Nasaq Journal V0L (43) No.

(1) September 2024-1445 h

Procatalepsis and Hypophora : A Linguistic Review

Safa Naji Abed

sfanajybdtyh@gmail.com
Department of English, College of Education for Human Sciences
University of Babylon

ABSTRACT
Procatalepsis and hypophora are two rhetorical or stylistic strategies
that can be observed in argument. They can be utilized to persuade the
audience that addressers' claims are the best one through posing a
question and answer in the case of hypophora. In procatalepsis, the
addresser presents two viewpoints in details ,in other words ,he presents
weak and strong features for each view point , then , he argues that
his point is the best one to control the addressee's mind. The study
aims to review two devices which are procatalepsis and hypophora from
a linguistic point of view to present their theoretical background. It sheds
light on types , functions , restrictions of procatalepsis and hypophora
,and its relatedness with other devices .The study also discusses
linguistic previous studies to acknowledge their strong points and
weaknesses. The stylistic strategies can be noticed or reinforced
through intonation pattern in spoken language, they can be classified
within semantic redundancy, they flout the cooperative maxims of
quantity and manner , they can enhance the model of Van Dijk . The
work sums up different types and functions as internal ,external
,absolute of procatalepsis and explicit and implicit of hypophora. Their
major functions are control, emphasis, and etc.
Keywords: argument, hypophora, procatalepsis, discourse
analysis,stylistics , pragmatics

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‫التوقع الدبقي والدؤال المدتجاب ‪ :‬مراجعة لغوية‬

‫م‪.‬م‪.‬صفا ناجي عبد‬
‫جامعه بابل‪ /‬كليه التربية للعلوم اإلندانية‬
‫الملخص‬
‫يعتبر التؽقع الدبقي والدؤال الطدتجاب مؼ استراتيجيات البالغية واألسمؽبية المذان يدتخدمان‬
‫ألقظاع الطخاطب باالدعاءات الطتكمػ مؼ خالل اإلجابة عمى األسئمة الطتكمػ نفدو وطرح‬
‫الدمبيات وااليجابيات لؽجيو نضر الطتكمػ واقظاعو ‪.‬تيدف الدراسة لطراجعة االستراتيجيات‬
‫الطختارة مؼ مظعؽر لغؽي ‪ .‬تبيؼ الطقالة أنؽاع ووظائف ومحددات التؽقع الدبقي و الدؤال‬
‫الطدتجاب وعالقتيطا باالستراتيجيات الطقاربة‪ .‬تظاقش الطقالة الدراسات الدابقة ليػ وتبيؼ نقاط‬
‫القؽه والضعف ليػ ‪ .‬تبرز ىذه االستراتيجيات األسمؽبية مؼ خالل التظغيػ في المغة الطظطؽقة‪.‬‬
‫تخرق ىذه االستراتيجيات مبادئ الصدق والكطية بدبب االطظاب وكذلغ ادراجيا ضطؼ نطؽذج‬
‫فان دايغ‪ .‬تؽصمت الطقالة الى وجؽد أنؽاع لمدؤال الطدتجاب مثال الؽاضح والضطظي وداخمي‬
‫وخارجي لمتؽقع الدبقي وكذلغ وجؽد عدة وظائف مثال الديطرة والتأكيد وغيرىا‪.‬‬
‫الكلمات المفتاحية ‪:‬الحجاج‪ ،‬الدؤال المدتجاب‪ ،‬التوقع الدبقي‪ ،‬التحليل الخطاب‪ ،‬االسلوبية‪،‬‬
‫التداولية‬
‫‪1.Introduction‬‬
‫‪Rhetoric as a central of linguistic investigation looks to be interesting‬‬
‫‪activity. It is the study of relational and functional system of language.‬‬
‫‪It is crucial for one's training especially those who engaged or‬‬
‫‪participated in public speaking as salesman, instructors , politicians,‬‬
‫‪and‬‬ ‫‪administrators since it is regarded as significant‬‬ ‫‪oratory‬‬
‫‪techniques. It is seen as a component in human's communication‬‬
‫‪(Sotirova 2016).‬‬
‫‪The study attempts to answer the questions: first, what are types,‬‬
‫‪functions, restrictions of procatalepsis and hypophora?.Second, how can‬‬
‫‪they be distinguished by the addressee?. Third , in which linguistic‬‬
‫?‪levels can they be studied‬‬
‫‪The study is crucial for those who are interested in different levels of‬‬
‫‪linguistics in addition it enhances the theoretical studies of linguistics in‬‬
‫‪accordance with selected devices.‬‬

