➢ Horticulture – Latin word- Hortus meaning ‘garden’ and ‘cultura’ meaning ‘culture or

growing’
➢ Pomology – Lating-Greek word – Combination of Lating word ‘pomum’ meaning ‘fruit’
and greek word ‘logy’ or ‘logos’ meaning ‘discourse, or science’.
➢ Olericulture – Latin word – ‘oleris’ meaning ‘Pot herb’ and english word ‘culture’
meaning ‘Cultivation’.
➢ Floriculture – Latin word – Flower cultivation.

• Father of Horticulture in India: M. H. Marigowda

Planning and layout of orchard:

A. Location and site selection of orchard:

Factors affecting selection of site:

1. Land slope: Should not be more than 5%. If slope is more than 5%, unsuitable for
orchard. More than 15% unsuitable for orchard.

B. System of planting:

Layout System Characteristics

Square System Most easy and popular method

Quincunx System One additional plant in the centre of each square called as filler
plant. 1.8 times more plants than square system

Triangular System 11% less plants than Square, used in high density planting

Rectangular System Accommodates more plants in rows, used in HDP

Hexagonal System or 15% more plants than square system

Septule
 Contour System Hilly areas where land is undulated, Double hedge row contour
planting system accommodates 22% higher plants than single
hedge system.

Terrace System Hills or mountains by planting on terraces on the slope.

Meadow Orcharding Ultra-High Density Plantation

Nutritive Value of fruits (per 100 gm):

Nutrients Rank wise

Vitamin A Mango (4800 IU/100g) > Papaya (2020 IU/100 g)
Vitamin B1/Thiamine Cashew nut (630 mg) > walnut (450 g)
Vitamin B2/Riboflavin Bael (1191 mg) > Papaya (250 mg) > Litchi (122.5mg)
Vitamin C/Ascorbic acid Barbados cherry (2000 mg) > Aonla (600 mg) > Guava
Carbohydrates Raisins (77.3%) > Dry Apricot (72.8%) > Dates (67.8)
Protein Cashew nut (21.2%) > Almond (20.88%)
Fat Walnut (64.5%) > Almond (58.9%)
Fibre Fig > Guava > almond
Calcium Litchi (0.21%) > Dry Karonda (0.16%)
Phosphorus Almond (0.49%) > Cashew nut (0.38%)
Iron Dry karonda (39.1%) > Date palm (10.6%)
Calorific value Walnut (687 cal.) > Almond (655 cal) > Cashew (595 cal) > Dates
(282 cal)
Daily requirements: (Per day per capita):

1. Fruits: 120gm
2. Vegetables: 300gm

Growth substances and their functions:

S.N. Hormones Functions

1 Auxin Named by F.W. Went. It has apical bud dominance, inhibit root
elongation and promote cell division in tissue culture.
a. IAA Prevent premature fruit drop
b. IBA Root formation
c. NAA Fruit thinner, prevent fruit drop
d. 2,4-D Fruit setting hormone (< 20 ppm), and also used as herbicide (>
20 PPM)
2 Cytokinin Dormancy breaker, stimulate cell division
4 Gibberellins Cell elongation, increase fruit size
5 Abscisic acid Induce Dormancy, stomata closer, also called as anti-gibberellin
(ABA)
6 Ethylene Ripening of fruits, isodiametric growth of stem & roots
7 Chlormequat Logging preventor, also known as cycocoel
(CCC)
8 Maleic hydrazide Growth retardant, prevent onion sprouting in storage, sold under
trade name sprout stop
9 Ethephone T. Name – Ethrel, Used as Banana fruit ripener
10 Glyphosate Used as sugarcane ripener

Area Production Productivity

(000’ha) (000’MT) (Tonnes/Ha)

Fruits 7,064 1,07,507 15.22

Vegetables 11,374 2,09,143 18.39

Medicinal and 668 664 0.99

Aromatic

Flowers 282 2,813 9.97

 Plantation Crops 4,293 15,764 3.67

Spices 4,360 11,155 2.55

Total 28,041 3,47,046

Horticultural Institutes:

Central Institutes of horticulture (CIH) Mediziphema, Nagaland (JAN-2006)

Institutes of Horticulture Technology Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
(IHT)
Indian Institutes of Horticultural Research❖ Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, Karnataka. (1967)
(IIHR)
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource❖ New Delhi
Centre (NBPGR)
National Horticulture Board (NHB) ❖ Gurgaon, Haryana (1984)
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) ❖ 2005-06
Central Institute of Subtropical ❖ Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (1995)
Horticulture (CISTH)
Central Institute of Temperate ❖ Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir (1994)
Horticulture (CITH)
Central Arid Zone Research Institute ❖ Jodhpur, Rajasthan (1952)
(CAZRI)
Central Institute of Arid Horticulture ❖ Bikaner, Rajasthan (1994)
(CIAH)
National Research Centre for Banana ❖ Trichy, Tamil Nadu
(NRCB)
National Research Centre for Citrus ❖ Nagpur, Maharashtra (1985)
(NRCC)
 National Research Centre for Grapes ❖ Pune, Maharashtra
(NRCG)
❖ Solapur, Maharashtra (2005)
National Research Centre for Pomegranate
(NRCP)
National Research Centre for Litchi ❖ Muzzafarpur, Bihar
(NRCL)
National Research Centre for Makhana ❖ Darbhanga, Bihar
(NRCM)
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh (1971)
(IIVR)
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute ❖ Sreekariyam Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
(CTCRI)
Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) ❖ Shimla, Himachal Pradesh (1949)
National Horticultural Research and ❖ Nasik, Maharashtra
Development Foundation (NHRDF)
Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research❖ Pune, Maharashtra
(DOGR)
Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR)❖ Solan, Himachal Pradesh

➢ Edible part of some fruits:

Fruits Morphological Edible part

category
Almond Drupe Seed
Apple Pome Thalamus
Apricot Drupe Mesocarp
Banana Berry Mesocarp and endocarp
Cashewnut Drupe Peduncle, cotyledon and seed
Coconut Drupe Endosperm
Custard apple Etaerio of berries Fleshy pericarp of berries
Date palm Berry Mesocarp
Grape Berry Pericarp and placenta
Guava Berry Thalamus and pericarp
Jackfruit Sorosis Bracts, Perianth and seeds
Litchi Nut Aril (Juicy covering of seed)
Loquat Pome Fleshy thalamus
Mango Drupe Mesocarp
Mulberry Sorosis Fleshy sepals
Oranges Hesperidium Juicy placental hairs
Palmyra palm Drupe Mesocarp
Papaya Berry Epicarp and Mesocarp
Peach Drupe Mesocarp
Pear Pome Thalamus
Persimmon Berry Pericarp
Pineapple Sorosis Receptacle, bracts and perianth
Plum Drupe Mesocarp
Pomegranate Balausta Juicy covering of seed
Quince Pome Thalamus
Raspberry Etaerio of drupelets Pericarp
Strawberry Etaerio of achenes Fleshy thalamus
Sweet cherry Drupe Mesocarp
Walnut Drupe Seed

Type of Fruit Examples

A. Simple Fruits
1. Berry Arecanut, Avocado, Grape, Guava, Banana, Papaya, Sapota, Date
Palm (Single Seeded Berry)
a. Modified berry
i. Balausta Pomegranate
ii. Amphisarca Wood apple, Bael
b. Pome Apple, Pear, Quince, Loquat
 c. Pepo Watermelon
2 Drupe (Stone) Plum, Apricot, Peaches, Almond, Ber, Mango, Coconut, Jamun,
Phalsa, Barbados Cherry, Olive, Aonla, Coffee, Cherry
3. Hesperidium Oranges, citrus
4. Nut fruit Litchi, Rambutan, Cashewnut, Walnut, Pecanut
5. Capsule Aonla, Carambola, Okra
B. AGGREGATE FRUITS (Develops from numerous ovaries of the same flower)
1. Etaerio of Custard apple, Raspberry
berries
2. Etaerio of Blackberry, Longan Berry
drupelets
3. Etaerio of Strawberry
achenes
C. MULTIPLE/ COMPOSITE FRUITS
1. Syconus Fig
2. Sorosis Pineapple, Jackfruit, Mulberry, Breadfruit.

➢ Types of flowers:
(i) Staminate flower: Flowers in which only male flowers are found. For example –
Papaya, mango, date palm, aonla, grape, coconut, cashew nut, pomegranate, Litchi,
walnut etc.
(ii) Pistillate flowers: Flowers in which only female flowers are found. For example – date
palm, papaya, walnut, grape, aonla, coconut etc.
(iii) Hermaphrodite flowers: Flowers in which both male and female organs are found.
For example – Mango, Papaya, Ber, Citrus, Guava.
➢ Flower Sex:
a. Perfect or Bisexual or Hermaphrodite flower: Flower having both stamens and
carpels.
 b. Imperfect or unisexual Flower: In this type, flowers are either pistillate or
staminate. In pistillate type, only carpels develop. In case of staminate only stamens
develop.
1. Monoecious: Plant with only unisexual flowers, both staminate and pistillate on the
same individual plant, e.g., Cucurbits, Quercus spp.
2. Dioecious: Plant with staminate and pistillate flowers on separate individual plants,
e.g., salix spp., date palm, papaya.
3. Polygamous: Plant with both bisexual and unisexual flowers.
4. Andromonoecius: Plant with both staminate and perfect flowers on the same
individual.
5. Gynomonoecius: Plant with both pistillate and perfect flowers on the same individual.
6. Trimonoecius: plant with pistillate, staminate and perfect flowers on the same
individual.
7. Trioecious: Plant with pistillate, staminate and perfect flowers on different individual.
8. Androdioecius: Plant with male flowers on some plant and perfect flower on other
individual.

Development Stages after Fertilization of flower

Ovary Fruit

Integument Seed Coat

Ovule Seed

Nucellus Perisperm

2 Polar Nuclei + Sperm Nucleus Endosperm (Triploid - 3n)

Egg Nucleus + Sperm Nucleus Zygote – Embryo (Diploid – 2n)

➢ Pollination:

Self-Pollination:

❖ Same flower
❖ Different flowers, same plant
❖ Different flowers/plants, same cultivar
➢ Cross-pollination:
❖ Different flowers, different cultivars

Insects Entomophily
Bee Pollination Melittophily or Hymenopterophily
Butterfly pollination Psychophily
Moth Pollination Phalaenophily
Fly pollination Sapromyiophily
Bat Pollination Cheiropterophily
Birds Ornithophily
Mammals/Animals Zoophily
Wind Anemophily
Water Hydrophily

ASEXUAL PROPAGATION:

Parthenocarpy Parthenogenesis

The process of fruit development without the The fruit develops parthenocarpically
fertilization of ovary in plants. (without fertilization of ovary), yet produce
viable seeds.
Generally, leads to formation of seedless fruits. Produce genetically uniform seedlings

Cannot produce the off spring Only haploid off springs can be produced

Occurs only in Plants Occurs in invertebrate animals and lower

plants.

Types Crops

Natural/Obligatory Parthenocarpy Banana, Japanese Persimmon, Pineapple

Facultative Parthenocarpy Grapes, Cucumber, Watermelon

 Vegetative Parthenocarpy Banana, Fig, Pineapple, Papaya, Japanese
Persimmon
Stimulative Parthenocarpy Litchi, Grape, Watermelon, Guava
Steno spermocarpy (Embryo abortion) Grape, Mango

➢ Polyembryony: Phenomena in which more than 1 embryos are present within a single seed.
• Nucellar/Adventive Polyembryony: Embryo arise from tissue lying outside embryo sac
(Cells of nucellus or integument).
• Cleavage Polyembryony: Embryo arise from cleavage of egg, synergids, antipodals or
endosperm.
➢ Apomixis: (Apo: Away from, Mixed: Act of mixing) Embryo develops from diploid cell of
seed and not as result of fertilization between ovule and pollen.
Seedlings produced by apomixis are called Apomicts.
• Types of Apomixis:
• Recurrent Apomixis: Apple, Raspberry
• Non-Recurrent Apomixis: Lilium sp.
• Vegetative Apomixis: Garlic, Agave

Common Special Name

Name
Mango King of tropical fruits/National fruit of Indian/pride fruit of
India/Hindustan fruit of India/
Banana Antique fruit crop/Tree of wisdom/Tree of paradise/Adams fig/plant
of virtue/Apple of paradise
Guava Apple of the tropics/Poor man's apple
Mandarin Fancy fruit
Pineapple Heaven fruit/Friendship fruit
Jackfruit National fruit of Bangladesh/Poor man's food/Monkey jack
Mangosteen Queen of tropical fruits/Fruits of the gods or energy tablet/ Finest fruit
of the world/Mystery fruit
Avocado Alligator pear/21st century fruit/Fruit of New world/Butter fruit
Litchi Queen of subtropical fruit
Rambutan Rambutan/hairy litchi
Loquat Japanese medlar/Japanese plum
Durian King of fruit in Indonesia/Durian
 Persimmon National fruit of Japan/Persimmon/Ebony tree
Apple King of temperate fruits/Symbol of health/premier fruit of the world
Kiwi fruit Chinese gooseberry/China’s miracle fruit/Horticultural wonder of
New Zealand
Walnut King of nut/ walnut
Pecanut Queen of nut/Pecanut
Ber King of Arid fruits/ Poor man's fruit/Summer deciduous fruit
Aonla Indian goose berry/Amritphal fruit/scared tree
Annonaceous Custard Apple/Fruit of poor people/Evening flower scent bearing
Fruits fruit crop
Pomegranate Fruit of paradise/ Fuit of love/Anaar/National fruit of Iran
Date palm Head in fire and foot in water crop/Tree of life
Fig Forbidden fruit
Bael Symbol of lord shiva fruit
Phalsa Dhamani
Jamun Java plum/jamun/Indian Black berry/ Black Plum
Karonda Karonda/Christ thorn
Coconut Kalpavriksha
Tomato Poor man’s orange

➢ Propagation: Plant propagation is defined as the multiplication or reproduction of plants by

either sexual or asexual means.
➢ Sexual Reproduction/ Propagation: Propagation by means of seeds.
❖ Advantages of Sexual Reproduction:
➢ Only means of creating diversity.
➢ Long-lived and comparatively hardy.
➢ This is the only means of propagation, where asexual propagation is not possible or
economical e.g., Papaya, phalsa, mangosteen etc.
➢ Polyembryony character exists in many fruit plants e.g., in citrus, mango and jamun which
give rise to more than one seedling from one seed.
➢ Rootstocks upon which the fruit varieties are budded or grafted are mostly raised from
seeds.
❖ Asexual Methods of Propagation: Asexual or vegetative reproduction is based on the ability
of plants to regenerate tissues and parts. In addition, vegetative propagation may be easier and
faster than seed propagation, because seed dormancy problems are eliminated.
❖ Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction:
➢ No new variety can be evolved by means of the vegetative method of propagation.
➢ Asexual propagation restricts diversity.
➢ Sometimes, it is more expensive.
➢ Vegetatively propagated plants are comparatively short lived.
➢ Infected rootstocks or scions can disseminate diseases.
❖ Methods of Asexual propagation:
Types:

➢ Cutting
➢ Budding: When a mature bud of one plant (mother plant) is placed into an incision on
another plant’s stem (rootstock) is called as budding.
➢ Grafting: Grafting is a technique in which plant parts from different plants are joined
together to grow and heal as one plant. This may be done when plants don’t do well growing
from cuttings or to use a root system from one plant that may be better than the other.
➢ Layering: The layering technique of plant propagation is when the new plant remains at
least partially attached to the mother plant while it forms new roots.
➢ CUTTING is of three types:
1. Stem cutting: A portion of stem is taken for propagation.
✓ It is of four types:
(i) Hard wood cutting: One-year-old mature shoots are selected during November-
February. Length of the cuttings should be between 10 and 45 cm having 2-3 buds.
E.g., Grape, fig, pomegranate, some plums and apple are propagated by hardwood
cuttings.
(ii) Semi-hard wood cutting: 4-9 months old shoots of semi-hard nature are used for
propagation purpose. Length of cuttings should be 7-20cm having 2-4 leaves. In
evergreen fruit plants-mango, guava, lemon, aonla and jackfruit.
(iii) Soft wood cutting: Cuttings are prepared from the soft succulent new spring growth
of species which are 2 to 3 months old and 10-15 cm in length. Not recommended
for fruits. But Apple, peach, guava etc. can be propagated under mist chamber using
soft wood cuttings.
 (iv) Herbaceous cutting: This type of cuttings is taken from succulent herbaceous green
house plants. Only 2-3 months old shoot and very tender shoots are utilized.
Herbaceous cuttings are not used to propagate fruit plants.
2. Root cuttings: Roots 2-3 cm thick and 10-15 cm tall are selected.
➢ For sub-tropical fruits, cuttings are prepared during rainy season.
➢ Blackberry and raspberry (commercial) also adopted in pecan nut, guava, bael, apple,
pear and peach.
3. Leaf Cuttings: Certain plants with thick and fleshy leaves have the capacity to produce
plantlets on their leaves. In leaf cuttings, the leaf blade with or without petiole and
axillary bud is used for starting new plants. Adventitious roots and shoots form at the
base of the leaf and form into a new plant.
➢ Budding: Budding is also a method of grafting wherein only one bud with a piece of bark
and with or without wood is used as the scion material. It is also called as bud grafting.
Generally grafting is performed during dormant season whereas budding is done during
active growing season.
✓ T- Budding: In this method, the cuts given on the stock are of the shape of the letter “T”. It
is also known as Shield budding as the bud piece (scion) appears like a shield and is boat
shaped. Stock diameter is 0.75 to 2.50 cm. E.g., Apple, Pear, Peaches, Apricot, Cherry,
Citrus.
✓ Inverted T- Budding: Inverted T- budding is same as that of T- budding except the cut on
the stock is made in the shape of an inverted T. In heavy rainfall areas, water may enter the T
cut, soak under the bark and prevent healing of the bud piece. Under such conditions, an
inverted T budding may give better results as it is more likely to shed excess water.
✓ Patch Budding: In this method a square or rectangular patch of bark is completely removed
from the stock plant and is replaced with a patch of bark of the same size containing a bud
from the desired mother plant. The diameter of the stock and bud stick should preferably be
about the same (1.5 to 2.75cm). E.g., Pecan nut and walnut.
✓ Ring budding: The bud is prepared by taking a ring of a bark, 3cm long with the bud in the
centre. In the root stock, two transverse cut 1.5 cm apart are made and these are connected
with a vertical cut and a ring of bark is removed. The prepared scion bud with the ring of
bark is fitted in the exposed portion of the rootstock and tied. E.g., Ber.
✓ Modified ring budding: The bud wood/bark is taken from the scion with a vertical slit.
Similar size bark is removed from the rootstock. It is wrapped with an air tight polythene
tape/ paraffin wax leaving the bud exposed. Ex: Guava, Ber, Walnut and Pecanut.

✓ Chip budding: When the bark is not slipping due to poor sap flow or adverse growing
conditions like lack of water or low temperature, chip-budding can be done in the beginning
of Feb.-March. E.g., Grape, apple and pear.
✓ Forkert budding: In Forkert budding, the stock is prepared by giving two vertical cuts and a
transverse cut above the vertical cuts to join them. The scion is prepared in a fashion similar
to patch budding, having the size similar to cuts made on the stock. The scion is then slipped
into the exposed portion of the stock and the flap is drawn over the inserted bud patch. It is
then tied with a suitable wrapping material. After successful growth of bud, the portion of
stock above the union is removed carefully. Ex: Mango, Cashew Nut, Mango etc.

✓ Modified Forket budding: It is like Forket budding. The vertical flap of the bark is covered
to base portion of the bud only. Thus, the need to remove flap as in Forket method is not
required.

Layering: Layering is the method of propagation in which roots are developed on a stem
while it is still attached to the parent plant. After proper rooting, the stem is detached and
becomes a new plant for growing on its own roots.
➢ Tip-layering: In tip-layering, rooting takes place near the tip of current season's shoot
which is bent to the ground. It is commonly followed in black berries and raspberries.
The stem of these plants complete their life in two years. During first year, vegetative
growth takes place while in the second year fruiting takes place. After harvesting plants
are heavily pruned which give rise to number of lateral shoots. The tips of these shoots
are buried 5-10 cm deep in soil. Rooted layers are detached and planted in soil during
spring.
➢ Serpentine layering: It is modification of simple layering in which one-year-old branch
is alternatively covered and exposed. The stem is girdled at its lower part. The exposed
part of stem should have at least one bud to develop a new shoot. After rooting, the
sections are cut and planted. Muscadine grape is commercially propagated by this
method.
➢ Air-layering: In this method, roots are formed in the aerial part of the plant. The stem is
girdled and rooting hormone (IBA) is applied to upper part of cut. The moist rooting
medium (moss grass) is wrapped with the help of small polythene strip (200-300 gauze,
transparent). This method is commonly known as goottee. Many plants like litchi, kagzi
lime, jackfruit, guava and cashewnut as well as Ficus species, Croton, Monstera and
philodendron are propagated through air-layering. February-March and June-July are the
ideal periods for air-layering. Rooting in air layers generally commences within 25-30
days and layers are ready for transplanting within 3 months.
➢ Mound layering/stooling: In this method, the plant is headed back to 15cm above the
ground level during dormant season. The new sprouts will arise within 2 months. These
sprouts are then girdled near base and rooting hormone (IBA), made in lanolin paste is
applied to the upper portion of cut with moist soil. These shoots are left as such up to two
days for proper absorption of rooting hormone (IBA) before they are covered with moist
soil. The concentration of rooting hormone varies from plant-to-plant but in general
3,000-5,000 ppm is most commonly used. The rooting of shoots is observed within 20-30
days. After 2 months, the rooted shoots are separated from mother plants and planted in
nursery. Apple and pear root stocks and guava are commercially propagated by this
method. However, this method is also advocated in other fruits like plum, cherry,
hazelnut, pecanut, mango, jackfruit and litchi.
➢ Trench layering: Trench layering consists of growing a plant or branch of a plant in a
horizontal position in the base of trench and filling in soil around the new shoots. Roots
are developed at the base of new shoots, so produced. Rootstocks of apple, pear and
walnut are usually propagated by trench layering.

Grafting: Grafting is an art of joining parts of two independent plants in such a manner that
they unite and grow together into single independent plant. The part of graft combination which
is to become the upper portion or the shoot system or top of the new plant is termed as scion
and the part which is to become the lower portion or the root system is the root stock or under
stock or some time stock.

In case of grafting, a bud stick consisting of two or more buds is inserted into the stock
whereas in budding only single bud with or without wood is inserted into the stock.
✓ Scion: Upper portion of graft or the shoot system
✓ Rootstock: Lower portion of graft consisting of the root system.
✓ Methods of grafting: There are two main types of grafting-
i) Attached scion methods of grafting: In this method, the scion is still attached to the
mother plant till the graft union takes place. E.g., Inarching or approach grafting
ii) Detached scion methods of grafting: In this method, the scion is separated from the
mother plant just before grafting.
➢ Inarching / Approach grafting: The distinguishing feature of this method of grafting is
that two independent plants on their own roots are grafted together. Used for certain
plants which are difficult to graft by any other method E.g., Guava, mango, sapota.
➢ Tongue Approach grafting: In this method, first cut is given similar to inarching. a
slanting cut is given in the wood of previous cut, about 5 cm long. A downward pointing
tongue is made in the upper half of the slanting surface.
➢ Veneer grafting: Eight months to one-year old seedlings are used as rootstocks. In this
method, a downward and inward 3-4 cm long cut is made in the smooth area of the stock
at a height of about 20 cm. E.g., Avocado, Mango etc.
➢ Epicotyl (Stone) Grafting: This method of grafting is done on the epicotyl region of the
young seedlings. Germinated seedlings of 10-15 days old with tender stems and coppery
leaves are lifted along with stones. A vertical split (about 3-4.5 cm longitudinal cut) is
made into the middle portion of the seedlings. A wedge-shaped cut is given on the lower
side of scion (4-5 months old and 10-15 cm long).
➢ Cleft/ wedge grafting: This method is employed in the nursery when the rootstock is
quite thicker than the scion. Useful for top-working. A vertical split (5 cm) is made in the
rootstock and one-year old scion about 15-20 cm long and having 3-4 buds is inserted.
The polythene strip is removed after about 6-8 weeks of grafting. E.g., Walnut,
Hazelnut, Peanut & Grapes.
➢ Soft wood grafting: This method is similar to that of cleft or wedge grafting. Also used
for in-situ grafting under dry land conditions. In this method, 3 to 8 months old seedlings
are used as rootstocks. The scion shoots of the thickness equal to that of rootstocks are
defoliated 7-10 days prior to grafting. E.g., Mango, Avocado, Sapota etc.
 ➢ Bridge grafting: It is a form of repair grafting in which dead/damaged tissues are
removed and then every 5-7 cm around the injured section, scion is inserted. The best
time is early spring.
❖ PROPAGATION BY SPECIALIZED VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES:
➢ Runner: It is a specialized stem which is produced from the leaf axil at the crown plant and
prostrate horizontally. E.g.: Strawberry
➢ Suckers: A sucker is a shoot which arises on a plant below the ground. However, in
practice, shoots which arise from vicinity of the crown are also referred to as suckers. E.g.,
Pineapple, banana
➢ Offset: It is a lateral shoot or branch which is developed from base of the main stem. E.g.:
Date palm, pineapple
➢ Rhizome: A rhizome is a modified stem structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally just below or on the surface of the ground. E.g.: Ginger, Turmeric

Commercial Method of Propagation Crops

Inarching Jackfruit, Loquat, Sapota, Guava

Crown Grafting Persimmon

Veneer Grafting Mango, Mangosteen

Tongue Grafting Apple, Pear, Apricot

Softwood Grafting Mango, Mangosteen

Rhizome Banana

Sucker Pineapple, Banana

Crown/Split Strawberry

Runner Strawberry

Offset/Offshoot Date Palm, Pineapple

Slips Pineapple
 Air Layering (Goottee) Pomegranate, Litchi, Avocado, Cherry,
Guava, Cashew, Kagzi Lime

Stooling Guava

Serpentine Layering Muscadine Grapes

Sword Sucker Banana

Offshoot Sucker Date palm

Suckers, Slips Pineapple

Propagation Crops

Patch Budding Bael, Jamun, Grapefruit, Sweet Orange

Forket Budding Rubber

Seed Acid Lime, Coconut, Arecanut, Papaya,

Passion Fruit, Karonda, Phalsa, Mangosteen,
Wood apple, Oil palm, Coffee, Date Palm

Leaf Node Cutting Tea

Ring Budding Ber

Hardwood Cutting Grape, Fig, Pomegranate, Karonda

Softwood Cutting Tea, Cashewnut, Ornamentals

T-Budding Pummelo, Almond, Aonla, Ber, Grapefruit,

Peach, Plum, Olive, Apple, Pear, Sweet
Orange

Training and Pruning

• Training: It is judicious removal of part of plant to develop a proper shape of plant.

