Week 2.1

Calculus Week 2.
1
Rommel
27/11/2023
1 Linear Approximation
Linear approximation is a method used in calculus to estimate the value of a
function near a particular point by using the tangent line to the graph of the
function at that point. The basic idea is to replace a complicated function
with a simpler linear function (a straight line) that closely approximates the
behavior of the function near a specific point.
The linear approximation is based on the fact that, for small enough
intervals, a curve can be approximated by a straight line. The equation of a
straight line is given by y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the line and b
is the y-intercept.
The linear approximation formula is:
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)

Here, - L(x) is the linear approximation, - f (x) is the original function,
- f 0 (x) is the derivative of the function, - a is the point near which the
approximation is made, and - x is the variable.
The formula says that the linear approximation L(x) is obtained by
adding the value of the function f (a) at the point a to the product of the
derivative f 0 (a) at the point a and the difference (x − a).
To illustrate, let’s consider an example:
Suppose we want√ to approximate the square root of 9.2. We can use the
function f √ (x) = x and choose a point a near 9.2, say a = 9. The derivative
of f (x) = x is f 0 (x) = 2√1 x , and at x = 9, f 0 (9) = 2√1 9 = 16 .
Now, using the linear approximation formula:
1
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
√ 1
L(x) = 9 + (x − 9)
6
1
L(x) = 3 + (x − 9)
6
Now, we can use this linear approximation to estimate the square root of
9.2 by plugging in x = 9.2:
1 0.2
L(9.2) = 3 + (9.2 − 9) = 3 +
6 6
L(9.2) ≈ 3 + 0.0333 ≈ 3.0333

√
This is a close approximation to the actual value of 9.2, and it illustrates
the concept of linear approximation.
2 Extreme Values
Certainly! In calculus, extreme values refer to the maximum and minimum
values of a function. These points are crucial in understanding the behavior
of a function and finding optimal solutions in various real-world problems.
There are two types of extreme values: maximum and minimum.
1. Maximum Value: - A function f (x) has a maximum value at a point
c in its domain if, for all x in the domain, f (x) ≤ f (c). - Geometrically, the
point (c, f (c)) is the highest point on the graph of the function within the
specified domain.
2. Minimum Value: - A function f (x) has a minimum value at a point c
in its domain if, for all x in the domain, f (x) ≥ f (c). - Geometrically, the
point (c, f (c)) is the lowest point on the graph of the function within the
specified domain.
To identify extreme values, we often use critical points and the first or
second derivative tests.
- Critical Points: - A critical point of a function f (x) is a point c in its
domain where f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist. - At critical points, the slope
of the tangent line to the graph of the function is either zero or undefined.
2
- First Derivative Test: - If f 0 (x) > 0 to the left of a critical point c and
f (x) < 0 to the right of c, then f (c) is a local maximum. - If f 0 (x) < 0 to
0
the left of c and f 0 (x) > 0 to the right of c, then f (c) is a local minimum.
- Second Derivative Test: - If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0, then f (c) is a local
minimum. - If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0, then f (c) is a local maximum.
It’s important to note that not all critical points necessarily correspond
to extreme values. Some critical points may be points of inflection or other
features of the function.
Additionally, global maximum and minimum values are the absolute
highest and lowest points on the entire graph of the function, not just within
a specific interval. These values may occur at critical points or endpoints of
the domain.
2.1 Extreme Values Detail

The first and second derivative tests provide a systematic way to identify
critical points and determine whether they correspond to local maximum,
minimum, or points of inflection. Let’s delve into more detail about how
these tests work and where they come from.
First Derivative Test:
1. Local Maximum: - If f 0 (x) > 0 to the left of a critical point c and
0
f (x) < 0 to the right of c, then f (c) is a local maximum. - The rationale
behind this is that if the derivative is positive to the left of c, it means the
function is increasing. If the derivative is negative to the right of c, it indicates
the function is decreasing. Therefore, c is a point where the function reaches
a local maximum.
2. Local Minimum: - If f 0 (x) < 0 to the left of c and f 0 (x) > 0 to the
right of c, then f (c) is a local minimum. - The reasoning is similar: if the
derivative is negative to the left of c, the function is decreasing, and if the
derivative is positive to the right, the function is increasing. Thus, c is a
point where the function reaches a local minimum.
Where it Comes From (Intuition):
The intuition behind the first derivative test is based on the fact that the
derivative f 0 (x) represents the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the
function at any point x. When f 0 (x) > 0, it indicates that the function is
rising (slope is positive), and when f 0 (x) < 0, it indicates that the function
is falling (slope is negative).
Second Derivative Test:
3
1. Local Maximum: - If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0, then f (c) is a local
maximum. - The second derivative f 00 (x) represents the concavity of the
function. If f 00 (c) < 0, it means the function is concave downward at c,
suggesting a local maximum.
2. Local Minimum: - If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0, then f (c) is a local
minimum. - If f 00 (c) > 0, it means the function is concave upward at c,
indicating a local minimum.
The second derivative test builds on the idea that the sign of the second
derivative f 00 (x) provides information about the concavity of the function. If
f 00 (x) > 0, the function is concave upward, and if f 00 (x) < 0, the function is
concave downward. Therefore, examining the sign of f 00 (c) at a critical point
c gives insights into whether the point is associated with a local minimum or
maximum.
In summary, the first and second derivative tests provide a systematic
approach to analyzing critical points and understanding the local behavior
of a function based on its derivatives. The first derivative test focuses on the
change in slope, while the second derivative test considers the concavity of
the function.
3 Mean Value Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem (MVT) is a fundamental result in calculus that
describes a relationship between the average rate of change of a function and
the instantaneous rate of change at some point in its domain. There are two
main forms of the Mean Value Theorem: the Rolle’s Theorem and the more
general Mean Value Theorem.
1. Rolle’s Theorem:
Statement: If a function f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b],
differentiable on the open interval (a, b), and f (a) = f (b), then there exists
at least one value c in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
Intuition: Rolle’s Theorem essentially says that if a function is continuous
on a closed interval, differentiable on the open interval, and has the same
function values at the endpoints of the interval, then at some point within
the interval, the instantaneous rate of change (derivative) is zero.
2. Mean Value Theorem (Generalized):
Statement: If a function f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and
4
differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there exists at least one value
c in the open interval (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
Intuition: The Mean Value Theorem states that if a function is continuous
on a closed interval and differentiable on the open interval, then there exists
at least one point c where the instantaneous rate of change (derivative) at c
is equal to the average rate of change of the function over the interval [a, b].
The Mean Value Theorem can be understood by considering the geometric
interpretation of the derivative. The derivative at a point represents the slope
of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The average
rate of change over an interval is the slope of the secant line connecting the
endpoints of the interval.
If the function is continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on
the open interval, then there must be a point c where the tangent line at c is
parallel to the secant line connecting (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). In other words,
the derivative at c is equal to the average rate of change over the interval.
Application:
The Mean Value Theorem is widely used in calculus and has practical
applications. For example, it is essential in understanding motion, as it
guarantees that there is a moment in time when an object’s instantaneous
velocity equals its average velocity over a given time interval.
In summary, the Mean Value Theorem provides a mathematical bridge
between the average rate of change and the instantaneous rate of change,
offering insights into the behavior of differentiable functions on closed intervals.

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Calculus Week 2.

L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)

L(9.2) ≈ 3 + 0.0333 ≈ 3.0333

2.1 Extreme Values Detail

3 Mean Value Theorem

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