Dictionary of

Problem Words
and Expressions

Harry Shaw

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Shaw, Harry, date

Dictionary of problem words and expressions.

SUMMARY: A brief guide to more effective writing and

speaking accompanies an alphabetical arrangement of prob-
lem words and expressions which are described, discussed,
and illustrated with examples of actual usage.
1. English language—Usage. 2. English language—
Idioms, corrections, errors. [1. English language—
Usage. 2. English language—Idioms, corrections,
errors] I. Title.
PE1460. S5158 428'.3 74-13722
ISBN 0-07-056489-2

Copyright © 1975 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights

reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

4567890 MUBP 78432109876

 »

To the Reader

This book is designed to alert you to faulty speech and writing habits
you may have acquired and to confirm and strengthen you in good ones.
To these ends, Dictionary of Problem Words and Expressions singles out,
defines, explains, and illustrates some 1,500 of the most common mistakes
in word use made by speakers and writers of our language. Also, it
suggests that every speaker hnd writer can use his language with increas-
ing ease, flexibility, assurance, and accuracy if he will rid himself of
outmoded notions about "grammar" and "correctness."
The author of a book with these aims owes some explanation of the
convictions that led to its writing.
First, I believe with Thomas Mann that "Speech is civilization itself."
Many changes are going on in American society that tend to make the life
of each of us more and more impersonal. Computers and other machines
now perform work that once was done by people. From birth to death, we
are assigned numbers that try to transform us into cogs in a machine.
Throughout the country, television and radio use the same programs and
commercial messages. People tend to dress alike, eat alike, often even
think alike. But in one activity, at least, people differ: they rarely speak
alike.
Millions of other people may share our ideas, but the words We use and
the way we say them differ in many ways. The speech and writing habits of
everyone have been formed by individual influences: family, locale,
Mends, acquaintances, schooling, travel, housing, and occupation. Each
of us has his own dialect: the choice, use, and pronunciation of words
called an idiolect. Individuality has been preserved in speech more than in
any other activity of our lives solely because speech is a more integral and
more individual aspect of our outward personalities than any other.
Many scholars have argued that speech is the characteristic of man that
most clearly and powerfully distinguishes him from other animals. Other
scholars feel that not speech alone but language in general (which includes
writing) should bear this distinction. Still others have insisted that the
ability to communicate, rather than solely language or speech, is man's
most distinguishing characteristic.
A good case can be made for speech, however, as man's clearest
distinction among hominids and all mammals. Actually, both people and
animals can and do communicate in nonverbal ways. Apparently, animals
issue and receive messages: bees send instructions for locating nectar;
dogs bark differently at friends and strangers; birds emit warnings when a
cat or other marauder appears. With people, gestures and facial expres-
sions communicate ideas and states of mind even when no words are
spoken. Music can also communicate feelings and emotions without
words. Even smoke signals convey thoughts.
Almost everyone would agree, however, that nonverbal methods of
communication are inadequate makeshifts in comparison with language
itself.
Second, I believe that the way you talk tells more about you than any
other activity of your life. What you say and how you say it are more
revealing of your intelligence, personality, and character than the ways
you dress, eat, walk, read, or make your living. Knowing how to read and
write is a significant accomplishment for everyone, but neither reading nor
writing is an essential part of anyone's actual existence. Communicating
with others through some sort of speech signals is essential.
Everyone perusing this book obviously can read and certainly can
communicate with others. Most people spend many school years learning
to read, but few of us have ever paid real attention to learning how to
speak and write. In infancy we learned to speak, have talked ever since,
and now assume that talking is as simple and as natural as breathing. It
isn't.
More time, opportunities, money, and friendships are lost through
careless, slovenly, inaccurate speech (and writing) than through any other
activity of people's lives. Because no one can speak perfectly (any more
than he can read perfectly), this condition will persist. And yet everyone
can learn to speak and write with greater confidence, fewer errors, and
more genuine communication if he will only study his habits and give the
problem of communication with others the attention it fully deserves.
Third, in every speaking situation, one's aim should be to use only
words and phrases that are appropriate, fit, suitable, and proper. The
appropriateness of language is determined by the subject being discussed,
the place where talk is taking place, and the identity and relationship of
speaker and listener. Each of us employs a different level of usage
depending upon whether we are speaking or writing, upon our audience or
readers, and upon the kind of occasion involved.
The words we use in talking with the person working at the desk next to
us may not be appropriate when we are conversing with a member of our
family, with a company official, or with a minister, rabbi, or priest. A word
or phrase in correct or suitable usage a decade ago may now be outmoded.
An expression appropriate in one section of the country may be unclear
and therefore ineffective in another locality. Technical expressions used
before a specialized group of listeners may be inappropriate in general
conversation.
The best course to follow is to try to choose and use words and
expressions that are normally employed by reputable speakers in all
viii
sections of the country at the present time. That is, diction is effective and
appropriate when it is in national, present, and reputable use. Any word
or expression is correct if it meets these three standards; it may also be
effective (appropriate although not "correct") if it does not meet these
standards but is used for a particular purpose in a particular situation.
Among cultural levels of speech may be included illiteracies, narrowly
local dialects, ungrammatical speech, slovenly vocabulary and construc-
tion, and an excessive resort to slang, shoptalk, and even profanity and
obscenity. On a higher level is the language spoken by cultured people
over wide areas; such speech is clear, relatively concise, and grammati-
cally correct. In general, these two levels may be referred to as substan-
dard and standard, with the latter category divided into informal standard
and formal standard.
Functional varieties of speech may loosely be grouped in two classes,
familiar and formal. Included in functional varieties of speech indepen-
dent of cultural levels are colloquialisms. Such expressions exist in vary-
ing degrees of formality: familiar conversation, private correspondence,
formal conversation, public worship, platform speech, and so forth.
For every occasion when one needs to speak formally, a hundred or a
thousand situations involve informal talk. Here the aim should be to speak
naturally and easily, with as much interest and animation as one can
summon up. No matter how important what one has to say is, and no
matter how interested one is in saying that something, he should try to
choose words to fit the occasion. In doing so, he should strive to avoid
such roadblocks to effective communication as illiteracies, improprieties,
grammatical errors, excessive slang, unidiomatic expressions, wordiness,
and triteness.
Fourth, the belief that "anything goes" in the use of language can be
embarrassing and costly. Speech and writing that communicate are one
thing; speech and writing that do so clearly, interestingly, and effectively
are something else. Literacy and competency are different matters. Natu-
ralness and ease in speaking and writing are worthwhile goals, but casual-
ness, ignorance, and lack of concern are destructive attitudes in reaching
for them. Certain language standards Eire important. The credo of the
author is that expressed by Theodore M. Bernstein of The New York
Times in Watch Your Language:
To be sure, the English language is a changing and growing thing. All its
users have, of course, a perceptible effect upon it. But in changing and
growing it needs no contrived help from chitchat columnists or advertising
writers or comic-strip artists or television speakers. It will evolve nicely by
itself. If anything, it requires protection from influences that try to push it too
fast. There is need, not for those who would halt its progress altogether, but
for those who can keep a gentle foot on the brake and a guiding hand on the
steering wheel. . . .