• Objective of training: to provide suitable and desirable shape to the tree with strong
framework
 COMMERCIAL TRAINING SYSTEMS IN FRUITS CROPS

Training systems Examples

Central leader Walnut, pecanut, mango and sapota
Open centre or vase system Peach, Japanese plum, nectarine, Guava, apricots and
Ber
Modified leader European plum, Sweet cherry, Pear, Apple
Espalier system Apple
Cordon system Peach, Grape and passion fruit
Single stem system Citrus, fig, Annona, Coffee
Multiple stem system Pomegranate
Two arm Kniffin system/4- Passion fruit, Grape
cane system
Pergola/Arbour/Pandal/Bower Grape, Passion Fruit, Small Gourd, Pointed gourd
Telephone/Overhead trellis/6- Grape
cane system
Tatura trellis Peach in HDP, Grape

• PRUNING: Judicious removal of root, leaf, shoots to get good and qualitative yield.
SPECIAL PRUNING TECHNIQUES IN FRUIT CROPS

Special techniques Purpose Examples

Root pruning: Removal of To make dwarf, to induce Mandarin
roots 40 cm away from the flowering, fruitfulness and
base of the plant. determine flowering time.
Ringing: Removal of To increase fruit bud Mango, Grapes.
complete ring of bark from a formation.
branch or a trunk.
Opening up: Removal of to reduce tree height Bearing mango, not
branches inside the tree significantly and to increase more than 25 per
which cross over or clutter up the availability of light inside cent biomass should
the centre of the tree the canopy for better be removed at a time
restricting the penetration of photosynthesis.
sprays.
Dehorning: Removal of upper To induce flowering, to induce Mango (Vidarbha
portion of the main stem of branching, improve fruit region of
mango tree production. (rejuvenation of Maharashtra), HDP
tree) in Mango
Skirting: Low hanging To clear the criss-cross Mango
branches which could cause branches
fruit to drag on the ground
are to be removed.
Notching: Partial ringing of a To induce the fruit branches & Poona Fig (Pune
branches above a dormant increase the bearing area of the Region of
lateral bud. plant. Maharashtra)
Nicking: Partial ringing of a To increase the flowering Apple. Poona Fig
branches below a dormant shoots. (Pune Region of
bud. To induce spurs from buds Maharashtra)
Smudging: Practice of To induce the off-season Mango (Philippines)
smoking under the trees. flowering
Bending: Bending of To increase the lateral Guava (Allahabad
branches or shoots. branches and fruit production. region in UP,
Deccan region)
Thinning: Removal of part of To increase the fruit size. Grapes, Peach,
flower bud or small fruits To reduce the alternate bearing Plum, Quince.
from a heavy crop. tendency.
Girdling: Removal of 2-3 mm To increase the berry size. Grapes, Litchi
white strip of barks around
the stem.
Leaf pruning: Removal of old - Date palm
and senescence leaves.
Top working or top grafting - Mango, Apple
or top budding: Changing the
established plants, trees,
shrubs or vines with a
desirable cultivar.

Botanical Classification of Fruit crops

Family Common Scientific name Origin Fruit types

name
Bromeliaceace Pineapple Ananas Brazil Sorosis
comosus
Musaceae Banana Musa balbisiana Indo- Burma Berry
Arecaeae Datepalm Phoenix West Asia Single seeded
dactylifera berry
Actinidiaceae Kiwi Actinidia China Berry
deliciosa
Anacardiacea Mango Mangifera Southeast Asia Drupe
e Indica
Annonaceae Custard Annona Bolivia Aggregate
apple squamosal berries
Apocynaceae Karonda Carissa - Berry
carandas
Caricaceae Papaya Carica papaya Tropical Berry
America
Dilleniaceae Elephant Dillenia indica Southeast Asia Fleshy calyx
apple
Euphorbiacea Aonla Emblica Southeast Asia Capsule (Drupe)
e officinalis
 Star Phyllanthus Madagascar Berry
gooseberr acidus
y
Clusiaceae Mangoste Garcinia Malayan Berry
en mangostana Archipelogo
Lauraceae Avocado Persea Central Berry
Americana America
Malpighiacae Barbados Malphigia Trinidad and Drupe
cherry punicifolia Tobago
Moraceae Jack fruit Artocarpus India Sorosis
heterophylla
Fig Ficus carrica - Syconus
Mulberry Morus alba - Sorosis
Myrtaceae Guava Psidium Tropical Berry
guajava America
Jamun Syzygium India Drupe
cumini
Oleaceae Olive Olea euorpaea Mediterranean Drupe
region
Oxalidaceae Bilimbi Averrhoa - Berry
bilimbi
Carambol Averrhoa Srilanka Capsule
a carambola
Passifloraceae Passion Passiflora Brazil Berry
fruit edulis
Punicaceae Pomegra Punica Iran (Persia) Balusta
nate granatum
Rhamnaceae Indian Ziziphus India Drupe
jujube maurititiana
Rosaceae Almond Prunus Central Asia Drupe
amygdalus
Apple Malus × South western Pome
domestica Asia
Apricot Prunus Northeastern Drupe
armeniaca China
Loquat Eriobotrya Central Eastern Pome
japonica China
Quince Cydonia Caucasus Pome
oblonga region
Peach Prunus persica China Drupe
Pear Pyrus Western China Pome
communis
Plum Prunus China Drupe
domestica
Strawberr Fragaria France Etaerio of
y annonosa drupes/ achenes
Rutaceae Bael Aegle India Amphisarca
marmelos
Mandarin Citrus reticulata Southeastern Hesperidium
Asia
Sweet Citrus sinensis Indochina Hesperidium
orange
Rutaceae Acid lime Citrus Iran (Persia) Hesperidium
aurantifolia
Grapefrui Citrus paradisi West Indies Hesperidium
t
Wood Feronia limonia India Amphisarca
apple
Lemon Citrus limon Southeast Asia Hesperidium
 Vitaceae Grapes Vitis vinifera Southeast Asia Berry
and Central
Europe
Tilliaceae Phalsa Grewia India Drupe
subinequalis
Sapindaceae Litchi Litchi chinensis South China -
Sapotaceae Sapota Achras zapota South Mexico Berry
Juglandaceae Walnut Juglans regia Central Asia Nut
Peacan Carya North America Nut
nut illinoensis

BASED ON BEARING BEHAVIOUR:

BEARING
BEHAVIOUR

Terminal bearing Axilliary bearing Mixed bearing

Star fruit
Bearing on new Bearing on old Bearing on new Bearing on old
Pomegranate
growth growth growth growth
Citrus

Morus, Fig, Apple, Peach,

Loquat , Jackfruit, Phalsa, Ber, Pear, Plum,
Mango, Litchi
Bael, Pecannut Guava, Aonla, Tamarind,
Sapota, Karonda Hazelnut

MAJOR COLOUR COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN FRUIT CROPS:

Colour Pigments Examples

Orange 𝛃- carotene Mango, pineapple
Red purple Anthocyanins Grapes, pomegranate, blackberries,
raspberries
Yellow Caricaxanthin Papaya
Orange
Red Lycopene Papaya, guava var. Arka Kiran
Orange Flavonoids Peach, papaya, orange, tangerine
yellow
Yellow Lutein and zeaxanthin Avocado
green
Green Chlorophyll Guava
Yellow Xanthophyll Guava

AROMA COMPOUNDS RESPONSIBLE FOR FRUITS:

Fruits Compounds
Apple-Ripe Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate
Apple-Green Hexanal, 2-hexenal
Banana-Green 2-hexenal
Banana-Ripe Eugenol
Banana-Overripe Isopentanol
Lemon Citral
Orange Valencene
Raspberry 1-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)-3-butanone

VOLATILE COMPOUNDS (AROMA):

Fruits Volatiles
Banana Isopentyl acetate
Orange Citral
Almond Benzaldehyde
Apple 2-methyl butyrate

AROMA IS DUE TO ESTERS:

Fruits Esters
Apple Pentyl valerate
Grape Methyl salicylate
Banana Pentyl acetate
Orange Octyl acetate
Strawberry Ethyl butyrate
Raspberry Butyl acetate

BITTERNESS IS DUE TO FLAVONOIDS AND TERPENOIDS:

Fruits Flavonoids Terpenoids

Orange Hesperidin (Tasteless) Neral and Geranial
Grapefruit Naringin (Bitter Taste) Nootkatone

ACID PRESENT IN FRUIT CROPS:

Citric Acid Berries, Citrus, Guava, Pear, Pineapple

Malic acid Apple, Banana, Cherry, Plum, Melon, Litchi
Tartaric Acid Grape

CAUSES OF COLOUR/BITTERNESS IN FRUITS / VEGETABLES:

Yellow colour in papaya Caricaxanthin

Redness of apple Anthocyanin
Red colour in tomato Lycopene
Red colour in chili Capsanthin
Pungency in chili Capsaicin/capsicutin
Orange colour in carrot Carotene
Red colour in carrot Anthocyanin
Yellow colour in turmeric Curcumin
Bitterness in bitter gourd Memordicin
Bitterness in cucumber Cucurbitacin
Yellow colour of onion Quercetin
Pungency in onion Allyl propyl di – sulphide (AFO-2021)
Pungency in Raphanus Isocyanate
Pungency in mustard Glucosilates
Pungency in garlic Di allyl di sulphide
Green colour in potato Solanin
Sour taste of gram leaves Malic/oxalic acid
Pungency in pepper Oleoresins
Pungency in cabbage leaves Sinigrin

TOXIC SUBSTANCES PRESENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS:

Toxic substances Crops

Trypsin inhibitors Soybean
Cyanogenic glycosides Lima bean
Protease inhibitors Lima bean, faba bean
Ipomeamarone Sweet potato
Phytic acid Peas and beans (Mature seeds)
Oxalic acid Amaranth, portulaca, celosia, basella, Colocasia
Oxalates Rhubarb, beets, chard, spinach, New Zealand spinach
Calcium Oxalate Elephant foot yam, colocassia
Hydrocyanic acid Tapioca (more in leaves)
Dioscorine Yams
Solanine Potato
Solasodine Brinjal (JNKVV And RKSKVV 2022)
Serotonin Watermelon
Cholinesterase inhibitors Pumpkin and squash
Sinigrin Cole crops
Saponine Spinach, Asparagus, Tomato
Cucurbitacins Cucurbits
Apiin Celery
Hemagglutinins Common beans
Vicine and covicine Broad bean
Tomatine Tomato
Lactucopicrin Lettuce

DERIVATION OF VEGETABLE FOR PLANT TISSUE

Plant part used Vegetable

Inflorescences Broccoli, cauliflower
Stem sprout Asparagus
Auxiliary bud Brussels sprout
Petiole Celery
Swollen leaf base Leek
Leaf blade Spinach
Terminal leaf buds Cabbage
Swollen tap root Carrot
Stem Potato
Swollen hypocotyl Beetroot
Modified stem Onion
Flower bud Artichoke (BHU-2021)
Placental intralocular tissue (septum) Tomato

Based on Parts Used

 Onion Bulb

Garlic Cloves

Pod French bean, Cluster bean, Cow pea

Fruit Cucurbitaceae family, Okra, Tomato, Brinjal, Sweet pepper,

Chilli

Knob Knol-Khol

Immature flower Broccoli

bud

Head Cabbage

Curd Cauliflower

Corms Taro, Elephant foot yam

Spears (Young Asparagus

shoots)

EDIBLE PORTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS

EDIBLE PARTS VEGETABLES

Placenta Cucumber, watermelon
Endocarp Ridge gourd, sponge gourd, ash gourd
Mesocarp Pumpkin, musk melon

USEFUL COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN VEGETABLES:

Vegetables Compounds Role in disease prevention
Onion, garlic Sulphur compounds Reducing blood cholesterol
Cole crops Indoles and dithiolthiones Prevention of cancer
Bitter gourd Cheratin Effective against diabetes
Onion Diphenyl amine Effective against diabetes
Celery 3-n-butyl pthalide Effective against
hypertension
Yams Diosgenin Manufacture of contraceptive
drugs
Onion, garlic Quercetin (Bioflavonoids) Protection against cancer &
heart diseases
Lettuce Lutein Nutritional antioxidant
Onion Allicin Antibacterial activity
Cabbage Indole -3- carbinol Against bowl cancer
Broccoli Sulphoraphane Anticancer activity
French bean, broccoli Kaemferol Anticancer and
cardiovascular disease
Brinjal Nasunin (Anthocyanin) Anticancer activity
Broccoli Glucoraphinanin Anticancer activity

MODIFIED ROOTS

Conical roots Carrot

Fusiform roots Radish

Tuberous roots Sweet potato

Napiform roots Turnip

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Family Crops Scientific name Edible part

Alliaceae Onion Allium cepa Bulb
Garlic Allium sativum clove
Leek A. porrum Blanched stem
and leaves
Apiaceae/ Carrot Daucus carota Enlarged and
Umbelliferae fleshy taproot
Celery Apium graveolens Leaf stalk and
leaf
Coriander Coriandrum sativum Young leaves

Chenopodiaceae Beet root Beta vulgaris Fleshy tap root

Palak Beta vulgaris var. Leaves
bengalensis
Asteraceae Lettuce Lactuca sativa Leaves
Convolvulaceae Sweet potato Ipomea batatus Root tuber
Brassicaceae/ Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. Head
Cruciferae capitata
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. Curds
botrytis
Brussels sprout B. oleracea var. Immature
gemmifera heads
Sprouting B. oleracea var. italica Fleshy flower
broccoli stalk
Knol-khol B. oleracea var. Enlarged stem
gongylodes portion
 Kale/collard B. oleracea var. Rosette leaves
acephala
Turnip B. campestris spp. Swollen root
napifera
Rutabaga Brassica napobrassica Enlarged and
elongated tap
root
Radish Raphanus sativus Fleshy swollen
primary root
Cucurbitaceae Cucumber Cucumis sativus Immature fruit
Musk melon Cucumis melo Ripe fruit
Gherkin Cucumis anguria Young fruits
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus Ripe fruit
Round melon C. lanatus var. Immature fruit
fistulosus
Pumpkin Cucurbita moschata Ripe fruit
Summer squash Cucurbita pepo Immature fruit
Winter squash Cucurbita maxima Ripe fruit
Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria Immature fruit
Bitter gourd Momordica charantia Immature fruit
Balsam apple Momordica balsamina Immature fruit
Ride gourd Luffa acutangula Immature fruit
Sponge gourd Luffa cylindrica Immature fruit
Pointed gourd Trichosanthes dioica Immature fruit
Snake gourd T. anguina Immature fruit
Euphorbiaceae Cassava Manihot esculenta Tuberous roots
Fabaceae/ Garden pea Pisum sativum var. Tender seeds
Leguminosae hortense
 French bean Phaseolus vulgaris Tender pod and
seeds
Cluster bean Cyamopsis Tender pod and
tetragonolobus seeds
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata Tender pod,
immature seed
and mature
seed
Soybean Glycine max Tender and dry
seed
Yam bean Pachyrrhizus erosus Root tuber
Fenugreek Trigonella Tender leaves
foenumgraceum
Malvaceae Okra Abelmoshchus Tender fruit
esculentus
Rutaceae Curry leaf Murraya koenigii Leaves
Solanaceae Potato Solanum tuberosum Stem tuber
Brinjal Solanum melongana Fruit
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Fruit
Currant tomato Solanum Fruit
(Cherry Tomato) pimpinellifolium
Chilli Capsicum annuum Fruit

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PLANT PARTS USED AS VEGETABLES

Flower Agathi, male flowers of pumpkin

Flower head Broccoli, globe artichoke
Pre floral apical meristem Cauliflower
Modified above ground stem Knolkhol, asparagus
Spears Asparagus
 Modified stem Potato, jerusale, artichoke, yam, elephant
foot yam, taro, onion, garlic
Modified root Radish, carrot, beetroot, turnip, sweet
potato
Modified tap root Chinese artichoke
Modified adventitious root Chinese potato
Fruits Brinjal, tomato, chilli, peas and beans, all
cucurbits, okra
Corms Colocasia, elephant foot yam

Fruit Crops:

➢ MANGO:
➢ Botanical Name: Mangifera indica L.
➢ Family: Anacardiaceae
➢ Origin: South East Asia (Indo-Burma region)
➢ Chromosome No: 2n=4x=40 (Amphidiploid)
➢ Pollination Type: Cross pollination
➢ Pollinator: Housefly (Musa domestica)
➢ Ideal temp: 24 -27°C
➢ Storage: 13°C
➢ Seed viability: 30 days
➢ Germination: 15 – 20 days
➢ Highest Vitamin A: 4800 IU
➢ Seed Kernels: 9.5 % Protein
➢ Soil: Alluvial to Laterite (except black soil)
➢ Optimum altitude: 600 mamsl (can survive up to 1250 m)
➢ Rainfall: 25 to 250 cm
➢ Optimum pH level: 5.5 to 7.5.
➢ Inflorescence: Panicle, Terminally on last season growth, Polygamous i.e. male and
hermaphrodite flower in same inflorescence
➢ 0.1% flowers become fruit to maturity
➢ Pre-Harvest Fruit Drop can be controlled by 2,4 – D (20 ppm), NAA (50 ppm)
➢ Harvest: Specific gravity: 1.0 to 1.02
➢ Harvest Stage: Tapka Stage
VARIETIES of Mango:

• Highest hermaphrodite flower: Langra

• Lowest Hermaphrodite flower: Rumani
• Northern India: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Amrapali, Mallika, Pusa Arunima, Pusa Surya
• Western India: Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Rajapuri, Mankurad, Jahangir, Imam Pasand
• Southern India: Bangalora, Neelum, Suvarnrekha, Banganpalli, Mulgoa, Totapuri.
• Eastern India: Himsagar, Langra, Fazli, Zardalu, Kishanbhog, Gulabkhas
• Dashehari can be planted at 2.5 x 3 m spacing to accommodate 1,333 plants/ha is suggested
from Pantnagar along with the dehorning technique.
• High density planting with hybrids like Arka Aruna and Sindhu at 5 x 5 m spacing
accommodating 400 plants/ha is also recommended recently.
• Chausa: Chance seedling in the orchard of a Talukdar of Sandila district Hardoi, U.P., Late
season variety (Sweetest variety)
• Xavier: Highest TSS: 24.8 Brix
• GI Tagged Varieties:
• Alphonso, Malihabadi, Banganapalli, Appemidi, Fazli, Himsagar, Zardalu, Khirsapati,
Lakshmanbhog, Gir Kesar, Edayur Chilli, Kuttiatoor, Kara Ishad
• North Indian varieties: Alternate bearer, Mono-embryonic, Self-incompatible
• South Indian varieties: Regular bearer, Polyembryonic

Hybrid Cross Characteristics

Variety

Mallika Neelum X Dashesari Highest Vit – A

Amrapalli Dashehari X Neelum HDP (2.5 X 2.5m2), triangular

method
Ratna Neelum X Alphonso Regular Bearer, Spongy Tissue free,
Pulp % = 78.62%

Sindhu Ratna X Alphonso Seedless variety, Pulp to stone ratio –

26:1
Arka Puneet Alphonso X Banganapalli Free from Spongy Tissue

Arka Aruna Banganapalli X Alphonso Dwarf, Free from Spongy Tissue

Arka Anmol Alphonso X Janardan Free from Spongy Tissue

Pasand
Arka Alphonso X Neelum Free from spongy Tissue
Neelkiran
Ambika Amrapali X Janardan Skin colour dark red
Pasand
Pusa Arunima Amrapali X Sensation IARI

Saisugandha Totapuri X Kesar

 Arka Udaya Amrapali X Arka Anmol

POLYEMBRYONIC ROOTSTOCKS
• Bappakai: Neelum
• Olour: Dwarfing (Langra and Himsagar)
• Rumani: Dwarfing (Dashehari)
• Vellaicolumban: Dwarfing (Alphonso)
• Mulgoa
• Chandrakaran
• Bellary
• Nileshwar Dwarf
• Salt Resistant rootstocks: Kurukkan, Nekkare, Muvandan

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Name of disorder Cause Control measure/remarks

1. MANGO
i) Black tip (1909- Due to smoke of brick kilns Borax spray (0-6%)
Woodlouse) within a distance of 600m +
deficiency of B.
ii). Malformation Due to low temperature Deblossoming, 200 ppm NAA,
(1891– Bihar), Bombay green-highly Resistant vars-Bahaduran, Illaichi,
Vegetative & Floral susceptible Mangeera, Aliff.
iii). Spongy tissue Due to heat convection Resistant variety: Ratna, Arka
(Cheema and Dhami) Aruna, Arka Puneet, Arka Anmol.
Major problem in Alphonso.
(TNPSC 2018) (AFO-2016), Arka
Saka Nivaraka (Spray)
iv). Alternate bearing Alphonso is highly Paclobutrazol (Cultar)
susceptible
v). Jhumka Low temperature in Feb-
(clustering) (1984- march + Improper
U.P., India) pollination & fertilization,
Grow to marble size after
which their growth ceases.
vi). Leaf scorching Chloride toxicity, -
Deficiency K
vii). Internal necrosis B. deficiency Highly susceptible- Dashehari
Free-Neelam, langra
viii). Jelly seed Pulp surrounding stone Susceptible: Tommy Atkins,
disintegrates turning to jelly Nitrogen application is reduced.
like mass

ix). Taper tip - Dashehari is susceptible

x). Girdle necrosis -
xi). Soft Nose High nitrogen level, Low -
calcium in plant. especially
in Kent mango
2. BANANA
i). Neer vazhai - Nendran-susceptible
(water banana)
ii). Kotta vazhai - Poovan-susceptible
(seed banana)
iii). Hard Lump Cultivar Rasthali
iii). Improper bunch Deficiency of K -
filling, Marginal
scorching, Orange
chlorosis
iv) Yellow pulp Excess K in relation to N
v) White leaf
vi) Blue Disease Deficiency of Mg
vii) Choke throat Bunch is unable to emerge from
the pseudo-stem properly
viii) Goose flesh
3. CITRUS
i). Granulation fluctuation in temperature & Spray of lime
high RH during ripening
ii). Leaf mottling/ Zn deficiency -
Frenching
iii). Exanthema/ Cu deficiency -
Ammoniation or
dieback
iv). Yellow leaf of Mo deficiency -
citrus
4. GUAVA
i). Bronzing Zn deficiency L-49 is more tolerant than
Aallahabad Safeda
5. GRAPE
i). Hen & Chicken Bo deficiency -
disease
ii). Millerandage Bo deficiency -
iii). Berry or Blossom Improper pollination & -
drop fertilization
iv). Coulure & Shot Bo deficiency, Improper -
berries pollination
v) Calyx end rot Ca deficiency -
vi) Pink berry High temperature Common in Thompson seedless
formation and its clone
vii). Uneven ripening Gulabi, Bangalore blue, Application of Ethephon (250
susceptible PPM)
6. LITCHI
i). Little leaf + leaf Zn deficiency -
bronzing
ii). Fruit cracking Excessive water + high -
temperature
7. AONLA
Fruit Necrosis Bo deficiency -
8. POMEGRANATE
i) Fruit cracking Bo deficiency + moisture Tolerant varieties : Khandari,
imbalance more in Mrig Alandi, Bedana Bosee
bahar
10. AVOCADO
Dry neck - -
11. APPLE
i). Water core Bo deficiency -
ii). Bitter pit+ cracking Ca deficiency -
iii). Wither tip Cu deficiency -
iv). Rossette leaves Zn deficiency -
v). Interveinal choloris Mg deficiency -
vi). Endoxerosis Water deficiency -
(June drop)
vii). Early drop Improper pollination and -
fertilization.
viii). Scald Storage at high temperature -
ix). Internal browning - Susceptible variety: Yellow
newton
x). Storage breakdown - Susceptible variety: Golden
delicious, yellow newton
xi). Jonathan spot Water Deficiency -
12. PEAR
i). Black end Water Deficiency -
ii). Pear scald Prolong handling of fruit in Susceptible: Conference
storage
13. APRICOT
i). Tip burning Due to high temperature -
ii). Apolexy - -
14. MANGOSTEEN
i). Gamboge Heavy rainfall Yellow exudation of gum on fruits
15. PINEAPPLE
i). Multiple crown Genetics/ Nutritional factor Susceptible variety Kew
(fasciation)
ii). Sun scald Exposure of fruit to sun rays -
16. STRAWBERRY
Albinism Lack of fruit colour during -
ripening
17. COCOA
Cherelle wilt - -
18. COFFEE
Black bean/ Black Depletion of carbohydrates -
Jolloo/ Normal Jolloo reserve during bean
development
19. RUBBER
Tapping Panel dryness Excessive harvesting of latex Tapping rest
(TPD) or brown blast
20. TEA
Tea yellow disease Sulphur Deficiency -
21. SAPOTA
Cock’s comb - -
22. COCONUT
i). Crown choking Boron Deficiency (ICAR
JRF 2019)
ii). Little leaf Zinc Deficiency -
23. ARECANUT
Band disease Improper drainage -
 24. CUSTARD
APPLE
Stone fruits High relative humidity, low -
temperature
25. PEACH
Woolliness - -

BANANA

❖ 'Adam's fig or antacid fruit or Tree of wisdom or Tree of paradise or Apple of paradise or
Kalpatharu or plant of virtue or Antique fruit crop or Vascular plant.
❖ Symbol of prosperity and fertility.
❖ It is nutrient loving plant.
❖ Plantain banana means cooking banana.
❖ It is rich source of potassium (K) used in nervous impulses and good source of energy.
❖ India is the largest producer of banana in the world.
❖ Productivity is highest in Maharashtra.
❖ Highest production is in Andhra Pradesh.
❖ All wild banana types are diploids while most of cultivated banana are triploids in nature.
❖ Growth in volume of seeded banana is sigmoid and that of parthenocarpic fruit is not sigmoid.
❖ Botanically, rhizome is a modified form of stem.
❖ Inflorescence: Spadix (female and hermaphrodite flower).
❖ Banana ovary is trilocular.
❖ Low threshold temperature for growth: 11oC.
❖ Basrai, Amritsagar, Rasthali are susceptible to frost damage, Poovan and Hill bananas
(Sirumalai, Virupakshi) can withstand low temperature.
❖ It grows well at temperature of 20-30o C (26.5o).
❖ Temperature above 36-38o C causes scorching effect with increased transpiration.
❖ Low temperature 10oC leads to choking of impeded inflorescence and bunch development.
❖ Sword sucker with narrow leaves is preferred to broad leaved water sucker.
❖ Ideal weight of sword suckers: 450-750 g.
❖ Apart from sword suckers, cut rhizomes (1.5-2.0 kg) called 'bits' and emerging suckers called
'peepers' are used for propagation.
❖ Banana cultivation problems: Female sterility and viruses.
❖ Karnataka state is pioneer in tissue culture protocol.
❖ Most widely used tissue culture method: Shoot tip culture.
❖ Popular tissue culture variety: Grand Naine.
❖ Banana is a calcifuge crop having calorific value: 67-137/ 100 g.

