SPECTRUM

Deviation Produced by a Triangular Prism :

• When a ray of light passes from one medium to another medium , it deviates from its
path because of the difference in speeds of light in the two media .
• The deviation produced by a triangular prism is shown below.

• For the emergent ray RS, the total deviation with respect to the incident ray PQ is
given as δ = δ1 + δ2
• Thus , the total angle of deviation depends on the following three factors :
i. The angle of incidence at the first surface .
ii. The angle of the prism (A )
iii. The refractive index of the material of the prism (µ)
Because the refractive index depends on the color (or wavelength λ) of light used ,
the angle of deviation depends on the color of incident light .

Dependence of Deviation on Color (or Wavelength ) of Light :

• Light of different colors has different speeds in a medium . The speed of light in a
transparent medium decreases with the wavelength of light .
• Therefore , the refractive index of glass increases with a decrease in the wavelength
of light , so the deviation increases with a reduction in the wavelength .
 • Thus , in the visible spectrum , red color (λ = 7000 Å ) is deviated the least and
violet (λ = 4000 Å ) is deviated the most .

Dispersion of White Light through a Prism and Formation of a Spectrum :

• Newton allowed the white light from the Sun to enter a darkened room through a
small aperture in a window placed a glass prism in the path of light rays and found
light emerging with the colors of a rainbow. This colored band is termed a spectrum .

• Starting from the side of the base of the prism , the colors in the spectrum on the
screen are in the following order : Violet , Indigo, Blue , Green , Yellow, Orange , and
Red . The order of colors can easily be remembered as VIBGYOR .
• Thus , white light consists of a mixture of seven different colors .

Dispersion and Spectrum :

• The phenomenon of splitting of white light by a prism into its constituent colors is
known as dispersion .
• The band of colors obtained on a screen on passing white light through a prism is
called a spectrum .

Cause of Dispersion:

• The cause of dispersion is the change in the speed of light with wavelength (or
frequency ). Red color deviated the least , while violet color deviated the most .
 • On the second surface of the prism , only refraction occurs (from glass to air), and
different colors have deviated through different angles , i .e . violet deviated the most
and red the least .
• As a result , the colors get further separated on refraction at the second surface .
The light coming out of the prism thus has different colors that spread out to form
a spectrum .

Recombination of Colors :

• The colors of a spectrum of white light combine to reproduce white light .

• The two prisms combined together effectively act like a parallel-sided glass slab.
• This experiment shows that prism P1 simply disperses the white light into its
constituent colors and prism P2 recombines these colors to form the white light
again . None of the two prisms produces colors by itself.

Electromagnetic Spectrum :

• The portion of the spectrum between red and violet colors is the visible spectrum , and
it is only a small part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum .
• The portion of the spectrum just beyond the red end is called the infrared spectrum ,
while the portion of the spectrum just before the violet end is called the ultraviolet
spectrum .
• The waves of wavelength longer than the red part of the visible spectrum in increasing
order of wavelength are infrared radiations , microwaves , and radio waves , while the
 waves of wavelength shorter than the violet part of the visible spectrum in decreasing
order are ultraviolet rays , X-rays and gamma rays .

TRICK TO REMEMBER : Gaddi X U V In M Y Range

• The speed of these waves is equal to the speed of light , i .e . c = 3 × 108 m s−1.
• The speed , frequency , and wavelength of electromagnetic waves are related as
c=fλ .

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

• These waves do not require any material medium for their propagation .
• They travel with the same speed in vacuum (or air) which is the same as the speed of
light , i .e . c = 3 × 108 m s−1.
• They exhibit the properties of reflection and refraction .
• These waves are not affected by electric and magnetic fields .
• These waves are transverse waves .

Source , Properties & Uses of Radiations of the Electromagnetic Spectrum :

1. Gamma rays

Where Do They Come From ?

A. Radioactive decay : This is a common source on Earth . When unstable atomic nuclei
release energy to become more stable , gamma rays are often emitted .
 • Protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force . This force
is very strong , but it only acts over a short distance . As a result , the larger the nucleus , the
weaker the strong nuclear force becomes . This means that larger nuclei are more likely to be
unstable .

• An unstable nucleus can release energy in a process called radioactive decay . This
energy can be released in the form of gamma rays , which are high-energy photons .

B.

