Data Communication Networking

Compiled by Dr. B. R.
Japheth (Software Engineering and Cyber security
CSC 403 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
NIGER DELTA UNIVERSITY
LECTURE NOTE
MATRI NO:
FACULTY: DEPT:
CLASS ID:
SUBMISSION DATE:
Compiled by Dr. B. R. Japheth (Software Engineering and Cyber security
SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Introduction
Decades ago, the study of network communications was dealt with under the following: Voice networks,
Data networks, and Hybrid networks. In recent times, the integration of various forms of multimedia
including audio, video, etc. into one stream has reduced the gap that exist among those communications hence
data communication is more commonly used. Data communications refers to the exchange of data (text,
video, audio, etc.) between two devices through a transmission medium such as air, cable, etc. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets.
Components
A data communications system has five components as shown in figure 1 below. These components are: source
or sender, message, protocol, transmission medium, and receiver.
Figure 1: Components of a data/voice communication system
Message. The message is the data or information to be sent across the medium. The common forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Source/Sender. The source or sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It may be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, printer, television, etc..
Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves
2
Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between two or more devices. It may
be likened to an agreement between the communicating devices.
1.1 Modes of Data Transmission

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending,
the other can only receive, and vice versa. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios
are both half-duplex systems. The half- duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in
both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two
way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full- duplex mode, signals going in
one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the other direction. One common example of
full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions
is required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Figure 1.2: Various modes of Transmission
1.2 Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance,
reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the amount
of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the
efficiency of the software.
Reliability
Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
1.2.1 Network connections

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data
from one device to another. There are two possible types of connections: point- to-point and multipoint. Figure
1.3 shows network connections.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to- point connections use an actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-
point connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called point to multipoint or multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially
or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users
must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Figure 1.3: Network connections
1.2.2 Physical Topology

Physical topology refers to the way in which the components of network are structured or arranged physically.
One or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring. Figure 1.4 shows the various network
topologies.
Figure 1.4: Network topology

1. Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find the
number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node
must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to
n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. However,
if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of
links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To
accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output ports to be
connected to the other n - 1 stations.
Figure 1.5: Mesh network topology
Advantages
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated
line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to
avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the
precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must be connected
to every other device.
2. Installation and reconnection are difficult.
3. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.
4. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.
2. Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a
star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device.
Figure 1.6: Bus topology with 3 stations connected

Advantages
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link and
one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure.
3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
4. Other advantage include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain
active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the
hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Disadvantages
One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each
node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some
other topologies (such as ring or bus).
3. Bus
A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the
backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance
between those taps.
Figure 1.7: Bus topology with 3 stations connected
Advantages
Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient
path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than
mesh or star topologies. In a star, for example, four network devices in the same room require four lengths of
cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable
stretches through the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally
efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the taps can
cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices
connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement
of the backbone. In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the
same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both
directions.
4. Ring
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
Figure 1.8: Ring topology with 6 stations
Advantages
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors
(either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The
only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). In
addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does
not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location. Disadvantages
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled
station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable
of closing off the break. Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring.
Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.
1.3 Types of Networks

Networks may be classified in different ways using various parameters such as size, extent of coverage,
protocols used, etc. in this chapter we shall examine the common ways in which networks are classified.
1.3.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

Local area networks, or LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a
few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company
offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange data. LANs are distinguished from other
kinds of networks by three characteristics:
a. Their size,
b. Their transmission technology, and
c. Their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and known in
advance. Knowing this boundary makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that would not otherwise be
possible. It also simplifies network management. LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a
cable to which all the machines are attached, like the telephone company lines once used in rural areas.
Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and
make very few errors. In recent times LANs operate at up to 10-100 Gbps.
1.3.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television
network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas
with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby
hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses. At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc
systems. Then companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an
entire city. The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often
these channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But
from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only. Cable television is
not the only MAN. Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet access resulted in another MAN,
which has been standardized as IEEE 802.16.
1.3.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains a
collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These machines are called as
hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the
customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and
operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of the pure
communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies
the complete network design. In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
transmission lines and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made
of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. In most WANs, the network contains numerous transmission
lines, each one connecting a pair of routers. If two routers that do not share a transmission line wish to
communicate, they must do this indirectly, via other routers. When a packet is sent from one router to another
via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there
until the required output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet organized according to this principle is
called a store-and-forward or packet-switched subnet.
Nearly all wide area networks (except those using satellites) have store-and-forward subnets. When the packets are
small and all the same size, they are often called cells. The principle of a packet- switched WAN is so
important. Generally, when a process on some host has a message to be sent to a process on some other
host, the sending host first cuts the message into packets, each one bearing its number in the sequence. These
packets are then injected into the network one at a time in quick succession. The packets are transported
individually over the network and deposited at the receiving host, where they are reassembled into the original
message and delivered to the receiving process. Not all WANs are packet switched. A second possibility for a
WAN is a satellite system. Each router has an antenna through which it can send and receive. All routers can
hear the output from the satellite, and in some cases they can also hear the upward transmissions of their fellow
routers to the satellite as well. Sometimes the routers are connected to a substantial point-to-point subnet, with only
some of them having a satellite antenna. Satellite networks are inherently broadcast and are most useful when
the broadcast property is important.
1.3.4 The Internet