SPECIAL PRACTICES:

❖ Mattocking: Practice of partially cutting of pseudostem after harvest of bunch.

❖ Propping: Supporting to pseudostem at the time of bunch emergence.
❖ Denavelling: Removal of male flower bud after appearance of last hand on bunch for nutrient
diversion.
❖ Dehandling of last fruitful hands (after emergence of 7th or 8th hand) is done to meet export
standards of Basrai banana.
❖ Thrashing: Removal of old dried and diseased part of plant
❖ Bunch Cover: To cover bunches with dried leaves to enhance fruit quality. (mainly done in
Dwarf Cavendish, Silk Group)
❖ Desuckering: Removal of surplus and unwanted suckers.
➢ Two ways of desuckering-pouring kerosene and damaging with cowbar, 2,4-D.
➢ It is done at 3 times in a year but once in 45-days is common practice.
❖ Correct time of application of fertilizer: Planting to bunch emergence.
❖ Poovan, Rasthali, Nendran and Robusta: 2.1 m x 2.1m, Basrai, Kulthan Rajpuri: 1.8 m x 1.8 m
spacing is followed.
❖ AAB, AAA clones are grown under irrigated conditions. ABB clones are grown under rainfed
conditions (Monthan, Kanthali, Kunnan).
❖ Banana water requirement: 1800-2000 mm and through drip irrigation 10-25 lit/plant.
❖ Multi-storey system is commonly followed in coastal Karnataka and Kerala.
❖ Dwarf banana is harvested within 11-14 months after planting.
❖ Maturity indices:
➢ Days from flower emergence (100-120)
 ➢ Disappearance of angularity (ridge of surface from angular to round)
➢ Brittleness of the floral ends should fall with slight touch.
❖ Edible part: Starchy parenchyma.
❖ For long distance transportation, harvesting is done at ¾ (75-80%) maturity.
❖ Storage temperature: 13-16oC (ripe).
❖ Post-harvest technology to delay ripening of banana is skin coating with waxol (12% wax
emulsion).
❖ Curing: fruits are cured in smoke for ripening in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
❖ Ethylene dose for ripening of banana: 100 ppm.
❖ Use of acetylene gas generated from CaC2 for ripening banana.
❖ Most banana fruits show negative geotropism.
❖ Vegetative phase (1-6 months) is crucial for weed control. Weed causes 60-70 % yield loss.
❖ Species:
❖ All triploid (AAA) dessert bananas of commerce are highly susceptible to sigatoka while all
ABB clones are resistant.
❖ Parthenocarpy does not appear in M. balbisiana.
❖ All triploid (AAA) bananas of commerce are highly susceptible to leaf spot disease, while all
ABB clones are resistant.
❖ Origin of M. acuminata: Polymorphic and originated in Malayan region.
❖ Origin of M. balbisiana: Indo-Burma origin.
❖ Pest and disease:
➢ Rhizome weevil (Cosmopolitus sordidus): most serious pest.
➢ Pseudostem weevil (Odiphorous longicollis)
➢ Spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus multicinctus): Most serious in North-Eastern region.
➢ Cyst nematode (Heterodera oryzicola): Problem in Kerala only.
➢ Most destructive nematodes: R. Similis and P. coffeae.
➢ Moko wilt or bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacerum).
➢ Sigatoka leaf spot disease of banana was first observed in Fiji (1913). All triploid AAA clones
are susceptible while all ABB clones are resistant to this disease.
➢ Black sigatoka is caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis.
 ➢ Yellow sigatoka leaf spot (Mycosphaerella musicola): Most serious disease in sub-tropical
condition.
➢ Bunchy top is viral disease. Its vector is Pentalonia nigronervosa. It is also called as cabbage
top.
➢ Panama wilt (Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. Cubense): severe in acid soil and wet soil- soil
borne.
➢ Finger tip disease is serious in high density planting (HDP).
➢ Kokkan disease (BBMV): 1st reported in Kerala.
➢ Banana Streak Virus (BSV) is transmitted by Mealy bug (Planococcus citri). Dwarf
Cavendish, Giant Cavendish, Nendran, Red banana are susceptible.
➢ Infectious chlorosis (CMV): Robusta, Grand Naine, Poovan are susceptible.
❖ Physiological disorders:
➢ Neer Vazhai: Immature unfilled fingers, lanky bunch & delayed shooting-transmitted through
suckers. Nendran is susceptible variety.
➢ Kotta Vazhai: Enlarged ovules with immature fruits: Poovan susceptible unknown cause.
➢ Remedy-spray 2,4-D@ 120 ppm.
➢ Orange chlorosis, improper finger filling, leaf bending, rapid leaf desiccation: K deficiency.
➢ Bunchy top crowns, narrow pointed and chlorotic young leaves: Zn deficiency.
➢ The impeded inflorescence or bunch development in banana is referred to as chocking.
➢ Pulpricrema or yellow pulp.
➢ Choke throat: It is due to low temperature affecting active growth of the plant. When the
time of flowering synchronizes with low temperature, the bunch is unable to emerge from the
pseudo-stem properly.

➢ VARIETIES:
Poovan Resistant to Panama wilt and fairly resistant to bunchy
top diseases
Dwarf Cavendish Susceptible to bunchy top and leaf spot but resistant to
Panama wilt, Dwarf with only 1.5 – 2.0 m in height.
Kaveri Kanchan (NCR 17)
Neendran and Chipsona Chips
 Lady Finger Resistant to Bunchy Top virus
Popoulu Tolerant to pseudostem weevil, Eumusae leaf spot
Kaveri Vaamana (TBM -9) Dwarf mutant by irradiating the shoot tips of cultivar
Grand Nain, doesn’t require propping/staking
Monthan Drought resistant
Rasthali Table variety
AAAA (4x) ‘Bodles
Altafort’
ABBB (4x) ‘Klue teparod

AABB (4x) ‘Kalamagol’

AAAB (4x) ‘Alan’: Gold finger (FHIA-01)

Citrus
❖ Citrus: Citrus sp.
❖ Family: Rutaceae
❖ Chromosome no: 2n-18
❖ Cross Pollinated crop.
❖ Inflorescence: Cymose
❖ Citrus is micronutrient loving Plant
❖ Citrus is a mesophyte tree
❖ Study of cultivation of citrus: Citriculture
❖ 3rd most important fruit crop after Mango, Banana
❖ All citrus fruits are tree ripened (non-climacteric)
❖ TSS of most of the citrus groups: 8-12%
❖ From flowering to maturity, it takes 9 months.
Classification:

1. Acid group:
❖ Acid lime: ❖ Citrus aurantifolia

❖ Rangpur lime: ❖ C. limonica

❖ Lemon ❖ Citrus limon

❖ Rough lemon Citrus jambheri

 ❖ Citron Citrus medica

❖ Persian Lime ❖ Citrus latifolia

❖ Sweet Lime Citrus limettoides, Varieties: Mithachikna,

Mithotra

❖ Kagzi lime is the indicator plant for Tristeza

❖ Citrus canker is the most serious disease of Acid lime.
❖ Kagzi lime: C. aurantifolia known as Acid lime/Sour lime.
❖ Acid lime is commonly propagated by seeds due to polyembryony.
❖ Lemons can be propagated by budding on trifoliate orange or Rangpur Lime (Citrus limonica)

2. Orange group:
❖ Sweet orange ❖ Citrus sinensis

❖ Sour orange ❖ Citrus aurantium

❖ Trifoliate orange ❖ Poncirus trifoliata, donor source for

Phytophthora and citrus nematode resistance.

❖ Multiple leaf orange ❖ C. multifolia

❖ Indian wild orange ❖ Citrus indica

❖ ‘T’ budding or patch budding are the most common methods for propagation of sweet
orange.
❖ pH: 6.6-7.5
❖ Ideal season- July to September
❖ Propagation by budding and rootstocks used are Rangpur Lime and Rough Lemons.
❖ Spacing: (7×7) m
❖ Harvest: yield of crop starts bearing from 5th year after planting.
❖ Yuvaraj Blood Red’ is a seedless and early maturing clonal selection from ‘Blood Red’ orange.
❖ ROOTSTOCKS:
❖ Rangpur Lime for Mosambi and Sathgudi (6 X 6m)
❖ Rough Lemon for Sathgudi
❖ Jatti Khatti and Karna Khatta for Blood Red

3. Mandarin group: (loose jacket)

❖ Scientific name: Citrus reticulata
❖ Known as Santra Orange and Fancy fruit
❖ Willow leaf mandarin: C.deliciosa
❖ King mandarin: C. nobilis
❖ Citrus unshu: Satsuma Mandarin (Seedless)
❖ Wilking: Willow Leaf mandarin X King mandarin
❖ Tangerine: C. reticulata X C. aurantium
❖ Kinnow mandarin: King x Willow leaf (C. nobilis X C. deliciosa), developed in USA in 1915
by H.B. Frost and introduced in India in 1959 In Panjab.
❖ Kinnow can be grown in HDP by using Troyer citrange as a rootstock by spacing the plants at
1.8m×1.8m.
❖ Temperature: 10 - 35oC
❖ pH- 5.5 to 6.5
❖ Season: November – December
❖ Spacing: 6×6 m
❖ Planting during May-June & Sep- Oct
❖ Commercially propagated by seeds.
❖ Harvest: Starts bearing from 3-5 years after planting in budded plants.
❖ In case of seedlings 5-6 years.
❖ Yield: 15-20 t/ha/year.
❖ From flowering to maturity: 9 months
❖ Mandarin are highly susceptible to: Water logging.
❖ Mandarin, sweet orange, acid lime, and grape fruit are highly poly-embryonic.
❖ Spacing of lime, lemon, and sweet orange is 6m×6m.
4. Pummelo and Grapefruit group:
❖ Pummelo: C. grandis
❖ Grape fruit: C. paradisi (Pummelo X Sweet orange)
❖ Grapefruit: Origin: Malaysia
❖ Polyembryonic spp.
❖ Propagation: Air Layering

Rootstocks used in citrus:

❖ Rough Lemon: Resistant to tristeza

❖ Sour Orange
❖ Sour Lime
❖ Cleopatra mandarin
❖ Trifoliate orange
❖ Citranges: Resistant to citrus nematode
❖ Rangpur lime: tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot resistant to tristeza virus.
❖ Karna Khatta: Mostly cultivated in North India
❖ Sweet orange: C. sinensis
❖ Rangpur lime is the best rootstock for mosambi.
Intergeneric hybrids:
• Citrange: Trifoliate orange x C. sinensis
• Citrange quat: Citrange X Fortunella (Kumquat) - trigeneric hybrid
• Citrangedin: Citrange x C. mitis (calamondin)
• Citrangor: Citrange x C. sinensis
• Citrandarin: Poncirus trifoliata x C. reticulata (Mandarin).
• Citrumelo: Poncirus trifoliata x C. paradisi (Grape fruit).
Major Diseases in Citrus
• Citrus Gummosis: Phytophthora citrophthora (Fungus – Soil borne)
• Bacterial Canker: Xanthomonas Campestris (Bacteria), Transmitted by: Leaf Miner,
Resistant Variety: Tenali, Indicator plant: Acid Lime
• Tristeza: Virus, Acid Lime: Indicator Plant, Transmitted by Aphids (Toxoptera citricida)
• Greening: Mycoplasma like Organisms, Transmitted by Citrus Psylla
• Exocortis: Viroids, Rangpur Lime and Citron – Indicator
• Xyloporosis: Budwood transmission, Sweet Lime (indicator)
Pests of Citrus
• Psylla: Diaphorina citri (Vector – Greening)
• Leaf Miner: Phyllocnistis citrella (Vector – Citrus Canker)
• Aphids: Toxoptera auranii (Vector – Tristeza)
• Lemon Butterfly: Papilio demoleus
• Fruit sucking moth: Otheris fullonica

Varieties:
Acid Lime Lemon Sweet Mandarin Grapefruit
Orange
Pramalini Eureka Blood Red Clementine Duncan
Vikram Lisbon Mosambi Cleopatra Foster
(30:1, sugar:
acid ratio)
Chakradhar Pant Lemon Sathgudi Calamondin Thompson

Sai Sarbati Meyer lemon Jaffa, Hamlin Coorg orange Ruby

Khasi orange
Balaji Lucknow Shamouti Desi Duncan
Seedless Mandarin seedless
 PKM – 1 Kagzi Kalan Pineapple Marsh
Selection – 49 Villiafranca Valencia Kinnow Walters
Washington
Navel

Papaya
❖ Botanical name: Carica papaya
❖ Family: Caricaceae
❖ Mountain Papaya: Carica candamarcensis
❖ Origin: Tropical America
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n= 18
❖ Tropical fruit tree, mainly grown as a backyard tree.
❖ Introduced in India during 16th century.
❖ Soil and climate:
❖ Summer temperature ranges: 35oC to 38oC. Dry warm climate tends to increase sweetness of
the fruits.
❖ Tamil Nadu is an ideal home for growing papaya because of the mild temperatures and
freedom from mosaic and leaf curl virus diseases.
❖ Papaya is a highly cross-pollinated crop.
❖ Yellow fruit colour pigment of papaya: Caricaxanthin.
❖ Latex is obtained from green papaya fruit.
❖ Milky latex obtained from 70-90 days old mature fruits.
❖ Dried latex of papaya is called as Papain.
❖ Enzyme present in Papain is- Pepsin
❖ Papain can be also dried artificially at temperature of 50 to 55°C which will attain better colour
and quality.

Optimum temperature for:

❖ Papaya cultivation: 30-350C
❖ Seed germination: 300C
❖ Vegetative growth: 21-330C
❖ High temperature (>350C) leads to female sterility.
❖ Type of fruit: Large fleshy berry.
❖ Type of inflorescence: Axillary panicles
❖ Papaya seed is enclosed with gelatinous layer: Sarcotesta.
❖ Commercially propagated: Seeds
❖ Seed rate: 500 g/ha.
❖ Gynodioecious variety: 250-300 gm/ha.
❖ Dioecious variety: 400-500 gm/ha
❖ In dioecious varieties: 1:1 (male: female).
❖ At low temperature perfect flowers on the male tree.
❖ Spacing: 1.8×1.8 m and Pits of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm size
❖ High density planting (HDP): Suitable variety: Pusa Nanha, developed by Mutation has
spacing of 1.25 m×1.25 m (6400 plants/ha)
❖ Spacing for papain production: 1.6m×1.6m
❖ Best time for planting: Beginning of the South- West monsoon in most parts of India.
❖ In south India, June to October and January to March are suitable for planting.
❖ Planting time:
❖ Spring: Feb- March
❖ Monsoon: June- July (Best time)
❖ Autumn: Oct- Nov
❖ Best storage of seeds at 10oC (Best for retention of seed viability)
❖ Growth regulators: GA (50 ppm), ethrel (200ppm) SADH (250ppm) and phosphon - D
(2500ppm) increase the femaleness in dioecious types.
❖ Harvesting and yield: First crop available in 12-14 months from the time of planting.
❖ Papaya gives economic crop up to 4 years and thereafter it declines drastically.
❖ Major Diseases in Papaya:
❖ Damping Off: Pythium Aphanidermatum
❖ Ring Spot: Virus, transmit: Aphids (Aphis gossipi)
❖ Leaf Curl: Virus, transmit by White fly (Bemisia tabaci)
❖ Varieties of Papaya:
❖ Transgenic Variety: Sunup (The world first transgenic papaya variety), Rainbow (First
transgenic commercial variety), Hawaii

Gynodioecious variety Dioecious varieties

Arka Surya (Sunrise Solo X Pink Flesh Pusa Giant, Tooty Frooty
Sweet)
Sunrise Solo Pusa Dwarf
Taiwan CO – 5 Mainly for Papain
Thailand CO – 2
Waimanalo CO – 4, CO – 1
Pusa Delicious CO – 6: Selection from Pusa Majesty

Pusa Majesty (One of the highest papain Pant C – 1, Betty, Hatras Gold
yielder)
Coorg Honey Dew (Selection from Pusa Nanha (Mutation)
Honey Dew)
Pink Flesh Sweet
 Grapes
❖ Botanical name: Vitis vinifera
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 38
❖ Cross Pollinated crop
❖ Origin: Caucasia-Asia minor
❖ Cultivation of grapes is known as Viticulture
❖ Science of wine making: Enology
❖ Well – drained rich loamy soil with pH of 6.5-7.0.
❖ Soil depth should be almost 1 m.
❖ Aroma (Muscat Flavour) in grape due to Methylantranilate.
❖ It is subtropical fruit crop but adopted to tropical conditions.
❖ Summer temperature should not exceed 35°C for grapes cultivation.
❖ Temperature range for flowering: 18-21°C.
❖ Tartaric acid is commercially extracted from grapes.
❖ Type of inflorescence: Panicle.
❖ Type of fruit: Berry
❖ Type of parthenocarpy: Steno-spermocarpy
❖ Edible portion: Pericarp and placenta.
❖ Leading raisin grape variety: Thompson seedless.
Propagation and rootstocks:

❖ Commercially propagation – Hardwood stem cutting

❖ Phylloxera resistant root stock: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
❖ Nematode resistant root stock: Dogridge, Salt creek
❖ Saline tolerant: Solanis, 1616
❖ Commercially used growth regulator for cutting : IBA @ 2000 in 10 seconds by Quick
dip method preferred.
❖ Time of planting: North India- Feb to March
❖ Time for cutting: October
❖ Best grafting for rootstocks: Wedge grafting
 ❖ Ready for harvest: 100-120 days after pruning.
❖ Training: Telephone system best for commercial cultivation, Bower system has higher
cost benefit ratio.
❖ Pruning:
o Single Pruning: Mostly in North India (Jan-Feb)
o Double Pruning: Mostly in Maharashtra. Also called as back pruning or
foundation pruning or summer pruning.
o Pruning in Sep.-Oct is called as Forward pruning or fruit pruning or winter
pruning.
❖ Girdling: Removal of ring bark from the trunk to increase the fruit set and fruit size.
❖ Time of pruning in North India: December to January
❖ Ideal TSS for processing grapes: 150 Brix
❖ Ideal TSS for raisin grapes: Between 21° - 27° brix
❖ Export purpose: TSS more than 180 Brix
❖ 20-23°brix is the standard.
❖ Grapes can economically be stored up to 40-45 days in cold storage. The optimum
storage temperature recommended is -2 to -1.5°C.
❖ Fe deficiency of grapes is most common in Black soil.
❖ Major nutrient deficiency in grapes growing area in the world: Mg
❖ Varieties of Grapes:

Arka Hans Bangalora Blue X Anab-e-Shahi White wine

Arka Neelmani Black Champa X Thompson Red wine, Seedless
seedless
Crimson seedless, Flame seedless, Thompson seedless, Seedless varieties
Perlette, Arka Vati, Arka Neelmani, Sonaka seedless
Arka Kanchan, Arka Shyam, Muscat, Red Globe, Bangalora Seeded varieties
Blue, Anab-e-Shahi
Anab-e-shahi, Bangalora Blue, Beauty seedless, Perlette, Pusa Table Purpose
Seedless, Thompson seedless
Thompson seedless, Arkavati Raisin Grapes
 Bangalora Blue, Arka Kanchan, Thompson seedless Wine grapes
Arka Shweta, Arka Majesty, Arka Chitra, Arka Soma IIHR
Bangalora blue & Gulabi Colour seeded
Beauty seedless Coloured seedless
Anab-e-Shahi, Dilkhush (Clone of Anab-e-Shahi) White seeded

Perlette, Pusa seedless, Thompson seedless White seedless

Pusa Urvashi, Pusa Navrang, Pusa Swarnika, Pusa Aditi IARI
Crimson Seedless, Manjari kishmish, Manjari medika
Dogridge, Saltcreek Nematode resistant
rootstock
Vitis riparia, V. rupestrs Phylloxera resistant
rootstock
Solanis, 1616 Saline tolerant
rootstock

Ber
❖ Botanical name: Zizyphus mauritiana
❖ Family: Rhamnaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n=48
❖ Origin: India or Indochina
❖ Hardy salt tolerant fruit
❖ Ideal tree for arid and semi-arid culture.
❖ Climatic and soil requirements:
➢ India ber- tropical and subtropical regions
➢ Chinese ber-temperate region.
➢ Zizyphus nummularia: Rootstock purpose
➢ It can tolerate a high temperature of even 40oC. It can be grown in an extreme moisture stress.
➢ In alkaline soils with high pH (even upto 9.5) and sodic soil.
❖ Commercially propagated: T or shield budding.
❖ Best time of planting: July to September
❖ Type of training system: Modified leader system
❖ Pruning time for north Indian condition: Mid to end of may
❖ June to August is the best period for budding for getting maximum bud-take
❖ Spacing for HDP: 5m X 5m
❖ Flowering time: Sept. to Nov.
❖ Non-climacteric fruit
❖ Normal harvesting: Oct-Nov
❖ Harvesting in North india: Dec- April
❖ Varieties of Ber:

Gola Early variety

Seb, Dandan, Mehrun, Elaichi
Kaithali Mid-season variety
Umran Late variety
Katta Paul Resembles apple in shape
Thar Sevika Seb X Katha
Thar Bhubraj
Goma Kirti Early variety, Clonal selection - Umran
Zizyphus nummularia Dwarfing rootstock
Zizyphus jujube Chinese Ber

Aonla

❖ Fruit of the 21st century /Indian Goose Berry/ Amritphal fruit

❖ Botanical name: Emblica officinalis
❖ Family: Euphorbiaceae
❖ 2n=28
❖ Origin: Central to southern India
❖ Climate and soil requirements:
➢ A subtropical fruit can thrive very well in tropical humid conditions also.
➢ If young plants are protected from both extremes of temperature, the mature trees can tolerate
right from freezing (00C) to as high as 460C.
➢ In a well-drained loamy soil, the amla trees grow faster.
➢ They also fairly tolerant to alkalinity in soils (pH 8.5) and irrigation water.
❖ Type of fruit: Capsule
❖ Type of inflorescence: Racemose
❖ Edible portion: Mesocarp & Endocarp
❖ Propagation by Patch budding in north India
❖ Training System use Modified central leader system
❖ Budding time: Mid May to mid-August
❖ Planting time: February to march
❖ Flowering to fruiting: 8 months
❖ Irrigation during April-June once in 15 days will help to encourage fruit set and prevent fruit
drop.
❖ Harvesting time: December to Jan
❖ Economic yield starts at 4-5 year after planting.

Varities Specific feature

Banarasi Early maturity, Shy bearing, Prone to heavy dropping of
fruits, Best for Murraba
Krishna(NA-5) Big fruited variety, Seedling selection from Banarasi
Balwant(NA-10) Fruits skin yellowish with pink tinge, Seedling selection
from Banarasi
Fransis (Hanthi Jhool) Highly susceptible to necrosis TSS of 120brix
Kanchan(NA-4) Regular bearing, Preferred for pulp extraction industries,
Seedling selection from chakiya
Amrit (NA-6) Best for candy, Seedling selection from chakiya, resistant to
Fruit Necrosis
Chakiya Alternate bearer, Ideal for making pickles, Resistant to Fruit
Necrosis
NA-7 (Neelum) Clonal selection of Francis, resistant to Fruit Necrosis
BRS – 1 Selection from Thimban
(Bhawanisagar)
Goma Aishwarya Clonal selection of Neelum (NA – 7) (Early Variety)

Date Palm (Century Plant)

❖ Botanical name: Phoenix dactylifera
❖ Origin- Iraq And Egypt
❖ Family: Arecaceae
❖ Monocotyledons, unbranched stem tree
❖ Dioecious fruit crop
❖ Fermented Product- Arrack
❖ Drink of Date palm- Debbis
❖ Date palm tolerate high soil salinity.
❖ Ideal mean temperature for flowering and ripening
of fruits: 25-290c.
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Spadix
❖ Type of Fruit: Berry
❖ Type of pollination: Cross pollination
❖ Male: Female- 2-3:100
❖ Commercially propagation: Seeds, Offshoots
❖ Wt. of Matured Offshoot: 15-25 kg
❖ Spacing: In India, spacing of 3 – 4 metre is adopted.
❖ Metaxenia is a common problem in Datepalm.
❖ In India date harvested at Doka Stage (70-80% moisture).
❖ Soft dates harvested at Pind stage
❖ For fresh eating dates are harvested or preferred at Dang (Translucent and starts softening)
stage.
❖ For fresh consumption dates are harvested at peak of Doka (Colour turns green to yellow) stage
❖ For storage purpose dates are harvested at tamer or Pind (Attain full mature) stage.
Processing:

❖ The fruits have to be harvested at doka stage during June – August.

❖ The fruits harvested at doka stage have to be dipped in boiling water for 5 minutes followed by
dehydration in electric oven at 500C for 160 hours or in solar drier to obtain best quality
‘Chhuhara’ which is the commercial date or produce of commerce.
❖ Doka fruits are useful for processing of Chhuhara (recovery would be 33 – 35%.)
❖ The different stages of development of fruit are as follows:
Stage of maturity Characteristics

Doka Fruit becomes hard, yellow or pink or red, TSS- 30 to 45%, astringency
(Khalal): 70- present or absent depending on cultivar and edible stage, used for Chuhara
80% moisture making. In India, harvested at this stage.

Dang (Rutab) Softness starting at tip of fruit, tannins and astringency disappears, lose
weight and moisture content is about 35 – 40% and edible stage.