B. Cosmic sources : Out in space , gamma rays are produced by incredibly violent events
like :
i. Supernova explosions ii . Black holes iii . Neutron stars iv. Pulsars

Properties :

• These are the most energetic electromagnetic radiations of wavelengths less than 0·1
Å (0·01 nm ).
• They are obtained in emissions from radioactive substances due to energy change in
the nucleus of their atoms .
• Like X-rays , they cause fluorescence when they strike fluorescent materials such as
zinc sulphide . They can easily penetrate through thick metallic sheets .
• They can easily penetrate through the human body and cause immense damage .

Applications :

• Medicine : Sterilizing medical equipment and treating cancer.

 • Industry : Food irradiation and quality control .

• Research : Studying the universe and understanding nuclear reactions .

2. X-Rays :

Production of X-rays

X-rays are produced when high-energy electrons collide with a metal target . This process
occurs in an X-ray tube , which is a vacuum tube containing a cathode (negative electrode )
and an anode (positive electrode ).

Cathode : Emits electrons when heated .

Anode : A metal target , typically tungsten , where electrons collide .

When electrons strike the anode , they lose their kinetic energy, which is converted into
X-rays .

Properties :

• X-rays are produced when highly energetic cathode rays are stopped by a heavy metal
target of high melting point .
• They have wavelengths in the range of 0·1 Å to 100 Å (or 0·01 nm to 10 nm ).
They are chemically more active radiations than ultraviolet radiations .
• They strongly affect a photographic plate .
• They cause fluorescence in materials such as zinc sulphide .
• They can penetrate the human body , but the bones stop them .

Uses :
i. Because the bones stop them , they are used to detect fractures in bones , teeth , etc .,
and for diagnostic purposes such as CAT scans in medical science .
ii. They are also used for studying atomic arrangement in crystals as well as in complex
molecules .
iii. They are used by detective agencies to detect concealed precious metals .

3. Ultraviolet Radiations

Sources of ultraviolet radiation

• The sun : The sun is the primary natural source of UV radiation . About 95% of the
UV radiation that reaches Earth's surface is from the sun . The amount of UV
radiation from the sun varies depending on the time of day , season , and location .

• Artificial sources : Artificial sources of UV radiation include tanning beds , black

lights , and some welding equipment . These sources emit UV radiation at higher
levels than the sun .

Properties

Ultraviolet radiations can pass through quartz , but they are absorbed by glass . These
radiations travel in a straight line with a speed of 3 × 108 m s−1 in air (or vacuum ). They
are usually scattered by dust particles present in the atmosphere . They obey the laws of
reflection and refraction . They strongly affect a photographic plate as they are chemically
more active . They produce fluorescence on striking a zinc-sulphide screen . They cause
health hazards such as skin cancer if the body is exposed to them for long . Uses :

i. For sterilizing purposes .

ii. For detecting the purity of gems , eggs , ghee , etc .
iii. In producing Vitamin D.
iv. In producing food for plants and animals .

4. Visible light :

Properties
Colors : Visible light comes in different colors , like red , orange , yellow, green , blue ,
indigo, and violet .

• Speed : It travels very fast , even faster than a rocket !

• Waves : It moves in waves , like ripples on a pond .
• Particles : Sometimes , it act like tiny particles called photons .
• Polarization : It can be polarized , meaning it vibrates in a specific direction .
• Uses :
i. For sterilizing purposes .
ii. For detecting the purity of gems , eggs , ghee , etc .
iii. In producing Vitamin D.
iv. In producing food for plants and animals .

5. Infrared Radiations
Infrared (IR ) radiation is produced by the thermal motion of atoms and molecules .
Any object with a temperature above absolute zero emits IR radiation .

The hotter the object , the more intense the IR radiation it emits .
i. Natural Sources
• Sun : The primary natural source of IR radiation .
• Earth and other planets : They emit IR radiation due to their internal heat
and absorption of solar energy .
• Warm bodies : All living organisms emit IR radiation .
ii. Artificial Sources
• Incandescent lamps : These emit IR radiation as a byproduct of producing
visible light .
 • Electric heaters : These convert electrical energy into heat , which is then
emitted as IR radiation .
• Ceramic heaters : Similar to electric heaters , but often use ceramic elements
to emit IR radiation .
• Infrared lasers : These devices produce coherent IR radiation through
stimulated emission .
• Gas-fired heaters : These burn gas to produce heat , which is then emitted as
IR radiation .
Properties :
• They travel in straight lines as light does , with a speed equal to 3 × 10 8 m
s−1 in vacuum (or air).
• They obey the laws of reflection and refraction . When a source of heat (an
infrared lamp ) is placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror, a parallel infrared
beam is obtained .
• They do not affect an ordinary photographic film . H owever, they affect a
specially treated photographic film .
• They are absorbed by glass , but they are not absorbed by rock salt .
• They are detected by their heating property using a thermopile or a blackened
bulb thermometer. High doses of infrared radiation may cause skin burns .
• They are scattered in the atmosphere because of their long wavelengths and
can even penetrate fog .

