Unit 2: Origins of Evolutionary Thought

“Evolution is only a theory” (wrong)

- Theories: broad statements unifying scientific relationships or underlying principles that have
substantially verified through testing of hypotheses
- Evolution is a theory, one that has been supported by a lot of genetic evidence that expands daily
- Evolutionary theory stands as most fundamental unifying force in biological science

Early Evolutionary Thought

- Western science borrowed many ideas from other cultures like arabs, indians, and chinese
- Intellectuals in these cultures and in ancient greece developed notions of biological
evolution, but they never formulated them into a cohesive theory
- In middle ages, european worldview was that all aspects of nature never changed - fixity of species
- For europeans, discovery of new world and circumnavigation of globe (1400s) overturned some
very basic ideas about planet - its not flat & there was immense biological diversity
- Copernicus: in 1514 he proposes a sun-centered solar system (even though indian scholars
discovered this long before)
- Galileo Galilei: early 1600s, supported Copernicus’ view in print and used logic and math to
support his claim
- Galileo spend last 9 years of his life under house arrest after persecution by catholic church
- In 16th and 17th c. , European scholars developed methods & theories that revolutionized scientific
thought:
- Physics (motion, gravity)
- Invention of telescope (galileo), barometer, microscope
- Physiology (heart function & circulatory system)

Precursors to Theory of Evolution

- John Ray (1600s): minister educated at Cambridge university
- Put reproductively isolated organisms into a single category called “species”
- He grouped similar species into a category called “genus” (species)
- Carolus Linnaeus (1700s): swedish naturalist; “systema naturae” (1735)
- Standardized use of genus and species and established binomial nomenclature
- Added 2 more categories called “class” and “order”
- This 4 level system became basis for taxonomy (classification system used today)
- Georges-Louis Leclerc du Buffon (1700s): “natural history” (1749)
- Recognized changing nature of the universe and of species
- Recognized the environment as an agent of change in species
- But rejected idea that one species could give rise to another
- Erasmus Darwin (1700s): darwin's grandfather ; physician, inventor, naturalist, philosopher
- Had views that life had originated in the seas and that all life descended from a common
ancestor
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1700s-1800s): french naturalist; attempted to explain evolutionary
process
 - Use-disuse theory & inheritance of acquired characteristics: physical changes in species
occur in response to bodily “needs” and those changes are passed onto offspring since they
make animal better suited for its habitat
- Lamarck saw need for a branch of science that dealt solely with living things and coined
term biology
- Thomas Malthus (1700s-1800s): “an essay on principle of population” (1798)
- Recognized how availability of resources regulated population growth
- Argued that lack of resources would be source of constant misery for humankind
- b/c competition for limited resources is a major driving force behind species change,
malthus’ work influenced both darwin and wallace immensely
- Charles Lyell (1800s): founder of modern geology & mentor to Darwin; “Principles of Geology” (1830)
- Geological uniformitarianism: geological processes observed in present are same as those that
occurred in past
- So while animals, plants, and earths surface change over time, the underlying process
(erosion, flooding, volcanoes, earthquakes) that influence them are constant
- Lyell altered perceptions of earth’s history from a few thousands to many millions of years
- Lyell’s concept of “deep time” permitted the necessary time depth for the slow process of
evolutionary change (deep time → darwin)
- Mary Anning (1800s): lived on coast of southern england
- Collected and sold fossils to support her family
- Growing interest in fossils which believed to be remains of Noah’s flood
- Supplied researchers and museums with hundreds of fossils
- Became known as one of world's leading “fossilists” and contributing to understanding of
evolution of marine life