Pind (Tamer) Fully ripe fruit, lose weight, TSS- 60 to 84 %, edible and storage purpose.

Varieties of Date Palm:

Halawy Early
Khadrawy
Shamran
Medjool Late ripening
Barhee
Zahidi Soft dates
Khalas Suitable: Raw eating

Pineapple
✓ Heaven fruit/Friendship fruit: Ananas comosus
✓ Family: Bromeliaceae,
✓ Chromosome: 2n = 2x =50, 75 and 100
✓ Origin: Brazil
✓ Enzyme: Bromelin
✓ Monocotyledonous, Monocarpic, herbaceous perennial herb.
✓ Pineapple is an obligate Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant.
✓ Most common processed product of pineapple: Canning
✓ Humid crop and drought resistant crop
✓ Suitable intercrop in banana, coconut and Arecanut.
✓ Most of the pineapple varieties are diploids 2n = 2x = 50
✓ Somatic mutation is very common in pineapple cultivars.
✓ Optimum temperature cultivation: 22-32o C
✓ Flower induction:
✓ Pineapple generally produces flowers after 12 months (35-40 leaves)
✓ Natural flowering period: December to March
✓ Type inflorescence: Compact spike (100-200 flowers) Self sterile
✓ Type of incompatibility: Gametophytic SI
✓ Type of fruit: Sorosis (Syncarpous or multiple fruit)
✓ Edible portion of fruit is peduncle
✓ Gametophytic self-incompatibility: Major hindrance of pineapple breeding
✓ Varieties/Groups:
✓ Kew and Giant kew (Commercially grown in India)
✓ Queen
✓ Mauritius- Mid season variety of Queen group-Red skinned type
 ✓ Natural tetraploid variety: James Queen or Z Queen
✓ Ideal variety of canning: Smooth Cayenne
✓ Hybrid: Amritha (Kew x Ripley Queen): 1st hybrid in India pineapple Research Centre,
Mannuthi, KAU.
✓ Natural triploid variety: Cabezona or Bull head
✓ Smooth Cayenne: quantitatively short dya variety
✓ Slips free variety: Hilo
✓ Charlotte Rothchild variety: Kerala, Goa
✓ Indigenous variety: Lakhat (Sour type), Jaldhup (Sweet type)
✓ Propagation:
✓ Main propagated materials: crown, slips, suckers
✓ Ideal plant material: Slips (350g) and Sucker (450 g)
✓ Best planting material: Slips (300-450 g)
✓ Commonly recommended ratooning system: 4-5 years
✓ Fruits takes time to ripen: 4.5-5.5 months
✓ Harvesting stage:
▪ Maturity indices: Flattening of eyes
▪ Canning and distant market: Fully matured fruits
▪ Table purpose: Golden yellow colour
✓ Non-climacteric fruit
✓ Pineapple ready for harvest after about 15-24 months

Jackfruit:
➢ National fruit of Bangladesh/Poor man's food/jack
➢ B.N.: Artocarpus heterophyllus
➢ Family: Moraceae
➢ Chromosome No. : 2n = 56
➢ Origin: India(Western Ghats)
➢ Prefers humid tropical climate
➢ Basic chromosome number: n=14
➢ Bearing: Cauliflorous
➢ Inflorescence: Catkin
➢ World's largest tree borne fruit (30-40 kg weight)
➢ Lectine: natural protein found in jackfruit- Used for cancer treatment
➢ Type of pollination: Cross
➢ Only female ones develop into multiple fruit: Sorosis
➢ Flowering time: December to March
➢ Related species:
✓ Bread fruit (Artocarpus altilis)
✓ Monkey jack (Artocarpus lakoocha)
✓ Semi-wild in Western ghats and brear edible fruits:Artocarpus hirsuta (Aini)
✓ 2 Groups: Firm and Soft flesh
✓ Seed: Reclacitrant
✓ Propagation: Seed
✓ Air layering, Grafting (Inarching/Epicotyl): April May, Budding
✓ Planting: 12 X 12m, Square System
✓ Varieties: Gulabi, Champa, Hazar, Singapore or Ceylon Jack

Mangosteen:
➢ Queen of fruits/Fruit of the gods or energy tablet/ Finest fruit of the world/mystery fruit:
Garcinia mangostana
➢ Family: Clusiaceae (Guttiferae)
➢ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 24
➢ Allopolyploid hybrid
➢ Origin: Indonesia or Southeast Asia
➢ Type of fruit: Berry
➢ Edible part: Aril
➢ Number of carpels: 4-8
➢ Physiological disorder: Gamboge and Fruit splitting.

Sapota
• Botanical name: Manilkara zapota
• Chickle (The gutta parcha)
• Sugar: 12 – 18%
• Climacteric Fruit
• Optimum temperature : 10 - 38°C
• Propagation : Seed, Inarching (Rayan – Rootstock), Air layering, Softwood Grafting
(Rayan – Rootstock), Cutting
• Planting : June to December
• Evening
• 10 X 10 m, HDP: 5 X 5 m
• Latex: Sapotin
• Harvest : 7 – 10.5 months from anthesis to maturity
• Maturity indice:
• Ease to remove peel
• Development of yellowish tinge
• Rapid ripening ( 5 – 7 days)
• Dried stigma
• Kalipatti, Pala, Kirthiball
• Cricketball, Baramasi
• CO – 1 : Cricket Ball X Oval
• CO – 2 : Clonal selection from Baramasi
• DHS – 1 : Kalipatti X Cricket Ball
• DHS – 2 : Kalipatti X Cricket Ball

Makhana
• Also called as Gorgon nut, Lotus seed
• Scientific name: Euryale ferox salixb
• Family: Nymphaeceae
• Origin: S-E Asia & China
• Fresh water aquatic crop (Stagnant perennial water bodies)
• Self-pollinated
• Popped makhana: Makhana lawa or Makhan pop
 • Bihar: More than 85% of total makhana production in country.
• GI tag: Mithila makhana
• Area (2021-22): 35,224 ha
• Production (2021-22): 56,289 tonnes
• Pop production: 23,656 tonnes
• Identified as ODOP: under PM formalization of micro food processing enterprises scheme.
• Importance: Serves as source of starch for textile industries
• High amino acid index: 89-93%
• Arginine + Lysine/Proline ratio: 4.74-7.6
• Considered as dry fruit
• EAAI: Raw makhana: 93%, Popped makhana: 89%
• Commercial cultivation: Mithilanchal region of North-Bihar.
• Two improved varieties: Swarna vaidehi, Sabour Makhana-1

❖ PLANTATION CROPS
❖ Important Research Stations
➢ Coconut : Central Plantation Crop Reserch Institute , Kasargode, Kerala
➢ Arecanut : CPCRI, Regional Research Station, Vittal, Karnataka
➢ Cocoa - CPCRI, Regional Research Station, Vittal, Karnataka
➢ Rubber: Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam, Kerala
➢ Cashew : Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka
➢ Oil Palm : National Research Centre, Elur, Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh
➢ Tea : Tea Research Institute, United Planters Association of South India
(UPASI),Valparai, Tamil Nadu
➢ Coffee : Central Coffee Research Institute, Balehonnur, Karnataka
❖ Important plantation crops
➢ Oil yielding crops: Coconut, oilpalm, palmyrah
➢ Masticatory : Arecanut, betelvine
➢ Beverage crops : Tea, coffee, cocao
➢ Nut crops : Cashew nut
➢ Industrial crop : Rubber
❖ Importance of plantation crop:

TEA:

❖ Botanical Name: Camellia sinesis

❖ Family: Theaceae
❖ Origin: China
❖ Chromosomes: 2n = 30
❖ Fruit: Capsule
❖ Flower: Bisexual
❖ Research Stations Board working on tea cultivation and in India
1. UPASI = United Planters Association of Southern India, UPASI Tea Research
Institute, Nirar Dam B.P.O, Velparai – 642 127, Dist: Coimbatore, TN.
2. TES = Tea Experiment Station, Tocklai, Jorhat, Assam
3. Tea Board: Calcutta
❖ Climate:
➢ Tea is a subtropical species.
➢ In south India tea is grown in hilly areas and in North India = Plains
➢ Tea prefers a climate which is
1) Moist,
2) Warm and
3) Winter is not too cold
❖ Temperature:
➢ Optimum = Mean maximum of 29.5 ºC and mean minimum of 13 ºC
❖ Relative Humidity
➢ North India = High (> 60 %) throughout the year.
❖ Time of planting:
➢ North India (Assam): Winter season with low rainfall but with plenty of mist is desirable
i.e., October– November.
➢ South India: Summer season (Rainy season) is most suitable time for planting i.e., May –
June.
❖ Centering:
 ➢ In South India, the leader stem is removed (Centered) at 20 to 25 cm from the ground level
leaving 8 – 10 mature leaves on the plant. It is done to induce secondaries. When
secondaries reach more than 60 cm, they are tipped at 50 to 55 cm height by removing
leaves and bud to induce tertiaries. Further, training /pruning involves regular plucking
with hand. This aims at getting an inverted dome or cone shaped bush.
❖ Skiffing: It is a lightest pruning. Here foliage is levelled off, only green stems are removed.
❖ Time of plucking: (When plant is 3 years old)
❖ Facts:
➢ Calcifuge crop
➢ Southeast Asia is the original home for tea
➢ Best soil pH for cultivation of Tea: 3.2-6.2
➢ Most of the tea plants under cultivation are diploid (2n = 30)
➢ Commercially cultivated as a rainfed crop
➢ Study of tea is known as Tsiology
➢ Responsible for briskness, brightness and colour of the liquor: Aflavins and arubigins
➢ Responsible for colour of black tea: Theaflavins and Thearufigens
➢ Major polyphenols present in black tea: Theaflavins and thearufigens
➢ Major phenolics in green tea: Catechins
➢ Health properties in tea is due to catechins (i.e., epigallocatechin -3-gallate-EGCG)
➢ Stimulative effect of tea is due to caffeine (1.25-4.5%)
➢ Tea astringent taste is due to tannins (Polyphenols)
➢ Propagation: Softwood cutting/Single node cutting
➢ Planting: Single Hedge or Double Hedge System
➢ Three main types of tea produced from leaves:
✓ Green tea (non-fermented)
✓ Oolong tea (partly fermented)
✓ Black tea (fermented)
➢ In south India, Silver oak (Grevillea robusta) is used as a permanent shade tree
➢ Types of Pruning:
➢ Rejuvenation Pruning: The whole bush should be cut near the ground level less than
30cm with a view to rejuvenate the bushes.
 ➢ Hard Pruning: Hard/formation pruning of young tea is done at 30-45 cm for proper
spread of bushes.
➢ Medium Pruning: To check the bush growing to an inconvenient height, this is done
to stimulate new wood and to maintain foliage at lower levels less than 60 cm.
➢ Tipping: Done at a height of 35cm from the base and 2nd tipping at 60cm from ground.
It is the practice of removal of terminal portion of shoot
➢ Centering:
✓ Training method
✓ Removal of main stem at a height of about 20 cm from the ground:
✓ Promotes the axillary bud or lateral branches
➢ Skiffing is the lightest form of pruning and collar pruning is the severe most pruning for
rejuvenation of tea garden
➢ Most labour-intensive operation tea industry: Plucking
➢ Store: 3% moisture when packed
➢ Processing:
o CTC Method
o Orthodox Tea
o Green Tea
➢ CTC Tea: Wither, Rolling, Fermentation, Drying, Sort & Grade, Gapping, Pack &
Transport
➢ Gapping: During sorting and bulking, tea picks up moisture and reaches above 4%,
which is detrimental before packing. It is brought down to moisture content to about
3%.
➢ Varieties: UPASI 9, UPASI 1, UPASI 2, UPASI 8
➢ Yellowing of tea is due to sulphur deficiency
➢ Red Coffee Borer: Zeuzera coffeae
➢ Pink Mite: Acaphylla theae
➢ Imperta cylindrica: Weed of Tea
➢ Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora

COFFEE:
❖ Botanical name: Coffea spp.
❖ Family: Rubiaceae
❖ Origin: Ethiopia
❖ King of Beverage crop
❖ Fruit type: Drupe
❖ Short day plant
❖ Perennial plant
❖ Ideal pH: 4.5-6.5
❖ Two races:
➢ Arabia coffee – Coffea arabica – self-pollinated (2n-22), Spacing: 1.5 – 2m
➢ Robusta coffe- Coffea robusta – cross-pollinated (2n – 44), Spacing: 2.5m
❖ India's rank in coffee production in the world is 6th.
❖ Coffee fruit with single seed called "Pea berry"
❖ Tree coffee (Coffea liberica) is source of resistance to leaf rust.
❖ Coffee is 2nd important commodity in world trade after petroleum products.
❖ Coffee contains – Niacin which is useful to cure skin diseases.
❖ Training: By single stem is followed in India.
❖ Processing:
➢ By wet method: to produce parchment coffee.
➢ By dry method- to produce cherry coffee.
➢ In India:
➢ Arabica is processed as parchment coffee.
➢ Robusta is processed as cherry coffee
❖ The cured coffee is called green coffee which is traded in the market.
❖ Pruning – June-July to August-September.
❖ Scuffling (soil stirring) is practiced in coffee.
❖ Varieties:
➢ S-795 (robusta)- Most popular variety, occupy 70% of total coffee area.
➢ C x R: interspecific hybrid
➢ Cauvery, Kent
➢ Agro
 ➢ San roman (mutant)
➢ Cauvery – Cattura x hybrid-de-timor, Rust resistant variety suitable for high density
planting.
➢ Chicks
➢ Blue mountain.

Pest: Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei)

Cashewnut
• Botanical Name: Anacardium occidentale
• Family: Anacardiaceae
• Origin: Brazil
• Cross-Pollinated crop
• Temperature: 20ºC – 30ºC
• Best production: Altitude of 400m with at least 9hr sunlight/day from December to May.
• Shelling percentage: 20 – 25%
• Propagation: Epicotyl grafting and Soft wood grafting
• Spacing: 7.5 m x 7.5m and 8m x 8m, HDP: 4 X 4m,
• Training and pruning: Aug – Sept
• Varieties: Chintamani 1, Chintmani 2, Goa 1 and Goa 2, Priyanka, Vengurla 1, Vengurla
4, Vengurla 6, Vengurla 7, Ullal series
• Harvesting:
• Bearing: After 3 year of planting
• Full bearing: 10th year
• Harvest: Feb – May
• Floatation method: To test maturity of nut. The mature nuts sink in water, while
immature/unfilled one’s float.
• Sound kernels are named as ‘Wholes’ and broken ones as ‘Splits’.
Diseases & Pest:

• Dieback or Pink disease: Fungus

• Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis antonii

 • Leaf miner: Conopomorpha syngramma

Coconut

❖ Common name: Tree of heaven, kalpavriksha

❖ Botanical name: Cocos nucifera L.
❖ Family: Arecaceae
❖ Origin: Southeast asia
❖ Chromosome No.: 32
❖ Total production of coconuts in India:
➢ 50% used as a mature runt
➢ 35% Copra
➢ 15% Tender form of drinking purpose
❖ Climate and temperature:
➢ Tropical palm: Coconut is a tropical palm preferring humid tropical climate.
➢ Monoecious palm
➢ Temperature: mean annual temperature 27o C.
➢ Humidity: 80-90 %
❖ Soil:
➢ Soil for coconut: Soils of coconut growing areas ranges between littoral sands to the
heaviest clays. black soil also good for cultivation.
➢ PH = 5.2 to 8
➢ Rich in organic matter with good water holding capacity,
❖ Varieties:
➢ Tall: Laccadive ordinary, Pratap
➢ Dwarf: Chowghat green dwarf, Ganga bondam
➢ Improved Varieties:
1. Chandra kalpa
2. Pratap – selection from Benalin tall
3. Chandratara – Selection from philippines ordinary
4. Double century – Selection from philippines ordinary
5. Kera chandra – selection from philippines ordinary
❖ Propagation:
➢ Coconut is propagated through seedling only.
➢ In India 9-12 months old seedling are generally, transplanted.
❖ Suitable intercrops:
➢ Fruits: Pineapple, Banana
➢ Vegetables: Chilli, elephant foot yam, sweet potato, tapioca
➢ Most profitable intercrop: Banana
➢ Ring method = 60 liters per palm per day
❖ Yield:
➢ Yield: 80 to 100 nuts per palm per year. (National average yield is 44 nuts per palm per
year)
➢ Hybrids: 100 to 130 nuts per palm per year
➢ Economic Life: 60 years
❖ Fact:
➢ World leading coconut oil producer: Philippines (43%)
➢ Heliophile plant
➢ Copra: Moisture: 5-6%, Oil: 70%, richest source of vegetable oil
➢ Coconut oil contains lauric acid
➢ 70-75% of the plantation area can be utilized for cropping systems
➢ India is the 3rd largest producer after Indonesia, philippines
➢ Highest productivity: Lakshadweep: 19630 nuts/ha
➢ Highest production: Kerala
➢ World Coconut Day: 2nd September
➢ Type of fruit: One seeded drupe
➢ Edible part: Endosperm
➢ Type of inflorescence: Spadix
➢ Geneticaly the dwarf palms are autogamous while tall types are allogamous
➢ It takes 12-13 month for ripening from opening of inflorescence
➢ Number of spadices produce per annum: 12-15
➢ Surface planting is adopted in Maharashtra and Coastal Karnataka
➢ Suitable green manure crop: Glyricidia
 ➢ Commercially manufacturing copra: Milling copra
➢ Coconut Research Station (CRS), TNAU, Veppankulam, Pattukottai
➢ Milling copra is most popular in Southern India (kerala: 60-65%)
➢ Cup copra is most popular in northern India
➢ Coir is obtained from mesocarp
➢ Toddy: Drink from the sap of inflorescence
➢ National Agricultural Cooperative market in Federation of india LtD (NAFED),
established in 1958, procure the copra from market with a minimum support Price
(MSP)
➢ International Coconut Genetics Network, rome
➢ Rhinocerous beetle and red palm weevil; most destructing pest in coconut
➢ Bud rot (phytophthora palmivora): yellowing of two young leaves and emitting foul
odour
➢ Fruit rot and Immature nut fall: Lasiodiplodia theobromae

ARECANUT (Betel nut or supari):

❖ Botanical name: Areca catechu

❖ Family: Arecaceae
❖ Type of fruit: Single seeded berry
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 32
❖ Origin: Malaysia or Philippines
❖ Climate
➢ Mean sea-level – 1000 meter
➢ May june or onset of monsoon is best time for planting.
➢ The crop flourishes well at a temperature range of 14-36o C.
❖ Soil:
➢ The largest area of arecanut is found in gravelly laterite soils of red clay.
➢ In Karnataka it is mainly cultivated in fertile clay soil.
➢ Optimum pH: 5-7
❖ Varieties:
➢ Srevardhani: Areca catechu x Areca triandra (interspecific cross)
 ➢ Mangla: Indonesian introduction
➢ Sumangla: Srilankan introduction
➢ Sree mangla: Singapore introduction
➢ Mohitnagar: Indigenous
❖ Propagation:
➢ Only through seeds.
➢ About 12-18 months old seedlings are used for planting.
❖ Spacing:
➢ Adequate spacing: 2.7m x 2.7m
➢ Square, rectangular, triangular and quincunx systems of planting are used.
➢ Economic life is upto 30-40 years
❖ Facts:
➢ Monoecious palm
➢ India is the largest producer and consumer of arecanut
➢ India ranks first in both are (49%) and production (50%) of Arecanut
➢ Inflorescence type: Spadix
➢ Type of pollination: Cross
➢ Pollinating agent: honeybees
➢ Arecanut plantation: Cocoa, Black pepper is suitable for multitier cropping system
➢ Arecanut froms 5-6 leaves per year
➢ Most popular arecanut trades: Chali or Kottapak type
➢ Nuli is made from tender nuts
➢ Major pest :- Spindle bug (Calvalhoia areacae)
➢ Koleroga or Mahali disease is caused by Phytophthora arecae – Nut shedding, water-
soaked lesions
➢ Inflorescence die back: Colletotrichum species
➢ Budrot or bud rot is caused by phytophthora meadii – Spindle appearance
➢ Anab-e-Roga is caused by Ganoderma lucidum – Exudation of oozing
➢ Yellow leaf disease (YLD) is caused by MLO (Mycoplasma like organisms).
Transmitted by vector plant hopper proutista moesta
RUBBER:

❖ Botanical Name: Hevea brasiliensis

❖ Family: Euphorbiaceae
❖ Origin: Brazil
❖ In world, consumption ratio of natural to synthetic rubber is 39 : 61
❖ In India, consumption ratio of natural to synthetic rubber is 80:20
❖ India ranks 3rd in rubber production and 5th in area and 1st in productivity in the world.
❖ Most important source of natural rubber: Para Rubber
❖ Rubber research Institute of India: Kottayam, Kerala
❖ International Rubber research and Development Board: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
❖ pH: 4.5-6
❖ Propagation: Forkert budding
❖ Latex is obtained by tapping
❖ Tapping depth: 1mm close to cambium
❖ Tapping time: Early morning
❖ Measuring rubber percentage: Metrolac, Latex meter
❖ Latex contain average 32% dry matter.
❖ In smoke house 40-60o C temperature is maintained.
❖ Hybrid clone – RRII-105 occupy 80% area under rubber cultivation. It is the highest yielding
in the world.
❖ Major physiological disorder: Brown blast or TPD (tapping panel dryness).
❖ Tapping panel dryness: A physiological disorder that affects the production of natural rubber
in rubber trees. It's characterized by a partial or complete stop in latex flow when the tree is
tapped, which leads to a severe loss in natural rubber production. It can be reduced by giving
tapping rest to the plant.
❖ Ridley – tapping technique
❖ 70% of rubber is used in types and tubes.

Classification of vegetables]

Based on pollination mechanism

 Self Often cross pollinated Cross pollinated

pollinated

Tomato Okra Cole crops

Pea & beans Brinjal Root crops

Lettuce Chilli Onion

Fenugreek Lima bean Cucurbits

Based on mode of pollination

Anemophily Entomophily

Spinach Onion

Palak Chilli

Beetroot Root crops

Amaranthus Cole crops

- Asparagus & Celery

- Sweet potato

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Sr. Crop Name of Disorder Cause
No.
1 POTATO Internal Brown spot Moisture deficiency
Greening Excessive exposure to sunrays
Black Heart Poor ventilation/ Oxygen deficiency
Hollow Heart Excessive nitrogen
Chilling injury Low temperature (0℃)
 Freezing injury Low temperature (-1 to 2℃)
2 TOMATO Cracking Boron deficiency
Blotchy ripening Potassium deficiency
Puffiness or pocket Low or high temperature + lack of
fertilization + poor pollination
Blossom end rot Calcium deficiency + high temperature +
(BHU 2021, BAU irregular moisture supply
2022)
Sun scald Excessive exposure to sunrays (above 40oc)
Cat face Abnormal growing conditions
Golden fleck Excessive of co-oxalate/ low K:Ca ratio
Radical cracking -
3 CAULIFLOWER Riceyness (Velvety Fluctuation in temperature, High humidity,
curds) excess Nitrogen
Fuzziness Cultivation in abnormal time, Flower pedicel
elongates
Blindness Frost, No curd formation
Leafyness High temperature
Buttoning Nitrogen deficiency, sowing early variety in
late season. (OPSC AAO 2022), Small curds
Hollow stem Excessive nitrogen and Boron deficiency
Disbudding Molybdenum deficiency, Only leaf midrib
develops
Chlorosis Magnesium deficiency
Browning or brown Boron deficiency
rot or Red rot
4 CARROT Splitting Boron deficiency, Excessive nitrogen,
Change in soil moisture
Cavity spot Calcium deficiency, excessive Nitrogen,
change in soil moisture
 Bitterness Excessive ethylene
Forking Hard soil pan
Pithiness -
5 BEET ROOT Brown Heart or Boron deficiency
RADDISH crown heart or heart
rot
6 WATERMELON Blossom end rot High temperature + irregular water supply +
calcium deficiency
7 COLOCASIA Metsurbe Calcium deficiency
8 SWEET Growth crack Moisture imbalance
POTATO
9 CELERY Black heart Calcium deficiency
Cracked stem Boron deficiency
Pencil strip Excess of phosphorus
10 FRENCH BEAN Blossom drop High temperature
Hypocotyl cracking Calcium deficiency
(necrosis)
11 GARLIC Bulb sprouting Excess nitrogen + soil moisture
Splitting Delays harvesting
12 LETTUCE Tip burn Ca deficiency + Unfavorable climate
Rossette spotting Ethylene injury
13 CHILLI Blossom end rot Excess Nitrogen + water stress
Frog eye rot -
14 RADDISH Akashin Boron deficiency
15 CUCUMBER Pillow Calcium deficiency

Varieties and special characters of Vegetables:

Cabbage Indole-3-carbinol Pusa Mukta Black rot resistant

Fruit type: Siliqua Pusa drumhead Black leg resistant
 Flavour: Sinigrin Pride of India Early & round
Copenhagen market,
September
Pusa ageti, Pusa Synthetic variety
sambandh
Golden Acre Earliest
Cauliflower Blanching: Pusa Early Early variety
Covering the curds Synthetic, Early
with leaf to prevent Kunwari, Pusa
yellowing of curds Deepali, Pusa
Katki, Pusa Kartiki,
Pant Shubra

Scooping: It is Pusa Sharad, Pusa Mid variety

removal of central Shubra
portion of curd for
initiation of flower
stalk
Inflorescence: Pusa Shubra, Pusa Resistant to black rot
Racemose Snowball K-1
Improved Japanese Israel
Pusa betakesari Orange cauliflower,
India’s 1st biofortified
variety
Pusa Snowball-1&2, Late variety
Pusa Himjyoti, Pusa
Snowball-16, Ooty-1
Pusa Deepali, Pusa Self-blanched variety
snowball
Knol Khol Pinking: Due to Sutton earliest purple, Golith White, King of Market,
exposure of curd to E. white vienna, E. purple vienna
high light
Broccoli Palam Samridhi,
Pusa KTS- 1
Brussels Jade cross, Hilds
Sprout ideal, Rubina
Carrot Orange: Alfa & Pusa Meghali Highest Vit A
Beta carotene,
Purple:
Anthocyanin,
Yellow:
Xanthophyll, Red:
Lycopene
Taste: Glutamic Pusa Kesar, Pusa Yamdagni, Pusa Vrishti, Pusa
Acid Nayanjyoti
Fruit: Schizocarp Chantenay Introduction: France
Annual: Root Nantes half long,
production Ooty-1
Feeder of Potash
Kanji: Black Biennial:
carrot Flowering and Fruit
beverage set
Radish Aroma: Pusa Rashmi, Pusa Pusa Jamuni, Pusa Gulabi,
Isothiocyanate Chetki Pusa Desi
Round cherry berry Red variety
Stackling: Roots of Pusa Himani Multi season variety
radish for seed
production
 Pink, Red: White Icicle, Arka Nishant, Scarlet Globe, Pusa
Anthocyanin Mridula, Pusa safed
Purple: Cyanidin
Red colour:
Pelargonidin
Tomato Self-pollinated Arka Vikas, Arka Abhijit, Arka Meghali, Arka
(Poor man’s plant Saurabh, Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat
orange) Fruit: Berry
Yellow: Flavr Savr Transgenic variety
Carotenoids
Firmness: Pusa Ruby (Sioux X Improved meeruti), Pusa
Durometer Sheetal, Pusa Sadabahar
Day neutral plant, Hisar Anmol Resistance to Tomato leaf
Citric acid curl virus
Climacteric, Selection-120 1st root knot nematode
Nursery area: resistant variety
250m2 for 1 hectare
Maturity indices: Hisar Lalit Root knot nematode
Mature green, resistant
Breaker stage or Punjab Chuhara, Punjab Upma, Punjab Ratta, Pusa
turning pink, Pink Rakshit
stage, Light red,
Red ripe
Brinjal, Heterostyly Pusa Purple Long Early maturing variety
Eggplant,
Aubergine
White Fruit: Berry Pant Samrat, Punjab Bahar, Azad Kranti, Pusa
brinjal: Anmol, Pusa Purple Round, Pusa Bhairav, Pusa
Good for Upkar, Pusa Uttam,
diabetics Arka Shirish, Arka Navneet, Arka Shirish, Arka
Sheel, Arka Anand
 Pusa Kranti, Pant Hybrid varieties
Rituraj, Pusa Bindu
IVBHL 22 Resistant to little leaf
disease.