During the long years of study and preparation that this book required I
have been helped by many persons. Oblique but nonetheless hearty thanks
ix
should go to hundreds of students at New York University and Columbia
University whose talk and papers revealed the need for a book such as
this. Colleagues in the editorial offices of six magazine and book publish-
ers have suggested, sometimes inadvertently, scores of items that are
included.
Without aid from many scholars, teachers, linguists, and lexicographers
this book would be far less accurate and thorough than hopefully it is. I am
especially indebted to H. W. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English
Usage, to The Oxford English Dictionary, and to the unabridged edition of
The Random House Dictionary of the English Language.
Individuals to whom I am particularly indebted include the late Profes-
sors Paul Roberts of California and Havilah Babcock of South Carolina. In
years past, the conversation and writings of these gifted teachers have
helped me immeasurably in my approach to language. I also express
gratitude to a longtime friend and colleague, Professor George S. Wykoff
of Purdue University. Hesitantly, I mention the name of Theodore M.
Bernstein once again. His lively, fact-packed, and solid work (especially
Watch Your Language, The Careful Writer, and Miss Thistlebottom's
Hobgoblins) has played a prominent part in my thinking about speech and
writing. I have never met Mr. Bernstein, but his work suggests that he is
eminently worth knowing.
Finally, I acknowledge the encouragement and support of McGraw-Hill
officials and editors, especially Leonard Josephson, who suggested this
book, Mrs. Tobia Worth, who has made many wise editorial suggestions,
and Daniel N. Fischel, their chief and, I claim with pride, my one-time
prize student.
H.S.

x
 You and the Way You Talk and Write
Two basic problems underlie and precede everything this book tries to
offer about the use and abuse of words and expressions. This Dictionary
cannot solve either, but it can bring them to your attention.
First, little value resides in studying words unless one has something
worthwhile to say and some interest and purpose in saying that something,
whatever it is. Oliver Wendell Holmes once remarked "A word is the skin
of a living thought." If one's thought is nonexistent or valueless, so will be
the word itself.
Reading, listening, seeing, experiencing, and, above all, thinking are the
methods by which one insures having something to say. The book in your
hands provides thousands of suggestions, none of which deals directly
with this fundamental problem. But it can, and does, suggest at the outset
that with rare exceptions, people tend to talk more and say less than they
should. After all, speech is only the faculty or power of speaking. The
ability to talk and write is one thing; thoughts and emotions are another.
Spinoza once wrote that mankind would be happier if the power in men to
be silent were the same as that to speak; that "men govern nothing with
more difficulty than their tongues." John Ruskin wrote: "The greatest
thing a human soul ever does in this world is to see something and tell what
it saw in a plain way. Hundreds can talk for one who can think." It was a
wise person who remarked at a meeting that it was better for him to remain
silent and be thought a fool than to speak and remove all possible doubt.
Think first, talk second.
Next, it is important to form a suitable attitude toward writing and
speaking. Despite the comments that appear throughout the Dictionary,
one should not think of these processes as a complicated series of do's and
dont's, a long list of prohibitions, taboos, and thou-shalt-not's. The Amer-
ican language is a flexible medium. One should consider it the most
important method he has for communicating clearly and interestingly with
and to others. What possible activity could be more meaningful?
The author whose work you most eqjoy is possibly not the greatest
stylist of all time. He may repeatedly violate many of the recommenda-
tions set forth in following pages. Not by the niceties of his style but by his
drive, imagination, and animation he gets, and holds, your fascinated
attention. Similarly, the person with whom you most enjoy talking may
make many so-called mistakes in grammar and may frequently confuse
one word with another. But he uses his tongue interestingly and forcefully,
however many "errors" he may make while doing so.
In short, using words and expressions effectively depends not on "cor-
rectness" alone but on having something of value to communicate and
doing so with ease and assurance.
It is true, however, that in our society few people fail to realize the
importance of using good English. The late Will Rogers was never more
humorous than when he remarked, "A lot of people who don't say ain't,
You and the Way You Talk and Write xi
ain't eatin'." Most of us, however, are properly concerned when others
react unfavorably to mistakes we make in expressing ourselves. We
understand that our use of language represents a significant form of
behavior.
By learning basic good usage one can concentrate on what he wishes to
communicate and. stop worrying about detailed methods of doing so.
Freed from restraint and anxiety, he can reveal his thoughts to others in
the natural, easy way he should speak and write our language but all too
often does not.
This book will help you to improve your use of language by emphasis
upon those common errors, and only those, which hinder communication
and impede thought. As you study the entries that follow, keep these four
"commandments" in mind:
Be concise. Most statements of any kind are wordy. All of us repeat an
idea in identical or similar words and then say it again. Talk should not be
cryptic and mysteriously abrupt, but it should be economical. Make it
snappy!
Be original. It's impossible for anyone to conceive of a wholly new
idea or to express an old one in fresh, original diction. And yet the greatest
single error in speaking and writing is the use of trite, worn-out expres-
sions that have lost their first vigor, picturesqueness, and appeal. Avoid
cliches. Don't be a rubber stamp.
Be specific. Much of our speech is indefinite, not clearly expressed,
uncertain in meaning. Even when we have a fairly good idea of what we
wish to say, we don't seek out those exact and concrete words that would
convey what we have in mind. Try to use words that have precise
meaning. Don't be vague.
Vary the approach. The sole requirement of effective speech and
writing is that they should communicate. The choice and use of words
should vary from situation to situation, from person to person. At times,
one's speech and writing should be racy and pungent; at other times,
deliberate and formal. Communication should be appropriate. Shift gears.
Put another way, a major fault in writing and speaking is using too many
words, many of which are not so much "wrong" as stale and worn-out
from overuse. These major faults of wordiness and triteness (along with
allied problems that largely contribute to them) are briefly mentioned in
the pages that follow.

Wordiness
Nearly everyone uses more words than he needs. In rapid-fire talk, in
the give-and-take of conversation, each of us is likely to repeat himself and
to use words that are meaningless or unnecessary. (When writing, we have
a chance to go over our work and remove the verbiage.) Truly effective
speech is economical, but using enough words to cover the subject and not
too many is a standard of perfection unattainable by ordinary moftals. But

xii Wordiness
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
mean meant meant
meet met met
pass passed passed, past
prejudice prejudiced prejudiced
prove proved proved, proven
put put put
raise raised raised
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
show showed shown, showed
shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt
speak spoke spoken
spell spelled, spelt spelled, spelt
spend spent spent
spin spun spun
split split split
spoil spoiled, spoilt spoiled, spoilt
spring sprang, sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
strike struck struck, stricken
strive strove, strived striven, strived