Discovery of Natural Selection

- Charles Darwin (1809-1882): studied medicine in Edinburgh for 2 years, but hated it
- Went to Christ’s college, cambridge to study theology - here became interested in natural science
- After graduation in 1831, he was invited to join scientific expedition aboard HMS Beagle
- Darwin went aboard HMS beagle believing in fixity of species
- Darwin & Galapagos Islands:
- Noticed vegetation and animals of the islands shared many similarities with those on mainland of
south america, but they were not identical ; birds of one island different from those on another
- Collected 13 species of island finches: physical traits differed, especially shape/size of beak
- Finches from mainland appeared to represent only one species
- Galapagos finches had descended from a common, mainland ancestor and had been modified over
time in response to different island habitats and dietary preferences
- Artificial selection: humans act as a selective agent ; the breed animals with specific traits they want to
emphasize in offspring
- Influence from Malthus: population size limited by amount of available resources; in nature there is a
constant struggle for existence
- Influence from Lyell: “deep time” (time scale of geological events)
- Darwin's “Aha” moment: under these conditions, favorable traits (↑ reproductive success (fitness)) would
be preserved, unfavorable ones would not ; the result would be formation of a new species
In Darwin's Shadow
- Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913):
- 1848: expedition to Amazon; acquired first hand knowledge of natural phenomena
- 1855: wallace published article suggesting species descended from other species, and this process
influenced by environmental factors
- 1858: wallace wrote paper describing evolution as a process driven by competition and natural
selection
- Darwin quickly wrote a paper describing his ideas
- Both men's papers read before Linnean society of london: neither author was present; neither received
much attention
- December, 1859: Darwin’s greatest work “On the Origin of Species” is published and storm broke
Natural Selection
- Basic principles of natural selection and evolutionary change are as follow:
1. Species reproduce at a faster rate than food supplies increase
2. There is biological variation within all species
3. There is competition among individuals, due to limited resources
4. Individuals who possess favourable traits have greater fitness (measure of reproductive success; measure
by an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation)
5. Environment (nature) determines whether a trait is beneficial or not
6. Individuals with greater fitness contribute more offspring to the next generation and over time those traits
become more common
7. Over long periods of geological time, successful variations may accumulate to the point where new species
may appear
8. Geographical isolation contributes to formation of new species. When populations are isolated, they adapt
to different environments and respond to different selective pressures (ecological circumstances)
- Unit of natural selection = individual
- Unit of evolution = population
- Because individuals don't change generally but over time, populations do
Natural Selection in Action
- Peppered moth ex: after industrial revolution, black moths increased in frequency
- Birds who eat them are selective agent (they apply selective pressures on moths)
- Peppered moth is an example of microevolution
- Medium ground finch ex:
- 1977: drought killed many plants that produced smaller, softer seeds; forced one population to feed
on larger, harder seeds
- Variation: some had smaller beaks, some has larger beaks
- Result: smaller beaked birds died; larger beaked bird survived, reproduced, passed trait to next
generation
- 1982: heavy rains; pattern reversed
- Resistant strains of bacteria ex:
- Antibiotics introduced in 1940s
- Bacteria with inherited resistance will pass that trait to future generations
- Eventually, bacteria stop responding to treatment. Happens quickly because bacteria reproduce
rapidly
 - Ex: resurgence of tuberculosis; some forms completely resistant to current treatments
Natural Selection Fundamentals
1. A trait must be inheritable if natural selection is to act on it
2. Natural selection can not occur without population variation in inherited characteristics
3. Fitness is a relative measure that changes as the environment changes
4. Natural selection can act only on traits that affect reproduction
5. Another important aspect of natural selection is differential net reproductive success
a. Number of young raised successfully to point where they themselves reproduce
b. Fine balance b/w number of offsprings and how many one can raise successfully
Opposition to Evolution Today
- Some surveys show that about half of all Americans don't think evolution occurs. There are a number of
reasons for this:
- Mechanisms of evolution are complex and they require understanding of biology and genetics,
which most people don't have
- Many people want definitive answers/absolute truth but science doesn't promise absolute truth
- Most people raised on belief system that don't emphasize biological continuity b/w species or
differ scientific explanations for natural phenomena
- First amendment of constitution : “congress shall make no law regarding an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof”
- This statement guarantees separation of church and state and it means that the government can neither
promote not inhibit the practice of any religion
- Therefore, the use of public institutions (including schools) paid for by tax payers’ dollars to promote any
particular religion is unconstitutional