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Nasaq Journal V0L (43) No.(1) September 2024-1445 h

2. Questions
Questions in linguistics have history and the present studies
attempt to elicit those characteristics which extend from phonology
(intonation) to syntax and semantics to investigate the communicative
functions of the kinds of questions in discourse(Hautli-Janisz et al.
2022 ) .
Hautli-Janisz et al. (2022) introduce the following types of questioning:

a.Pure The addresser directs the hearer to provide

information.

b.Rhetorical The addresser or author expresses predominantly an

opinion that she requires the addressee finds
uncontentious.

c.Assertive The speaker directs his audience to provide the

information, but he expects an opinion as emphasis of
his thought.

d.Challenge The author declares that he seeks the grounds for

Hearer's opinion.
Questions are better than fewer and no questions because they are
motivating , focusing the audience's attention on what is posited.
Thought questions require depth of processing. A good question elicits
the addressee to process the text in active way and convey it into
meaningful terms to h/ her, in addition, questions have reinforcement
and metacognitive process ( Shanmugavelu et al.2020 ).
According to Hautli-Janisz et al. (2022) ,there are distinguished
Standards for question types.
1. Pure has the addresser's intention of seeking information and the
hearer's intention of providing information. Its argument is paraphrase.

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Nasaq Journal V0L (43) No.(1) September 2024-1445 h

2. Rhetorical , this type of question expresses the addresser's opinion

to gain the hearers' agreement.
3. Assertive seeks the information and expressing the opinion of the
author to supply the information to the addressee.
4. Challenge question is posited to seek justification through inference
The speaker 's figurative language is observed in his way of
persuading the addressee through his language style like the pattern
of lexico – syntactics which involves the horizontal and chain axes.
Such patterns can be obtained by different items means as
inverted or unusual rhetorical question, parallelism, and repetition. The
other pattern is Lexico-syntactic choices that can come from devices
like pilling of un/usual collocates, metaphor juxtaposing some
intended part of speech.
Figurative type of language is a branch of rhetoric because it points to
logic domain which work in one's brain. Thus, the speaker or writer
regards that this kind of language be included within the elements of
rhetoric or stylistic devices(Islam, et al. 2019)
Sotirova(2016) explains the stages of speech and argument which
can be conducted in the first stage of invention in which one delivers
and arranges argument . The second stage involves disposition which
organizes the speech from introduction to conclusion. The following
stages are elocution ,memory, delivery in that elocution is the use of
linguistic devices and strategies like metaphor ,antithesis ,and repetition
to state one's ideas. While memory is illustrated in mnemonic strategies
can ensure memorable speech. The stage of delivery can have tone,
pitch and gesture as nonverbal communication in addition to verbal
linguistic strategies for a good presentation.
3. Hypophora and Procatalepsis Hypophora has a form of question
to make effect like deny or to assert claim rather than to get
information. Hypophora is followed with an answer.

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Nasaq Journal V0L (43) No.(1) September 2024-1445 h

“Doesn’t your family deserve the best? Of course they do. That’s why
Eggland’s Best should be the only egg for them.”(McQuarrie & Phillips,
2014,p. 88).
Hypophora has question and lengthy response which is employed by
author to clarify his idea, and it is also significant to maintain the
addressee ’s curiosity and The hypophora is illustrated in “So now
what can I tell you about this… and therefore you can't look to the past
to see what what's gonna work interests" (Harris, 2018).
Fahnestock (2011) explains hypophoras as significant tools for
managing the issue or specific topic and smooth the flow of support in
arguments because it arranges the subtopics in expository type of the
texts.
The benefit of hypophora can be ascribed to its naturality of the
question, in that it stimulates curiosity , change the direction or
continue with the intended idea such as “What about safety? Now,
…I’m talking about the driver safety, …,I’m talking about pedestrians,
safety for everyone..."( Alyanto, & Gunawan ,2023,p.48)
Phillips (2011) states that hypophora is the argument which establishes
on question besides answer. He reads political speeches and he
comes with the best to what the speaker can argue with is
hypophora.
Procatalepsis is employed as a rhetorical device in which a speaker
utilizes it to expect possible questions. Its function is to permit an
argument which comprises opposing viewpoint (Harris, 2018).
A procatalepsis as a rhetorical device or strategy, it is often called a
prolepsis, is used by the writer to strengthen her/his argument
through dealing with possible logical objections before the addressee
raises counter-arguments (Sameshima ,2007).
Procatalepsis is a format or a way to structure argument in academic
way. It was asserted that the major characteristic of superior