Troublesome Verbs xxiii

 REDUCE THESE TO THESE
due to the fact that due to, since
during the time that while
for the amount of for
in accordance with by
inasmuch as since
in case if
in connection with with
in lieu of instead
in order to to
in regard to about
insofar as because, since, as
in the event that if
in the month of May in May
in this day and age today
in view of the fact that since
it has come to our attention that (begin with the word following
that)
it is interesting to note that (begin with the word following
that)
I would appreciate it if please
long in size long
of an indefinite nature indefinite
of great importance important
on a timely basis fast
on condition that if
one of the purposes (reasons) one purpose (reason)
prior to before
provided that if
the length of 5 yards 5 yards (or 5 yards long)
the necessary funds money
under date of July 5 of July 5
with the exception of except
Second, avoid overusing there is, there are, etc* Usually, there begin-
nings are superfluous words, adding nothing. The words there are can be
removed from the following sentence with no loss in meaning or force: "In
this building there are five elevators awaiting inspection." Better; "In this
building five elevators await inspection."
Third, avoid adding words to an idea already expressed. When meaning
is expressed or implied in a particular word or phrase, repeating the idea in
additional words adds nothing but verbiage. Common examples of this
fault are using again with verbs beginning with re-; using more or most
with adjectives and adverbs ending in -er and -est; and using more or
most with such absolute-meaning adjectives as unique, round, square,
and equal.

xiv Wordiness
 A list of sixty representative wordy expressions follows:
absolutely essential many in number
around about that time meet up with
audible to the ear more angrier
back up more better
bisect in two more older
call up on the phone more paramount
choose up more perfect
Christmas Eve evening more perpendicular
combine together most unique
completely unanimous most unkindest
complete monopoly necessary essential
connect up with necessary need
consensus of opinion old adage
cooperate together personal friend
cover over recur again
descend down reduce down
each and every one repeat again
endorse on the back resume again
entirely eliminated return back
extreme prime importance revert back to
few (many) in number rise up
final end (outcome) round in form
first beginnings separate out
four-cornered square (a) short half-hour
from whence small in size
important essentials sunset in the west
individual person talented genius
join together this afternoon at 4 P.M.
long length this morning at 8 A.M.
loquacious talker visible to the eye
Brevity is more than "the soul of wit": it is well-nigh impossible. Even
so, care and thought will eliminate many useless, time-wasting, space-
consuming words and expressions that constitute one of the major prob-
lems in communicating with others.

Triteness
Triteness, sometimes referred to as the use of hackneyed language or
cliches, applies to words and expressions that are worn out from overuse.
The words triteness, hackneyed language, and cliche have origins that
illuminate their meaning: triteness comes from the Latin word tritus, the
past participle of a verb meaning "to rub," "to wear out." Hackneyed is
derived from the idea of a horse, or carriage (hackney coach), let out for
hire, devoted to common use, and consequently exhausted in service.

Triteness xv
Cliche comes from the French word clicher, meaning "to stereotype,"
"to cast from a mold."
Trite expressions resemble slang in that both are stereotyped manners
of thought and expression. Cliches may be stampings from common
speech, outworn phrases, or overworked quotations. Usually they express
sound ideas (or ideas considered sound) and are always couched in
memorable phrasing. (If they were not sensible and stylistically appealing,
they would never have been used so much as to become stale.) The
problem with cliches is not that they are inexpressive but that they have
been overused and misused to the point of weariness and ineffectiveness.
People with whom we often talk may bore us precisely because we
know in advance the words and phrases they are going to use. What they
say and how they say that something have become "molds" of thought
and expression, constantly repeated. It should be kept in mind, too, that
expressions which seem fresh and original to us may be cliches to those
who have read and listened more than we have.
In daily speech, in letters, and in all kinds of writing except that which is
most formal and carefully written and rewritten, everyone is certain to use
cliches. This is understandable: trite expressions are familiar, often apt,
and always expressive. For instance, if one wishes to describe a recent
bout with insomnia and his inability to get needed rest, he might mention
his longing to "sleep the sleep of the just." The phrase is colorful and even
appropriate, but it is jaded from overuse. Charles Dickens may have
thought so when, in Night Walks, he needed to convey this same idea. He
discarded the clich€ and came up with the ^memorable phrase "As restless
as an evil conscience in a tumbled bed." An anonymous writer used no
hackneyed expression in describing the tumult of thoughts that kept him
awake; he referred to the emotions coursing through his mind as being
"restless as willows in a windstorm."
Trite expressions cannot be eliminated from our speech and writing, but
their quantity can be reduced and, who knows, perhaps occasionally
something substituted effective enough eventually to become a cliche
itself.
The following list of more than 300 trite expressions will remind every-
one of the problem and possibly cause some readers to resolve to strive
even harder for freshness and originality in speaking and writing.
absence makes the heart grow all things being equal
fonder all wool and a yard wide
acid test all work and no play
add insult to injury apple of one's eye
age before beauty apple-pie order
all in a lifetime arms of Morpheus
all in all as luck would have it
all is not gold that glitters at one fell swoop
all sorts and conditions .. . bark up the wrong tree

xvi Triteness
 fight like a tiger heartless wretch
fill the bill heart of gold
filthy lucre hew to the line
fine and dandy high on the hog
first and foremost hornet's nest (stir up a)
flash in the pan hot as a pistol
flat as a pancake hungry as a bear
flesh and blood if the truth be told
fly off the handle inspiring sight
fond farewell interesting to note
(a) fool and his money intestinal fortitude
fools rush in . . . in the last (final) analysis
free as the air in the long run
fresh as a daisy irons in the fire
garden (common) variety irony of fate
gentle as a lamb it goes without saying
get one's number it stands to reason
get the sack jig is up
get the upper hand land-office business
get up on the wrong side . . . last but not least
get what I mean? last straw
gild the lily law unto himself (herself)
give hostages to fortune lead to the altar
glass of fashion lean and hungry look
God's country lean over backward
golden mean leave in the lurch
(a) good time was had by all left-handed compliment
goose hangs high let one's hair down
grain of salt let the cat out of the bag
grand and glorious lick into shape
graphic account (description) like a newborn babe
greatness thrust upon . . . limp as a rag
green as grass little did I think
green with envy lock, stock, and barrel
Grim Reaper mad as a wet hen
grin like a Cheshire cat mad dash
hail-fellow well met make a clean breast of
hale and hearty make ends meet
hand-to-mouth make hay while the sun shines
hapless victim make night hideous
happy as a lark make no bones
happy pair make things hum
hard row to hoe mantle of snow
haughty stare meets the eye
haul over the coals method in his madness
head over heels mind your p's and q*s

xviii Triteness
missing the boat reckon without one's host
monarch of all he (she) surveys red as a beet
moot question rendered a selection
more easily said than done ring true
Mother Nature rub the wrong way
motley crew (crowd) sadder but wiser
naked truth sad to relate
neat as a bandbox sail under false colors
necessary evil save for a rainy day
needs no introduction seal one's fate
never a dull moment seething mass
nipped in the bud self-made man
not to be sneezed at sell like hot cakes
not worth a continental set one's cap for
number is up set up shop
of a high order seventh heaven
Old Sol show the white feather
on the ball (stick) shuffle off this mortal coil
open-and-shut sick and tired
opportunity knocks but . . . sight to behold
out of sight, out of mind sing like a bird
over a barrel sleep the sleep of the just
ox in the ditch snare and a delusion
parental rooftree sow wild oats
pay the piper (fiddler) start the ball rolling
penny for your thoughts steal one's thunder
pillar of society stick in the craw
pillar to post strong as an ox
play fast and loose stubborn as a mule
play second fiddle stuffed shirt
play up to take it easy
point with pride teach the young idea
poor but honest tell it to the Marines
pretty as a picture tenterhooks (be on)
pretty kettle of fish terra firma
pretty penny that is to say
psychological moment throw in the sponge
pull one's leg throw the book at
pull the wool over . . . time hangs heavy
pull up stakes tired as a dog
pure as the driven snow tit for tat
put a bug (flea) in one's ear too funny for words
put on the dog too many irons in the fire
rack one's brains truth to tell
raining cats and dogs turn over a new leaf
read the riot act view with alarm