The Internet is a “network of networks”. It is a global connection of devices. The Internet emerged in the
United States in the 1970s but did not become visible to the general public until the early 1990s. The origin of
the modern day Internet is the ARPANET created by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the
U.S. Department of Defense.
ARPANET was the first host-to-host network connection established on October 29, 1969. ARPANET was a
general-purpose computer network. It connected time-sharing computers at government-supported research sites,
principally universities in the United States, and later became a critical piece of infrastructure for the
computer science research community in the United States. Tools and applications—such as the simple mail
transfer protocol (SMTP, commonly referred to as e-mail), for sending short messages, and the file
transfer protocol (FTP), for longer transmissions—quickly emerged. ARPANET employed the new
technology of packet switching. Packet switching takes large messages (chunks of data) and breaks them into
smaller, manageable pieces (packets) that can travel independently over any available circuit to the target
destination, where the pieces are reassembled. Thus, unlike traditional voice communications, packet
switching does not require a single dedicated circuit between the users.
The Internet is the result of efforts to connect various research networks in the United States and Europe. First,
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) established a program to investigate the
interconnection of “heterogeneous networks.” This program, called Internetting, was based on the newly
introduced concept of open architecture networking, in which networks with defined standard interfaces would
be interconnected by “gateways.” A new protocol was required to enable internetworking of various devices.
In 1974, the transmission control protocol (TCP), which enabled different types of machines on networks all
over the world to route and assemble data packets was born. TCP, which originally included the Internet protocol (IP),
a global addressing mechanism that allowed routers to get data packets to their ultimate destination, formed
the TCP/IP standard, which was adopted by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1980. By the early 1980s the
“open architecture” of the TCP/IP approach was adopted and endorsed by many other researchers and
eventually by technologists and businessmen around the world. The Internet provides several functionalities
and could be used for almost any purpose that depends on information exchange. It is accessible by every individual
who connects to one of its constituent networks.
It supports human communication via social media, electronic mail (e-mail), “chat rooms,” newsgroups, and
audio and video transmission and allows people to work collaboratively across different locations. It
supports access to digital information by many applications, including the World Wide Web. The Internet is
a ground for a large and growing number of “e-businesses” and other organizations that carry out transactions
online (i.e. Over the Internet).
1.4 Internet Access Technologies
In the 1980s when the use of the Internet gained momentum, the Internet access method
consisted of dial-up modems running over standard telephone lines. These modems operated at
speeds of 1200 bits per second, which is excruciatingly slow by today’s standards but worked
well enough to access what were almost entirely text-based resources. Dial-up modems were
available to almost any household in America that wanted to buy a computer and a modem,
thanks to the success of universal service efforts and the resulti ng ubiquity of analog telephone
lines. Concurrently, the 1980s saw the popularization of cable television services. While cable
TV had existed since the 1950s, adoption grew in the 1970s and 1980s and became a major force in
providing high-quality video entertainment and information to consumers. By the end of the
’80s, nearly 53 million households subscribed to cable. The 1980s also brought the introduction
of satellite dishes as a better way to access television programming, especially in rural areas
without access to a cable network.
In the 1990s, analog modems gave way to digital subscriber lines (DSL) using the same
existing telephone wires, introducing significant speed increases over dial-up modems.
Cable TV companies began to provide internet access over their systems, offering the first
competitive access method versus telephone lines. Satellite TV companies began to offer
internet access service via satellite dishes. Some providers also began to experiment with the
delivery of internet access via wireless technologies. It was also in this period that the
broadband gap began to take shape. Cable internet was only available to the 65 million
Americans with access to cable infrastructure. While almost all households had access to a
phone line, many people in rural areas were not close enough to DSL infrastructure to access
speeds as fast as their urban neighbors—or any DSL at all. Wireless internet was still
uncommon. While satellite grew as a solution for those with no other choices, it offered a
comparatively poor quality of service.
At this time, many users were unaware of the service gap. Internet websites were still
relatively nascent, and content was still simple. So those without high - speed access were not
significantly disadvantaged. The various access method would be discussed below.
1.4.1 Cable
Cable internet is delivered using the same coaxial cables originally deployed for delivery of analog
video to television sets. Most cable internet providers use a standard called DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
Service Interface Specification), which is an international telecommunications standard that allows for the
addition of high-bandwidth data transfer to an existing coaxial cable TV system.
1.4.2 Cellular
Cellular service is a communications technology in which the last link is delivered wirelessly, and the land area
to be supplied with radio service is divided into cells in a pattern dependent on terrain and reception
characteristics. There are four primary cellular technologies that carry data; broadband categorized as 2G, 3G,
4G, and 5G. The specifications of these technologies are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Cellular technologies
Category Year launched Max. speed Actual speed
2G 1991 300kbps 100kbps
3G 1991 42mbps 8mbps
4G 2009 1Gbps 50mbps
5G 2020 10Gbps Not available
1.4.3 Satellite
Satellite internet access is provided by communications satellites in the Earth’s orbit. Traditional
communications satellites are launched into geosynchronous orbit at an altitude of 22,236 miles, which
entails a round trip latency of about a half a second for data flowing through the satellite.
1.4.4 Fixed Wireless

Fixed wireless is the operation of wireless communication devices or systems used to connect two fixed
locations, such as between a tower and a building. Although cellular companies now offer services that could
meet this definition, 2G/3G/4G/5G cellular technologies are generally excluded from being categorized as
fixed wireless because cellular technology was designed for mobile devices and has significant limitations
when used for fixed locations. Non-cellular fixed wireless can use a variety of technologies and frequencies.
1.4.5 DSL
Digital subscriber line (DSL) service is a family of technologies that are used to provide internet
connectivity over telephone lines originally intended for analog voice.
1.4.6 Fiber Optic

Fiber to the home is the fastest way to deliver internet service to residences and businesses. Internet
backbones use fiber optic cable as the last mile connection as it removes any bottlenecks between the end
user and the internet backbones. All other internet access technologies, including cable, DSL, cellular, fixed
wireless, and even satellite, leverage fiber optic cables to transmit data until that fiber reaches their
infrastructure.
1.6 The Layered Model (OSI)

The layered approach is a concept that specifies the design of network standard that is independent of
vendor devices. The open systems interconnection (OSI) model is based on a proposal developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the
protocols used in the various layers (Day and Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995(Day, 1995). The
model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. The OSI
model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication between all
types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network. The seven ordered layers are: physical (layer 1), data link
(layer 2), network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), and session (layer 5), and presentation (layer 6), and
application (layer 7). Figure 1.9 below shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A
to device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.
Figure 1.9: The OSI layered model

Figure 1.10: Layer 7-The Application layer
Figure 1.11: Layer6-The presentation layer
Figure 1.12: Layer 5-The session layer

Figure 1.13: Layer 4-The transport layer
Figure 1.14: Layer 3-The Network layer
Figure 1.15: Layer 2-The Data link layer

Figure 1.16: Layer 1-The Physical Layer
1.7 Lab 1: Introducing the Cisco Packet Tracer and setting up a basic switched network Lab objectives
1. Getting familiar with the CPT environment
2. Create Devices
3. Add Modules
4. Make Connections
5. Create a basic network
As a network is a set of connected devices, when there are multiple devices, there may arise a problem of how
to connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. One solution is to make a point-to-point connection
between each pair of devices (a mesh topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star
topology). These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks. The
number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-efficient, and the majority of those
links would be idle most of the time. Other topologies employing multipoint connections, such as a bus, are
ruled out because the distances between devices and the total number of devices increase beyond the
capacities of the media and equipment.
A better solution is switching. A switched network (see Figure 1.16) consists of a series of interlinked
nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more
devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example). Switches make networks more intelligent. Switches may operate at
layer 2 or layer 3 of the OSI model. Layer 3 switches perform routing functions like routers.
Figure 1.16: Switched network

SECTION TWO
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (CONFIGURE NETWORK OS)
2.1 Network Operating System (NOS)