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argumentation is engaged other people’s views in which it involves

listening and comprehending closely to others by summarizing their
points or views in a manner that they recognize, and replying with
own ideas in kind . Procatalepsis grants the addresser /addressee the
opportunity to acknowledge the potential weaknesses and strengths of
that argument (McEntire , 2022 ).
X4
X5

X3 X1
X2

Figure 1. of Semantic representation of Procatalepsis

(x1) The car a has a high performance type of car since it has a diesel
engine and a cost of 4000.
(x2) generally, diesel kinds of engine has inferior performance and
quality , hence ,it can be compared by gasoline machines.
(X3) On the contrary , these new engines have the difference in quality
as well as performance [...] is negligible (X4) Besides the high price
of the car.
(x5) It can be remunerated just because the diesel engines can run
more before breaking than other type of engine (Bonzon, et al. 2021).
Proleptic references can be repeated to assume or to re-focus the
listener / reader's attention on the action/episode or it may be renew
anticipation of the intended narrative(Bridgeman, 2005 ).
4.Procatalepsis , Hypophora and Related Studies
A. Babayev (2023)
Babayev 's 2023 study consists of three pages entitled "USAGE
SPHERE OF HYPOPHORA" .This study presents definitions of
hypophora ". It shows the difference between hypophora and rhetorical
questions in which the addresser posits question and answer it.
B.Wan( 2023)

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Wan's (2023) study investigates frequent questioning strategies

utilized by UFPs to discusses how these kinds of questioning (question
cascade and hypophora ) are being manipulated , to aid design
negative kind of stance discourse genre of the institution . In addition
to the help of background of the stance triangle , the author explores
the reasons of different stance activities that are maneuvered across
the utilization of the selected questioning strategies in the chosen data
to establish alignment or dis /alignment over the electoral candidates.
C. Besel(2012)
Besel (2012) proposes a paper which has contribution to the
grasping political argumentation , communication of environment ,
and theory of rhetoric through investigating the way proleptic
misdetermination present devastating results or consequences against
person's reason . Proponents of such act of climate steward ship based
on inventing proleptic arguments established in a scientific
comprehension of climate change .
D. Dornean Păunescu (2023)
Dornean Păunescu (2023) introduces a paper to shed light the
properties of the institutional dialogue institution , precisely , the
way in that a court decision is respected by the mayor and
administrative authority . The author uses the rhetorical strategy of
procatalepsis to mean that the speaker posits his objection to his
argument and he immediately responds it in order to reinforce his
argument through addressing probable counterarguments before the
other (audience ) posit them.
E. Bridgeman (2005)
Bridgeman's writing entitled "Thinking Ahead: A Cognitive Approach to
Prolepsis"
He states different concepts as mental model , situational context,
prolepsis in relation to narrative. He also present examples of multiple

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prolepsis . He also discusses the post proleptic reading and suggests

cues to active reading.
5.Hypophora and Related Devices
Hypophora, procatalepsis, and metabasis, , and are used as rhetorical
devices by writer the rhetorical devices to undermine the topic
lower ,enhance credibility, and defend the intended people. The
devices are also utilized to show the addressee's care towards the topic,
educate him or assert certainty of the thought (Setyawan & Gunawan,
2022).
Rhetorical questions don’t require an answer and they have the sense
of an assertion They can be answered. Questions , generally, require
the addressee to do something in a cooperative exchange, as an
affirmation an answer, an action ,or a rejection( Jacklyn , 2023).
Babayev (2023) shows the difference between hypophora and rhetorical
questions in which the addresser posits question and answer it .
Hypophora can be seen as type of rhetorical question in which it is
deliberately proposed to engage the audience or to introduce topic
in a speech or written statement. It is posited so that it can be
immediately responded by the speaker (Jacklyn , 2023) .
The epiplexis is other related rhetoric device to hypophora in which it is
utilized to make the participant incited ,doubted or convinced. It is not
employed to evoke answers. It is rebuking question (Zomer, 2024).
6.Procatalepsis and its Related Terms
According to Hoeck (2018), anticipation is the assumption or
representation of a development or future like presently accomplished,
a. Prochronism, the due of an event or a person etc., to a earlier time
than the actual one . it is the representation in the future of something
as it is already occurred; the word can signals the anticipation of
objections to an argument. Such device aims to weaken the force of
the objections( Hoeck , 2018).