Triteness
 wee small hours without further ado
wet to the skin wolf in sheep's clothing
where ignorance is bliss you can say that again
wide-open spaces your guess is as good as mine

Troublesome Verbs
Insufficient knowledge of the principal parts of verbs causes many
problems in speaking and writing. An English verb has three principal
parts: present tense (or present infinitive), past tense, and past participle.
A good way to recall the principal parts of a verb is to substitute those of
any verb for the following:
I run today, (present tense)
I ran yesterday, (past tense)
I have run every day this week, (past participle)
The past tense and past participle of many verbs are formed by adding
-d or -ed or -t to the present tense:
save, saved, saved
dream, dreamt (or dreamed), dreamt (or dreamed)
Such verbs are called regular, or weak, verbs.
Other verbs do not follow this pattern. Called irregular, or strong,
verbs, they form the past tense and past participle in several ways. One
group has a vowel change in the past tense, and in some instances in the
past participle as well:
cling, clung, clung
fighjt, fought, fought
Some verbs in this group, in addition to the vowel change, add -n for the
past participle:
wear, wore, worn
swear, swore, sworn
Another group changes in form completely in the past tense and past
participle:
bind, bound, bound
stink, stank, stunk
A few verbs change the last consonant, but not the vowel:
have, had, had
Several verbs have the same form for all three principal parts:
quit, quit, quit
spread, spread, spread
Following is a list of 150 troublesome verbs that illustrate each of the
methods of formation just mentioned.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
arise arose arisen
ask asked asked
attack attacked attacked

xx Troublesome Verbs
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

bar barred barred

bare bared bared
be was been
bear bore borne (passive: born,
given birth to)
bear (a burden) bore borne
beat' beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet bet
bid (at an auction) bid bid
bid ("command") bade, bid bidden, bid
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast, broadcasted broadcast, broad-
casted
build built built
burn burned, burnt burned, burnt
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
climb climbed climbed
come came come
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dive dived, dove dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
dress dressed, drest dressed, drest
drink drank drunk, drunken (rare,
except as adjective)
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled

Troublesome Verbs xd
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
find found found
fit fitted, fit fitted, fit
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
flow flowed flowed
fly flew flown
fly (in baseball) flied flied
forbid forbade forbidden
forecast forecast, forecasted forecast, forecasted
forget forgot forgotten, forgot
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got got, gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (for an object) hung hung
hang (for a person) hanged hanged
happen happened happened
hear heard heard
help helped helped
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
learn learned, learnt learned,learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie ("recline") lay lain
lie ("tell a falsehood") lied lied
light lighted, lit lighted, lit
loan loaned loaned
loose loosed loosed
lose lost lost
make made made

xxii Troublesome Verbs

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

suppose supposed supposed

swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden
use used used
wake waked, woke waked, woken
weave wove woven
win won won
wind wound wound
work worked, wrought worked, wrought
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

Idiomatic Usage
For one who is a native-born speaker of American English, idiomatic
usage is likely to cause little trouble. Most of the idiomatic expressions
one uses and hears are familiar, deep-rooted, widely employed, and
readily understandable.
The words idiom and idiomatic come from Greek terms the key mean-
ing of which is "peculiar" or "individual." Idiomatic expressions conform
to no basic principles in their formation and are indeed laws unto them-
selves. Every language has its peculiarities. For example, Spanish people
say (in translation), "Here one speaks Spanish"; the English equivalent is
"Spanish is spoken here." The French say, "We have come from eating,"
but our equivalent would be "We have just eaten."
As speakers of American English, we might tell foreigners not to say
"many boy is," "a pupils," and "10 foot." We would utterly confuse
them with such acceptable idiomatic usage as "many a boy is," "a few
pupils," and "a 10-foot pole." Much correct idiomatic usage is indeed
illogical or a violation of grammatical principles.
One generalized statement about English idioms is that several words
combined often lose their literal (exact) meaning and express something
only remotely suggested by any one word: "bed of roses," "birds of a
feather," "black list," "dark horse," "get even with," "open house,"
"read between the lines," "toe the line."
Another comment is that parts of the human body have suggested
hundreds of idiomatic expressions: "burn one's fingers," "all thumbs,"
"rub elbows with," "step on someone's toes," "take to heart," "catch
xxiv Idiomatic Usage
one's eye," "put one's foot in one's mouth," "bend one's ear," "with
half an eye," "pay through the nose," "down in the mouth," and "have a
leg to stand on."
A third generalization is that hundreds of idiomatic phrases are formed
by various parts of speech in combination with others in a haphazard way.
For example, the same word Can combine with others to form phrases that
are quite different in meaning: "make away with," "make believe,"
"make bold," "make do," "make fast," "make for," "make good,"
"make merry," "make out," "make over," "make ready," and "make
up." An even more complex idiomatic situation involves look:
look alive ("be wide-awake") look on ("observe")
look after ("minister to") look oneself ("appear normal")
look back ("review the past") look out ("be on guard")
look daggers ("stare angrily") look over ("examine")
look down on ("regard with look sharp ("be alert")
scorn") look to ("give attention")
look for ("seek," "search") look up ("refer to")
look forward to ("anticipate") look up to ("respect")
look in on ("visit")
Still other examples are these:
accompanied by others
with grief
affinity of persons or things
between two persons or things
with another person or thing
agree on a plan
with a person
analogous in a quality
to or with others
contend for a principle
with an individual
against an obstacle
differ with a person
from something else
on, over, or about a question
impatient at someone's conduct
with someone else
for something desired
of restraint
rewarded with a gift
by a person
for something done
xix Idiomatic Usage
 One's speech should conform to the idiomatic word combinations gen-
erally acceptable. Reliable dictionaries contain some explanations of idio-
matic usage following words that require such detail, but the information
provided is not always complete or clear.
Twenty idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions follow. They are repre-
sentative of several hundred idioms that can cause genuine problems:
IDIOMATIC UNIDIOMATIC
according to according with
accord with accord to
acquaint with acquaint to
adverse to adverse against
aim to prove aim at proving
among themselves among one another
angry with (a person) angry at (a person)
as regards as regards to
authority on authority about
cannot help talking cannot help but talk
comply with comply to
conform to, with conform in
correspond to (a thing) correspond with (a thing)
desirous of desirous to
identical with identical to
in accordance with in accordance to
prefer (one) to (another) prefer (one) over (another)
prior to prior than
superior to superior than
unequal to unequal for
The following 150 idiomatic expressions involving prepositions will
serve as a check list, containing as it does many of the most commonly
used idioms in the language:
abstain from approve of
accede to arrive at, in
acquiesce in assent to
acquit of associate with
addicted to assure of
adept in averse to
adhere to basis of, for
adjacent to blanket with
advantage of, over blase about
agreeable to blend with
alien from, to boast of, about
amused at, by, with border on, upon
apart from capable of
append to careful of, with, about

