Each cell within this matrix contains location co-ordinates as well as an attribute value. The
origin of rows and column is at the upper left corner of the grid.
➢ Rows function as the “y”coordinate and column as”x”coordinate in a two dimensional system.
A cell is defined by its location in terms of rows and columns.

Vector Data Model

A vector spatial data model uses two dimensional Cartesian [x, y] co-ordinates to store the
shape of spatial entity. In the vector spatial data can be represented by using point. It is the basic
building blocks from which all spatial entities are constructed. The simplest spatial entity, the point
is represented by a single co-ordinate pair. Line and area entities are constructed by connecting a
series of points into chains and polygons. The more complex the shape of a line or area feature the
greater the number of points required representing it.
Spatial Data Structure
Data structures provide the information that the computer requires to
reconstruct the spatial data model in digital form. There are many different
data structure in use in GIS. Based on that the spatial data structures can be classified according to
whether they are used to structure raster or vector data structure.

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

Raster Data Structures

In the raster data model, each location is represented as a cell. The matrix of cells,organized
into rows and columns, is called a grid.
Each row contains a group of cells with values representing a geographic phenomenon. Cell values
are numbers, which represent nominal data such as land- use classes, measures of light intensity or
relative measures. The cells in each line of the image are mirrored by an equivalent row of numbers
in the file structure.

Effects of chaining resolution in the vector and raster data model

In a simple raster data structure, such as different spatial features must be stored as a separate data
layers. However, if the entities do not occupy the same geographical location then it is possible to
store them all in a single layer, with an entity code given to each cell.

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 1 11 0 0
0 0 1 0 11 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 11 1 0

0 0 1 0 11 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 11 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 1 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 1 01 0 0
0 0 0 0 01 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 00 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0
0 0 0 0 00 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0
0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

Entity Model Cell Value 0 File

0 0 Structure
0 00 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

This figure shows the different land use can be coded in a raster layer. The values 1, 2 and 3 have
been used to classify the raster cells according to the land use present at a given location. The values
1 represents residential area; 2 forest; and 3; farm land.
10,10,3

1 2 12 2 2 22 2 1 21 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1

1 1 2 12 2 2 22 2 1 1 21 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 2 12 2 2 22 2 1 1 21 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 12 2 2 22 2 1 1 21 1 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 11 2 2 23 3 1 1 11 1 2 2 2 3 3

1 1 1 11 2 2 23 3 1 1 11 1 2 2 2 3 3

1 1 1 11 2 3 23 3 1 1 11 1 2 2 3 3 3

1 1 1 11 3 3 33 3 1 1 11 1 3 3 3 3 3
Entity Model Cell Value File Structure
1 1 1 11 3 3 33 3 1 1 11 1 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 11 1 3 3 3 3 3
One of the major problems1 with1 raster
1 11 data
3 sets
3 33their
3 size, because a value must be recorded
and stored for each cell in an image. Thus a complex image made up of a mosaic of different features
requires the same amount of storage space as a similar raster map showing the location ofa single
forest. To solve the problem in raster data model the compression or compaction methods are used
for the real world representation.

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

RASTER DATA COMPERSSIONAL METHOD

One of the major problems with raster data sets is their size, because a value must be recorded
and stored for each cell in an image. A complex image made up of mosaic of different features
requires the same amount of storage space as similar raster map. Toovercome the problem the
following raster representation method can be adopted. They are

1. Run Length Encoding Method

2. Block Coding Method
3. Chain Coding Method
4. Quadtree Method

Run Length Encoding Method

It is the raster image compression or compaction method. This technique reduces data volume on a
row by row basis. It stores a single value where there are a number of cells of a given type in a
group, rather than storing for each individual cell. The following diagram shows the RLE method
of raster representation.