Chilli Temp.: >35℃ - Pusa Jwala, Bhaskar, Pant C-1, Puri red
Flower drop
Fruit: Berry Arka Harita, Arka Meghna, Arka Khyati
Arka Suphal Resistant to powdery
mildew
Jwalamukhi Suitable for HDP
Punjab Surkha Multiple disease resistant
variety
Pusa Sadabahar, Suitable for colour
Punjab Lal extraction, Resistant to
TMV, CMV and leaf curl
virus
Okra Isolation distance: Arka Anamika, Arka Resistant to yellow vein
Foundation seed: Abhay, Hissar mosaic virus, Transmitted
400m, Certified Unnat, Kashi by Whitefly
seed: 200m Sahishnu (VRO
111), VRO 119
Fruit type: Varsha Uphar,
Capsule
Pusa Sawani, Day neutral & Spineless
Pusa Makhmali, Azad Kranti
Pea Arkel, Arka Ajit
Inflorescence: Jawahar Matar 1, Susceptible to powdery
Racemose Jawahar Matar 2, mildew
Jawahar Matar 3
 Toughness: Jawahar Matar 5, Resistant to powdery
Tendrometer FC-1, JP-4 mildew
Pant Uphar, Arka Chaitra, Arka Uttam, Arka
Sampoorna, Arka Priya
Sweet Potato Fruit: Capsule Bhu Krishna, Sree Kanaka, Bhu Krishna, Bhu Kanti
Cucumber Day-neutral Pusa Sanyog, Gynoecious variety
Sex form: Himangi, Sheetal, Pusa Uday, Pusa Barkha, Kashi
Monoecious, sex Nutan
ratio: 15:1
Poinsette Introduction: USA
Japanese Long Introduction: Japan
Green
Muskmelon TSS: 12-15%, Pusa Madhuras, Pusa Sharbati, Pusa Rasraj, Hara
Climacteric madhu
Harvest: Full slip: Arka Jeet, Arka Rajhans, Punjab Sunheri, Thar
local market, Half- Mahima
slip: Long distance
market
Orange: Durgapura Madhu
Carotenoid
Punjab Rasila Resistant to powdery
mildew, tolerant to downy
mildew
Watermelon Edible portion: Sugar Baby Introduction: USA, TSS:
Placenta 11-13%
Shipper USA
Seedless: Asahi Yamato Introduction: Japan
Triploids
Pusa Bedana (Tetra Triploid and seedless
2 X Pusa Rasal) hybrid
 TSS: 8-13% Durgapura Meetha, Durgapura Lal, Arka Akash,
Swarna, Shonima
Arka Manik: Resistant to Powdery mildew, Downy
mildew, Tolerant to Anthracnose and Blossom end
rot
Durgapura Kesar Yellow flesh variety
Bottle gourd High temp: Male Pusa meghdoot, Pusa manjari, Pusa naveen
flowers
Pusa Sandesh, Arka Bahar,
Punjab Long, Punjab Komal
Bitter Gourd Above 40°C: Pusa Aushadhi, Pusa Purvi, Pusa Vishesh, Pusa
Female sterility Rasdar
Memordicin Arka Harit, Arka Anupama
Potato Flowering: LDP Early variety: K. Chandramukhi, K. Ashoka, K.
Pukhraj, K. Alankar, K. Surya
Tuber: SDP Mid-Season variety: K. Chamatkar, K. Sheetman,
K. Jyoti, K. Jawahar, K. Lalima, K. Giriraj
True potato seed: Late variety: K. Deva, K. Badshah, K. Sinduri, K.
Ramanujan Swarna
Seed Plot Processing: K. Chipsona-1,3, Kufri Frysona
technique:
Pushkarnath
Bhu Sona (CTCRI, Thiruvananthapuram)
Onion Cross pollinate: Hybrid: Arka Peetamber, Arka Lalima, Arka
Protandry Kirthiman
Catchecol: Anti- Rabi Varieties: Punjab Naroya, Agrifound Light
Fungal Red, Punjab White, Arka Peetamber, Arka Lalima
Inflorescence: Kharif Varieties: Agrifound Dark Red, Arka
Cyme Kalyan, N-53
 Bulb: Long day Arka Pragati Both season (Rabi &
plant Kharif)
Bolting Phule Swarna Yellow Onion
Pusa white round Dehydration
Arka Bheem, Baswant 780
Garlic Allicin: Anti- Agri Found White, Agri Found Parvati, Pant Lohit,
bacterial substance Yamuna Safed, PG 17
Elephant garlic: Allium ampeloprasum
French bean Arka Sharath, Suvidha, Komal, Anoop
Cowpea Arka Garima
Ridge Gourd Arka Sujat, Arka Sumeet
Potato, Micro-Rhizome for
Ginger, propagation
Turmeric

VEGETABLE CROPS:

• Most common vegetables grown under green-house → Cucurbits

• Among vegetable crops 1st hybrid → Brinjal (1924)
• Limiting amino acid in green vegetables → Methionine
• Floating garden: Mainly found in J&K (Dal lake), Base is made up of Typha grass,
Shallow rooted vegetables are grown
• Vegetable forcing: The growing of vegetables out of their season is called as vegetable
forcing.
• Vegetables grown in riverbeds are called as Diara cultivation. E.g: Cucurbits
Cruciferous vegetable crops:

Cole crops Scientific name Economic part

1. Cabbage B. oleracea var. capitata Modification of terminal bud
2. Brussels sprouts B. oleracea var. gemmifera Enlargement of axillary bud
3. Cauliflower B. oleracea var. botrytis Modification of inflorescence
 4. Broccoli B. oleracea var. italica Modification of inflorescence
5. Knol-khol Brassica oleracea var. Swollen stem
gongylodes
6. Kale Brassica oleracea var. Modification of leafy organs
acephala

Crops Chilling temperature Weeds

Cabbage 4-10o C 6-8
Brussels sprout 4-10o C 4-6
Knol-khol 7-10o C 5-7

❖ Cole crops are calcicole (grown in chalk soils)

❖ Cole crops are highly heterozygous and heterogeneous in nature
❖ Cole crops are highly cross-pollinated crop due to protogyny and self-incompatibility
❖ Main pollinating agents: Honeybees and flies
❖ Among the cole crops, highly cross-pollinated crop: Broccoli- 95% followed by knol-Khol-
91%, Cabbage-73%, Brussels sprout – 72%
❖ Special kind of pod or type of fruit in cole crops: Siliqua
❖ Other interspecific hybrids derived from Brassicaceae
➢ Nabicol: kale x Turnip
➢ Caulicob: Cabbage x Cauliflower
➢ Swede: Turnip x Cabbage: Cruciferous root vegetable
➢ Raphanobrassica: Radish x Cabbage
➢ Strongest SI in cole crops: Kale
➢ Weakest SI in cole crops: Winter type of cauliflower in Europe (Indian Cauliflower-Early
types)
1. CABBAGE:
❖ B.N. Brassica oleracea var. capitata
❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region
❖ Cabbage is hardier than cauliflower and can withstand frost and extreme cold weather
❖ Cabbage is shallow rooted crop
❖ Edible part of cabbage: Head
❖ The term head is used for cabbage and lettuce
❖ Chinese cabbage and kale are resistant to downy mildew
❖ Flavour in cabbage leaves is due to the glucoside ''Sinigrin"
❖ Cabbage juice remedy for poisonous mushroom
❖ Sauerkraut is fermented product of shredded cabbage
❖ Cabbage has anti-cancer property, due to the presence of Indole-3- Carbinol
❖ Important species:
Common name Botanical name
White cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. alba
Red cabbage Brassica oleracea var. Capitata f. sabauda
Wild cabbage/Colewort/Progenitor of B. oleracea var. sylvestris
cabbage

❖ White cabbage and round type of cabbage is grown commercially in India

❖ Seed rate:
➢ Early varieties: 500 g/ha
➢ Late varieties: 375 g/ha
❖ Cabbage is highly cross-pollinated crop
❖ Flowers of cabbage: Protogynous
❖ Optimum range for growth and head formation in cabbage: 15-20o C
❖ Optimum temperature seed germination of cabbage: 12-16o C
❖ Cabbage seed yield: 500-650 kg/ha
❖ Cabbage yellows is caused by fusarium oxysporum f. conglutinans
❖ Black leg/dry rot of cabbage is caused by fungus phoma lingum
❖ Black leg disease more commonly occurs in saline soil
❖ Varieties of cabbage:
Varieties Breeding methods Special features
Golden Acre Selection from EC-6774 -
(Japan)
 Drumhead Savoy Flat head type Resistant to black leg, largest
head variety
Pusa Mukta (Sel. 8) Selection from EC-24855 x EC- Resistant to black rot
10109
Pusa Ageti - 1st tropical variety in India
Pusa Sambandh Synthetic variety (Pusa Suitable for HDP, wider
Synthetic) adaptability, early maturing
September Introduction from Germany Popular in Nilgiri hills
Pride of India - -
Copenhagen - -
KGMR-1 (F1 hybrid) 83-1-621 x GA-111 Better staying capacity in the
field

CAULIFLOWER:

❖ B.N.: Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis

❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region (Cyperus)
❖ The name cauliflower has originated from latin word Caulis (cabbage) and Floris (Flower)
❖ Cauliflower curd is a preflower fleshy apical meristem
❖ Thermosensitive crop
❖ Edible part of cauliflower is known as ''curds''
❖ India is the largest producer of cauliflower in the world
❖ Orange cauliflower: Rich in β-carotene ('Or' gene)
❖ Type of inflorescence: Racemose
❖ Late type- Snowball (self-blanching growth habit)
❖ Seed rate:
➢ Early crop: 500-600 g/ha
➢ Mid and late crops: 350-400 g/ha
❖ Optimum temperature for curd initiation is 17-20o C
❖ At high temperature above 25o C in most of the cultivars, the curds are small, loose and creamish
or yellow in colour
❖ Common herbicide used in cabbage: Basalin (3.3 lit/ha)
❖ Blanching is common practice in cauliflower for protect curd from yellow colour after their
direct exposure to sun and to arrest enzymatic activity
❖ Scooping is special operation done in cauliflower for initiation of flower stalk e.g., Darjeeling
hills in West Bengal
❖ Scooping means removal of central portion of curd for easy initiation of flower stalk
❖ Storage temperature: 0o C and 90-95% RH for 2-4 weeks
❖ Black rot and black leg: to control seed treatment done with hot water at 50o C for 25-30
minutes:
❖ Varieties of cauliflower:
EARLY MID-EARLY MID-LATE LATE
Curd initiation and development temperature:
Early I: 20-27o Early II: 20-25o 16 -20o C 12-16o C 10-16o C
C C
Pusa kartiki Pusa Deepali Pusa Hybrid-2 Pusa Betakesari Pusa Snowball-
1
Pusa Karthik Pusa Katki Pusa Sharad Pusa Himjyoti Pusa Snowball-
Sankar 1
Pusa Megha Improved Pusa shubhra Pusa snowball-
Japanese K1
Pusa early Pant Gobhi-4 Pusa Paushija Pusa snowball-
synthetic 16
Arka Kanti Pant shubra Pusa shukti Ooty-1
Kashi kunwari Pant Shubhra
Pusa synthetic
Hisar-1

❖ Pusa Beta kesari: orange colourd (β-carotene) cauliflower variety (mid-late group)
❖ Self-blanched variety of cauliflower: Pusa Deepali
❖ Self-balanched and offseason variety: Pusa Himjyoti and Hisar-1
❖ Tolerant to curd and inflorescence blight: Pusa Synthetic
❖ Highly resistant to black rot and free from riceyness: Pusa Katki
❖ Resistant to black rot: Pusa Snowball K-1
❖ Tropical cauliflower variety from IIHR: Arka Kanti
❖ Synthetic variety: Pant Gobhi-3

KNOL-KHOL

❖ Kohlrabi: Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes

❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region
❖ Cool season crop
❖ Kholrabi is the german name for cabbage-turnip
❖ Edible par of knol-khol is swollen stem called ''tuber'' or ''Knob''
❖ Stem tuber or knobs are developed above the ground level
❖ Knol-khol is originated from wild cabbage (B. oleracea var. sylvestris)
❖ Purple/Early varieties are more susceptible to premature bolting
❖ Best time of planting: October
❖ Type of inflorescence: Racemose
❖ Seed rate: 800-100 g/ha
❖ Early varieties of knol-khol are more prone to premature bolting
❖ Important varieties: White Vienna, Purple Vienna, Early white Vienna, King of North, large
Green

SPROUTING BROCCOLI

❖ B.N.: Brassica oleracea var. Italica

❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Chromosome no. 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region
❖ Broccoli is a cool season crop
❖ Sprouting broccoli is a rich source of 'sulphoraphane' (Anticancer property)
❖ Type of inflorescence: Cymose
❖ Seed rate: 400-500 g/ha
❖ Sprouting Broccoli for optimum temperature of 12-18o C is suitable for proper head
development
❖ Temperature for Brussels sprout and Sprouting Broccoli seed germination is 12-16o C
❖ Varieties of broccoli:
New Varieties Head colour Other features
Palam Kanchan Yellowish green (Heading -
Broccoli)
Palam Vichitra Purple (Heading Broccoli) -
Palam Haritika Green (Sprouting broccoli) -
Palam Samridhi Green (Sprouting Broccoli) Early maturing variety
Pusa KTS-1 Sprouting Broccoli
Italian Green - -
Green Head - -
Punjab Broccoli - -

❖ Important features of Varieties:

➢ Palam Samridhi, Purple Sicilian broccoli is also known as purple cauliflower, De Cicco is
main winter broccoli

BRUSSELS SPROUTS:

❖ B.N.: Brassica oleracea var. Gemmifera

❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region
❖ Edible part: Swollen axillary bud (sprouts or buttons or mini cabbage)
❖ Excess application of potash imparts bitter taste to sprouts
❖ Storage temperature: 0-1o C and 90-95% for 3-5 weeks
❖ Kale: Lutein rich vegetable: 9.8 – 13.4 mg/100 g of fresh weight
 Cucurbits:

➢ These are annuals and propagated by seed except Pointed gourd, Ivy gourd and Chow
Chow which are perennials and vegetatively propagated
➢ These have long taproot system
➢ Highly cross pollinated by insects
➢ Plants have unisexual flowers
➢ Sex forms:
o Monoecious: Cucumber, some gynoecious lines for hybrid seed production
o Andromonoecious: Muskmelon and Watermelon
o Gynomonoecious: Cucumber
o Dioecious: Pointed gourd, Ivy gourd
➢ Maleness induced due to high nitrogen in soil, long days and high temperature
➢ Femaleness induced by high ethylene in cucumber, muskmelon, squash and pumpkin.
Maleic hydrazide (50-100 ppm), GA3 (5-10 ppm), Ethrel (150-200 ppm), TIBA (25-50
ppm) induces female flowers
➢ Giberellins and Silver nitrate induces maleness
➢ Application of PGRs at 2-4 leaf stage alters sex form in cucurbits.
Watermelon:

❖ Food for 22nd century/common man fruit:

❖ Botanical name: Citrullus lanatus
❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x =22
❖ Origin: Tropical Africa
❖ Edible portion: Endocarp (Placenta)
❖ Highly cross-pollinated crop due to monoecious
❖ Seed rate: 3-5 kg/ha
❖ Tri-X-313 popular triploid lines widely utilized
❖ Blossom end rot of watermelon is due to high temperature, irregular moisture supply and
calcium deficiency.
❖ White heart is the physiological disorder commonly found in Indian varieties.
❖ The fruit stored for 2 to 3 weeks at 10 to 15o C and 90% humidity after harvest
❖ Watermelon skin colour and flesh colour is governed by polygenes
❖ Varieties of Watermelon:
Varieties Breeding method Features
Asahi Yomato Introduced from japan -
 Sugar Baby Introduced from USA -
New Hampshire Midget Introduced form USA Suitable variety for home
garden
Improved Shipper Introduced from USA -
PKM-1 Selection from local type -
RAU, Rajasthan:
Durgapura Meetha Selection from local cultivar -
Durgapur Kesar Selection from local type Yellow fleshed variety
Durgapura Lal Sugar Baby X K-3 566 Unlobed leaf marker
IIHR Varieties:
Arka Muthu - -
Arka Akash - -
Arka Manik IIHR-21 X Crimson sweet Resistance to anthracnose and
powdery mildew
F1 Hybrid:
Arka Jyoti IIHR-20 X Crimson sweet -
Arka Madhura Triploid seedless Suitable for year-round
production under protected
condition
Arka Aishwarya - -
Arka Akash
Pusa Bedana (2n = 33) Tetra-2 (4x) X Pusa Rasal (2x) Triploid (3x) seedless
watermelon

❖ Tetra-2 is a very attractive and stable tetraploid variety:

❖ Resistant to anthracnose variety: Congo
❖ Resistant to Fusarium wilt: Conqueror
❖ Resistant to Fusarium wilt and anthracnose: Fairfax
❖ Major pest and disease:
➢ Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV): Transmitted by seed and mechanical
 Muskmelon:

❖ Wholesome food/kharbooz
❖ B.N.: Cucumis melo:
❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x =24
❖ Origin: Tropical Africa (Sahara Desert)
❖ Muskmelon mixed crop with sugarcane in Uttar pradesh
❖ Muskmelon seed does not germinate at temperature lower than 18o C
❖ Muskmelon is slightly more tolerant to soil acidity
❖ Predominant sex form in muskmelon: Andromonoecious
❖ High quality melons should have TSS: 12-15% or more
❖ Seed rate: 5-6 kg/ha
❖ Melon is a diploid species
❖ The yellow and orange-fleshed melons contain more than 350 mg of β-carotene, a precursor of
Vitamin A
❖ Harvested at full slip stage
❖ Long distance – Half-slip stage
❖ Full slip stage of muskmelon contains maximum sugar
❖ Climacteric fruit
❖ Varieties of muskmelon:
Varieties/Hybrid Breeding methods Remark
IIHR varieties
Arka jeet - High TSS variety
Arka Rajhans - Tolerant to powdery mildew
IARI varieties
Pusa Madhuras - -
Pusa Sharbati Kutana x PMR-6 (USA) -
Pusa Sarda - First variety of sarda melon,
suitable for net-house under
north Indian plains
IIVR Varieties:
 Kashi Madhu - Long storage capacity
Punjab Raseela Moderately resistant to
downy mildew
Pujab Sunehri -
Hisar Madhur - -
Hisar Saras - -
Hara Madhu - Don't slip stage at maturity
Durgapura Madhu - -
MHY-d Durgapura Madhu x Hara -
Madhu
Jobner 96-2 - -
F1 Hybrid:
Pusa Rasraj M-3 x Durgapura Madhu Utilization of monoecious
line
Punjab Hybrid MS-1 x Hara Madhu 1st F1 hybrid

❖ Specific features of important variety:

➢ Nonslip stage variety: Hara Madhu
➢ New long melon variety: Pusa Utkarsh
➢ Resistant to Fusarium wilt: Golden Gopher, Iriquosis Minnesota Midget, harvest Queen,
Delicious 51
➢ Exotic varieties: PMR-45, Jacumba and Campo

Round melon:

❖ Round melon: Citrullus vulgaris var. fistulosus

❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 24
❖ Origin: India
❖ Economic part: Immature fruits
❖ Optimum temperature for germination of round melon seed is 27o C
❖ MH is the most effective PGR which enhances femaleness in tinda.
❖ Variety: Arka Tinda, Pusa Raunak (New variety)
 Bittergourd:

❖ Balsam pear/Bitter Melon

❖ B.N.: Momordica charantia:
❖ Chormosome no.: 2n = 2x = 22
❖ Cheratin- cucurbitacin like alkaloids: Antidiabetic property present in fruits
❖ Small-fruited types: Momordica charantia var. muricata
❖ Dioecous tuberous species, perenial in nature.
❖ Bittergourd in incompatible with M. dioica and M. balsamina
❖ Optimum temperature for bittergourd cultivation is 24-27o C
❖ Seed rate: 4.5-6 kg/ha
❖ Gynoecious in bittergourd is controlled by single recessive gene (Gyl)
❖ Bittergourd gynoecious lines: DBGy-201 and DBGy-202
❖ In South India, bitter gourd is trained on bower system
❖ Varieties of Bittergourd:
Varieties Remarks
Pusa Aushadhi New variety
Pusa Purve Small Bittergourd variety
Pusa Rasdar Suitable for protected structure
Pusa Do Mausami Suitable for spring summer and rainy
seasons
Pusa vishesh Suitable for pickling and dehydration
Arka Harit -
Arka Anupama -
Pant Karela Highly resistant to red pumpkin beetle
Priyanka White colour variety
Preethi White colour variety
Konkan Tara Long shelf life and export variety
VK-1 (Priya) -
Kashi Urvasi IC-85650B x IC-44435A
Phule Green Gold Tolerant to downy mildew
 MDU-1 Mutant variety
CMB-12 Anti-diabetic variety

❖ F1 Hybrid:
Pusa hybrid-1 Pusa do mausami x Pusa Suitable for growing in
Vishesh spring- summer season

Pusa hybrid-2 S-63 x Pusa Do Mausami -

COBgoH 1

BOTTLEGOURD:
❖ Bottlegourd/ white flowered Gourd
❖ B.N.: Lagnenaria siceraria
❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x = 22
❖ Origin: Africa and India
❖ Shallow rooted crop
❖ Prefers a hot and humid climate for the best growth
❖ Short day and humid climate produce female flowers
❖ Bower system of training practiced in Maharashtra
❖ Optimum temperature for seed germination: 25-30o C
❖ Cross pollinated crop
❖ Female: male ratio: 2 : 1 or 3 : 1
❖ Seed rate: 6-8 kg/ha
❖ Varieties of bottlegourd:
Varieties Breeding methods Special features
IARI Variety:
 Pusa Summer Prolific - Suitable for both summer and
Long (PSPL) kharif seasons
Pusa Summer prolific - Suitable for both summer and
Round (PSPR) kharif seasons
Pusa Sandesh - -
Pusa Samridhi Non-crook neck variety -
Pusa Santushti Pear shaped fruits Suitable for throughout the
year, Hot and cold set variety
Pusa Naveen Non-crook neck variety Suitable for packing for long
distance transportation
Arka Bahar Non-crook neck variety Variety suitable for export
Samart - -
Pant sankar Lauki 1 - -
IIVR Varieties:
Kashi Bahar - Long fruited hybrid
Kashi Ganga IC-92465 x DVBG-151 Early variety
F1 Hybrid
Pusa Meghdoot PSPL x Sel. 2 Suitable for summer and
rainy seasons
Pusa Manjari PSPR x Sel. 11 Suitable for summer and
rainy seasons
Pusa Hybrid -3 Pusa Naveen x sel P-8 Suitable for easy packing
and long-distance
transportation

SNAKE GOURD:
❖ Cucumber of the southern barbarians:
❖ B.N.: Trichosanthes cucumerina
❖ Chromosome No: 2n = 2x = 24
❖ Origin: India
❖ Commonly followed training system: Bower or arbour system
❖ Varieties: Konkan Sweta- Suitable for cultivation in both kharif and hot weather seasons, CO-
1, CO-2 (Short fruited variety), PKM-1 (Long fruited variety)
POINTED GOURD:
❖ King of gourds/Parwal
❖ B.N. Trichosanthes dioica:
❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x = 24
❖ Origin: India
❖ Dioecious, perennial climbing or trailing habit
❖ Parwal is good crop for riverbed cultivation
❖ Salicylic acid enhanced postharvest life of fruits
❖ IIVR Variety: Kashi Alankar
❖ Commercial propagation by stem cuttings
❖ Cuttings requirement: 2000-2500 cuttings/ha
ASH Gourd:
❖ Wax gourd/Hairy melon/Winter Melon/, Ash Pumpkin/White Pumpkin/Chinese Preserving
melon/Wax Gourd/White Gourd/Petha
❖ B.N.: Benincasa hispida
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x =24
❖ Origin: Japan and Java
❖ Monoecious annual climber
❖ Agra Petha is a famous sweet prepared from ash gorud
❖ Optimum temperature requirement for cultivation is 24-30o C
❖ Seed rate: 5-7 kg/ha
❖ Varieties:
➢ Pusa Ujjwal: Ideal variety for petha preparation
➢ New varieties: Pusa Urmi, Pusa Shreyali, Pusa Sabzipetha
➢ Mudliar is a variety of ashgourd
❖ IIVR varieties:
➢ Kashi Dhawal: suitable for petha
➢ Kashi Ujwal: suitable for candy/petha
➢ Kashi Surbhi: Distant hybrid
SPONGE GOURD:

❖ Sponge gourd (Luffa acutangula)

❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x = 26 and ridge gourd (Lufa cylindrica) 2n = 2x = 26
❖ Origin: India
❖ Gelatinous compound present in Luffa is called as "Luffein"
❖ Rainy season vegetable
❖ Seed rate: 4-5 kg/ha
❖ Varieties of ridge gourd and sponge gourd:
Ridge gourd Sponge gourd
Pusa Nutan Pusa Chikni
Pusa Nasdar Pusa Supriya
Arka Sumeet Pusa Sneha
Arka Sujath GFE SMG-108
PKM-1-Induced mutant Phule Prajakta
CO-1 and CO-2 Kashi Divya
Punjab Sadabahar
Satputia-Hermaphrodite variety
Konkan Harita

PUMPKIN AND SQUASHES:

❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x = 40
❖ Origin: Tropical America
❖ Genomic structure of pumpkin cucurbita moshchata is AABB: Amphidiploid
❖ Commonly grown species in India: Cucurbita moschata
❖ Popular summer squash group: Zucchini
❖ Pumpkin is highly cross pollinated-entomophily due to monoecious nature
❖ Optimum temperature for pumpkin cultivation is 18-24o C

Cucurbita groups Specific features

Pumpkin
Arka chandan Highest β-carotene variety (3331 IU/100g)
 Pusa Vikas Rich source of beta carotene
Pusa vishwas, CM-14, Pusa Hybrid-1
Summer squash:
Patty pan, Australian Green, Early Introduced from USA
Yellow prolific
Punjab Chappan Kaddu-1, Kashi
harit
Pusa Pasand Round fruited type
F1 Hybrid: Pusa Alankar: EC-27050 x
Selection IPI-8
Winter squash
Arka Suryamukhi Resistant to fruit fly
Transgenic Variety: Freedom: Resistant to Zucchini virus

Diseases of Cucurbits

Powdery Mildew Erisyphe cichoracearum

Downy Mildew Pseudopernospora cubensis

Witches Broom Mycoplasma Transmitted by Leaf hoppers

(Bitter gourd)

Green Mottle Mosaic Virus Transmitted by seeds and Aphids

(Cucumber)

Bud Necrosis Virus Transmitted by seeds and Aphids

(Watermelon)
 Bulb Crops:

Onion:

❖ B.N.:Allium cepa
❖ Alliaeae
❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 16
❖ Origin: Central Asia
❖ Onion belongs to monocotyledon family
❖ Cool season crop
❖ Shallow rooted crop
❖ Edible portion of onion is modified stem is known as bulb
❖ Optimum temperature for onion bulb development 15.5-21o C
❖ Optimum temperature for onion seed germination : 20-25oC
❖ Pungency in onion is due to allyl propyl disulfide
❖ Yellow colour of the outer skin of onion bulb is due to quercetin
❖ Anti-fungal factor in onion is phenolics compound known as catechol
❖ Tear inducing action of onion: Lachrymator factor: 1-propenyl sulfonic acid
❖ Onion contains an enzyme is called Allinase
❖ Leading state in onion area and production: Maharashtra
❖ Leading onion producing states: Maharashtra > MP > Karnataka
❖ Leading onion producing countries in world: China> India (22.6%) > USA
❖ Lasalgaon in Maharashtra is the biggest onion market in India
❖ Highest productivity of onion in India: Gujarat (25.40 t/ha)
❖ National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic (NRCOG) is located at Nasik, Maharashtra
❖ National Horticulture Research Development Foundation (NHRDF), Nasik, Maharashtra
❖ Highly cross pollinated due to protandry
❖ Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility was 1st found in onion
❖ Common onion is commercially propagated by Seed
❖ Seed rate:
➢ Rabi : 10-12 kg/ha
➢ Kharif: 12-15 kg/ha
❖ Required bulbs: 1000-1200 kg/ha
❖ Optimum temperature for floral initiation: 10-12o C
❖ Flower induction: GA3 @ 300 ppm
❖ Yield and harvesting season:
➢ Rabi: 25-30 t/ha (Apil to May)
➢ Kharif: 15-20 t/ha (January to February)
❖ Kharif crops do not store well
❖ Reduction of sprouting: Gamma rays@60 Gy
❖ Onion bulbs stored at 0-4.5o C
❖ Best bulb storage temperature: 0o C at 60-75% RH
❖ Average seed yield: 800-850 kg/ha
❖ Varieties of onion:
Varieties Breeding method Special features
Palam Lohit New onion variety
IARI, New Delhi
Pusa Riddhi - High Antioxidant variety
Pusa Soumya - 1st bunching onion variety
Pusa white flat - -
Pusa white round - -
Pusa madhvi Selfing and massing
Pusa Ratnar - -
Pusa red - -
IIHR, Bengaluru
Arka Vishwas - Suitable for growing in Rabi
season and suitable for
export
Arka Swadista White colour onion Suitable for bottle
preservation
 Arka sona - Suitable for growing in Rabi
season and suitable for
export
Arka Pitambhar Suitable for kharif and Rabi
seasons Tolerance to purple
blotch, basal rot diseases and
thrips
Arka Lalima (F1) Male sterile line (CMS) Tolerance to purple blotch,
basal rot & thrips
Arka Kirthiman (F1) Male sterile line (CMS)
Arka Kalyan (Sel-14) - Moderately resistant to
purple blotch & suitable for
kharif season
Arka Bheem (Syn-6) - Tri-Parental Synthetic
Variety
Arka Akshay (Syn-4) - Tri-Parental synthetic variety
DOG, Rajagurunagar, Maharashtra
Bhima Raj Dark red -
Bhima Dark Red - -
Bhima Kiran - -
Bhima Shakti - -
Bhima Shwata White colour -
Bhima Shubra White colour -
Bhima, Safed White colour -
MPKV, Rahuri, Maharashtra
Phule safed White onion -
Phule Swarna Yellow onion -
Phule Samarath - -
Aggregatum Onion CO-(on)-5 Propagation by seeds

❖ Important variety with specific purpose:

 ➢ Multiplier onion varieties: CO-1, 2, 3, 4, CO-(on)-5, MDU-1, Agrifound Red, Arka Ujjwal
➢ Recommended variety of yellow onion variety: Mercedes, Cougar, Linda Vista
➢ Most suitable variety for dehydration: Punjab-48 (TSS: 14.6%)
➢ Long day variety: Brown Spanish
➢ Resistant to thrips: Brown Spanish
➢ Resistant to thrips: N-53 and Pusa Ratnar
➢ Suitable for both kharif and rabi season: Arka Niketan
➢ Suitable for Kharif season: N-53, Arka kalyan, Agrifound Dark Red, Baswant-180 and N-2-
4-1
➢ Recommended variety for green onion: Pusa soumya, Early Grano
➢ Resistant to purple blotch: Italian Red and Local Brazilian
➢ Suitable for export, particularly to Malaysia and Singapore: Arka Bindu and Arifound Rose

GARLIC:

❖ B.N.: Allium sativum

❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 2x = 16
❖ Family: Alliaceae
❖ Origin: Central Asia
❖ Highest area and production in India: Madhya Pradesh
❖ Garlic produced only in one season i.e., winter season (Rabi)
❖ Commercial propagation: Cloves
❖ Required cloves: 300-500 kg/ha
❖ Allicin is the antibacterial substances of garlic and has the typical odour of fresh garlic
❖ True Garlic flavor is due to diallyl disulfide
❖ Varieties:
➢ NHRDF, Nasik:
✓ Agrifound white (G-41)
✓ Agrifound Parvati-1 (G-313)
✓ Agrifound Parvati-2 (G-408)
✓ Yamuna Safed-1 (G-1)
✓ Yamna safed-2 (G-50)
 ✓ Yamuna Safed-3 (G-282)
✓ Yamuna Safed-4(G-323)
✓ Yamuna Safed-5 (G-189)
✓ Bhima purple
✓ Ooty-1
➢ DOG, Rajagurunagar, Maharashtra
✓ Bhima Omkar
✓ Bhima Purple
➢ Other varieties:
✓ Pant Lohit
✓ Ooty-1
✓ HG-17
❖ Specific features of important variety:
➢ Among most of cultivars available, Jamnagar Local cultivar of garlic having largest bulb size.
➢ Exotic variety: Creole, Italian and Tahiti
➢ Tolerant to purple blotch disease, long day variety, suitable for cultivation in hills for northern
states: Agri found Parvati (G-313)
➢ Long day variety of garlic: Agri found Parvati (Hard neck type)- Suitable for North Indians
❖ Short day varieties: Godavari, Shweta, G-1 (Yamuna Safed), Bhima Omkar and Bhima purple.
❖ Bulb sprouting is due to excessive N2 and soil moisture.
❖ Bulb splitting is due to delaying of harvest.

CARROT:

❖ Poor man's gingeng/Carrot

❖ B.N.: Dacus carota
❖ Family: Apiaceae (Ubelliferae)
❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Southwest Asia (Afghanistan)
❖ Isocoumarin is responsible for bitter flavour in carrot
❖ Edible portion is enlarged fleshy taproot
❖ The taste of carrot is mainly due to presence of glutamic acid
❖ Kanji- an appetizing drink is prepared from Asiatic black carrot root
❖ Optimum temperature for carrot root formation: 18-22o C
❖ Optimum temperature for carrot seed germination: 7.2-23.9o C
❖ Optimum temperature for European carrot bolting: 5-8o C for 40-60 days
❖ Best temperature for orange root colour development of carrot is 15.6-21.1o C
❖ Carrot pigmentation:
➢ Red colour of Carrot: Lycopene
➢ Orange colour of carrot: β-carotene
➢ Purple colour of carrot: Anthocyanin
➢ Yellow colour of carrot: Xanthophyll (Lutein)
❖ Carrot is an annual herb for root production and biennial for flowering and fruit set
❖ Type of fruit; Schizocarp
❖ Type of inflorescence: Compound umbel
❖ Carrot flower is protandrous in nature
❖ Carrot is highly cross-pollinated crop due to Andromonoecy, Protandry and male sterility
❖ Seed rate: 5-6 kg/ha
❖ Sowing time:
➢ Asiatic type: August to january in North Indian plains
➢ European type: September to March
❖ Chantenay: excellent variety for canning and storage
❖ Carrot is gross feeder of Potash (K)
❖ Seed yield: 500-600 kg/ha
❖ Different between Asiatic and European carrot:
Asiatic carrot/Desi/Red colour carrot European carrot/orange colour carrot
Sym. Tropical carrot, Eastern carrots, (Syn. Western carrot, Temperate carrot and
Anthocyanin carrot) Carotene Carrot)
Heat tolerant Cold tolerant
Deep red and purple coloured Orange coloured
High yielding and low in carotene Rich in carotene
Produce seed under tropical condition Produce seed only temperate region
More anthocyanin pigments Less anthocyanin
 Annual for root and seed production Biennial for seed production
Core is distinct Core is indistinct, stump and blunt

❖ Varieties of carrot:
Varieties: Special features
1. Tropical Carrots:
Pusa Vasuda 1st tropical carrot hybrid using CMS system (Petaloid types)
Pusa Asita 1st Black colour carrot variety in India
Pusa Vrishti Tolerant to heat and humidity and suitable for kharif sowing
Pusa Rudhira Red-Self colour core variety
Pusa Meghali Highest vitamin-A variety seed production in the plains (orange
colour root)
Pusa Kesar Tolerant to high temperature seed production in the plains
Pusa kulfi Cream/yellow root colour
2. European carrots:
Pusa Nayanjyoti F1 Hybrid 1st Temperature carrot hybrid developed using CMS
Pusa Yamadagni Self-coloured core variety
Imperator Mid season to late maturing cultivar
Chantenay Excellent cultivar for canning and storage
Zeno Introduction from Germany-suitable for Nilgiri hills
Royal Chantenay Well suited variety for home garden
Danvers Suitable for both fresh and processing
Oxheart Heart shaped roots

RADISH:
❖ B.N.: Raphanus sativus
❖ Family: Brassicaceae
❖ Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Mediterranean region
❖ Radish root develops from primary root and hypocotyl
❖ The edible portion of radish root develops from both primary root and the hypocotyl
❖ Radish pungency is due to 4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothiocyanate (MTB-ITC).
❖ Pigmentation in radish:
➢ Pink, red, purple colour is due to anthocyanin pigments.
➢ Purple colour: Cyanidin
➢ Red colour: Pelargonidin (raphanusin)
❖ Type of inflorescence: Terminal Raceme
❖ Fruit: indehiscent pod type i.e., Siliqua
❖ Suitable temperature for radish cultivation 10-15o C
❖ Seed rate:
➢ Tropical typs: 8-10 kg/ha
➢ Temperate types: 10-12 kg/ha
❖ Varieties: Bombay Red, Chinese Rose, Contai
❖ Japanese varieties: Sakurajuma
❖ Seed yield: 600-800 kg/ha
❖ Varieties:
Asiatic varieties European varieties
1. Pusa Desi 1. Pusa Himani (Radish Black + Japanese
White)
2. Pusa Reshmi (Green type x Desi type) 2. Rapid Red white Tipped-Globular/round
form
3. Pusa Chetki 3. Scarlet Globe-Round shape roots
4. Pusa Safed: White -5 x Japanese White 4. Scarlet Long
5. Arka Nishant – Multiple disease 5. Pusa Mridula (Extra early and table
resistance purpose variety)
6. Chinese Pink: Dual season variety 6. White Icicle- Tender variety
(Hills and Plains)
Other Varieties: China Rose, Japanese White, CO-1, Punjab Safed
IIVR Varieties: Kashi Sweta, Kashi Hans
New Varieties: Palam Hriday, Pusa Jamuni, Pusa Gulabi

Tuber vegetable crops:

Potato:

❖ King of vegetables/poor man's friend/Poor man's strength

❖ B.N.: Solanum tuberosum
❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 4x = 48
❖ Origin South America
❖ Solanum tuberosum L., is a auto tetraploid (2n = 4x =48) or segmental allopolyploidy
❖ Potato is a dicot plant
❖ Highest productivity of potato in world: New Zealand
❖ Highest area and the production: Uttar Pradesh
❖ Leading potato producing states: Uttar Pradesh (33%) > West Bengal > Bihar
❖ Highest productivity: Madhya Pradesh (38.8 t/ha)
❖ Leading potato producing countries in world: china > India (11.4%) > Russia
❖ Main planting of potato in Indo-gangetic plains: October-March
❖ Optimum temperature require for tuberization in potato is 20o C
❖ Generally, potato crop is raised in India when maximum day temperature is below 35o C and
night temperature below 20o C.
❖ Ideal temperature for potato sprouting: 22-34o C
❖ Potato starts sprouting stored at temperature of 10-20o C
❖ Potato commonly grown in North Indian plains: October to March
❖ Seed plot technique (SPS) was given by Pushkarnath (1965)
❖ Seed rate: 800-1500 kg/ha of seed tubers
❖ True Potato Seed (TPS) concept was given by Dr. S. Ramanujan
❖ TPS seed rate: 100-120 g/ha
❖ Potato harvesting time in plains: January-February
❖ Potato harvesting in North Hills: September-October
❖ Harvesting of potato done at < 30o C to avoid Charcoal rot disease
❖ Best cold storage temperature for seed potato: 2-4o C, 75-80% RH to check the sprout
❖ Suberization: Heavy of wounds dry hardening by formation of periderm
❖ Suberization temperature: 25o C, 95% RH
❖ Golden cyst nematode (Globodera rostochinensis) is major problem in Southern Hills
❖ International Potato Centre (CIP) is located at Lima in Peru, started in 1971
❖ Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) is located at Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
❖ Varieties:
Varieties Breeding method Specific features
New variety:
Kufri Sadabahar - High yielding variety
Kufri Himalini - Moderate resistance to late blight
Kufri Shaillja - Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Girdhari - Highly resistant to late blight
Kufri Himsona - Highly resistant to late blight
Early varieties (80-90 days)
Kufri -
Chandramukhi
Kufri Jawakar -
Kufri Laukar -
Kufri Sheetman -
Kufri Khyati - -
Kufri surya - Heat tolerant variety field resistant
to leaf hoppers
Kufri Ashoka
Medium varieties (90-100 days)
Kufri Bahar -
Kufri Sutlej Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Anand Resistant to late blight and tolerant
to frost
Kufri Arun Field resistant to late blight, torerant
to frost
Kufri Pukhraj Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Pushkar Field resistant to late blight, and moderately resistant to Phoma and
early blight
Kufri Lalima Moderately resistant to early blight and resistant to PVY
Kufri Kanchan Field resistant to late blight, grown in Darjeeling hills
 Late varieties (100-110 days)
Kufri sindhuri - Suitable for dehydrated flakes and
canning
Kufri Badshah Moderate resistance to late blight, early blight and potato virus X
Processing variety:
Kufri Frysona Suitable for processing into French fries
Kufri Chipsona-3 Resistant to late blight, medium maturing variety
Kufri Chipson – 4 Early maturing, resistance to late blight
Kufri surya Early maturing, heat tolerant (20o C) and hopper-burn resistant
potato variety

Varieties Uses
Kufri Chipsona-1 Chips, French fries, flakes
Kufri Chipsona-2 Chips, flakes
Kufri Himsona Chips, flakes
Kufri surya French fries, chips (from early crop)

➢ Suitable for processing of light colour chips and finger fries: Kufri Chipsona-1, 2 and Kufri
Frysona
➢ Resistant to golden cyst nematode: kufri Swarna and Kufri Dewa

Sweet Potato:

❖ Sweet potato/Irish potato/white potato

❖ B.N.: Ipomea batatas
❖ Chromosome no: 2n = 6x = 60
❖ Family: Convolulaceae
❖ Origin: Central America
❖ Herbaceous perennial but cultivated as annual
❖ Moderately drought tolerant
❖ Sweet potato is hexaploid crop
❖ Largest grower of sweet potato in the world: China
❖ Leading producer of sweet potato: Odisha > West Bengal > UP
❖ Orange flesh colour of tuber is due to β-carotene
❖ Sweet potato grows best at temperature > 24o C
❖ Ideal temperature for tuber formation: 20-30o C
❖ Sweet potato is a short-day plant
❖ Type of inflorescence: Cymose (Flower colour: White to purple)
❖ Sweet potato is commercially propagated by vine cuttings

Varieties Hybrid/Clone Salient features

Introduced variety:
Triumph, Nancy Hall and
Nancy
H-41 Hybridization Sweet, low fiber content
H-42 Hybridization Sweet, low fiber content
Varsha Double cross hybrid
Sree nandhini Clonal selection Drought tolerant
Sree Vardhini Clonal selection Purple skin and yellow flesh
Sree Rethna Hybridization Purple skin and orange flesh
Sree Bhadra Clonal selection Excellent Trap crop for RKN
Sree Arun Hybrid
Sree varun Hybrid
Sree Kanaka Inter-varietal hybrid Short duration, β-carotene
rich variety
Gouri Hybrid Purple skin and orange flesh,
Sankar Hybrid -
Kishan - High starch content (29-
30%)
Rajendra Sakarkand-92 - Suitable for flood prone area
of North Bihar
Co-3 - Orange flesh-High β-
carotene variety
 Konkan Ashwini Selection 0
Other varieties: Gold Rush, Centennial, Goutham, Sourin, Kalinga, Rajendra
Sakarkand series, Samart, Co-1, Co-2

TAPIOCA:

❖ Tapioca/Cassava/Manioc/Yucca
❖ B.N.: Manihot esculenta
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 36
❖ Origin: Guatemala and Mexico (South America)
❖ Perennical, monoecious shrub
❖ Yellow colour of cassava tuber is due to presence of β-carotene, the precursor of vitamin-A
❖ Bitter principle of cassava is cyanogenic (HCN) glucoside
❖ Cassava is monoecious, highly cross-pollinated crop (protogynous)
❖ Commercially propagation by stem cuttings
❖ TCS seed rate: 1.5 kg/ha
❖ Viability of cassava seeds: 8 months

YAMS

❖ B.N.: Dioscorea spp.

❖ Family: Dioscoreaceae
❖ Origin: Southwest Asia
❖ Disosgenin alkaloids is obtained from yams is used for preparing contraceptive drugs
❖ Yam tubers are rich source of carbohydrate content and better source of protein than other tuber
crops
❖ Fufu is an important product made from yam
❖ Varieties of Yam:
Varieties:
Greater Yam Lesser Yam White Yam
Sree Keerthi Sree Latha Sree Subhra
Sree Roopa Sree Kala Sree Priya
 Sree Shilpa- 1st Hybrid Konkan Kanchan Sree Dhanya- Dwarf variety,
variety Don’t require staking

Sree Karthika

Elephant Foot Yam

❖ B.N.: Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
❖ Family: Araceae
❖ Origin: Australia
❖ Perennial plant
❖ For commercial cultivation whole or cut tubers 500-1000g are used for planting
❖ Varieties:
➢ Gajendra (Kovvur): non-acrid
➢ Santragachi: non-acrid
➢ Sree Padma
➢ Sree Athira (Sree Padma x Am-45) (Hybrid)

TARO:

❖ B.N.: Colcocasia esculenta

❖ Family: Areaceae
❖ Origin: India to Southern Asia
❖ Cococasia name derived from 'Egyptian word'
❖ Taro corms are used for fermented acidic product of 'Poi'
❖ Metsubre disorder of colocasia is due to calcium deficiency

SUMMER LEAFY VEGETABLES:

Amaranthus:

❖ Poor man's leafy vegetable/Amaranthus

❖ B.N.: Amaranthus spp.
❖ Family: Amaranthaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 32 or 34
❖ Origin: India
❖ C4 vegetable
❖ Type of fruit: Glomerule
❖ Fruit: Utricle
❖ Seed rate: 2 kg/ha for direct seeding and 1kg/ha for transplanted crop

Palak:

❖ Indian spinach/Spinach Beet/palak/Beet leaf

❖ B.N.: Beta vulgaris var. Bengalensis
❖ Family: Amaranthaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Indo-Chinese
❖ Palak leaves contains low oxalic acid
❖ Palak is a cross pollinating crop
❖ Varieties: Pusa Jyoti, Pusa Bharati, Pusa Harit, All green, Punjab Green, Jobner Green, Pusa
palak, Banerjee's Giant
❖ Pant composite

Spinach:

❖ B.N.: Spinacia oleracea

❖ Family: Amaranthaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 12
❖ Origin: Central Asia (Iran)
❖ Spinach is long day and cool season crop (temperate crop)
❖ Long duration crop
❖ Seed rate of spinach: 27-35 kg/ha
❖ Varieties:
➢ Virginia Savoy: Prickly seeded
➢ Early smooth Leaf: smooth seeded

Fenugreek:

❖ B.N.: Trigonella foenum-graceum

❖ Family: Fabaceae
❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 16
❖ Origin: Eastern Europé and Ethiopia
❖ Fenugreek seeds yield 'Diosgenin', the precursor of steroids of sex hormones and oral
contraceptives
❖ Fenugreek is a self-pollinating crop (cleistogamous flowers)

Lettuce:
❖ B.N.: Lactuca sativa
❖ Family: Asteraceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n = 2x = 18
❖ Origin: Eastern Mediterranean Region
❖ Lutein rich vegetable
❖ Lettuce seed have thermo-dormancy
❖ Highly self-pollinated crop
❖ Seed rate: 400-500 g/ha
❖ Type of inflorescence: Capitulum
❖ Type of fruit: Achene
❖ Physiological disorders:
➢ Tip burn is a physiological disorder of lettuce.
➢ Russet spotting is the disorder of lettuce due to ethylene injury.