xxvi Idiomatic Usage

caution against implicit in
characteristic of inconsistent with
coincide with independent of
compare to (as an illustration) infer from
compare with ("examine") inferior to
compatible with infested with
concur in, with initiate into
conducive to inseparable from
confide in instruct in
confident of intercede with, for
consent to isolate from
consistent with jealous of
contemptuous of jeer at
convict of laugh at, over
cured of made from, out of, of
deficient in monopoly of
deprive of negligent of, in
derive from obedient to
desire for oblivious of
desist from observant of
detract from occupied by, with
different from opportunity for, of
disagree with originate in, with
disapprove of parallel to, with
disdain for part from, with
dissatisfied with partial to
dissent from participate in
distinguish between, from peculiar to
emigrate from persevere in
empty of pertinent to
endowed with pleased at, by, with
envious of plunged in (despair)
essential to plunged into (liquid)
estimated at preclude from
exclusive of pregnant by, with
expert in preparatory to
fascination for prerequisite of (noun)
fondness for prerequisite to (adjective)
fond of proficient in
foreign to profit by
fugitive from prohibit from
grateful to, for protest against
guard against provide with, for, against
hint at punishable by
hope for, of purge of, from
impeach for, of pursuit of

Idiomatic Usage xxvii

 qualify for, as solution of, to
question about, concerning, on, substitute for
of suitable to, for, with
range between, along, with sympathize with
reason for (noun) tamper with
reason with (verb) tax with, for
regret for, at thrill at, to, with
repugnant to treat of (a topic)
responsibility for treat with (an opponent)
revel in unfavorable to, toward, for
rich in unmindful of
rid of vie with
scared at, by worthy of
sensitive to yearn for, after, toward
separate from zealous in
similar to
Euphemisms
A euphemism is a softened, bland, inoffensive word or phrase used for
one that may suggest something unpleasant, offensive, coarse, or blunt.
The word euphemism comes from a Greek phrase meaning "the use of
words of good repute." For example, a writer might think that the words
jail and prison would be offensive to some readers or hearers and thus
substitute the phrase "correctional institution," a euphemism for the more
direct term. In avoiding the use of such nonstandard expressions as
"croak," "take the last count," and "kick the bucket," one might be
tempted to say "pass away" or "depart this life."
In recent years, effective writers have condemned euphemisms as
oblique ways of expressing supposedly uncouth or vulgar ideas. If they
mean die, they say or write die. If they mean belly, they do not resort to
abdomen. If they mean chicken, they do not write villatic fowl. Such
practice is recommended, but with a caution: religious dictates may
prevent the use of direct words on all occasions; moral scruples should not
be ignored; considerations of taste are important. Some topics are better
left unmentioned; if brought up, they should be treated according to one's
own sense of what is fitting and appropriate.
Conversely, some outspoken writers delight in using words and phrases
that appear deliberately offensive. This device (or practice) is known as
parrhesia: instead of using dying, a writer might use the colorful but
tasteless "turning one's toes up to the daisies." Instead of writing food he
might use grub, outhouse instead of privy, and whore instead of prosti-
tute.
Unless religious dictates or personal taste prevent, one shoul^ use
direct, forthright words to express meaning. If a topic can be treated at all
(and some subjects are in debatable taste), it should be handled frankly.
Euphemisms are nearly always wordy and usually somewhat vague.

xxviii Euphemisms
Sixty examples of euphemisms, with their actual meanings, follow:
amenity center village green, public toilet
archivist museum or library clerk
cardiovascular accident stroke
casket coffin
collection correspondent bill collector
combustible fieldman garbage man
comfort station public toilets
confrontation heated argument, fight
creative conflict civil rights demonstration
crowd engineers police dogs
custodial engineer janitor
delicious repast a good meal
devouring element fire
emerging (developing) backward
exceptional child retarded child
expecting pregnant
expectorate spit
experienced tires recaps, retreads
extrapolation educated guess
facial dew perspiration, sweat
finalize end
food preparation center kitchen
glow sweat, perspire
indisposed sick, ill, nauseated
interment burial
intoxicated drunk
in trouble pregnant
love child illegitimate (bastard) child
lowing herd cattle
lung affliction tuberculosis
memorial park cemetery
mistress kept woman
moisture sweat
mortician undertaker
mortical surgeon undertaker
motion discomfort nausea
obsequies funeral
odor smell, stink
opportunity school school for the retarded or handi-
capped
park under construction town dump
paying guest boarder
perspire sweat
plant food manure

Euphemisms xxix
 powder room toilet
prevaricate lie
previously owned car secondhand car
problem skin acne
rotund fat
sanitary engineer garbage collector
scent smell
senior citizen old person
separate from school expel
separate from the payroll fire
slow learner unintelligent person
social disease syphilis, gonorrhea
succulent viands appetizing food
tissue toilet paper
trial marriage free love
underprivileged destitute, poor
unmentionables underwear