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00
10,10,1
0 0 0 1 1 1 10 10
0,10 1,5 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 11 10
,
0 0 0 0 1 1 11 10
2
0 0 0 0 0 1 10 10

0 0 0 0 0 1 10 10 0,3 1,6 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10
,
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00
0,3 1,5 0
,
1
0,4 1,3 0
,
2
Block Coding Method
0,5 1,3 0
This approach extends the run length encoding idea to two dimensions by using a series, of square
blocks to store data. These are seven unit cells, two four- cell squares and one nine –cell2 square.
0,5 1,2 0
Coordinate are required to locate the blocks in the raster matrix. The following diagram, shows the
block coding method of raster representat1io2n. 4 5 6 7 91 3
0,5
0,10
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1 4,2 8,2
4,3 6,5
6,6 6,7
7,7

4 8,3 7,5

9 5,2
Entity Model Cell Value File Structure

Chain Coding Method

The chain coding method is an important technique to coding the raster data structure. This method
of data can reduce the work by defining the boundary of the entity. The boundary is defined as a
sequence of unit cells starting from returning to a given origin. The direction of travel around the
boundary is usually given using a
numbering system. The following diagram shows the chain coding method.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

4,3

N,2 E,4 S,1 E,1 S,1 W,1 S,2

W,1 S,1 W,1 N,3 N,1 W,1

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

Quadtrees Method

One of the advantage of the raster data model is that each cell can be subdivided
into smaller cells of the same shape and orientation._ Pequet in 1990.This data model has
produced a range of innovative data storage and data reduction methods that are based on regularly
subdividing space. The quadtree works on the principle of subdividing the cells in raster image
into quads. This subdivision process continuous until each cell in the image can be classed as
having the spatial entity either present or absent.

0 1

3 Node
2 3
Out
32 3 3
In

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

Vector Data Structure

The simplest vector data structure that can be used to produce a graphical image in the
computer is a file containing (x,y) coordinate pairs that represent the location of individual
point features.

The limitation of simple vector data structures start to emerge when more complex spatial
entities are considered.

In the vector data all points in the data structure must be numbered sequentially and contain an
explicit reference which record which points are associated with which polygon. This is known
as Point Dictionary- Borrough 1986.

0,20 20,2
Spaghetti File

X Y

0 0
0 20

22 0
0,0
00
0 0
2, 20
00

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REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

The vector data structure mainly ensure the following points. They are

➢ No node or line segment is duplicated;

➢ Line segment and nodes can be referenced to more than one polygon;
➢ All polygon have the unique identifiers
➢ Polygon can be adequately represented.
The following diagram shows the vector data structure

Point Dictionary Of Vector Data Structure

➢ In vector structure topology is concerned with connectivity between entities and not
their physical shape.
➢ Boundaries are identified through network of arcs, checking polygons for closure, andlinking
arcs into polygons.
➢ The area of polygon can calculated and unique identification numbers are attached.
➢ This identifier would allow non spatial information to be linked to a specific polygon.
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 REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24

DATA ANALYSIS

GIS SOFTWARE USES TWO BASIC TYPES OF DATA

1. SPATIAL DATA/ANALYSIS: It represents the exact location of specific
features on the earth’s surface. Spatial data can be obtained from satellite
images or scanned maps and similar resources. Essentially, any format of a
geographical image with location or co-ordinate points can be used as spatial
data. Spatial data contain the coordinates and identifying information for
various map features. Three types of features can be represented on the Map
View:
a. Points: Point data is most commonly used to represent discrete data.
These have zero dimensions, therefore you can measure neither length
nor area with this dataset. E.g., K.R. Circle.
b. Polylines: Line data is used to represent linear features
with only one dimension used to measure length. Line
features have a starting and ending point. Length of
Cauvery River, road, powerline, telephone lines are the
best examples.
c. Polygons: Polygons are used to represent areas such as
the boundary of a Mysuru city, perimeter of Kukkarahalli
lake, or Bandipur forest boundary. These are 2D
information which can be used to measure the area and
perimeter of a geographic feature.
Each provides information connected to geographical locations using X-Y coordinate systems.
Furthermore, image data consists of a matrix of cells or pixels arranged into rows and columns. Each cell
contains a value representing information. Spatial data is any type of data that directly or indirectly references
a specific geographical area or location called as geospatial data or geographic information. Spatial data of
geo reference data is commonly characterized by the presence of two fundamental components,
1. The physical dimension or class i.e height of the forest canopy, demographic class, rock types, vegetation
type, details of a city etc.
2. The spatial location of the phenomena i.e., specified with reference to common coordinate system.