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(b.) Procatalepsis, also named prebuttal or prolepsis , they attempts

to enhance their argument by treating probable counter-arguments
before their addressee may raise them. Rhetorically , anticipating future
answerers and responding possible objections set up the audience's
argument for a better defense. In literature procatalepsis is employed
as a kind of figurative language in which a description or
characterization used before it is applicable. Procatalepsis is related to
the term inoculation which is a small dose of threat that parallel to the
awareness of the against argument that is used to create up the other's
argument across defense in prolepsis (Hoeck , 2018).
7. Types of Procatalepsis
Hoeck (2018) states the types of procatalepsis which are Internal as
it is exemplified in "But there are some of you that believe not. .., and
who should betray him. And he said, …, that no man can come unto
me, except it were given unto him of my Father( John 6:64-69)".The
second type is external like "But these things have I told you, ... And
these things I said not unto you at the beginning, because I was with
you (John 16:4)." Transmutative is another type which echo a change
of circumstance that further down in the plot of narrative . the example
can be taken from John 8:6.8 in which Jesus wrote with his finger on
the earth after he bent down.This gesture looks s to prelude a context
surrounding the resurrection the prophet (Christ )at John 20:5.11. In
addition to the absolute as a kind which clearest representation of
procatalepsis.
7.Types of Hypophora
Zeyrek & Kurfalı (2018) present two kinds of hypophora which are
the implicit and explicit , the former representation of hypophora in
spoken language of registers of Romance .Intonation structure is used
to express the polar questions instead of the employment of subject-
verb inversion or the use of a question particle. The later representation

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of the device in written form is question mark .In other words, the only
way to distinguish the declarative clauses or sentences from this kind
questions ((hypophora ) is via the use of a punction mark.
8.Functions of Hypophora
According to Joe (2023), hypophora is also known as anthypophora.
The hypophoras give the possibility for the speaker to smoothly
transition through his address. It clarifies of the message and this device
presents and strengthens the argument. It also gains the interest of the
addressee.
Jacklyn (2023) presents the following functions as facilitative in which
the addresser is certain of the truth but he wants to engage the
hearer. Attitudinal is used as other function of hypophora for
emphasis. In addition to the redundancy function that is the repetition of
information. It is deployed for emphasis.
9.Functions of Procatalepsis
Besel (2012) proposes the following functions of prolepsis like
persuasive, ,refutational , it also increases of the effectiveness of the
message. Altitudinal Studies sum up that prolepsis is used when a
rhetor is trying to persuade the other that is opposite her or his
position.
Prolepsis adds mystery to the texts or poems when a poem or a text
begins with pronoun ,the addressee starts to think of the situation,
then,he weeps or wonders because of latter expressions (Forsyth,
2013).McEntire (2022) introduces the functions of evocation, focalization
, engagement and emphasis . The naysayers with “They / I Say” grant
the opportunity to persuade by focusing as well as empathizing with
their matters.
10.Sociolinguistic Perspective
Research displays that genders communicate in different way in other
wordS . Men are argued to tend to report talk while women prefer for

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rapport talk since they care about their personal relationships. Men's
speech have the following characteristics as competitive and powerful,
on the contrary, women's speech are powerless and cooperative in
which they tend to use indirect and paralanguage to have effective
communication . Women in general are more rhetorical than men but
the opposite is true in some cases since this device is beneficial to
formulate and respond questions the addressee cannot have regarded .
Men employ hypophora to convince the other that they can
answerers and they attack their enemies (Almagro, 2022 ).
11.Restrictions of Procatalepsis
Salzmann (2017) establishes the following restriction:
1.The prolepsis has a remarkable fact which is the presence of the
proleptic object that degrades extraction from the complement type
clause. The impact is reminiscent weak argument extraction becoming
adjunct extraction fully ungrammatical.
2.The object proleptic is reduced by predication.
3. Ellipsis accounts for scope and selective effect of the reconstruction.
Conclusions
The writer , In Both procatalepsis and hypophora, posits a question
with possible responses .Both of them can be utilized for achieving
various functions as emphasis ,engagement ,and etc. They can be
performed in explicit manner through utilization question words and they
also performed in implicit way through using intonations.
Pragmatically , they can breach ,flouts and generate implicature if the
writer gives information more than is required and present the
information in normal order.
Men and women use such rhetorical strategies in different amount. It is
proved that men use hypophora more than women for emphasis and
gain the addressee's attention.

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Procatalepsis can be involved in concept of in-group and out group

since it reinforce the speaker's positive points and underestimate or
devalue the other's point. Through this strategy the addresser raises
strong and weak point of his argument but he focuses on the strong one
,thus, it can be regarded as a tool of manipulation.
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