Slang
Slang is a label for a particular kind of word usage that ranges from
illiteracies to colloquialisms (informal standard English). Slang terms
usually involve exaggerated or forced humor, fantastic or flippant novelty,
and clipped or shortened forms of words. Much slang is colorful, fresh,
and pungent and provides effective shortcuts in expression. Some slang
appeals to such widespread popular fancy that it survives and is eventually
labeled in dictionaries as informal or colloquial speech.
It is useless to suggest that no one should use slang. Slang is understand-
ably a part of everyone's informal talk and is so inbred in one's conscious-
ness that giving it up entirely would leave a gap in communication. Also,
slang, or at least some of it, is so readily and widely understood that it
assists face-to-face, person-to-person contact, which is fundamental in
human relations. Despite the color, force, aind occasional charm of slang,
however, three good reasons exist for using it carefully and sparingly:
1. Using slang expressions prevents a speaker from searching for the
exact words needed to convey meaning. Many slang expressions are only
rubber stamps. To call someone a swell guy or a square hardly expresses
exactly or fully any real critical judgment or intelligent description.
Instead, such words are more likely to suggest the speaker's own laziness,
careless thinking, and poverty of vocabulary. Slang may be colorful and
humorous, but few slang expressions by themselves convey a clear and
accurate message from speaker to listener.
2. Slang has its place in conversation and in informal writing, but
occasionally it is not in keeping with the context—what precedes and
follows. For example, a sensible and serious talk with a public official
about current affairs might be thrown off if suddenly a slang term such as
mod or cool were injected.
xxx Slang
 3. Most slang words and expressions last for a brief time only and then
pass out of use, becoming unintelligible to hearers and readers.
Slang appears in numerous forms.
Many neologisms (newly coined words) are slang:
beatnik payola
grandiferous pizzaz
hornswoggle scram
ixnay scrumptious
mooch sockdologer
nix teenybopper
oops wacky
Some slang words and expressions are formed from other words by
abbreviation or by adding new endings to change the part of speech:
chintzy nervy
C-note phony
groovy psych out
legit snafu
mod VIP
Sometimes words in acceptable use are given extended meanings:
acid grind
bean guts
blow lousy
buck mainline
cat sack
chicken snow
corny square
dish swell
fuzzy tough
grease trip
Some slang is formed by compounding or bringing together two or more
words:
egghead hepcat
flyboy stash (store and cache)
go-go girl whodunit
Slang often consists of one or more coined words combined with one or
more standard terms:
blow one's top jam session
bum steer live it up
cool it off one's rocker
get in orbit shoot the bull (breeze)
have a ball shoot the works
Illustrating the various methods by which slang is concocted is the
Slang xxxi
following list of 150 expressions. If the reader does not recognize every
item (or all of the terms mentioned above), his inability to do so provides
two reasons why slang should not be overused: it is not always under-
standable; it often has a short life.
all-fired fourflusher long green
attaboy (attagirl) gate-crasher lulu
babe geezer lummox
back number get lost meathead
baloney get one's goat moniker
bamboozle get with it mooch
barf girlie moola
barge in go-getter moxie
bats goldbrick natch
beanery gold digger nix
beef goner nut
big shot goo nuts
bigwig gooey nutty
blind date goof (and goof off) on the ball
bloke goofy on the beam
blow your stack gook on the level
bolix (or bollicks) goon on the loose
booboo grub on the make
brass hat gungho on the wagon
bread gunk oodles
bushed guy pad
buzz off gyp pantywaist
chump half-baked party pooper
clip joint half-cocked peach
conk (conk out) hick phiz
cornball high-hat piker
crackpot hightail poop
cut the mustard hogwash pork barrel
dame hooey pusher
deadbeat hunky-dory ratfink
dimwit jeez rat race
double dome jerk raunchy
elbow grease jinx razz
eyewash jughead razzberry
fishy kibosh razzle-dazzle
flack kick around razzmatazz
flatfoot kickback rhubarb
flivver kick in ritzy
floozy kick the bucket sad sack
flossy kid sawbuck
fork over lemon scads

xxxii Slang
screw shyster turn on
screwball simoleon weirdie
screw loose slaphappy weirdo
screw out of sound off wheeler-dealer
screwy stool pigeon wise guy
shakes sucker wisenheimer
shebang swing wise up
shenanigans tizzy yak (yack, yuk)
shiv turn off yap

Slang radii
Dictionary of
Problem Words
and Expressions
 A
a, an. Correct choice of a and an depends on the initial sound, not on
the initial letter, of the word that follows. A should be used before all
words beginning with a consonant sound except silent h (an honor) and
before words beginning with vowels that represent combined consonant
and vowel sounds (university, unit). An should be used before all vowel
sounds.
a boy an entry
a European an /
ag an hour
a picture an orange
a store an unbeliever
With the words history and historian, a preceding a is more often used
today than an. In history, the h is always pronounced; the h in words
such as historian and historical was formerly not pronounced, but it
frequently is in contemporary usage. Always say "a history book," but
refer to "an (or a) historian" and "an (or a) historical novel" as you
please. Both are standard usage.
Neither a nor an is needed in such expressions as "no such (a) thing,"
"no greater (an) honor."
a, per. Both a and per are commonly used with meanings of "each" and
"for every." Thus one may write "once a minute" or "once per
minute." Because per comes from Latin, old-time grammarians insisted
that it should not appear before nouns in English, but this restriction no
longer applies. The appearance of per is widespread and acceptable in all
commercial, economic, and statistical writing. Using a (or an) for per in
a sentence such as "The yield per acre per year is 200 bushels" is not
incorrect but does sound repetitious and overly refined. In most
instances, a is an acceptable substitute for overused per and is prefera-
ble in such expressions as "once a week," "50 cents a gallon," and
"Admission is $1 a person."
abdomen. This term, from Latin and pronounced with the accent on the
first or second syllable, refers to that part of any mammal's body that lies
between the pelvis and the rib cage. Some speakers consider it an
evasion, a euphemism (inoffensive word) for belly, a perfectly proper
term descended from Old English. (Possibly belly will be restored to
common use on all levels, just as leg is now generally used instead of
limb.) Abdomen is an anatomical term, as is stomach (which really
 2
ability, capacity

applies to one organ within the abdomen, or belly). Trite or childish

expressions with differing meanings include potbelly, corporation, stum-
mick, bay window, paunch, guts, and tummy. In everyday usage, say
belly; in formal or fastidious situations, use abdomen.
ability, capacity. Ability means the physical, mental, financial, or legal
power to do something (ability to walk, to read, to pay a bill, to assess
property). Capacity is the ability to hold, absorb, or contain (a bucket
with a capacity of 1 gallon, a motel filled to capacity). Ability takes
varied prepositions (ability in physics, ability with languages, ability at
riding horses). Ability is often followed by an infinitive (ability to think
clearly, not of thinking clearly). Capacity is followed by the preposition
for (capacity for hard work) or of (capacity of 10 quarts).
Ability is a more positive quality or attainment than is capacity. A
person may or may not have the capacity to learn singing; after study
and practice he may or may not have the ability to sing. Approximate
synonyms for ability are competence, skill, aptitude, faculty, and talent.
abjure, adjure. These "look-alikes" are often confused but can be kept
straight by concentrating on their prefixes. Ab-, a formal element occur-
ring in loan words from Latin, means "away from." Abjure suggests
putting aside, renouncing, repudiating, giving up. Ad- means "toward";
adjure means "to direct a charge Or command to or toward someone."
"'The man without a country,' Philip Nolan, abjured allegiance to the
United States." "The minister adjured us to stop stealing and swear-
ing."

able to. This is a wordy and unidiomatic expression for can or could.
"This work could not be finished in a month" is preferable to "This
work was not able to be finished in a month." Confine use of able to
persons or objects that possess ability: "He was able in science."

about, around, round. About is a commonly used word with several

meanings and shades of meaning, most of which develop the idea of
circling, on every side, or here and there (walk about, Xoofcabout). It has
also the meanings of "nearly" or "approximately" (about 100 books).
About is informally used in the sense of "almost" (about ready to go).
The phrase "at about" (at about midnight) is wordy; the at can be
omitted unless you intend about to mean "approximately."
Around has many of the basic meanings of about ("on all sides," "here
and there"), as in "walk around" and "look around." But in such
senses around is more informal than about. "Wait around," "to travel
around," "to have been around," and "around noon" are fully permis-
sible in colloquial (spoken) usage.
Around is usually preferred to round in such expressions as "around
the world" and "around the Horn." "Meet me round noon" is more
informal than "Meet me around noon" ; preferably, say or write "Meet
me about noon."
 3

accept, except

about to. The word about has a meaning of readiness or willingness; the
phrase "not about to" conveys an idea of unwillingness, unreadiness, or
opposition of some sort: "He was not about to pay the bill." The
expression is trite and informal and should be avoided. Write "He was
not ready to (or was unwilling to or refused to) pay the bill."
above. Some grammarians object to the use of above in the meaning of
"preceding" or "previously mentioned or written" (the examples given
above, the above examples). However, above can be an adjective as
well as an adverb, so that no grammatical error is involved. The objec-
tion to using above in this sense is that the word may refer vaguely or
even loosely and incorrectly to preceding material; overuse of it may
make you sound legalistic or stilted.
As a preposition, above presents no usage problems {above the earth).
As a noun, above is both vague and informal. Instead of "The above
states my position fairly," it is preferable to say "This is my position" or
"The preceding statements present my position fairly."
abridged. See UNABRIDGED.