A NOS is often a multi-user operating that supports functions for connecting computers and devices into a
local-area network (LAN) or Inter-network. Network operating systems may exist as standalone/On demand NOS,
and embedded NOS. Standalone NOS are often installed on demand on computer hardware whereas embedded
NOS are embedded by the manufacturer of network devices such as routers, firewalls, and managed switches. For
instance, Cisco systems uses the Cisco IOS as its NOS and is commonly installed across its networking products.
Each vendor of a network device may have their respective embedded network operating systems. Huawei,
Mikrotik, Nokia all have their network devices embedded with their vendor-specific network operating
systems respectively. This is why you must understand the NOS in each of those devices to be able to work with
each. The good thing is that some similarities do exist across these vendors. For instance working with Huawei
Routers and Switches would be very easy to a person who has had a previous training on Cisco devices.
Some popular NOS are Microsoft Windows 2012/2016 Server series, Linux, Oracle Solaris, UNIX, and IBM
OS/2. The first NOS was Novell Netware developed in 1983. A NOS provides connectivity among a number of
autonomous computers. A typical configuration for a NOS is a collection of personal computers along with a
common printer, server and file server for archival storage, all tied together by a local network.
Features of NOS
1. Allows multiple computers to connect in order to share data, files and hardware devices.
2. Provide basic operating system features such as support for processors, protocols, automatic
hardware detection and support multi-processing of applications.
3. Provide security features such as authentication, logon restrictions and access control.
4. Provide name and directory services.
5. Provide file, print, web services and back-up services.
6. Support Internetworking such as routing and WAN ports.
7. User management and support for logon and logoff, remote access; system management,
administration and auditing tools with graphical interfaces.
8. Clustering capabilities.
9. Internetworking features e.g. Routing
10. Security e.g. authentication of data, restrictions on required data, authorizations of users; management
of directory and name services; network administration utilities; prioritization of jobs in the network, etc.
Categories of NOS
Peer-to-peer network operating systems
These allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access shared resources
found on other computers. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the same
privileges to use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small
to medium local area networks. Windows for Work- groups is an example of the program that can function as
peer-to-peer network operating systems. Advantages of Peer-to-Peer(P2P) OS
1. Require less hardware.
2. No server needs to be established.
3. Setup process is easy.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) OS
a. No central location for storage, i.e. different systems have different storage capacity.
b. It has less security as compared to the client-server model.
Client/server NOS
This is the most population NOS. it has two components: client, and the server. The Client requests services from
server on the network whereas the Server supplies the requested services or data to the legitimate clients on the
network. The Client-server arrangement allows the centralization of computing resources in one or more dedicated
servers. These servers include file servers, domain name servers (DNS), gateway servers, public key infrastructure
(PKI) servers, database servers, directory server, dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) server, web servers, etc.
Resources in the context of NOS refer to printers, processors, file systems or other devices, tape drives,
databases, etc. Figure 2.1 shows a model of a client-server arrangement.
The NOS runs background services which manage these resources and ensure that legitimate clients access them.
Note that where there are limited hardware resources one server hardware may be used for the provision of these
resources. For instance, a super server hardware like the Oracle SPARC T-series server may be configured to server as
PKI server, Database server, Web Server, File server, and DNS server respectively.
Figure 2.1: Client-Server arrangement

In the client server arrangement, the mobile/workstations (clients) have limited resources on their local system but have
to access necessary resources through the servers. A typical example is what happens in a Windows Server 2016-
controlled client server network where the server acts as the DNS, DHCP, Active directory, and File server
respectively. For any client to connect to the network and access the internet and file resources, it must have
been allocated an IP address by the Server and also authenticated as part of the active directory members though
this may also involve the authentication of the user of the client system. Client-server NOS allows the sharing
of the same resources simultaneously by many users regardless of their physical location. Typical examples of
client-server NOS are: Windows server 2008/2012/2016, Linux (Ubuntu, BSD, Debian, Redhat, etc), Oracle
Solaris, etc.
Client support services provided by the Server include:
a. Creating/Managing client accounts
b. Authenticate clients to the network
c. Coordinate the sharing of network resources
d. Manage access to shared resources
e. Manage communications between clients
The Server also handles the following;
a. Process management
b. Memory management
c. Disk and file system management
Notice that the clients in this client server arrangement may be full (thick) clients or thin clients. Full clients are
computers or computing devices that have their respective operating systems as well as local resources but may
depend on the server for shared resources in the network. Unlike thick clients, thin clients do not have local
resources and often have a miniaturized operating system (often embedded) and depend wholly on the server
for all functions that is, even the computing functionality is resident on the server alone.
The Client-server communication involve the following:
1. Logon process (both client and server are involved)
2. Redirector - Client
a. Intercepts requests, determines where to send
b. The server’s OS, clients’ OSs, and redirectors must be compatible for a multivendor environment
to succeed
3. File Access Protocol - Server
1. Windows client communication with Windows Server 2008/2012/2016
a. CIFS (Common Internet File System)
b. Older protocol SMB (Server Message Block)
2. Broad support allows every client type to authenticate, access resources (Mac, Linux, etc)
4. After NOS client authentication

a. Client gains access to NOS services, resources
b. Start with none
5. Administrator account
1. Most privileged user account
2. Unlimited rights to server, domain resources, objects
3. Created by default
4. Administrator - Windows
5. Root on UNIX or Linux systems
6. Admin - Netware
Users and Groups: Access Rights

Users and groups are fundamental objects in a client-server arrangement. Access to resources (access rights) on
the server may be delineated through these objects. Users are identified by user names. User names may
represent human users or machine (computers/clients) names. The NOS would grant each user access to files and
other shared resources.
The Group is the basis for resource and account management on the server. This server feature enables resource
sharing and security control in medium and large networks.
A Group may exhibit the following features:
1. Nested or hierarchical arrangement: which simplifies management and group arrangement. This would affect
the permission/privilege/rights granted to each group member.
2. Inherited permissions: which are passed from parent group to child group
3. User and group restrictions: This determine the extent of network resources that clients in a group can
share.
Figure 2.2 shows how a client communicates with the server.
Figure 2.2: Client-server communication The merits of Client Server NOS are:
1. Security of the network is centralized and provided by server.
2. Integration of new technologies is very easy
3. High stability and resource control.
4. Hardware and the operating system can be specialized.
5. Location independence
The downsides of the Client Server arrangement are:

1. May be costly as medium and large networks may require sophisticated hardware.
2. Over dependence on the Server for storage, file access, database access etc. may impact negatively on
the efficiency of mission-critical functions in large organizations
3. It requires regular maintenance.
4. Backup and contingency arrangement is required should there be any failure of the central
server
2.2 Address schemes
Computer to computer communication requires a standard of communication. In simple terms, the standard of
communication is the protocol. The protocol among others must define a unique address for each system that
wants to communicate with the other in any given network. This is the concept of an addressing scheme. This
scheme is defined by the Internet Protocol (IP) a component of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/IP suite.
The IP is usually associated with the network layer (layer 3 of the OSI model). Note that communication at every
layer of the network is defined by given protocol. For instance, at layer 1(physical layer), communication
protocols at that layer include: Ethernet, Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN), Universal Serial Bus (USB),
Infrared Data Association(IrDA), Bluetooth, Controller Area Network(CAN), IEEE 1394 interface, Etherloop,
Frame relay, TransferJet, etc. while layer 2(Data link layer) protocols include: Ethernet, Point-to-Point Tunneling
Protocol(PPTP),Spanning Tree Protocol(STP), Password Authentication Protocol(PAP),Frame Relay,IEEE 802.11
WiFi,Point-to- Point Protocol(PPP), Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol(L2TP),Link Layer Discovery
Protocol(LLDP),Neighbor Discovery Protocol(NDP), Link Aggregation Control Protocol(LACP),IEEE 802.16
WiMAX,Layer 2 Forwarding Protocol(L2F), Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI),Cisco Discovery
Protocol(CDP),Data Link Switching Client Access Protocol(DCAP),Distributed Split Multi-Link Trunking,
Dynamic Trunking Protocol(DTP), Distributed Multi-Link Trunking, etc.
Similarly, the Network layer (layer 3) protocols include:
1. Internet Protocol (IP)
2. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF version 1 & 2)
3. IPSEc, Routing Information Protocol(RIP v. 1 & 2)
4. Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol(VRRP)
5. Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
6. Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
7. Connectionless Networking Protocol(CLNP)
8. Network Address Translation(NAT)
9. Internetwork Packet Exchange(IPX)
10. Hot Standby Router protocol(HSRP)
Knowledge of these protocols are important in dealing with networking devices such as routers, switching,
gateways, etc. However, this section shall emphasize more on the popular protocol of the internet and internetworks
i.e. the IP.
2.3 The Internet Protocol addressing
IP addresses act as identifiers for end systems as well as other devices within the network, as a means of allowing
such devices to be reachable both locally and by sources that are located remotely, beyond the boundaries of
the current network. IP Addresses use number schemes to identify devices on a network. The IP addressing
scheme uses logical addressing approach which implies that it is not permanently attached to a network-enabled
device unlike the media access control (MAC) address. The IP addressing has two versions: IPv4 (introduced in
1983), which is the most popular and the IPv6 which was introduced by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) in 1995, and subsequently standardized in 1996. The IPv6 is created to solve the addressing limitations of the
IPv4. The IP address is divided into two parts; the network ID, and a unique host ID. It may be generally expressed
as N.N.N.H where N network portion and H host ID. The IP address is represented with a dotted decimal value
constituting four octets (x.x.x.x) e.g. 192.168.2.40.
Every device on the internet must have an IP Address before it can communicate with other devices. The
IP address is unique and no two devices on the same network can have the same address at the same time.
2.3.1 Type of IP addresses

There are two broad types of IP addresses: Public and Private. Devices with public IP addresses are visible on the
Internet regardless of location whereas devices with Private IP addresses are used in local area networks and are
not visible on the Internet. For devices using a private IP addresses to access the Internet, an address translation is
necessary hence another network-layer protocol, NAT must be encapsulated by the IP to effect this translation.
NAT is may be implemented on any device that operates at layer 3 i.e. the network layer, such as routers, layer 3
switches, and gateways. The categorization of IP addresses into private and public is done by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA does the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet
protocol resources. IANA has reserved a range of addresses as private addresses for use in private networks in homes,
offices, VPN, etc. The essence is to provide control and a single point of administration over a network other than
the global network (Internet). The private IP addresses are:
a. 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 (65,536 IP addresses)
b. 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 (1,048,576 IP addresses)
c. 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 (16,777,216 IP addresses)
Public IP addresses are often assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs), and such addresses could be used to
identify the country from which a device is connecting to the Internet.
Public IP addresses may be purchased from ISPs during Internet subscription. Such a public IP may be used to
“NAT” the private IP addresses in a LAN to enable the devices access the Internet. The Public IP may be assigned
to a DNS Server on the LAN or configured in a Router or Layer Switch. When assigned on DNS Server, it means
the DNS Server itself must be connected to a Router that interfaces with the ISP data communications equipment
(DCE).
The remarkable features of an IP address are:
a. Unique.
b. Globalized and Standardized.
c. Essential.
2.3.2 Assigning IP addresses

An IP address whether private or public may be a:
1. Static address.
2. Dynamic Address.
A static address is a fixed address carefully assigned and does not change over time. Essential servers on
the Internet are assigned static IP addresses e.g. web servers, database servers, file servers, etc. The
advantages are: stability, ease of maintenance, ideal for online gaming, speed and reliability, reduced down-time,
remote access facility. The disadvantages are: require manual set up, expensive, administrative overhead, IP address
conflicts, and security threats.
The dynamic IP address is a temporary address assigned to a computing device by DHCP server when it is connected
to a network. This address has an expiration period after which the address can be given to some other device,
thus helping devices to share limited address space on the network. The dynamic IP addressing is flexible, cost
effective, easier to maintain, support more devices and also ensure privacy in the network. The disadvantages are:
The DHCP server is mandatory. The DHCP Server can be a router or a computer. Dynamic IP addressing does
not support remote access facility.
2.4 IPv4
The IPv4 is a 32-bit dotted decimal address value comprising 4 numbers separated by a dot. Each number in an
IPV4 address lies between 0-255. Each number may be represented using 8 bits. However, you may write an
IPv4 address in decimal, octal, binary, or even and hexadecimal. Within the IPv4 addressing scheme, only 4
billion unique addresses could be available though some addresses are also reserved for multicasting purposes
and private networks. It therefore follows that with the growth in connectivity, the IPv4 addressing scheme is easily
exhausted hence the need for the IPv6. A typical IPv4 address looks like
Decimal notation: 192.168.0.1
Binary notation: 11000000 . 10101000 . 00000000. 00000001
IPv4 addressing schemes divides IP addresses into five classes: A, B, C, D, E respectively. This categorization
enables IPv4 routing. Different IP classes are associated with different network types. They can be explained as
follows
CLASSES Range
Class A 1.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
Class B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255
Class C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255
Class D 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.255
1. IPv4 address format
2. The IPv4 follows the following format:
1. The 32-bit IP address is grouped into four octets(eight bits) separated by dots and represented in
decimal format. This is called the dotted decimal notation(see figure
2. Each bit in the octet has a binary weight (128,64,32, 16,8,4,2, 1).
3. The minimum value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255.
Figure 2.3: IPv4 Address format
2.5 IPv6 network addresses

Unlike IPv4, IPv6 addresses are written in hexadecimal(0-9,A.B.C,D,E,F). The essence is to enable the
representation of large addresses using lesser digits. The typical IPv6 address is a long string of numbers compared
to IPv4. IPv6 is 128 bits in length as against the 32 bits of IPv4. To create an IPv6 address; 8 groups of
hexadecimal numbers are used. Here a colon is used instead of dots to separate the sections of the digits. Inserting
double colon in a point within an IPv6 address implies that all sections between them contain only 0’s. An
example is given below:
2001:0db7::54 → with double colon 2001:0db7:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0054 IPv6 address without double colon
2.6 Subneting IP Networks