Spatial databases provide a strong foundation for accessing, storing, and managing your spatial data
empire. A database is a collection of related information that permits the entry, storage, input, output, and
organization of data. A Database Management System (DBMS) serves as an interface between users and their
databases. A spatial database includes location, geometry as points, lines and polygons. GIS combines spatial
data from many sources with many different people. Databases connect users to the GIS database.

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 REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24
For example, a city might have the wastewater division, land records, transportation, and fire departments
connected and using datasets from common spatial databases.

2. ATTRIBUTE DATA: The second type of data used

in a GIS is attribute data. Attribute tables are similar to
spreadsheets. Attribute data is the detailed table data used
in combination with spatial data to obtain the meaningful
information of a map. These data are descriptions or
measurements of geographic features in a map. This
represents its characters such as number of people, status
of employment and labeling of locations that can be linked
to the spatial data. Every feature has characteristics that
we can describe as a building has a
built year, number of floors and its type (Residential, educational or commercial). Attributes are the facts we
know, but the built year is not visible. An attribute table represents both Rows and Columns which displays
the type of building, its built year and number of floors in it. In a GIS, clicking on the row will highlight the
corresponding feature on the map.
Some popular sources of attribute data are from town planning and management departments, policing
and fire departments, environmental groups and online media. For instance, the spatial data might represent a
water distribution pipe network and contain information for each pipe when it was installed, last inspected,
pipe material (i.e., cast iron, PVC, etc.), pressure rating, roughness coefficient, and so forth. These can be
numeric and or character data such as timber type, timber volume, road size, well depth etc. Attribute data are
descriptions, measurements, and/or classifications of geographic features in a map. Attribute data can be
classified into 4 levels of measurement such as
a. Nominal: The nominal level is the lowest level of measurement for distinguishing features
quantitatively using type or class (e.g. tree species).
b. Ordinal: Ordinal data are ranked into hierarchies but does not show any magnitude of difference (e.g.
city hierarchy).
c. Interval: The interval measurement indicates the distance between the ranks of measured elements,
but a starting point is arbitrarily assigned (e.g. Celsius Temperature).
d. Ratio: Ratio measurements, the highest level of measurements, includes an absolute starting point.

Types of Attribute data: Defined by data types allowed in GIS package

i. Character string
ii. Integers
iii. Real numbers
iv. Date
v. Time interval

JOINING/ LINKING SPATIAL DATA AND ATTRIBUTE DATA: A spatial join joins the attributes of
two layers based on the location of the features in the layers. Like joining two tables by matching attribute
values in a field, a spatial join appends the attributes of one layer to another. You can then use the additional
information to query your data in new ways. While you can also select features in one layer based on their

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 REMOTE SENSING & GIS (21 Scheme) 2023-24
location relative to another layer, a spatial join provides a more permanent association between the two
layers because it creates a new layer containing both sets of attributes.
1. The geo-relational data model store spatial data and attribute data in separate files.
2. Each map feature has unique label ID.
3. Linked by feature ID, the two sets of data files can be queried, analyzed and displayed.
4. Attribute data are stored in a table caused feature attribute table.
5. A row is called as record; while a column is called as field.
6. Most GIS projects have many attributes.
7. To store all attributes in a single table is not efficient both time & computer space and difficult to use &
update.
8. A Database Management System (DBMS) provides tools for data input, search, retrieval, manipulation
and output to manage, integrate and share the database.
9. Most GIS package include DBMS:
i. Infor for ArcInfo
ii. MS Access for IDRISI, Arcview &
ArcGIS

Overlay: Overlay is several information of one

area placing one above the other based on the
coordinate system. The overlay function creates
composite maps by combining diverse data sets.
The overlay function can perform simple
operations such as laying a road map over a map
of local wetlands, or more sophisticated
operations such as multiplying and adding map
attributes of different value to determine
averages and co-occurrences.

Raster and vector models differ significantly in

the way overlay operations are implemented. Overlay operations are usually performed more efficiently in
raster-based systems. In many GISs a hybrid approach is used that takes advantage of the capabilities of both
data models. A vector-based system may implement some functions in the raster domain by performing a
vector-to-raster conversion on the input data, doing the processing as a raster operation, and converting the
raster result back to a vector file.