GARDEN PEA

❖ B.N.: Pisum sativum

❖ Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 14
❖ Family: Fabaceae
❖ Origin: Central Asia
❖ Field pea: Pisum sativum var. arvense
❖ Garden pea/Horticulture pea/sweet pea: Pisum sativum var. hortense
❖ Pea is self-pollinated crop due to presence of cleistogamous flowers
❖ Optimum temperature for pea seed germination about 22o C
❖ Seed rate:
 ➢ Early: 100-120 kg/ha
➢ Mid-late: 80-90 kg/ha
❖ Shelling percentage of pea: 35-45%
❖ Pod maturity of garden pea is determined by tendrometer
❖ Early Varieties: Ageta, Alaska, Early superb, Little marvel, Meteor, Arkel, AP-3, Asauiji, Early
Badger, Kashi Kanak, Kashi Nandini, Kashi Udai, VL-7

❖ Mid varieties: Bonneville, Alderman, Sylvia, Arka Ajit, Arka Karthik, Arka Priya, Arka
Pramodh, Arka Sampoorna, Lincoln, Kashi Shakti, Kashi Samridhi, Punjab 88
❖ Specific freatures of important varieties:
➢ Suitable for dehydration: Arkel (Wrinkled and dark green seeds)
➢ Smooth seeded variety: Asauiji and Meteor
➢ Wrinkle seeded variety: Arkel and Bonneville
➢ Edible podded (pods soft without any parchment layer) variety of garden pea: Sylvia
❖ Disease of Peas: Pea Powdery Mildew: Erysiphe polygoni
➢ Ascochyta: Ascochyta pisii
➢ Pea Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum
➢ Pea Rust: Uromyces pisi

French Bean:

❖ B.N.: Phaseolus vulgaris

❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 22
❖ Origin: South Mexico and Central America
❖ Crop of temperate region
❖ Lima Bean: Phaseolus lunatus
❖ Seed rate:
➢ Bush type: 65 kg/ha
➢ Pole type: 25-30 kg/ha
❖ Varieties of French bean:
Bush types Pole types
Pusa Parvati X-ray mutant of Wax Pod Kentucky wonder Introduced from USA
 Arka Komal Introduce from Australia Pusa Himalata
Arka Photo insensitive, TKD-1
Suvidha Resistance to rust
Arka Komal Photo insensitive SVM-12 Contender PBL 257
Arka Anoop Photo insensitive, Lakshmi Contender x Local
Resistance to bacterial wilt pole
and rus
Arka Photoinsensitive -
Sharath
Arka Bold Photoinsensitive, Flat type,
Resistance to bacterial wilt
Kashi -
Param
Phule -
Suyash
Pant Resistance to angular leaf
Anupama spot
Contender Introduced from USA
Premier Introduced from Sweden
Bountiful Introduced from USA
Jampa Introduced from Mexico
Giant Introduced from Sweden
stringless
Other varieties:Kashi Param, TKD-1, YCD-1, Azad Rjmesh

❖ Most of the french bean varieties are day neutral

Cluster Bean:

❖ B.N.: Cyamopsis tetragonolobus

❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 14
❖ Origin: West Africa and India
❖ Self-pollinated crop
❖ Varieties: Goma Manjari, Pusa Mausami, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Navbahar

COWPEA:

❖ Asparagus bean/ yard long bean

❖ B.N.: Vigma unguiculata
❖ Chromosome: 2n = 2x = 22
❖ Origin: Central Africa
❖ Vegetable Cowpea: Immature pods used as vegetable
❖ Day neutral plant
❖ Rainy season vegetable
❖ Self-pollinated crop

• Tomato:
• Scientific name: Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanum lycopersicon
• Acid present in tomato: Citric Acid
• Origin: S. America
• Fruit: Berry
• Day neutral, Self-Pollinated, TSS: 4.5 brix
• Nursery area: 250 m² for 1 hectare
• Firmness measured by Durometer
• Climacteric fruit
• Optimum: 21 - 24°C
• Lycopene hamper: above 27°C,
• Highest: 21 - 24°C
• Red colour: Lycopene
• Yellow colour: Carotenoids
• Varieties of Tomato: Flavr Savr: Transgenic variety
• Pusa Ruby: Sioux X Improved Meeruti
• Hisar Anmol: Resistance to Tomato leaf curl virus
• Selection-120: 1st root knot nematode resistant variety
• Hisar Lalit: Root knot nematode resistance
• Roma, Sioux, Improved Meeruti, Arka Saurabh, Pant Bahar, Punjab Chhuhara, Pusa Uphar
DISEASES OF TOMATO:
• Spotted Wilt: Virus (Transmit – Thrips)
• Leaf Curl: Virus (Transmit – Whitefly)
• Mosaic: Virus (Transmit – Contact & Seed)
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDER OF TOMATO

Cracking Boron deficiency

Blotchy ripening Potassium deficiency

Puffiness Low/high temp, Lack of fertilization, Poor Pollination

Blossom End Rot Ca deficiency, High temp, Irregular moisture supply

Sun scald Excess exposure to sunrays

Cat Face Abnormal growing condition

Golden Fleck Excess of Ca-Oxalate, Low K:Ca ratio

• Brinjal:
• Scientific name: Solanum melongena
• Origin: Indo-Burma (India)
• Fruit: Berry
• Day neutral plant
• Cross pollination due to Heterostyly
• General seed rate: 200-300 g/ha
• Hybrid seed rate: 150-200 g/ha
• Yield: 350-500q/ha,
• Hybrid: 500-625q/ha
• Varieties of Brinjal:
• Early maturing variety: Pusa Purple Long
• Pant Samrat, Punjab Bahar, Azad Kranti, Pusa Anmol, Arka Navneet
• Pusa Purple Round, Pusa Bhairav, Pusa Upkar, Arka Shirish
• Hybrid varieties: Pusa Kranti, Pant Rituraj, Pusa Bindu
• Diseases of Brinjal: Bacterial wilt: Pseudomonas solanacearum
• Cercospora leaf spot: Cercospora solani
• Alternaria leaf spot: Alternarea melongena
• Damping off: Pythium sp., Rhizoctonia solani
• Tobacco mosaic virus: Transmitted by aphid
• Chilli:
• Scientific name: Capsicum annum
• Origin: Tropical America (Mexico)
• Fruit: Berry
• Pungency: Capsaicin
• Seed rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha
• Hybrid: 250 gm/ha
• Varieties of Chilli: Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sadabahar, Pant C-1, Punjab Lal, Bhagyalaxmi, Phule
Jyoti, Andhra Jyoti, Arka Lohit
• Arka Suphal: Resistant to powdery mildew
• NP 46-A: Resistant to thrips
• Jwalamukhi: Suitable for HDP
• Punjab Surkha: Multiple disease resistant variety
• Punjab Lal: Suitable for colour extraction
• DISEASES OF CHILLI: Anthracnose (Dieback): Colletotrichum capsica
• Leaf curl virus: (Transmit – Whitefly)
• Mosaic virus: (Transmit – Aphids)
• Little Leaf: Mycoplasma (Transmit – Leaf Hoppers)
• Frog Eye Rot (Cercospora Leaf spot)
• PESTS OF CHILLI
• Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis
• PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDER
• Blossom end Rot (Excess Nitrogen)

Okra (Dried fruit: 13-22% edible oil, 20-24% protein)

• Scientific name: Abelmoschus esculentum
• Family: Malvaceae
• Origin: Tropical Africa
• Warm season vegetable
• Fruit type: Capsule
• Varieties: Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay, Hissar Unnat (Resistant to yellow vein mosaic
virus)
• Varsha Uphar, Pusa Sawani, Pusa Makhmali, Azad Kranti
• Disease of Okra: Yellow vein mosaic virus
• Transmitted by Whitefly

Ornamental Horticulture:
➢ Father of Ornamental Horticulture → M.S Randhawa
➢ Book ‘Beautiful garden’ is written by M.S Randhawa
➢ 1st all India coordinated floriculture improvement project was started in year 1971
➢ Flower capital of world → California, USA
➢ Leading flower & flower product exporting country → Netherlands
➢ Leading flower product importing country → Germany
➢ Country having largest market of cut flowers →Germany
➢ International flower market is situated at Alsmeer (Netherlands)
➢ No. 1 cut flower at global level → Rose
➢ State having maximum area under floriculture in India → Kerala
➢ State having maximum production under floriculture in India (Loose flower) → Tamil
Nadu
➢ Maximum cut flower production in India: West Bengal
➢ ‘Hogarth Course’ is also known as Line of Beauty
➢ Japanese flower arrangement is known as ‘Ikebana’
➢ DR. B.P. Pal and Priyadarshini are varieties of Rose
 Hedge When shrub is planted on boundary for Karonda, Hibiscus,
fencing, at regular intervals to form a Lantana
continuous screen for ornamentation as
well as protection.

Edges Low growing perennial plants which are Alternanthera,

grown on the border of plots, beds, roads Eupaorium, Irisine
etc. for demarcation & beautification.

Topiary It is art of training plants into different Duranta, Clerodendron

ornamental shape (bird, animal, dome,
umbrella)

Shrubs Shrubs can be defined as perennial wood- Weeping merry, Night

plants having many woody stems arising queen, Day king, Dancing
from the base of the plant. Growing of Lady, Duranta,
shrubs in a group is called Shrubbery. Bougainvillea, Jasmine

Pure shrubbery When a shrubbery is made of only single

shrub

Mixed shruberry When a shrubbery is made of different

shrubs

Trophy Arrangement of potted colourful foliage / Gomphrena, Marigold,

flowering shrubs, flowering annuals, Petunia
herbaceous perennial around the tree or any
central object.

Terrarium Big sized bottles with narrow mouth are used Ferns, Mosses, Polka dot
to grow the house plants. Developed by plant
botanist Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward in 1842.
Climber A group of plants with weak stems & ability Weeping merry, Night
to climb up the support with help of queen, Day king, dancing
modified organs. walls, arches, pergolas, lady, Duranta
pillars etc. are well decorated with the help
of climbers.

Creeper Small, viney plans that grow close to the Adenocalymma, Rangoon
ground. creeper, Madhulata

Carpet beds The art of growing ground cover plants Alternanhera, Coleus,
closely & trimming them to a design or Portulaca
alphabetical letters OR Covering an area of
bed or series of beds with dense low growing
herbaceous plants.

Floral carpet Art depicting a carpet design in the ground

with help of floral materials

Herbaceous border Planting of herbs in the border of plots

Annuals Plants, which complete their life cycle from China aster, Coreopsis,
seed germination to seed production in one gomphrena, marigold,
growing season. They are mostly grown petunia, tithonia,
through seeds verbena, zinnia

Biennials These are plants that complete their Amaranthus, celosia,

seed-to-seed life cycle in two seasons or hollyhock, pansy,
years. These require replanting snapdragon

Perennials These are plants having a life cycle that

is more than two years. Perennials are
usually categorised into two groups:
 Woody perennials and Herbaceous
perennials

Woody perennials These comprise most of the trees,

shrubs and vines, which have woody
stems and branches

Herbaceous These include plants with soft and

perennials herbaceous (non-woody) main stalk

Winter season Winter season annuals are hardy. The Candytuft,

annuals seeds of annuals are sown in antirrhinum, larkspur,
September-October and the seedlings nasturtium, pansy,
are transplanted during October- petunia
November.

Summer season These annuals are grown during the Gomphrena, kochia,
annuals summer season The seeds are sown in portulaca, sunflower,
February-end or the beginning of tithonia, zinnia, etc.
March, and the seedlings are
transplanted in the end of March or
April

Rainy season These are grown in the rainy season Amaranthus, balsam,
annuals The seeds are sown in June and the celosia, cock's comb,
seedlings are transplanted in July. gaillardia

Loose flowers Loose flowers are harvested without Calotropis,

stalk chrysanthemum (spray
type), Chandni,
crossandra
 Cut flowers Cut flowers are fresh flowers, flower Anthurium,
buds or spikes harvested along with antirrhinum, bird of
their stalks attached to the flowers. paradise, carnation,
They are mostly used for bouquets and freesia, gerbera,
for vase arrangements gladiolus

Climber Plants capable to grow over a support. Antigonon, Ficus

These plants possess tendrils, rootlets, repens, Wild rose
thorns as climbing structure

Twiner Plants devoid of climbing structures, Asparagus, Madhulata

but still able to climb over support

Rambler Plants unable to climb but manage to Rangoon creeper

support themselves over the stem or
branches

Creeper Plants unable to climb vertically but

grow horizontally over ground surface

• Bonsai: Japanese art of growing miniature trees & shrubs by extreme dwarfing.
o Origin: China
o Size: 50 – 100 cm
o Made by: Root Pruning and Repotting every 2 – 3 years
o Eg: Pomegranate, Tamarind, Apple, Citrus, Juniper, Pine, Maple, Cypress

• Lawn: Piece of land thickly covered with uniform soft green grass
➢ Also called as Heart of garden or Green Carpet
➢ Eg: Doob grass (Cynodon dactylon)
➢ pH: 5.5-6.5
Method of lawn making:
1. Seed method: 20-22 kg/ha (500gm/200m²)
• Easiest method
• Problem: Weed, Time consuming
 2. Dibbling: Most common & cheapest method
3. Turfing: Quickest but most expensive method

➢ Flower Arrangement: Term flower in this arrangement means fresh flower, foliage, dried
twig and fruits (dry or fresh)
➢ Veni: A special type of flower arrangement used in south india to decorate long plait of hair.
➢ 2 styles:
1. Occidental (Western Style)
• Massing of flowers
2. Oriental (Eastern Style)
• Line arrangement of foliage and flowers
• Japanese flower arrangement: Ikebana
• 3 basic line: Earth (Hikae), Man (Soe), Heaven (Shin)
• Nageire, Moribana, Jiyubana, Morimono
• Morimono: Flowers + Fruits and vegetables

Style of gardening

Formal garden Informal garden

Symmetrical pattern Asymmetrical pattern, Represent natural

beauty

Mughal garden, Persian garden, Italian Japanese garden, English Garden (Lawn,
Garden, French Garden Rockery, Annuals, Shrubbery)

Mughal Garden features: Introduced by Japanese Garden features (Nature in

Babur, Nahars (Running water), Trees Miniature): Ideas of heaven & meditation,
(Fruit: Life, Cypress: Death & eternity), Water, stone, Stone lantern, Pagoda, Ponds,
Baradari (12 doors), Terraces (8 or 7) Waterfalls, Island, Bridges

French Garden: How to think big, Types: Hill (Tsukiyama Niwa), Flat (Hira
Italian Garden: Stairs, Persian Garden: Niwa), Passage (Roji Niwa), Tea Garden
Idea of heaven
 (Outer: Soto roji, Inner: Uchi roji), Sand
(Kyoto sand garden)

➢ English Garden: Formation of formalism and naturalism

➢ Main feature: Lawn, Herbaceous Garden, Rockery
➢ Rockery: An idea of a mountain or alpine garden with plants growing in crevices of rocks.

Royal Botanical Garden (England) 1757

Royal horticultural society 1804
Indian Horticultural society 1942
Royal agri-horticultural society (Kolkata) 1820

Name of Garden Place

Pinjore Garden Pinjore
Taj Mahal Agra
Ram Bagh Agra
Mehtab Bagh Agra
Khusro Bagh Allahabad
Roshanara Garden New Delhi
Humayun’s Tomb New Delhi
Rashtrapati Bhawan New Delhi
Safdarjung Tomb New Delhi
Shalimar Bagh Srinagar
Nishat Garden Srinagar
Bryant park Tamil Nadu
Botanical Garden Ooty, Tamil Nadu
Sim’s Park Conoor, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu
Lal bagh Bangalore, Karnataka
Brindavan Garden Mysore, Karnataka
Baradari Garden Patiala, Punjab
Rose Garden Chandigarh, Ludhiana (Punjab)
• Rose: Queen of flower/ Symbol of beauty/ national flower of U.K
• Botanical name: Rosa indica/Rosa chinensis
• Family: Rosaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=14 (Asian)
• Origin: India
• Type of Fruit: Hips
• Rose seed: Achenes
• Red & Crimson colour: Cyanidins
• Blue/Purple colour: Delphinidine
• Orange - Red to Scarlet colour: Pelargonidin
• Rose Oil: R. damascene (Tetraploid), R. bourboniana
• pH: 6 – 7.5
• Day temp: 20 - 25°C
• Night temp: 18 - 20°C
• Gulkand is prepared by mixing: Petals (1): Sugar(1), Edward variety, R. damascena,
R. chinensis, R. gallica
• Dr. B.P Pal: Rose breeder
• Rose propagation: Best time of planting (NI): Sep – Oct (Upto Feb)
• Commercial method of propagation: T-budding (EI: Jan – March, NI: Dec - Feb)
• Cutting: June to November
• For development of new variety: Seed
• Commercial life of rose: 8 Years (2kg/plant/year)
• Varieties:
o Hybrid Tea (HT), 100 – 150 stems/plant: Hybrid perpetual X Tea roses Eg: La
France (By Guillot in France - 1867): Super star, Paradise, First Red, Anurag,
Arju, Homi Bhabha, Kanakangi, Poornima, Rakatgandha (Commercial purpose)
o Floribunda: Hybrid polyanthas (HT X Polyanthas) (1924), Shabnam, Sindoor,
Suchitra, Rupali, Prema, Neelambri, Mohini, Banjaran,Jumping Jack
o Hybrid perpetual (Forerunners of HT, Offspring of R. chinensis, R. gallica, R.
centifolia), Princess Helence
o Polyanthas: Forerunner of Floribundas
o Grandiflora: HT X Floribunda (Queen Elizabeth, June Bride)
o Climbers & Ramblers: Multiflora Ramblers (R. multiflora), Wichuriana Ramblers
(R. wichuriana)
o Climbers: Hybrid of China Rose and Musk Rose
o Induced Mutation (IARI):
o Abhisarika from Kiss of Fire
o Pusa christina from Christian Dior
o Madhosh from Gulzar
o Bourbon Roses: Rosa bourboniana (China rose X Damask rose)
o Noisette: R. chinensis & R. moschata (China Rose X Musk Rose)
 o Ryosas: R. ryosa (Hardy, resistant to cold, salt tolerant, black spot resistant)
o IHBT: Damask Rose varieties – Jwala, Himroz
o Austrian briars (R. foetida and R. lutea) : Source of yellow colour, Persian
Yellow: Babur King introduced
o Fragrance: PEA (Phenyl ethyl alcohol), Citronello (Rhodinol), Geraniol, Nerol,
Nonylaldehyde
o Miniature Roses (Button Roses): Baby gold star, Cinderella
o Red flower: Crimson glory, Happiness
o Thornless: Pusa mohit, Suchitra
o Chocolate brown coloured rose hybrid: Mohini
o Arka Parimala: Moderately resistant to Thrips and Black spot
• Rootstocks:
o Rosa Bourboniana
o Rosa canina (Dog rose)
o Rosa indica var. odorata
o Rosa noisettia
o Rosa multiflora var. inermis
o Nishkant (Thornless Rootstock)
• SPACING:
• Normal roses: 60 X 60 cm
• Hybrid Teas & Floribundas: 75 cm apart
• Cut flower: 60 X 30 cm
• Miniatures: 30 cm
• Polyanthas: 45 cm
• Special practices:
• Wintering (Root pruning): It is followed for early flowering in Pune region of
Maharashtra. After root pruning it takes 45 days to flower
• Pinching: Removal of terminal growing portions and is mainly done to reduce the
plant height and encourage lateral branching.
• Disbudding: Undesirable bud is removed keeping only the central bud intact.
• Deshooting: Mainly done in hybrid and increase the yield to 50-75%
• Defoliation: It is the removal of leaves during pinching manually/using chemicals for
improving flower production.
• Bending: It is done in 3 months old plants, to induce the new sprouts.
• Bud capping: Bud caps are placed on the flower bud at pea size. Increase the bud
size and shape.
• Trimming: Removal of undesired plant part, general practice done in rose and
marigold
• Pulsing: Treating the flower with high concentration of sucrose and germicide for
short period of time in order to improve shelf-life and promote flower opening.
• Prune: Oct – Nov (45 days later, new flowers harvest)
• Harvest: Tight bud stage
 • Diseases:
o Die back of rose: Diplodia rosarum
o Powdery mildew: Sphaerotheca pannosa
o Black spot: Diplocarpon rosae
o Pest:
o Aphid: Macrosiphum rosae
o Rose chafer: Macrodactylus subspinosus
• Physiological disorder:
o Blindwood: Failure to develop flower on apical end of stem
o Bull head: Centre petal party developed & bud appears flat
o Colour fading, Limp neck, blackening of rose petals (low temp. & high
anthocyanine)
• Chrysanthemum: Guldaudi/ Autumn Queen/ Glory of East/ National flower of
Japan
o Botanical name: Chrysanthemum cinerarefolium
o Origin: Europe & Asia (China & Japan)
o Family: Asteraceae/Compositae
o Chromosome number: 2n=36
o Inflorescence: Capitulum
o Short day plant
o Cross pollinated
o Propagation: Suckers and Terminal cutting (30 X 30 cm)
o Flowering: SI: July – Jan, NI: Nov - Jan
o Annual: C. chrotolerium
o Perennial: C. grandiflora, C. Cutisense
o Pinching/Stopping: To encourage side branches for cut flower
o Deshooting: Removal of unwanted shoots
o Harvesting: Harvested 3 month from date of planting
Types of Period of harvest
chrysanthemum
Standard variety When 40-50% of bloom is open
Dwarf variety When 80-85% of bloom has opened
Spray variety When 40-50% of bloom has opened
Single When the maximum number of flowers open, but before the
pollen shed from outer row of disc florets
Anemone Before the central cushion in the topmost flowering fully
developed
 Orchids
Orchids propagation:
Monopodial orchids: Vanda, Arachnis Top cutting, Layering
Sympodial orchids: Dendrobium, Cattleya, Divisions
Cymbidium
Dendrobium Keikis (Shoots growing on plants)

Classification of Orchids
Epiphytes Grow on trees, Grow in Dendrobium, Vanda,
tropical zone Bulbophyllum
Terrestrial Grow on ground, Grow in Habenaria, Eulophia
temperate zone
Lithophytes Grow on rocks Cymbidium
Saprophytes Grow on decaying matter or
rotting logs

Growth habit of Orchids

Monopodial Has single non-branching stem which grows upwards. Eg: Vanda,
Arachnis
Sympodial Has rhizome which grows horizontally producing new growth. Eg:
Dendrobium, Cattleya, Cymbidium
Pseudomonopodials Grows simultaneously in the apical direction season after season as
well as in horizontal direction

Scientific Family Origin Varieties

Name
Gladiolus, Iridaceae Africa, Corms (4-5 Hilling, Harvest: 60 –
Gladiolus cm dia: Sept) & 120 days after
grandifloras Tissue culture planting, tight bud
stage

Dahlia, Dahlia Compositae/ Mexico, Cutting,

variabilis (King Asteraceae induce flowering in
of flower) Dahlia: GA3 (100
(Tetraploid) ppm)

Marigold, Asteraceae, Mexico, Seed (1-1.5 Pinching: 40 days

African Protandry & kg/ha), Oil (mature after transplant
marigold: Self flower): 1.25%
Tagetes erecta incompatibilit
(2n=2x=24), y (Cross
French: Tagetes pollinated)
patula
(2n=4x=48)

Orchids Orchidaceae, India, Day neutral, Monopodial

Spike Inflores: Spike, (Layering) Sympodial
harvested Fruit: Capsule (Division),
Dendrobium

Jasmine, Oleaceae, Cutting & Layering J. sambac, J.

Jasminum sp. Cross grandiflorum, J.
(mid-16th pollinated, mutiflorum
century) Fruit: Berry
Carnation, Caryophyllace Stem cuttings, Std type, Spray type,
Dianthus ae, Long day Annuals: Seed Pinching (single,
caryophyllus plant, GA3 - pinch and a half,
Bud opening double), Calyx
splitting

Scientific Name Propagation Varieties

Gladiolus, Corms Pusa srijana, Pusa swarnima, Pusa sweta,

Gladiolus Archna, Hans, Manohar, Mohini, Shobha,
grandifloras Arka Manorama, Arka Ayush, American
beauty, Friendship, Oscar

Dahlia, Dahlia Seed, Cutting Pink beauty, Glory of India, Junita (Natural
variabilis (King mutant cultivar), Prantis, Nirmal Chandra,
of flower) Bappaditya
(Tetraploid)

Chrysanthemum Suckers/Termina Birbal sahni, Basanti, Indira, Jaya, Meera

l cutting
Cut spray: Apsara, Jubilee, Purnima,
Birbal sahni

Pusa guldasta: Open pollinated, does not

require pinching

Carnation, Stem cutting Standard: Candy, Red corso, Espana,

Dianthus Scania, William Sim, Cabaret
caryophyllus
Spray: Sam’s pride, White lilia, Cherry
bag, Scarlet elegance
Tuberose Bulb Arka Prajakta, (Rajat Rekha, Swarna
Rekha: Mutants by gamma radiation)

Marigold Seed Arka Bangara, Arka Agni

China Aster Seed Violet Cushions, Poornima

Crossandra Stem cutting Arka Alankar

Bougainvillea Goottee/Cutting/ Nyctaginaceae (Family)

Budding

Stage of Harvest in Flowers

Rose 1 – 2 petals begin to unfold

Gladiolus 1 – 5 florets show colour

Lilium Coloured Buds

Carnation Paint Brush Stage

Narcissus Goose Neck Stage

Anthurium Spadix fully developed

Chrysanthemum Outer florets fully expanded

Gerbera Flowers open (Outer 2 rows shed pollen)

Alstromeria 4 – 5 florets open

 Dendrobium Fully open flowers

China Aster Fully open flower

Post-Harvest Technology:

Horticultural Crops Maturity Index

Mango Tapka stage

Banana Finger filling, Angularity

Jackfruit & Watermelon Tapping
Muskmelon Netting or Full Slip Stage
Onion & Garlic Neck Fall (50%)
Citrus Juice content (50%)
Avocado Oil content
Apple T stage
Pineapple Flattening of eyes

Vase Solution (Sucrose + Citric Acid + Sugar, Germicide, Growth Regulator,

Quinoline Salt (8-HQC, 8-HQS) Organic Acid, Ethylene Inhibitor
Vase solution (Sugar) Sucrose
Floral preservative Sugar, Biocide
Acidifying agent in vase solution Citric Acid
Best preservative for cut flowers Silver Thiosulphate
Pulsing Sugar (2-20%), STS (Ethylene sensitive
flowers), GA (Leaf yellowing)
Bud opening solution 8-HQC, STS, KCl, Al2SO4, 4% Sucrose
Biocide to treat cut flowers 8-Hydro quinoline citrate, 8-Hydroxy
quinoline sulphate, Silver nitrate,
Aluminium Sulphate, Citric Acid
Terminology:
Terms Definition
Curing Immediately after harvest. (High temperature and High Humidity)

Degreening Decompose green pigment (Low concentration of ethylene 20

ppm)

Ripening The process of artificially ripening the fruits by using ripening

agents and induce colour changes. E.g: Calcium Carbide,
Ripening chambers (Ethylene & Ethephon)

Pre-Cooling Remove field heat, Air cooling, Hydro cooling, Vacuum Cooling

Blanching Inactivate enzymes by heat treatment (About 100°C)

Lye Peeling Lye Solution of Caustic Soda (Dip fruits in boiling solution for
few minutes) lye solution of 1 to 2 percent strength

Pulsing Short duration treatment (12- 24 hrs), Sucrose (2-20%), Increase

flower vase life

• Canning: It is the process of applying heat to food that is sealed hermetically in a jar to
destroy any microorganism that can cause food spoilage. Fruit processing: 100°C,
Vegetable processing: 115 - 121°C
• Exhausting: Exhausting is removal of air from the cans before they are closed. It
reduces the pressure strain on can seams and internal corrosion and also conserves
quality of product.
• Sealing: Cans are sealed immediately after exhausting with the help of a double seam
can sealer. Precaution must be taken that the temperature of food should not fall below
74°C while sealing.
• Aseptic canning: It is a technological advancement of canning process. The sterilized
food is aseptically filled in pre-sterilized cans which are then sealed in an aseptic
environment. Flash pasteurization is used to sterilize the food. For example: Tetra
Pack system.
• Sulphiting/Sulphuring: It involves dipping the material in 1-2% potassium meta-
bisulphate (KMS) or exposing the product to sulphur fumes (done in a closed room).
Sulphur prevents mould growth and preserves colour of light-coloured vegetables,
repels insects and conserves vitamins A and C.
• Pasteurization: Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment for brief duration to kill part of
the microorganisms and to eliminate human pathogens present in food. In addition to
destroying some microorganisms, it also inactivates some enzymes.