Uses :

i. They are used for therapeutic purposes by doctors .

ii. They are used in photography at night and also in mist and fog because they are not
scattered much , so they can penetrate appreciably through these .
iii. Infrared lamps are used in dark rooms for developing photographs because they do
not affect photographic film chemically , but they provide some visibility .
iv. They are used as signals during the war as they are not visible and they are not
absorbed much in the medium .
v. They are used in the remote control of the television and other gadgets .

6. Microwaves
Properties :

These waves are produced by electronic devices such as a klystron tube .

They have wavelengths ranging from 107 Å to 1011 Å (or 1 mm to 10 m ) or frequencies
in the range of 3 × 1011 Hz to 3 × 107 Hz .
Uses :
They are used for satellite communication , for analysis of atomic and molecular
structure , for cooking in microwave ovens , and for radar communication .

7. Radio Waves
Properties :

These waves have the longest wavelength among all the electromagnetic waves .
They have a wavelength above 1011 Å (or 10 m ) or a frequency below 3 × 107 Hz .
They show all the properties of electromagnetic waves .
Applications of Radio Waves :
• Communication : Radio broadcasting , television , cellular phones , and satellite
communication .
• Navigation : GPS, radar, and sonar.
• Medical Imaging : X-rays and MRI.
• Remote Sensing : Weather radar, satellite imagery , and astronomy .
 Scattering of Light

It is a phenomenon where light waves are deflected in different directions due to

interactions with particles or irregularities in a medium i .e .... the process of absorption
and re-emission of light energy .

The Rayleigh criterion for scattering distinguishes between two main cases :

1. Small Particles (Much Smaller than the Wavelength of incident radiations ):

• The intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength i .e .
I ∝ 1 / λ4

• This means that shorter wavelengths (e .g ., blue light ) are scattered more strongly
than longer wavelengths (e .g ., red light ).

2. Large Particles (Comparable to or Larger than the Wavelength ):

• Mild scattering occurs in this case .

• The scattering pattern is more complex and depends on the size and shape of the
particles .

• The intensity of scattered light is not as strongly dependent on wavelength as in

Rayleigh scattering .

Some applications of scattering :

1. Red Colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset :

• Reason : As sunlight passes through the Earth's atmosphere , it interacts with

atmospheric particles like dust , water vapor, and air molecules .
• Rayleigh Scattering : Shorter wavelengths (blue and violet ) are scattered more
strongly than longer wavelengths (red and orange ).

• Path Length : At sunrise and sunset , the sunlight travels a longer path through the
atmosphere , allowing more blue and violet light to be scattered away . This leaves the
remaining light , which is predominantly red and orange , to reach our eyes .

2. White Colour of the Sky at Noon

• Reason : At noon , the sun is directly overhead , and the sunlight travels a shorter
path through the atmosphere .

• Scattering: All wavelengths of light are scattered approximately equally.

• Result : The combination of all scattered colors appears white .

3. Blue Colour of the Sky

• Reason : As explained earlier, shorter wavelengths like blue and violet are
scattered more strongly than longer wavelengths .
• Dominant Colour : Blue light is scattered most efficiently and reaches our eyes
from all directions , giving the sky its blue color.
4. Black Color of the Sky in the Absence of Atmosphere
• Reason : Without an atmosphere , there are no particles to scatter sunlight .
• Result : The sky appears black , as the sunlight travels directly to our eyes
without being scattered .
5. White Color of Clouds

• Reason : Clouds are composed of water droplets or ice crystals , which are
much larger than the wavelength of visible light .
• Mie Scattering : This type of scattering is less wavelength-dependent and
scatters all colors of light approximately equally .
• Result : The combination of scattered light appears white .

6. Red Light for Danger Signals

• Reason : Red light is less scattered than shorter wavelengths like blue and
green .
• Visibility : This makes red light more visible in foggy or hazy conditions when
other colors might be obscured .
• Safety : Red light is often used for danger signals to ensure it is easily seen
and understood in various weather conditions .