GIS OPERATIONS
A GIS consists of database coupled with a graphics output. There are three major types of operations in GIS
are as follows:
1. SPATIAL DATA INPUT: A satellite image is simply a raster dataset with file coordinates (rows/columns)
that need to be converted to map coordinates. Likewise, aerial photography, recent satellite images commonly
used in GIS operations and sometimes comes as already georeferenced data. Spatial data representing
geographic features (points, lines and areas) and attribute data (descriptive information). Data input should be
done with utmost care, as the results of analyses heavily depend on the quality of the input data. Data input is
the procedure of encoding data into a computer-readable form and writing the data to the

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GIS data base. There are two types of data to be entered in a GIS - spatial (geographic location of features) and
non-spatial (descriptive or numeric information about features).
There are three types of data entry:
i. Manual (via typing on keyboard or importing text files): Manual data entry can bring into GIS either
collected or measured data. These data exist as simple text files or binary files. Text filesshould
have at least two columns with X and Y coordinates. These columns allow georeferencing of the file
i.e. association of it with specific geographic coordinate system. Binary files are usually a product of
the software package associated with measuring device (for example files from Global Positioning
System data collection). They also have X and Y data, associated with description of the collected
features, but in encoded format that could be read by special software. Digitizing is a process of
entering digital codes of analyzed data into computer.
ii. Digitizing: Digitizing can be manual (using digitizing tablet) or automatic (using scanner). The
difference between two methods is that digitizing tablet allows to do georeferencing during the
digitizing process, while scanning require georeferencing later, after digital file (usually TIFF, GIF or
JPEG image) has been created. Another difference between methods is speed and accuracy of the data
processing. Apparent slowness of the work on digitizing tablet compensates often for the amount of
editing after scanning process. At the same time good scanning allows automatic layer separation (for
example, separation of red-colored roads from brown-colored contour lines), while digitizing of the
map on a tablet requires manual creation of separate themes. In this case the condition of the original
hardcopy is very important. Since human operator can use more cognitive tools and knowledge than
the software support for scanning device, digitizer can handle better the hardcopy in a poor condition.
Special kind of scanned data is remote sensing image, taken either by satellite camera, digital camera
or video camera.
iii. Scanning: Analysis and modeling in a GIS requires input of relevant data. Any textural or tabular data
can be referenced to a geographic feature, e.g, a point, line or area can be input into a GIS. Attribute
data is usually input by manual keying or via DBMS software. ASCII format is the default standard for
the transfer and conversion of attribute information. Data input is the operation of encoding both types
of data into the GIS database formats such as manual digitizing, automatic scanning, entry of
coordinates using coordinate geometry and the conversion of existing digital data. The creation of a
clean digital database is the most important and time consuming task upon which the usefulness of the
GIS depends. The process of creating the GIS data from the analog data or paper format is called
digitization. Digitization process involves registering of raster image using few GCP or known
coordinates. This process is widely known as rubber sheeting or georeferencing. Polygon, lines and
points are created by digitizing raster image.

Attribute Data Management System (ADMS): open-database-connectivity to manage attribute data in order
that the data in ADMS can be shared, be conversed and be communicated with other data in other databases.
ArcInfo, as a representative of many commercial GIs softwares, employed relational database to manage
attribute data, while graphic data is managed like management of common files. Feature identifier (ID) is
presented for connecting attribute data and graphic data.
i. Attribute data input and management Attribute data should be stored in the form of table. The ADMS
is able to accept, process and sort various types of data automatically as well as guarantee data security
always.

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ii. Attribute data query: The ADMS should provide multiple query schemes in order that users can fast
query things that they require in various practices.
iii. Attribute data dynamic updating: The ADMS should be designed to support different types ofattribute
data updating, such as, editing, erasing, deleting, adding, and so on so that the data iscurrent,
accurate and reliable.
iv. Statistics and analysis: The ADMS should have the functions of statistical analysis and development
prediction to various attribute data.
v. Data (base) operating: The ADMS should be simple to learn, convenient to operate because the users
vary from beginner to sophisticated operators.
vi. User interface: Friendly user interface, such as menu bar, pull-down menu, diagonal box, pop-up menu,
toolbar, and so on.