• Three methods of pasteurization are used viz. low temperature long time (LTLT),
high temperature short time (HTST) and ultra-high temperature (UHT) method.
• Sterilization: It refers to complete destruction of microorganisms. It requires heat
treatment of 121°C for 15 minutes which destroys all spores. But it has severe effect on
heat sensitive nutrients and proteins through Maillard reaction.
• Irradiation: The reaction between ion particle and food, forms basis of prevention of
spoilage of food. It suppressing sprouting and hence extension of shelf life. Gamma
radiation (processed and canned product), Potato, Onion, Garlic, Root Crops
• Cryopreservation: Storage in liquid Nitrogen (-196°C) and liquid CO2 (-43°C)
• Cryoprotectants: Glycerol and Dimethyl sulfoxide

• Post-harvest methods:
• Refrigeration: Food is preserved at 0 - 5°C, Refrigerants: Freon, Ammonia, Methyl
chloride, Freon: Popular, odourless, non-toxic
• Freezing: The temperature of -18°C to -40°C reduce growth of micro-organisms and
enzyme activity is reduced.
• Storage technology:
• Controlled atmosphere storage: Low oxygen and high carbon dioxide stored in
gas tight containers at optimum storage temperature. Generally, above 1% of CO2
and below 8% of O2 used in CA storage.
• Modified atmosphere storage: In MAS method, RH is kept at 90-95% for
storage of green vegetables and root and tuber vegetables to prolong storage life.
Oxygen absorbers in MAS: Hydrated lime, Activated charcoal, Magnesium oxide.
Ethylene absorbers in MAS: Potassium permanganate on celite, Vermiculite,
Silica Gel, Alumina pellets
• Low pressure storage/Hypobaric storage: Hypobaric storage involves the cold
storage of fruit under partial vacuum. Hypobaric conditions reduce ethylene
production and respiration rates; the result is an extraordinarily high-quality fruit
even after months of storage.
• Cellar storage: In these structures, temperatures are reduced slightly below room
temperature (about 15°C). These are underground rooms, which are well insulated
to outside temperatures and have proper ventilation. These are meant for short
term storage of root crops, potatoes, apples etc. during the winter months as the
temperature is not low enough to prevent the action of many spoilage organisms
or the plant enzymes.
• Storage and curative steps for dried food products
• Heating: Dried fruits are to be dipped in hot water and dried at 54-65°C in water
containing salt solution (dilute) or NaHCO3 can also be used for short time, then remove
and re-dry it. It destroys insects and their formative stages.
• Fumigation: The dried product is exposed to fumes or chemicals like ethylene
dichloride, ethylene oxides, carbon tetrachloride and it kills insects including their eggs.
•
Drying Dehydration
removal of water. removal of water.
 Under the influence of non- by application of artificial heat
conventional energy sources like under controlled conditions of
sun and wind temperature, humidity and air flow.

• Drying refers to the removal of relatively low amounts of water from a material as
vapour by passing hot air while concentration/evaporation refers to removal of
relatively large amount of water as vapour at its boiling temperature. Concentration is not
as effective as drying.

• If the moisture content is reduced to 1 to 5 per cent then the product can be stored for
more than a year.
• Asepsis: It is a process of keeping microorganisms out of food.
• Freeze drying: It is a form of dehydration in which the product is first frozen and then
water is removed under vacuum as vapour by sublimation.
• Smoking: Foods are exposed to smoke which adds desired flavouring and preserving.
Smoke contains chemicals like formaldehyde, which is bactericidal and dehydration
occurring due to smoking is responsible for its preservative action. Examples of smoke
preserved foods are smoked beef, ham, bacon, fish and meat.
• Salting or curing: Salting is done in case of meat and fish preservation. Curing
preserves the food by drawing moisture from the meat through osmosis and makes it
unavailable for microbial growth and enzyme action.
• Organic acids: Acid conditions inhibit growth of many spoilage micro-
organisms. Bacteria: pH sensitive. Organic acids penetrate the bacteria cell wall and
disrupt its physiology and thus preserve the food. Acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid
and malic acid are widely used for preservation in food products.
• Storage temp of Tropical flowers: 10-15°C, Sub tropical flowers: 2-8°C, Temperate
fruits: -1.1 to 0℃
Chemical Preservatives:
❖ Class I Preservatives: Natural preservatives
➢ Salt: 15 – 25%
➢ Sugar: 62 – 65%
➢ Alcohol: 14%
➢ Vinegar: 5% Acetic Acid
➢ Syrup, Honey, Edible oil

❖ Class II Preservatives: Chemical Preservatives, Potassium Meta-bisulphite & Sodium

Benzoate, Benzoates, Sorbates, Nitrites and Nitrates of sodium or potassium, Sulfites,
Glutamates, Glycerides.
❖ Maximum limit under FPO in different fruits and vegetables varies between:
❖ SO2: 40-2000 ppm
❖ Benzoic Acid: 120-750 ppm
❖ Sorbic Acid: 50-500 ppm
❖ Both preservatives are categorized into 3 types:
 ➢ Antimicrobial: That destroy or delay the growth of bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Eg:
Nitrites, Nitrates, Sulfur dioxide, Benzoates and sorbates are anti-fungal used in jams,
salads, cheese and pickles.
➢ Antioxidant: That slow or stop the breakdown of fats and oils in food that happen in
presence of oxygen leading to rancidity. Eg: BHT, BHA, TBHQ, Propyl gallate
➢ Anti-Enzymatic: Block enzymatic processes such as ripening occurring in foodstuffs
even after harvest. Eg: Erythorbic acid and Citric acid
❖ Sulphur dioxide: Used to preserve juice, pulp, nectar, squash, crush, cordial and other
products.
o Good action against bacteria and moulds
o Acts as an antioxidant and bleaching agent
o Used in forms of salt such as sulphite, bisulphate and meta-bisulphite.
o Potassium meta-bisulphite is a stable source of SO2
o Better preserving action than sodium benzoate
o Cannot be used in case of some naturally coloured juices like jamun,
pomegranate, strawberry, coloured grapes, plum.
❖ Benzoic Acid:
o More effective against yeast than against moulds.
o KMS checks the growth of bacteria and fungi.
o Does not stop lactic acid and acetic acid fermentation\

❖ Lacquering: It is the process of coating the inside of a can with lacquer (golden coloured
enamel) which prevents discolouration.
❖ Acid Resistant Cans (R- Enamel): For acidic fruits and Vegetables
❖ Sulphur Resistant (C – Enamel): For vegetables and Non – Acid Foods, Pea, Corn,
Lima bean, Red kidney bean
❖ Lactic Acid Fermentation: Saurkraut from Cabbage

Preservation of some common products:

❖ Jam: It is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick
consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position.
• Sugar is added according to acid content
• Judging of end point in JAM: Sheet test, TSS test, Temperature test, Hydrometers
(to test specific gravity)

❖ Jelly: A semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear, strained solution of pectin

containing fruit extract with sufficient quantity of sugar and measured quantity of acid.
✓ Sugar is added according to Pectin content.
✓ Red colour of jelly is due to charring of sugar.
✓ Pectin is determined by Alcohol test and Jelmeter test
✓ Fruits: Guava, Plum, Papaya, Gooseberry
✓ Jelly contains 0.5-0.75% acid
✓ Final pH of Jelly is 3.5
✓ Crystals in Jelly
 ✓ Cloudy jelly: Usually occurs with the red juices. It is caused by imperfect straining.
Restraining of juice without pressure brings a lower yield, but ensures a clear product.
✓ Failure to gel: Causative factors: Improper balance of pectin, acid, sugar and mineral
salts, which may come about in several ways:
o Fruit used may lack sufficient pectin or acid or both
o Overcooking may destroy so much pectin that a gummy mass is formed
o Undercooking, due to insufficient concentration
o Too much water used for extraction of juice, so that the proportion of sugar is
too great for the pectin and the long time required for evaporation may destroy
some of the pectin.
✓ Tough Jelly: The jelly becomes tough or stringy when too little sugar is used for the
quantity of fruit juice used or when boiling is continued after the jellying point has
been reached.

❖ Marmalade: Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which slices of the citrus fruit or its peels are
suspended.
✓ Generally made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded peels
are suspended.
✓ End point: 65% TSS at 105℃

❖ Squash: It is concentrated beverage prepared from juice of fruits after mixing it with
strained sugar syrup and preservative.
✓ Squash contain 25% fruit juice and 40% TSS

❖ Preserves: Prepared from whole fruits and vegetables or their segments by addition of
sugar followed by evaporation to a point that microbial spoilage can’t occur
✓ Product can be stored without hermetic sealing and refrigeration.
❖ Pickles: The process of preservation of food in common salt or vinegar is called as
pickling. Spices and edible oils also may be added to the product. Salt, vinegar, lactic
acid and oil are the important ingredients used in pickle production. These substances
when used in sufficient quantities, act as preservatives either singly or in combination.
❖ The process involves: Selection of mangoes>Wash with water>Peel>Cut into
slices>Mix with salt or brine>Addition of spices>Addition of optional ingredients>Fill
into clean glass jars>Cover with edible oil>Fermentation with native microbiota>Pickle
❖ Sauce: Tomato juice/pulp (strained)>Concentration (Open kettle)>Hot fill into bottles or
cans (82-88℃)>Thermal processing>Cooling>Storage

❖ Brine: Solution of salt in water is called as Brine

✓ It is done in vegetables only.
❖ Pickles: The result of fermentation by "lactic acid bacteria"
➢ Lactic acid bacteria are most active at 300C
➢ Lactic acid bacteria grow in 8-10% of salt solution
➢ Growth of majority of spoilage organisms is inhibited by 15% of salt
➢ Advisable to place vegetables in 10% salt solution for vigorous lactic acid bacteria
➢ Preservation by salt (15% or above) method of preservation is mostly used in vegetables
➢ Finished pickle should not be less than 2% acetic acid
 ❖ Syrup: A solution of sugar in water called as syrup, and process of adding syrup in fruit
product is syruping.
✓ It is mainly done in fruits, serve as medium of heat transfer during canning.
✓ 25% fruit juice, 65% TSS, 1.3 – 1.5% acidity and 350ppm of SO2 or 600ppm of
KMS
❖ Lactic acid fermentation: Cabbage → Saukraut
pH range for growth:
✓ Moulds → 1.5-8.5
✓ Yeasts → 2.5-8.5
✓ Bacteria → 4.0-7.5

Type of spoilage in fruits and vegetables:

➢ Grey mould rot: Botrytis cinerea
➢ Rhizopus soft rot: Rhizopus nigricans
➢ Blue mould rot: Penicillium italicum
➢ Black mould rot: Aspergillus niger
➢ Slimmings or soury: Saprophytic bacteria
Important moulds:
➢ Blue moulds: Penicillium
➢ Black moulds: Aspergillus
➢ Grey Moulds: Mucor sp.
➢ Spoilage of canned fruits: Byssochlamys fulva
Browning reaction: It is due to enzymatic and non-enzymatic
Enzymatic browning: Apple, Banana, Brinjal
Brown colour due to enzymes: Polyphenol oxidase, Tyrosinase, Catechcolase
Non-Enzymatic browning: Sugar and sugar related compounds

FPO Specifications for Some Preserved foods:

Food TSS Fruit juice or Pulp

Unsweetened juice Natural 100
Fruit Syrup 65 % 25
Fruit Nectar (Excluding 15% 20
orange and pineapple nectar)
Orange and Pineapple nectar 15% 40%
Jam 68 % 45% (0.5 – 0.6% acid)
Jelly 65% 45% (0.5 – 0.75% acid), Pectin (0.5 – 1%),
final pH: 3.1-3.5
Squash 40% 25% (1% acidity)
RTS (Ready to Serve) 10% 10% (0.3% acid)
Cordial 30% 25% (1.5% acid)
Marmalade 65% 45% (5% peel)
Sauce 25% 1% Acidity

MOST IMPORTANT FACTS

• Symptom of citrus canker appear on which of the plant parts: Leaves, Fruits, Branch
• Jwala, Gazal, Priyadarshani variety of Gladiolus.
• Pant bahar is pear shaped variety of tomato.
• The time of planting main crop of potato in Northern plain: First fortnight of October
• Little leaf in mango and cashew is due to deficiency of: Zinc
• In India, micro propagation in fruits crops is most common and popular in: Banana
• Bhima Super: Onion variety is suitable for kharif crop.
• To get maximum yield the spacing of Banana plantation for Robusta verities is (in cm):
1.8× 1.8
• Internal necrosis in mango and internal cork in apple is due to the deficiency of: Boron
• The pungency in uninjured garlic is due to the presence of: Alliinase
• Causal agent of Black mildew in mango plant: Meliola mangiferae
• Causal agent of Bacterial spot in citrus: Xanthomonas campestris pv. Citri
• Citrus cracking is due to: Deficiency of boron
• Phytophthora parasitica is disease causing pathogen in citrus group.
• Which among the following propagation method is used in droopy/viney: Serpentine
layering
• Golden revolution related to: Fruit
• Crown cleaning related to: Coconut
• Disorder in Pomegranate in which arils are disintegration, where arils become soft, light
creamy – brown to dark blackish brown and unfit for consumption and the deficiency is
not seen externally: Internal breakdown
• Symptoms of Powdery mildew of pea are first seen on which part of the plant: Leaves
• Late blight is the disease of: Potato
• Dark green streak on the lower portion of leaf midrib and later the secondary vein’s
disease called “Morse code”. This disease of banana will be called as: Bunchy top virus
• Which instrument is used to cut the hard branches and Woody shrubs of plants: Bill Hook
• Which of the following mother plant for Guava for cultivators in Maharashtra and South
India: Sardar L-49.
• When to harvest gerbera flower: Few florets open
• Which is correct Bacterial wilt of tomato symptom: Leaves do not turn yellow, but
wilting is seen. Vascular bundles show brownish discoloration
• Which is natural mutant variety of coffee: Caturra
• The physiological disorder of strawberry, due to lack of fruit color during ripening in
which fruit remain irregular pink or even totally white and sometimes swollen beside
having acid test and less firm: Albinism
• Endosperm is the edible portion of which fruit crop: Coconut
• Anthurium flower is harvested at which stage: When the spathe is completely unfurls and
the spadix is developed
• Which crop is related to term CTC processing: Tea
• Pruning is a practice of selective removal of dead parts of the plants to manipulate plants
for horticultural production.
• First fully organic state and state of flower: Sikkim
• Type of grafting used to repair damaged stem: Bridge grafting
• The media used in air layering: Sphagnum moss (TNPCS Assistance Horti. Officer 2020)
• Avocado is climacteric fruit grows between 16-32℃ and in the soil pH 6-7. (FSO-2019)
• Chip budding is done in: Grape (ARO 2022)
• Ber crop is summer dormant: (RPSC AAO 2019)
• An apple in a day keeps the doctor away was quoted by: Benjamin Franklin (ICAR JRF
Horticulture 2021)
• The most critical requirement of water in apple is from: April to August (ICAR JRF
Horticulture 2021)
• In north India, best time of pruning of Ber is: May (AARO 2022)
• Bitter pit in apple is due to deficiency of: Ca (JNKVV and RVSKVV fruit science PG
2020)
• "Flesh translucency" is a serious physiological disorder of: Pineapple (JRF 2020
horticulture)
• Recurrent type of apomixis is found in apples: (JNKVV and RVSKVV PhD fruit science
2020)
• Vinegar made from Apple fruit juice is known as cider. (TSPSC AO 2023)
• Commercial method of Ber propagation: T – budding
• Ambri apple variety is indigenous to Kashmir and popular in the region. (ARS NET
2022)
• The somatic chromosome number(2n) of Illaichi cultivar of Ber (Ziziphus mauritinana)
is: 96 (JNKVV & RVSKVV HORTICULTURE PhD 2020)
• Rosette disorder of apple is due to deficiency of: Zinc (BHU RET 2022)
• Fruit of the 21st century is called: Aonla (IGKV CET 2022)
• Dwarf root stock of apple: Malling 9 (TNPSC 2018)
• Ber is commonly known as: Poor man’s fruit, King of arid fruit (HPSC HDO 2019)
• Bhima shubra variety of onion produces white coloured bulls. (FSO paper -2019)
• In which variety of banana hard lump is a common problem: Poovan (ICAR JRF 2021).
• Winter banana is a variety of: Apple (BHU PET 2018)
• Pomegranate is multi stemmed and mixed bearing habit and botanically its fruits is called
balausta. (UASS 2022)
• In Aonla, inter-varietal plantation is done due to: Shy bearing nature of Aonla (BHU PET
2018)
• Maharajaji is a variety of: Apple (ICAR 2021)
• In tickle method of degreening, mosambi can be completely degreened in 48 hrs at: 26-30
℃ (ICAR JRF 2021).
• Lal ambri apple hybrid is a cross between: Red delicious x Ambri (JRF
HORTICULTURE 2019)
• Jamun crop has Polyembryonic nature: (ICAR JRF 2018)
• Development of seedless fruit would not be useful in case of Pomegranate (ICAR JRF
PLANT SCIENCE 2021)
• Fire blight of apple and pear is caused by: Erwinia amylovora (PRE PG 2020)
• Pink calyx is a disorder found in: Pear (JNKVV & RSKVVV PHD HORTI 2022)
• Fingertip disease mostly occurs in high density planting of banana. (ICAR JRF 2019)
• Patharnakh is a variety of: Pear (ICAR JRF 2019)
• "Spineless stigma" is related to maturity of: Sapota (JRF 2021)
• Hand pollination is recommended cultural practice in Date palm. (ICAR SRF-2020)
• Flattening of eye take place during maturity in: Pineapple (BHU RET 2022)
• "T" shaped marking on marble sized mango fruits is a symptom produced by: Nut weevil
(BHU-2020)
• Appearance of dry corky lesions in pear is caused by the deficiency of: Boron (JNKVV
& RVSKVV 2022)
• Stenting propagation technique is followed commercially in: Plum (Horticulture
Supervisor 2022)
• Maturity index of Sapota is: Scales of fruit surface (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
• Potassium plays an important role in stomata opening and closing process. (PRE PG
2022)
• The most used rootstock for plum in India: Prunus armeniaca (JRF 2021)
• Sharbati is a variety of: Peach (JRF 2021)
• Peach is a temperate fruit crop with double growth curve. (JRF Horticulture 2020)
• Date palm fruit is the richest source of carbohydrates. (ARO 2022)
• A physiological disorder in banana characterized by the abnormal & premature
development of fruit is known as: Yellow pulp (AARO 2022)
• Pineapple is a CAM plant. (MP RAEO 2019)
• Partial pinching of crown to improve fruit size and shape of pineapple is done at: 45 days
after fruit set (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2021)
• Sapota fruit at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato colour and dried spine like
stigma at top of the fruit falls or drops of easily when touched. (UHSB 2021)
• Adriatic fig, Smyrna fig is suitable for drying purpose. (UAHSS 2020)
• The stage of inflorescence emergence in pineapple is: Red heart (ICAR JRF Horticulture
2020)
• Sterculiaceae is the family of cacoa: (ICAR JRF 2019)
• The optimum age for transplanting of coconut seedling is: 9 to 12 month (ICAR JRF
2021)
• Coconut toddy is obtained by tapping the: Unopened spadix (JRF -Horticulture 2019)
• Barren nut in coconut is due to the deficiency of: Boron (ICAR JRF 2019)
• Crown choking in coconut in due to deficiency of: Boron (ICAR JRF 2019)
• Dual purpose, drought tolerant and higher nutrient use efficient hybrid of coconut: Kalpa
Samrudhi (JRF Horticulture - 2021)
• Removal of undesirable branches by picking auxiliary buds is known as: Nipping (BHU
RET 2022)
• The dry recovery rate of turmeric: 15 to 30% (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2021)
• 'Witches broom' is the major disorder of Cocoa crop. (JNKVV and RVKSKVV
Horticulture 2022)
• Coconut cadang cadang disease is caused by: Viroid (KPSC 2022)
• The coconut development board is in: Cochin (ASRB NET 2019)
• The tea plantation requires rainfall of 150-250 cm (PRE PG 2022)
• Punjab hybrid is male sterile hybrid of Musk melon. (BHU RET 2020)
• The edible part of globe artichoke is: Immature flower head (BHU RET 2021)
• A thermo sensitive vegetable crop is Cauliflower (JNKVV & RVSKVV Horticulture
PhD 2020)
• MRI is major source of resistance to fusarium wilt in muskmelon. (AARO 2022)
• Chromosome number of Elephant Foot Yam (2n) = 28 (JRF 2021)
• Roma and Punjab Chuhara variety of tomato is responsible for transport and processing:
(BHU 2021)
• "Arka Jyoti" is a F1 hybrid of: Watermelon (JRF horticulture 2021)
• Generally seedless watermelon is: Triploid (UPCATET 2023)
• A thermo sensitive vegetable crop is: Cauliflower (JNKVV & RSKVV PhD Horti2020)
• The first tropical variety of cabbage which can set seed in north Indian plains is: Pusa
Ageti (JRF HORTICULTURE 2019)
• The edible portion of cabbage is Head (UPCATET 2023)
• Sporophytic system of incompatibility is found in: Cabbage (ICAR JRF 2018)
• Pinching of male flower bud for easy and economic seed production is commercially
followed in: Watermelon (ICAR JRF 2021)
• Self-incompatibility led to cross pollination in: Cauliflower (ICAR JRF 2018)
• Pusa bedana is a seedless variety of: Watermelon (ICAR JRF 2018)
• Blossom end rot is disorder of Tomato plant and due to Ca deficiency. (BHU 2021, BAU
2022)
• Removal of central portion of curd for flower initiation in cauliflower is known as:
Scooping (ICAR JRF2021)
• Pointed gourd is propagated by: Stem cutting (JNKVV and RKSKVV)
• Whiptail disease of Cauliflower is favourable in Acidic soil condition. (MSc entrance
2021)
• Watermelon is known as 'Mood food’. (JRF Horticulture 2020)
• Cole crops are evolved from Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris. (JNKVV MSC 2022
HORTICULTURE)
• Pusa snowball is a variety of: Cauliflower (ICAR JRF HORTICULTURE 2019)
• Botanical name of muskmelon is: Cucumis melo (TNPSC 2018)
• Present day bitter gourd is: Aneuploid (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
• Gold mine of wasteland is known as: Cashew (MGKVV CET 2023)
• A source of highest level of natural insulin: Indian gourd (JNKVV & RVSKVV 2022)
• Heavy dull sound at the time of harvesting in watermelon shows: Maturity (ARS 2019)
• Beetroot vegetable is biennial, hermaphrodite and wind pollinated. (ICAR JRF
HORTICULTURE 2021)
• First indigenous hybrid of cabbage is: KGMR-1 (JNKVV & RVSKVV vegetable science
2022)
• Ground spot is a maturity index of: Watermelon (PRE-PG 2023)
• Rubber plantation crop follows green budding or crown budding. (State exam 2020)
• Carrot is a biennial crop. (KRIBHCO -2019)
• Fall of immature leaf is due to the deficiency of: Phosphorus (2018 NEET)
• Pant Samrat is triple disease resistant variety of Brinjal while Punjab Surkh is the
multiple disease resistant variety of: Chilli (BAU 2021)
• Protandry type of flower is found in: Onion (BHU RET2022)
• Bitterness in carrot is associated with: Iso coumarin (BHU RET 2021)
• The crop showing greatest inbreeding depression is Onion (JRF 2017)
• Most common disease in crucifers, radish, and sweet potato: White rots
(JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
• Garlic contains amino acid namely: Allicin (JNKVV and RKSKVV 2022)
• Chemical used for seed extraction in tomato is: HCL (TNPSC AO2021)
• Wilt of pigeon pea is caused by: Fusarium udum (JNKVV2020)
• Arka gaurav is variety of: Chilli (MSC 2021)
• Pusa gaurav is the variety of: Tomato (BAU 2022)
• Chanchal is a variety of: Chilli
• Solanine in potato is reduced by which operation: Earthing up (ICAR NET 2023)
• The ancestor of cultivated sweet potato is: Ipomoea trifida (ICAR JRF Horticulture 2020)
• Brinjal variety with extra-long green fruits is Arka Shirish (JNKVV & RVSKVV
Horticulture Vegetable Science 2022)
• Top secret variety of Rose has red colour. (JRF horticulture 2021)
• Ajina purple is the most suitable variety of chrysanthemum for pot culture. (JRF
HORTICULTURE 2021)
• Punjab state is largest producer of seeds of annual flowers. (JNKVV&RVSKVV 2022)
• Marigold flower crop is rich in lutein: (JNKVV &RVSKVV 2022)
• Hydrangea flower crops is used as pH indicator. (JNKVV & RVSKVV 2022)
• Floribunda Rose is crossed between: Hybrid tea x Polyantha (BHU RET 2022)
• Parterre is an important feature of: French garden (BHU RET 2022)
• Peace lily is the common name of: Spathiphyllum wallisii (BHU RET 2021)
• An example of mass flower: Rose (ICAR JRF 2018)
• Agnihotri is a variety of: Anthurium (ICAR JRF 2018)
• Carnation crop is most prone to red spider mite. (HORTI JRF 2020)
• Largest producer of loose flower in the world is: India (JNKVV PG Horticulture 2020)
• Topple disorder of gladiolus is caused due to deficiency: Ca (JNKVV and RVSKVV PG
Horticulture 2020)
• The oil present in Rosa damascene is: 0.05% (RAJASTHAN FSO 2023)
• Directorate of floricultural research is located at: Pune (JRF-2020)
• Rose is the national flower of which country: England (JRF 2019)
• Dahlia is known as king of flowers. (UHSB 2021)
• Sucrose chemical is used for increasing vase life of cut flowers. (JET 2023)
• Bending is a specific technique being practiced in: Rose (ICAR JRF 2020)
• Marigold seed which fails to emerge, or seedling which die soon after emerging from wet
soil are the results of: Damping off (BAU 2021)
• International flower auction in India is situated at: Bengaluru (ICAR JRF 2019)
• Origin of tuberose (Rajanigandha) flower is Mexico (BHU PET 2021)
• Hybrid tea and floribunda roses are generally propagated by: Stem cutting (JET-2023)
• Gladiolus is propagated by: Corms (PRE PG 2021)
• National botanical garden is situated in which city: Lucknow (BAU 2019)
• Main physiological disorder of Gladiolus is Calyx split (Horticulture Supervisor - 2022)
• Calyx splitting disorder in carnation is due to: B deficiency (TNPSC 2018)
• The optimum stage of harvesting of marigold is: Fully open flower (Horticulture
Supervisor 2022)
• Which marigold flower pigment is used as food colour: Lutein (TSPSC Horticulture
Officer 2022)
• Gerbera is the best crop for polyhouse cultivation. (DDH 2020)