Subnetting is the concept of dividing a single large network into smaller logical sub-networks called as subnets. A
subnet is related to IP Address as it borrows a bit from the host part of the IP address. Thus the IP address has three
parts:
1. Network part. (Higher order bits)
2. Subnet part.
3. Host part. (Remaining bits)
The subnet is formed by taking the last bit from the network component of the IP address to specify the number of
subnets required. Subnetting allows having various sub-networks within the big network without having a new
network number. It reduces network traffic and complexity. The essence is to ameliorate the problem that may be
posed by the shortage of IP Addresses. Subnetting may be applied to class A, B, and C networks. A subnet can further
be broken down into smaller networks known as sub-subnets.
Note that each of these subnets has its own specific address. To create these additional networks we use a subnet
mask. The subnet mask simply determines which portion of the IP address belongs to the host. The subnet
address is created by dividing the host address into network address and host address.
The network address specifies the type of subnetwork in the network and the host address specifies the host of
that subnet. Subnets are under local administration. As such, the outside world sees an organization as a single
network and has no detailed knowledge of the organization’s intema1 structure. Subnetting provides the network
administrator with several benefits, including extra flexibility, more efficient use of network address and the
capability to contain broadcast traffic. A given .network address can be broken up into many subnetworks. For
example, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0, 172.16.3.0 and 172.16.4.0 are all subnets within network
171.16.0.0.
To create a subnet address bits from the host field are borrowed and designated as subnet field. The number of bits
borrowed varies and is specified by the subnet mask. Figure 2.4 shows how bits are borrowed from the host
address field to create the subnet address field. The subnet mask does not alter the class of the IP address; it
simply “borrows” bits from the host portion and uses these to create subnets. This naturally reduces the maximum
number of hosts your network can have, because you are using some of your host bits for your subnet bits.
Figure 2.4: Subnetting
2.8 Interfaces and ports
2.8.1 Interfaces
A network interface is a logical entity on a controller of a device that provides means of connecting to the network. An
interface has multiple parameters associated with it, including an IP address, default gateway (for the IP subnet),
primary physical port, secondary physical port, VLAN identifier, and DHCP server.
Five types of interfaces are recognized on a controller. Four of these are static and are configured at setup time:
1. Management interface (static and configured at setup time; mandatory)
2. AP-manager interface (static and configured at setup time; mandatory)
3. Virtual interface (static and configured at setup time; mandatory)
4. Service-port interface (static and configured at setup time; optional)
5. Dynamic interface (user-defined)
2.8.2 Ports
Unlike interfaces, a port is a physical entity that is used for establishing connections on the device. Network
devices may have two types of ports: Distribution system ports and service ports. Figure
2.5 shows the ports on a Cisco device. The ports are presented in Table 1.
Table1. Sample ports in a Cisco LAN controller device

S/N Port description
1 Redundant port (RJ-45)
2 Service port (RJ-45)
3 Console port (RJ-45)
4 USB ports 0 and 1 (Type A)
5 Console port (Mini USB Type B). Note: You can use only one console port (either RJ-45 or
mini USB). When you connect to one console port, the other is disabled.
6 SFP distribution system ports 1–8

7 Management port LEDs
8 SFP distribution port Link and Activity LEDs
9 Power supply (PS1 and PS2), System (SYS), and Alarm (ALM) LEDs
10 Expansion module slot
A distribution system port connects the device to a neighbor switch and serves as the data path between these
two devices. Each distribution system port is, by default, an 802.1Q VLAN trunk port. The service port can be used
management purposes, primarily for out-of-band management. However, AP management traffic is not possible across
the service port. In most cases, the service port is used as a "last resort" means of accessing the controller GUI for
management purposes. For example, in the case where the system distribution ports on the controller are down
or their communication to the wired network is otherwise degraded.
The service port is controlled by the service-port interface and is reserved for out-of-band management of the
device and system recovery and maintenance in the event of a network failure. It is also the only port that is active
when the controller is in boot mode. The service port is not capable of carrying 802.1Q tags, so it must be connected
to an access port on the neighbor switch. Use of the service port is optional. Service ports are not intended for high
volume of traffic.
Figure 2.5: Ports on a Cisco device
2.9 Verifying Connectivity between interfaces

For exchange of data or resources, the connectivity between the interfaces of participating network devices is
important. To verify connectivity in a switched network for instance, ensure that the devices such as
computers and laptops are connected to the switch either through straight-through cables or wirelessly through
access points (APs).
Ordinarily, connectivity on physical ports (wired) may be inspected. For instance, a straight – through cable
is connected to the RJ-45 port of laptop and the other end of the cable connected to a switch on the network. If the
port on the switch is not disabled, a yellow blinking light may be observed at both ends i.e. on the switch
and on the laptop. However, this blinking does not guarantee real communication between the devices. If
the laptop does not have appropriate IP address configured on it, it follows that it wont be able to see or exchange
data with other devices on the network. The preliminary phase in ensuring connectivity is the careful assignment
of valid IP addresses to the devices.
In networking, there are basic tools that may be used to check connectivity. This may be done from the different
networking devices including the computer. One of these tools is the PING facility. Another similar tool is the
traceroute facility.
Ping is an acronym for packet Internet groper. Ping is a component of the internet message control protocol
(ICMP). It is used to send a chunk of information (the packet) to a network address. The computer with the
address pinged echoes the packet back. The ping command then reports information about the packet sent and
received, such as the total length of time taken by the round trip. Ping command facility is available on virtually
network devices. It is also available as a command-line utility on all operating system with network
connectivity. It is the basic tool for checking if a networked device is reachable.
Figure 2.6 shows the ping command utility on a computer. To launch the ping command utility on your PC, hold down
the Windows key and press R on your keyboard, then type cmd and press enter. The command window will
open (see figure 2.6). Then type ping followed by the IP address or domain name of the remote system you
wish to check connectivity. Provided your computer is on the network, if you are ‘pinging’ a domain name, observe
that the system attempts to resolve the name to its equivalent IP address. In Figure 2.6 we attempted to check if there
is connectivity between the local computer and the remote yahoo server with IP 98.137.11. 163.
The reply shows there was actually a connection as the server echoed back to the local system. Also note that some
devices may be configured to block the ICMP in which case any ping would simply time out.
Like on the computer system, the ping facility can also be launched on the router or switch
Figure 2.6. Using the ping facility on the computer.
LAB 2: Building simple LANs, using switches, and implement IP addressing