CONCEPT OF MAP
Map: The traditional method of presenting geographical information in two dimensions is in the form of maps.
Maps are graphic representations of the earth's surface on a plane paper. They shape the way we visualize,
assess and analyze spatial information. A map consists of points, lines and area elements that are positioned
with reference to a common coordinate system (usually latitude and longitude).. They are drawnto specified
scales and projection. Map scales can vary and depend on the purpose for which the maps are created.
Projection is a mathematical transformation used to represent the real 3-dimensional sphericalsurface of the
earth in 2-dimensions on a plane sheet of paper. The map legend links the non-spatial attributes(name, symbols,
colours, thematic data) to the spatial data. The map itself serves to store and present data to the user. Such,
analogue maps (on paper) are cumbersome to produce and use, particularly when there are a large number of
them to be used for analysis. Computer based GIS facilitates both creation of maps and using them for various
complex analyses. It allows working with geographic data in a digital format to aid decision making in
resources management. Depending on the scale and the agreeable tradeoffs with respectto distortions, a
specific projection form is chosen. Different countries have adopted different standard projections at different
map scales. In India, the polyconic projection is commonly used by Survey of India (SOI). All SoI topo sheets
are in the polyconic projection.

A map is the representation of the earth’s surface/ pattern as a whole or a part of it on the plane surface, with
the conventional signs, drawn to a scale and projection so that each and every point on it correspond to the
actual position of the earth. Maps are abstract representation of the physical features of a portion of the
earth’s surface, graphically displayed on a planar surface. A map portrays (describe) three kinds of information
about geographic features:
a. Location and extent of the feature.
b. Attributes (characteristics) of the feature.
c. Relationship of the feature to other features.

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Map Scale: Map Scale is the ratio of distances on map to distances to on the surface of the earth. It is specified
in verbal, numeric or graphical form on all standard maps. A graphical scale should be present onall maps
that are used in GIS as it ensures that any changes in scale in photocopying, etc. are accounted for.
The Standard map scales are as follows
1:12,50,000 Country level map (India)
1:10,00,000 State level map (Karnataka)
1: 250, 000 District level map (Mysuru district)
1: 50,000 Taluk level map (Mysuru taluk)
1: 12,500 City level map (Mysuru city)
Survey of India maps are available at all the above levels except the micro-level.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS: According to purpose, maps may be classified as follows:

1. Cadastral maps: It is a map showing boundaries and ownership of lands. Some cadastral maps show
ownership of landed property by demarcating boundaries, as well as boundaries and ownership details,
such as survey district names, block numbers, adjoining and adjacent street names etc.
2. Topographical maps: These are also called as contour maps, topomaps or toposheets. This maprepresents
the topography or land contours by means of contour lines. These maps usually show not only the
contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover, built-up areas, roads, and
other features and points of interest. These are multipurpose maps, and represents both physical and
cultural details of an area.
3. Thematic maps: It displays the spatial pattern of a theme or series of attributes. In contrast to general
reference maps that show many geographic features, thematic maps emphasize spatial variation of one
or a small number of geographic distributions. General reference maps show where something is in space,
thematic maps tell a story about that place. These maps are prepared to serve some special purpose with
reference to a specific theme or attribute.
e.g., i. Relief maps- shows elevation differences of the surface.
ii. Geological maps- shows rock features, earth crust etc.
iii. Weather maps- shows weather condition.
iv. Vegetation maps- greenery of trees, herbs, shrubs, plants.
v. Political map- shows boundaries between different states.

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Map projection: It is a mathematical expression using which the 3D surface of the earth is represented in a
2D plane. The process of projection results in distortion of one or more map properties such as shape, size,
area or direction. A single projection system can never account for the correct representation of all map
properties for all the regions of the world. Therefore hundreds of projected systems have been defined for
accurate representation of a particular map element for a particular region of the world.