absolute. This word means "complete," "unlimited," "uncondi-

tional." Logically, absolute admits neither comparison nor shading; to
refer to one's "very absolute effort" or "too absolute approval" is
illogical. However, if a qualifying word such as nearly is used, this
objection is removed: "one's very nearly absolute approval."
absolutely. This word means "positively" or "definitely." All three
words are overused to mean "quite," or "very," or even "yes": "She
was absolutely lovely; he was positively godlike; it was definitely the
wedding of the year; did you attend it?" can be gushily answered,
"Absolutely!" Suggestion: omit the italicized words in the question and
supply the simple answer "Yes."
academic. This term relating to the characteristics and qualities of a
school (academy) provides an example of how words acquire associated
and extended meanings. Because academic refers to formal education
and scholarship, it has come to mean "conventional" and "traditional."
In fact, an academic person is sometimes considered as being so una-
ware of the outside world that he lives in an ivory tower. Thus the word
also means "speculative" or "theoretical," not "actual" or "realistic":
"I took only an academic interest in the progress of the campaign."
accept, except. These words have different pronunciations and differ-
ent meanings. Accept means "to receive," "to agree with," "to say yes
to." As a verb, except means "to omit," "to exempt," "to exclude"; as
a preposition, it means "other than." Except should not be used as a
conjunction: "He won't go except I tell him to" is substandard. Some
correct sentences follow: "He did not accept the proposal." "Tod was
 4
accident, mishap

excepted from the list of those invited." "Everyone except me knew the
right answer."
accident, mishap. An accident is an event that occurs without apparent
plan. Such a chance, undesigned occurrence may be fortunate (a lucky
accident that we saw each other), unfortunate (a fatal accident), or
neutral (the accident of birth). A mishap is an unfortunate accident.
Breaking a shoelace when in a hurry is a mishap. There is no such thing
as a fortunate or neutral mishap. A disaster, catastrophe, or calamity
cannot be called a mishap, a word reserved for a misadventure, mis-
chance, or misfortune. A mishap might be referred to as a minor
accident.
accidentally, accidently. Meaning "by chance," "without design," or
"unexpectedly," accidentally is often mispronounced and misspelled.
The word has five syllables (acci'den'tal'ly); omit al in fieither spelling
nor pronunciation. There is no such word as accidently.

accredit. See CREDIT.

accusation. See RECRIMINATION.

accused. See ALLEGED.

acknowledge, admit One may acknowledge or admit an error. One

may acknowledge or admit being in error. Thus, these words have
approximately the same meaning, "to concede, grant, or declare some-
thing to be true." Acknowledge, however, is preferable when referring
to a statement made reluctantly, especially one previously denied: "The
bank teller acknowledged his error." Admit suggests the presence of
force, duress, or pressure: "The culprit admitted the crime."

acme, climax. Acme means "summit," "highest point." Climax

implies a scale of increasing, ascending values and is applied to the
highest point in interest, force, or intensity. "His performance was the
acme of professional skill." "The climax of the indoor games was the
mile run."
act, action. An act is a deed, a thing done. Action is related in meaning
but more precisely suggests the doing of something, of being in operation
or motion. "That was an act of kindness." "Your action was unself-
ish."
activate, actuate. These words have a common meaning,''to set or put
in motion": "The foreman activated (or actuated) the mechanism."
They are confused, however, when used to refer to persons and the
impulses that govern their deeds. Some outside agent or influence can
activate a person or thing as a stimulus, but only a principle, desire, or
 5
addendum, addenda

motive can actuate an individual and determine his actions: "His desire
for fame actuated his constant efforts." "Actuated by good will, he
activated a group of generous persons."
actor, actress. The suffix -ess is used to form distinctively feminine
nouns such as hostess, lioness, duchess, and heiress. Even before the
Women's Db movement, its use was considered offensive in such words
as Jewess, Negress, and poetess, because emphasis on sex seemed
irrelevant and possibly prejudicial. With an actress, however, femininity
is essential to her art, so that the term is appropriate and useful. An
actor, of course, is a male performer.

actual, real, virtual. Actual and real are related in meaning (' 'existing in
fact," "not imaginary"), but they may be distinguished. Actual places
emphasis upon coming into a sphere of fact or action and applies to facts
as they now are or have become. Real expresses objective existence and
applies especially to facts rooted in nature. Virtual means "having the
effect but not the form of what is specified." "Is this an actual assign-
ment or only something to keep me busy?" "Is this real money or
counterfeit?" "After the president resigned, the vice president was the
virtual head of the firm."

actuate. See ACTIVATE.

ad. This is a clipped form of advertisement. It is informal (colloquial)

and should appear rarely, if at all, in formal writing, but the use of ad in
everyday speech is widespread and justified. Also, one could hardly
score tennis without using ad, here an abbreviation for advantage.
adage. See AXIOM.

adapt, adept, adopt. To adapt is "to adjust," "to make suitable."

Note the second syllable (dapt), which resembles apt, meaning "fit" or
"suited to the purpose." Adept has something of the meaning of apt
("skilled," "proficient"): one can say "Bob was apt in science" or
"Bob was adept in science." Adopt means "to accept" or "to take as
one's own." "You must adapt yourself to this situation." "He is adept
in dancing the latest steps." "I shall adopt your proposal." "This dress
designer is adept in adapting styles from abroad and finds that women
here adopt them eagerly."
addendum, addenda. An addendum is an addition, something added
or to be added. The term is specifically applied to an appendix of or
supplement to a book or other printed material. It should be used with a
singular verb only: "This addendum is an important part of the report."
The standard plural form is addenda, although addendums is being used
more and more frequently by educated speakers and writers and most
authorities no longer consider it incorrect. See also AGENDUM.
 6
addicted, devoted

addicted, devoted. Addicted has an unfavorable or undesirable sense

of "given to a practice or habit." Devoted also suggests attachment but
only to that which the speaker or writer considers good, beneficial, or
favorable. "He was addicted to narcotics (or lying or thievery or alco-
hol)." "Jim was devoted to his mother (or his country or good litera-
ture)." If you approve of mystery stories, for example, you may say that
a friend of yours is devoted to such reading; if you dislike mysteries, you
may say that he is addicted to them.

adduce, deduce. The first of these words means "to cite as evidence
that is conclusive or persuasive," "to present as an argument." Adduce
is sometimes confused with deduce, which means "to infer," "to derive
as a conclusion from something assumed or known." "The speaker
adduced three reasons for his actions." "The jury deduced that the
accused was not guilty."

adept. See ADAPT.