In this Lab we shall demonstrate how to build a switched network with network address 192.168.0.0 with subnet
mask 255.255.255.0. Recall that this could be written as 192.168.0.0 /24. 255. 255.255.0 could be written as
1111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 in binary. If you count the number of 1’s it gives 24 hence the /24 is a
classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) notation for the default subnet mask. A switched network uses a Switch such as
cisco 2960 switch. Devices such as computers, servers and access points may be connected to the switch.
It is important to get familiar with the CPT environment. At the bottom of the CPT window lies the device panel. The
panel has two rows. The first row is of vital importance because it is the first row that determines what is displayed in
the second row.
The contents of the first row are:
1. Network devices: The first icon on the first row of the panel is the network devices. Notice that when you click
on it the second row displays all the 6 network devices(routers, switches, hubs, wireless devices,
security, and WAN emulation
2. End devices: This is represented by the second icon on the first row in the panel. End devices
include: PC, Laptop, TV, Server, Printer, IP phone, Wireless tablet, smart device,etc.
3. Components: This is the third icon on the first row. The items in this group include: MCU board, SBC
board, thing
4. Connections: This is the fourth icon on the panel. Connection include different categories of network
connections such as: console, copper straight-through, copper cross-over, fibre, phone, coaxial, Serial
DCE, Serial DTE, etc.
5. Miscellaneous: This icon contains other network elements which may or may not be contained in
the other categories above
6. Multiuser connection: This is the last icon
Note: Any of these elements in the device panel could be dragged and dropped on the design window.
Configuring end devices in the design window is very simple. As a matter of fact end devices are not our
problem during network configuration. Including end devices in our design is for testing purposes only. What is
relevant on end devices is the IP address configuration including the DNS server IP, Gateway IP, and Host IP
addresses respectively. The following steps indicate how to build a simple network as shown in Figure 2.7
Step 1: Launch your Cisco Packet Tracer
Step 2: From the device panel drag and drop the two network devices (router R1 and Switch SW1) and three end
devices (PC0,PC1, and PC2) as shown in Figure 2.7
Figure 2.7: The Network model environment in CPT
Step 3: Configure the IP addresses on the end devices. To configure IP addresses on the end devices, click
on each of the devices to open its properties window as shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Configuring end devices
Navigate to the INTERFACE then the FastEthernet0(in some cases it may be Ethernet0 or GigabitEthernet0 as
it depends on the features of the end device e.g. some laptops have GigabitEthernet adapter while some have
FashEthernet or Ethernet, select static IP, and then enter the host IP address and the subnet mask respectively. Where a
Router like R1 is used as a gateway for the PCs or devices on the network, you may need to navigate to settings (see
Figure 2.9) and set the IP addresses of the gateway and DNS server without which in an ideal scenario the packets from the
end device would not be routed to another device outside the network.
Figure 2.9: Configuring the Gateway IP and DNS server IP of the end device
Step 4: Configure the IP address on the Router. The IP address of the R1 port is to be configured from the
command line interface (CLI). Often times to see the interface/port labels in the design window you may need to
navigate the following menu: Options - Preferences and make the changes as shown in Figure 2.10. It is important
you identify the interfaces of the network device you wish to configure through the CLI. In the present circumstance,
the Router R1 interface we need to configure is the GigabitEthernet0/0 interface. This interface would serve as
the gateway of the network i.e. it would provide exit channel for packets emanating from the local network to
external networks.
Figure 2.10: Setting preferences to enable the display of port labels
Step 5
Click on the network device. The network device we want to configure is R1. Clicking on R1 opens the properties
window with the CLI tab active(see Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11: Entering the CLI window of the network device(R1)

All configurations are to be done through the CLI. Once on this window, hit the enter button on your system to
return to the user exec level. Note that there are two popular access levels: the user Exec mode and the privileged. The
User EXEC level allows access to only basic monitoring commands whereas the privileged EXEC level allows
access to all router commands. Privileged EXEC level may be password protected to allow only authorized users
the ability to configure or manage the router/switch. From privileged EXEC level, you can access all the
command modes. There are five command modes: global configuration mode, interface configuration mode,
subinterface configuration mode, router configuration mode, and line configuration mode. Table 2 shows this
structure. At any point during the configuration use the question mark to display the list of all commands available
to you at that mode. E.g. Router> ?
Table 2: Access levels and configuration modes in Cisco devices

Router> - User EXEC mode
Router# - Privileged EXEC mode
Router(config)# - Configuration mode (notice the # sign
indicates this is accessible only at
privileged EXEC mode)
Router(config-if)# - Interface level within

configuration mode
Router(config-router)# - Routing engine level within
configuration mode
Router(config-line)# - Line level (vty, tty, async) within
configuration mode
Step 6: Do the following to configure IP address on the Router interface

a. Router> enable //this command takes you to the privileged mode
b. Router#
c. Router# Config t //use this to enter into the configuration mode
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
d. Router(config)#hostname R1 //change the name of the Router to R1 as in the design
e. R1(config)# // notice that router name is changed
f. R1(config)#Interface G0/0 //enter into interface G0/0 configuration mode
g. R1(config-if)#IP add 192.168.0.1 255.255.255.0 //enter the IP address and subnet mask
of the interface
h. R1(config-if)#no shut //brings up the interface to the active up state. Once this happens
the connection between the router and the switch and all other connected devices with correct IP addresses
configured on them becomes active. The next action is to save your configuration.
i. R1(config-if)# exit //exit to the global configuration mode to enable you save
the configuration
j. R1#copy run start // This is the short form of copy running-configuration startup-
configuration command. This saves the configuration made over the start up in the NVRAM thus making it
persistent
Step 7: Configure the Switch

Switch>enable Switch#config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
Switch(config)#hostnameSW1 SW1(config)#exit
SW1#
SW1#copy run start
Destination filename [startup-config]? //press enter again to save
Building configuration...
[OK] SW1#
Step 8: Verify connectivity between PC0 and Router R1

1. Click on PC0 on the CPT logical workspace to open the PC configuration window.
2. Select the Desktop tab
3. Click on the command prompt icon
4. In the command prompt, ping the router i.e. 192.168.0.1 as show in Figure 2.12.
5. The ping statistics shows success hence there is connectivity between PC0 and R1. You may also test
connectivity between PC0 and any other device
Figure 2.12: Verifying connectivity between PC0 and the Router (R1)
STUDY QUESTIONS
Q1. A small company with 10 employees uses a single LAN to share information between computers. Which
type of connection to the Internet would be appropriate for this company?
Ans. A broadband service, such as DSL, through their local service provider. For this small office, an
appropriate connection to the Internet would be through a common broadband service called Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL), available from their local telephone service provider. With so few employees,
bandwidth is not a significant problem. If the company were bigger, with branch offices in remote sites,
private lines would be more appropriate. Virtual Private Networks would be used if the company had
employees who needed to connect to the company via Internet.
Q2. Which network scenario will require the use of a WAN?
Ans. Employees need to connect to the corporate email server through a VPN while traveling. When
traveling employees need to connect to a corporate email server through a WAN connection, the VPN will
create a secure tunnel between an employee laptop and the corporate network over the WAN connection.
Obtaining dynamic IP addresses through DHCP is a function of LAN communication. Sharing files among
separate buildings on a corporate campus is accomplished through the LAN infrastructure.
Q3. Which statement describes a characteristic of a WAN?
Ans. WAN networks are owned by service providers. WANs are used to interconnect the enterprise LAN to
remote branch site LANs and telecommuter sites. A WAN is owned by a service provider. Although WAN
connections are typically made through serial interfaces, not all serial links are connected to a WAN. LANs,
not WANs, provide end-user network connectivity in an organization.
Q4. What are two common types of circuit-switched WAN technologies?
Ans. ISDN and PSTN. The two most common types of circuit-switched WAN technologies are the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) and the integrated services digital network (ISDN). Frame Relay and
ATM are packet-switched WAN technologies. DSL is a WAN technology that offers broadband Internet
access.
Q5. Which two devices are needed when a digital leased line is used to provide a connection between the
customer and the service provider?
Ans. DSU and CSU. Digital leased lines require a channel service unit (CSU) and a data service unit (DSU).
An access server concentrates dialup modem dial-in and dial-out user communications. Dialup modems are
used to temporarily enable the use of analog telephone lines for digital data communications. A Layer 2
switch is used to connect a LAN.
Q6. What is a requirement of a connectionless packet-switched network?
Ans. Full addressing information must be carried in each data packet. A connection-oriented system
predetermines the network path, creates a virtual circuit for the duration of the packet delivery, and requires
that each packet only carry an identifier. A connectionless packet-switched network, such as the Internet,
requires each data packet to carry addressing information.
Q7. A company needs to interconnect several branch offices across a metropolitan area. The network
engineer is seeking a solution that provides high-speed converged traffic, including voice, video, and data on
the same network infrastructure. The company also wants easy integration to their existing LAN
infrastructure in their office locations. Which technology should be recommended?
Ans. Ethernet WAN Technology. Ethernet WAN uses many Ethernet standards and it connects easily to
existing Ethernet LANs. It provides a switched, high-bandwidth Layer 2 network capable of managing data,
voice, and video all on the same infrastructure. ISDN, while capable of supporting both voice and data, does
not provide high bandwidth. VSAT uses satellite connectivity to establish a private WAN connection but
with relatively low bandwidth. Use of VSAT, ISDN, and Frame Relay require specific network devices for
the WAN connection and data conversion between LAN and WAN.
Q8. Which equipment is needed for an ISP to provide Internet connections through cable service? Ans.
CMTS equipment. The equipment located at a cable service provider office, the cable modem termination
system (CMTS), sends and receives digital cable modem signals on a cable network to provide Internet
services to cable subscribers. A DSLAM performs a similar function for DSL service providers. A CSU/DSU
is used in leased line connections. Access servers are needed to process multiple simultaneous dial-up
connections to a Central Office (CO).
Q9. Which geographic scope requirement would be considered for a distributed WAN scope?
Ans. Many-to-many scope. In a business context, a one-to-one scope would encompass a corporation that has
a single branch office. A one-to-many WAN scope would encompass a corporation with multiple branch
offices. A distributed WAN would have many branch offices connected to many other sites.
Q10. What is a characteristic of a fault tolerant network?