Classification/ Types of Map

projections:- Map projections are
classified based on the development
surface used projection properties position
of light source method of construction.
Whether you treat the earth a geoid or a
spheroid, you must transfer its three
dimensional surface to create a flat map
sheet. This mathematical transformation is
commonly referred as map projection. The
world projection means to transfer a figure
or picture from a transparent paper or a
film to a wall or sheet. At present there are
more than 250 projections in use
however, a map can preserve only one or two characters of shape, area, distance & the direction: The
three basic projections are based on the types of developable surface and are introduced below:
i. Cylindrical projection: In this time, it is assumed that a cone touches along a parallel of latitudes and
apex (sharp edge above the polar region) lies vertically above the pole. The parallel along which the cone
touches the globe is standard parallel. The meridians along which the cone holes from base to apex to
the center meridian. Topographic map made by Survey of India uses conical projection. It is assumed
that hollow cylinder touches the globe along equator & surrounds it. The parallels & meridians are
transformed from globe to inner surface of the cylinder by various methods. A cylinder is then cut
vertically and unrolled into a flat rectangular surface. This projection is best suited for tropical zones
between 300N & 300S.It can be visualized as a cylinder wrapped around the globe. Once the graticule is
projected into the cylinder. The cylinder is opened to get a grid like pattern of latitude and longitude. The
longitude (meridians) and latitudes (parallel) appear as straight lines. The length of the equator on the
cylinder is equal to the length of the equator, therefore is suitable for showing equatorial regions.
ii. Conic projection: It can be visualized as a cone placed on the globe, tangent to it at same parallel.
After projecting the graticule on to the cone, the cone is cut along one of the meridians and unfolded
parallels appear as area with a pole and meridians as straight lines that converge to the same point. It can
represent only on hemisphere, at a time, northern or southern. It is suitable for representing middle
altitudes.
iii. Azimuthal/ Zenithal/ Planar projection: It can be visualized as a flat sheet of paper tangent to any
point on the globe. The sheet will have the tangent point as the centre of the circular map, where meridians
passing through the centre are a straight line and the parallels are seen as a concentric circle. This is
suitable for showing polar areas. It is a type of projection in which a part of the earth’s surface is projected
on a plane. It is assumed that a flat sheet of paper touches is called center of projection. The network of

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parallels & meridians are transferred into the paper either geometrically or by source of light. This type
of zenithal projection is mainly used the polar views.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): This is the proof for particular case Mercator projection. This is a
worldwide plane co-ordinate system brought by the military during World War-II. This was adopted by the US
army in 1947 for designating rectangular co-ordinates on a large scale military maps of the entire world. Its
specifications are as follows:
i. Transverse Mercator in zone 60 wide.
ii. Reference ellipsoid clark 1866 North America which each other ellipsoid used elsewhere.
iii. Longitudinal origin is the central meridian.
iv. Latitudinal origin is the equator unit is in terms ‘m’ (meter).
v. Assuming Northing as ‘0’ meters for Northern hemisphere & 107 m in Southern hemispheres.
vi. Assuming Easting 500000 as a reference line.
vii. The latitudinal limits are 800N & 800S.

The surface of the earth is curved but maps are flat. A projected coordinate system (PCS) is a reference system
for identifying locations and measuring features on a flat (map) surface. It consists of lines that intersect at
right angles, forming a grid. Projected coordinate systems (which are based on Cartesian coordinates) have an
origin, an x axis, a y axis, and a linear unit of measure. Going from a GCS to a PCS requires mathematical
transformations. The myriad of projection types can be aggregated into three groups: planar, cylindrical
and conical.

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UTM zones used in GIS

UTM is the acronym for Universal Transverse Mercator, a plane coordinate grid system named for the map
projection on which it is based (Transverse Mercator). The UTM system consists of 60 zones, each 6-degrees
of longitude in width. The zones are numbered 1-60, beginning at 180-degrees longitude and increasing to
the east. The military uses their own implementation of the UTM system, called the Military Grid Reference
System (MGRS).

• One system is no more or less accurate than the other. They are just two different ways of positioning a
point. Many experienced users prefer UTM over latitude/longitude when using 7.5' topographic
quadrangle maps. Ocean-going sailors and other marine users almost always use latitude/longitude
because navigation charts are optimized for this method. The UTM coordinate system is commonly used
in GIS for larger scale areas within a certain UTM zone. The UTM projection is formed by using a
transverse cylindrical projection, i.e., the standard line runs along a meridian of longitude. The effect is
tominimize distortion in a narrow strip running pole to pole.
• UTM divides the earth into pole-to-pole zones 6 degrees of longitude wide. The first zone starts at the
International Date Line (180 degrees east) and the last zone, 60, starts at 174 degrees east. Northings are
determined separately for the areas north and south of the equator. Because distortion becomes extreme
atnorthern latitudes, UTM is not normally used above 80 degrees North or South.
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system is a standard set of map projections with a
central meridian for each six-degree wide UTM zone. Even though Google maps used the Mercator
projection because it preserves shape decently, and north is always up.
• But Mercator map projections are really bad at preserving area. For most of us, the projection is common
enough that it looks fine for us. In reality, Africa is huge on the globe. But Greenland appears to be as
large as Africa, even though in reality it is only 1/14th the size. The Mercator puzzle game illustrates this
point.