Ans. Fault tolerant network is a network that recovers quickly when a failure occurs and depends on
redundancy to limit the impact of a failure. Fault tolerant networks limit the impact of a failure because the
networks are built in a way that allows for quick recovery when such a failure occurs. These networks depend
on multiple or redundant paths between the source and destination of a message. They are also scalable
network can expand quickly to support new users and applications without impacting the performance of the
service being delivered to existing users. In these network Quality of service (QoS) is a mechanism for
managing congestion and ensuring reliable delivery of content to all users.
Q11. What is a benefit of using cloud computing in networking?
Ans. Network capabilities are extended without requiring investment in new infrastructure, personnel, or
software. Cloud computing extends IT’s capabilities without requiring investment in new infrastructure,
training new personnel, or licensing new software. These services are available on-demand and delivered
economically to any device anywhere in the world without compromising security or function. BYOD is
about end users having the freedom to use personal tools to access information and communicate across a
business or campus network. Smart home technology is integrated into every-day appliances allowing them
to interconnect with other devices, making them more ‘smart’ or automated. Powerline networking is a trend
for home networking that uses existing electrical wiring to connect devices to the network wherever there is
an electrical outlet, saving the cost of installing data cables.
Q12. What are two benefits of using a layered network model?
Ans. It assists in protocol design and also prevents technology in one layer from affecting other layers. Some
vendors have developed their own reference models and protocols. Today, if a device is to communicate on
the Internet, the device must use the TCP/IP model. The benefits of using a layered model are as follows:
1. assists in protocol design
2. fosters competition between vendors 1. Data – The general term for the PDU used at the application layer.
3. Segment – transport layer PDU
4. Packet – network layer PDU
5. Frame – data link layer PDU
6. Bits – A physical layer PDU used when physically transmitting data over the medium prevents a technology
that functions at one layer from affecting any other layer provides a common language for describing network
functionality helps in visualizing the interaction between each layer and protocols between each layer
Q13. Which two OSI model layers have the same functionality as two layers of the TCP/IP model?
Ans. Network layer and transport layer. The OSI transport layer is functionally equivalent to the TCP/IP
transport layer, and the OSI network layer is equivalent to the TCP/IP internet layer. The OSI data link and
physical layers together are equivalent to the TCP/IP network access layer. The OSI session layer (with the
presentation layer) is included within the TCP/IP application layer.
Q14. Which name is assigned to the transport layer PDU?
Ans. The name assigned is called Segment. Application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to
be transmitted across the network media. During the process, various protocols add information to it at each
level. At each stage of the process, a PDU (protocol data unit) has a different name to reflect its new
functions. The PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite:
Q15. What is a characteristic of the LLC sublayer?
Ans. It places information in the frame allowing multiple Layer 3 protocols to use the same network interface
and media. The Logical Link Control (LLC) defines the software processes that provide services to the
network layer protocols. The information is placed by LLC in the frame and identifies which network layer
protocol is being used for the frame. This information allows multiple Layer 3 protocols, such as IPv4 and
IPv6, to utilize the same network interface and media.
Q16. A network team is comparing physical WAN topologies for connecting remote sites to a headquarters
building. Which topology provides high availability and connects some, but not all, remote sites?
Ans. The partial mesh topology. Partial mesh topologies provide high availability by interconnecting
multiple remote sites, but do not require a connection between all remote sites. A mesh topology requires
point-to-point links with every system being connected to every other system. A point-to-point topology is
where each device is connected to one other device. A hub and spoke uses a central device in a star topology
that connects to other point-to-point devices.
Q17. What are two expected features of modern enterprise networks?
Ans. Support for converged network traffic and support for critical applications. All modern enterprise
networks are expected to support critical applications, converged network traffic, diverse business needs, and
provide centralized administrative control. Users expect enterprise networks to be up 99.999 percent of the
time (not 90 percent.). Support for limited growth is not a usual network design criterion.
Q18. Which type of information is displayed by the show ip protocols command that is issued from a
router command prompt?
Ans. The configured routing protocols and the networks that the router is advertising* The show ip protocols
command displays information about the routing protocols that are configured, the networks the router is
advertising, and the default administrative distance. The show interfaces command displays interfaces with
line (protocol) status, bandwidth, and delay, reliability, encapsulation, duplex, and I/O statistics. The show ip
interfaces command displays interface information, including protocol status, the IP address, whether a helper
address is configured, and whether an ACL is enabled on the interface. The show protocols command
displays information about the routed protocol that is enabled and the protocol status of interfaces.
Q19. Which action should be taken when planning for redundancy on a hierarchical network design?
Ans. Add alternate physical paths for data to traverse the network. One method of implementing redundancy
is path redundancy, installing alternate physical paths for data to traverse the network. Redundant links in a
switched network supports high availability and can be used for load balancing, reducing congestion on the
network.
Q20. Refer to the figure. PC A sends a request to Server B.
PC A is connected to switch S1, which in turn is connected to router R1. Router R1 is connected to a cloud,
and the cloud is connected to Server B. If 192.168.12.16 IPv4 address is used in the destination field in the
packet as the packet leaves PC A. Provide on each side a label with the needed information?
Ans. The destination IP address in packets does not change along the path between the source and
destination.
At one side of the PC is a label with the following information:
PC A MAC address: 00-0B-85-7F-47-00 IPv4 address: 192.168.10.10 At one side of the switch is a label
with the following information: S1 MAC address: 00-0B-85-D0-BB-F7 IPv4 address: 192.168.11.1
At one side of the router is a label with the following information: R1 MAC address: 00-0B-85-7F-86-B0
IPv4 address: 192.168.10.1
At one side of the server is a label with the following information: SERVER B MAC address: 00-0B-85-7F-
0A-0B IPv4 address: 192.168.12.16
Q21. Refer to the figure.
Server B is connected to switch S1, which in turn is connected to router R1. Router R1 is connected to a
cloud, and the cloud is connected to PC A. If the destination MAC address that corresponds to the IPv4
address is not in the ARP cache, then what is the information needed for R1 to send an ARP request to Server
B?
Ans. At one side of the server is a label with the following information: SERVER B MAC address: 00-0B-85-
7F-0A-0B IPv4 address: 192.168.10.16At one side of the switch is a label with the following information: S1
MAC address: 00-0B-85-D0-BB-F7 IPv4 address: 192.168.11.1At one side of the router is a label with the
following information: R1 MAC address: 00-0B-85-7F-86-B0 IPv4 address: 192.168.10.1At one side of the
PC is a label with the following information: PC A MAC address: 00-0B-85-7F-47-00 IPv4 address:
192.168.12.10
Q22. Refer to the figure. If PC1 is sending a packet to PC2 and routing has been configured between the two
routers, what will R1 do with the Ethernet frame header attached by PC1?
Ans. Remove the Ethernet header and configure a new Layer 2 header before sending it out S0/0/0. When
PC1 forms the various headers attached to the data one of those headers is the Layer 2 header. Because PC1
connects to an Ethernet network, an Ethernet header is used. The source MAC address will be the MAC
address of PC1 and the destination MAC address will be that of G0/0 on R1. When R1 gets that information,
the router removes the Layer 2 header and creates a new one for the type of network the data will be placed
onto the serial link.
Q23. A typical router output shows the following information:
The gateway of last resort is 209.165.200.226 to network 0.0.0.0 S* 0.0.0.0/0 [1/0] via 209.165.200.226
192.168.10.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks C 192.168.10.0/24 is directly connected,
GigabitEthernet0/0 L 192.168.10.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0 192.168.11.0/24 is variably
subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks C 192.168.11.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1 L 192.168.11.1/32
is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1 209.165.200.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks C
209.165.200.224/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0 L 209.165.200.225/32 is directly connected,
Serial0/0/0
What will the router do with a packet that has a destination IP address of 192.168.12.227?
Ans. Send the packet out the Serial0/0/0 interface. After a router determines the destination network by
ANDing the destination IP address with the subnet mask, the router examines the routing table for the resulting
destination network number. When a match is found, the packet is sent to the interface associated with the
network number. When no routing table entry is found for the particular network, the default gateway or
gateway of last resort (if configured or known) is used. If there is no gateway of last resort, the packet is
dropped. In this instance, the 192.168.12.224 network is not found in the routing table and the router uses the
gateway of last resort. The gateway of last resort is the IP address of 209.165.200.226. The router knows this is
an IP address that is associated with the 209.165.200.224 network. The router then proceeds to transmit the
packet out the Serial0/0/0 interface, or the interface that is associated with 209.165.200.224.
ASSIGNMENT
Question 1. What is the significant difference between a router and a modem? Question 2:
a. What is the main function of the network layer in the OSI model?
b. Which of the network models are responsible for the understanding of the functionality of
a network?
c. What is a network “protocol”?
d. What is the role of the transport layer in the 5 layer TCP/IP protocol stack?
e. Compare and contrast the application protocols SMTP and HTTP.
Question 3:
a. Describe how Network Address Translation (NAT) works to enable devices using private IP
addresses to access the Internet.
b. Describe how the categorization of IP addresses into private and public is done by the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
c. What are the advantages and disadvantages of STAR Topology?
Question 4:
a. What is the difference between Simplex and Half-Duplex transmission?
a. Draw arrows between three pairs of computers. The arrows should demonstrate Simplex,
Duplex and Half Duplex transmission
b. Give one example use each of Simplex and Duplex transmission
Question 5: Describe the following in brief:
a. Local Area Network (LAN)
b. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
c. Wide Area Network (WAN)
d. The Internet
e. Internet Access Technologies
Question 6:
a. What is a Subnet in Subnetting IP Networks?
b. What is Supernetting and why is it useful in terms of the size of the routing table on routers
c. State and explain with appropriate examples three (3) Supernetting Rules in terms of aggregating
contiguous networks in the same address space and creating access control lists (ACLs)
Question 7:
a. What are the typical features of a Network Operating System?
b. Describe with appropriate diagrams the configuration sequences of the Peer-to-peer network
operating systems and the Client/server network operating systems
c. State the advantages and the disadvantages of Peer-to-peer network operating systems

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Compiled by Dr. B. R.

Japheth (Software Engineering and Cyber security

CSC 403 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

NIGER DELTA UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Figure 1: Components of a data/voice communication system

1.1 Modes of Data Transmission

Figure 1.2: Various modes of Transmission

1.2.1 Network connections

Figure 1.3: Network connections

1.2.2 Physical Topology

Figure 1.4: Network topology

Figure 1.5: Mesh network topology

Figure 1.6: Bus topology with 3 stations connected

Figure 1.7: Bus topology with 3 stations connected

Figure 1.8: Ring topology with 6 stations

1.3 Types of Networks

1.3.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

1.3.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

1.3.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

1.3.4 The Internet

1.4.4 Fixed Wireless

1.4.6 Fiber Optic

1.6 The Layered Model (OSI)

Figure 1.9: The OSI layered model

Figure 1.10: Layer 7-The Application layer

Figure 1.11: Layer6-The presentation layer

Figure 1.12: Layer 5-The session layer

Figure 1.13: Layer 4-The transport layer

Figure 1.14: Layer 3-The Network layer

Figure 1.15: Layer 2-The Data link layer

Figure 1.16: Layer 1-The Physical Layer

Figure 1.16: Switched network

2.1 Network Operating System (NOS)

Figure 2.1: Client-Server arrangement

4. After NOS client authentication

Users and Groups: Access Rights

Figure 2.2 shows how a client communicates with the server.

The downsides of the Client Server arrangement are:

2.3.1 Type of IP addresses

2.3.2 Assigning IP addresses

Figure 2.3: IPv4 Address format

2.5 IPv6 network addresses

2.6 Subneting IP Networks

Figure 2.4: Subnetting

2.8 Interfaces and ports

Table1. Sample ports in a Cisco LAN controller device

6 SFP distribution system ports 1–8

Figure 2.5: Ports on a Cisco device

2.9 Verifying Connectivity between interfaces

Figure 2.6. Using the ping facility on the computer.

LAB 2: Building simple LANs, using switches, and implement IP addressing

Step 1: Launch your Cisco Packet Tracer

Figure 2.7: The Network model environment in CPT

Figure 2.8: Configuring end devices

Figure 2.10: Setting preferences to enable the display of port labels

Figure 2.11: Entering the CLI window of the network device(R1)

Table 2: Access levels and configuration modes in Cisco devices

Router(config-if)# - Interface level within