Global Positioning System (GPS):- It is a satellite based navigation and

surveying system to determine the precise position and time in post processing
mode. It was developed by U.S Department of Defense (DoD) which
revolutionized the field of modern surveying, navigation and mapping. It works
based on known positions on land, sea, air and space and an essential input for
GIS.

The system was replaced by NAVSTAR GPS (Navigation Satellite Timing and
Ranging GPS), launched in 1972 by US defense mapping agency. GPS is the only
system today able to show the exact location on the Earth’s surface anytime,
anywhere and in any weather conditions.

The three parts of GPS are:

1. Satellites
2. Receivers
3. Software
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BASIC PRINCIPLES/ THREE SEGMENTS OF THE GPS

1. Space Segment:- It is having a 24 hr service in all

weather conditions analyzing up to 24 satellites
orbiting at an altitude of 20,200 km. Satellites orbit the
earth in 12 hrs. 6 orbital planes inclined at 55 degrees
with the equator. This constellation provides 5 to 8
Satellite Vehicles from any point on the earth.

2. Control Segment:- It has 3 components

a. Monitor station: It accumulates ranging data from

navigation segment, which transports data to the
receiver located in USA.

b. Master Control station: The data collected by this segment provides real-time information with
gravity field influencing the satellite motion.

c. Up-load Station: These data will be loaded into satellite memory for easy data exchange through
parabolic antenna, transmitter and computer. They measure the distances of the overhead satellites every
1.5 seconds and send the corrected data to Master control.

3. User Segment: The user equipment consists of an antenna, a receiver, a data processor with software
and control/ display unit.

APPLICATIONS
1. Most useful for Govt. and Private Survey agency projects.
2. Helps to produce more accurate and reliable data.
3. Produce much faster data in conventional surveying and mapping techniques.
4. Reduces amount of equipment and labor required.
5. Accurate mapping and modeling of Mountains, rivers, streets, buildings.
6. GPS with SONAR can predict underwater hazards.
7. Bridge builders and offshore oil rigs also depend on GPS for accurate hydrographic surveys.
8. Conservation of soil, land and water using GPS can assist in strategy planning.

GPS and their use in resource mapping:

i. Mapping the exact boundaries of any land features can be done using GPS and the same can be
displayed on maps through GIS tools.
i. GPS is especially useful in surveying coastal and water flow directions, where there are few land-
based reference points.
ii. GPS positions with sonar depth soundings would create the nautical charts (1 nautical= 1.852 kms)
that alert mariners to changing water depths and underwater hazards.
iv. Bridge builders and offshore oil rigs also depend on GPS for accurate hydrographic surveys.

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v. The surveying and mapping community was one of the first to take advantage of GPS due to increase
in its accuracy to produce more reliable data. Today, GPS is a vital part of surveying and mapping
activities around the world used by skilled professionals.
vi. GPS-based data collection is much faster than conventional surveying and mapping techniques
reducing the amount of equipment and labor required. A single surveyor can now accomplish in one
day what once took entire team weeks to do.
vi. GPS supports the accurate mapping and modeling of the physical world from mountains & rivers to
streets & buildings to utility lines and other resources. Governments, scientific organizations, and
commercial operations throughout the world use GPS and GIS technology to facilitate timely decisions
and wide use of resources.
vi. Aerial photographic studies with the aid of GPS can help to evaluate an area’s wildlife, terrain, and human
infrastructure.
ix. By tagging imagery with GPS coordinates it is possible to evaluate conservation efforts and assistin
strategy planning.

Prepared by – Dhanshree N Nerlikar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, VVIT Bangalore