adhere, cohere. These words have related meanings, as is suggested by

their common Latin root (here, from haerere), which implies sticking or
clinging together. One object adheres to another through the use of glue;
a person adheres to a belief, a cause, a religion, or a political party.
Cohere suggests the sticking together of items already present (The
particles cohered to form a sticky mass) and the logical or natural
connection of ideas and objects (Each part of his presentation seemed to
cohere with established facts).

ad hoc. This phrase, straight from Latin and pronounced "ad hock,"
literally means "toward this." In English it is used to mean "with
respect to this" or "for this purpose only" and is applied to a group
created to deal with a particular situation, case, cause, or purpose: "The
chairman appointed an ad hoc committee to supervise the voting."
adjacent, contiguous. In exact usage, adjacent means "lying near,"
"close at hand," "neighboring," and contiguous means "touching,"
"in actual contact." Beads strung loosely are adjacent; if strung tightly,
they axe contiguous. In general usage, however, the words are inter-
changeable. Adjacent, much the more commonly used word, has these
approximate synonyms: adjoining, abutting, bordering, connecting, and
juxtaposed.
adjudge. See JUDGE.

adjure. See ABJURE.

ad-lib. This verb, meaning "to improvise," "to deliver spontaneously,"

is derived from Latin ad libitum, meaning "at pleasure." It can correctly
be used to mean "freely" but is often overused. Ad-lib is a trite expres-
 7

adversary, antagonist

sion when used to mean adding words or gestures hastily improvised, or

concocted, that are not in the script or are not intended to be expressed
by word or action.
admission, admittance. Admission means "allowing to enter" or
"permitted entrance" and applies to acceptance that carries certain
rights and privileges. Admittance means "physical entry" without refer-
ence to rights or membership privileges. "He sought admission to the
party." "Admittance is by invitation only." "It was easy to secure
admission to the public library, but she soon found several doors marked
'Admittance to staff members only.'"
admit, allow. These words have a shared meaning: "to acknowledge,"
"to concede," "to make a disclosure." One may admit a mistake or
allow that he has made one. Admit also suggests the influence of
pressure. In general usage, however, admit and allow are interchange-
able in this meaning. The preposition to is unnecessary in such state-
ments as "I admit (to) the mistake" and "I admit (to) having made an
error." See also ACKNOWLEDGE.

admit, confess. See CONFESS.

admittance. See ADMISSION.

adopt. See ADAPT.

adopted, adoptive. An adopted child is one taken by others in a formal,

legal act. The foster parent or parents who have undergone such a legal
maneuver are called adoptive: "The adopted infant grew fond of her
adoptive parents."
advance, advanced. As a verb, advance means "to move or bring
forward." As an adjective, it emphasizes position (advance guard) or
time (advance notice). As a noun, advance refers to the act or process of
moving forward. Advanced, as an adjective, has several meanings: "at a
late stage," "far on in life," "ahead of contemporary progress or
thought," "at a high level": "You may wish to advance the time that
you start studying for an advanced degree." The phrase "advance
planning" is a classic example of the tendency to use more words than
necessary. Planning itself involves the idea of looking ahead, of devising
a program for future action. The word advance is here a useless addition.

advantage. See AD.

adversary, antagonist. Each of these words refers to persons or ani-

mals engaged in struggles or contests. Related words are opponent,
competitor, and rival. An adversary is an opponent toward whom one
does not necessarily feel animosity or hatred. An antagonist is a defi-
 8
adverse, averse

nitely hostile opponent. "Counsel for the defense faced an experienced

adversary in District Attorney Smythe." "A flyweight boxer is not a
suitable antagonist for a middleweight."

adverse, averse. Adverse means "opposed," "contrary," "hostile."

Averse means "reluctant" and "unwilling" and implies a holding back
because of distaste or dislike. "The employees had an adverse opinion of
the company plan." "The company treasurer is averse to lending money
to anyone."
advert, avert. These "look-alikes" have a common root in Latin (ver-
tere, "to turn") but quite different meanings in English. Advert means
"to refer," "to turn attention to," "to comment about": "He adverted
to a topic mentioned earlier by another speaker." Avert means "to turn
away or turn aside," "to prevent," "to ward off": "She averted her
eyes from the injured man." "The driver braked hard to avert an
accident."
advise, advice. With a basic meaning of "to counsel," "to give advice
to," advise can also mean "to tell" or "to inform." It is overused in
business letters and other forms of commercial communication. Say "I
wish to tell (not advise) you that your order has been received." Advise
is always and only a verb; advice, a noun spelled and pronounced
differently, means "an opinion" or "a recommendation": "I advise you
to take no advice from Tom." A noun formed from advise is spelled
adviser or advisor. See also BEG TO ADVISE.

advisedly, intentionally. An action or step taken advisedly is one that

is deliberate, one taken with careful consideration. An action or step
taken intentionally suggests purpose, design, and intent. One might
intentionally talk back to a traffic policeman, but he is not likely to do so
advisedly.
affect, effect. These words have slightly different pronunciations and
quite different meanings. Affect is always a verb (e.xcept for one use as a
noun in psychology) and means "to influence," "to cause a response":
"This article will affect my thinking." Affect also means "to assume,"
"to be given to," or "to pretend": "She affected a silly manner of
speaking." As a noun, effect means "result," "accomplishment":
"What was the effect of this appeal for money?" As a verb, effect means
"to cause," "to bring about": "The new manager will effect major
changes in our sales methods." In plural form, effects can mean
"goods," "property": "The deceased man's effects were willed to
charity."

affective, effective. The primary meaning of affective is "emotional,"

"caused by or expressing feeling and sentiment": "Many scenes in
Dickens's novels are affective." Effective has several meanings, the
 9
afternoons, evenings, mornings

primary one being "producing the intended or expected results": "The

supervisor suggested effective steps to handle the work load." The
contrast in meaning can be illustrated thus: "The affective death scene
of Little Nell Trent in Dickens's The Old Curiosity Shop is dramatically
effective."

affinity. This word, from a Latin term meaning "connection by mar-

riage," refers to a natural liking for, or attraction to, another person. An
affinity is a bond or tie of sympathy, feeling, or kinship and refers only to
relations between people, not to people themselves. Also, affinity should
not be confused with aptitude, knack, ability, or capacity. One does not
have an affinity for sports or music but rather a knack or talent of some
sort. In fact, for should not be used as a preposition following affinity;
use between, with, or to: "The affinity between Sue and Ralph is based
upon musical interests." "Sue has an affinity to Ralph because of their
common musical interests."

afflict. See INFLICT.

affluent. See RICH.

afraid. This word, meaning "filled with fear, apprehension, concern, or

regret," is overused in everyday conversation with the verb to be as a
loose, inaccurate synonym for "to think," "to feel," "to believe."
Avoid such statements as "I'm afraid you're wrong" and "I'm afraid
not," unless your concern, regret, or worry is strong and intense. In
speaking and writing, do not use afraid unless you could equally well
employ scared, apprehensive, fearful, frightened, alarmed, or terrified.
In casual and informal conversation, afraid is often used either apologet-
ically or in an attempt to soften or lessen an unpleasant statement: "I'm
afraid I have bad news for you."

aftermath. The math in aftermath comes from an Old English word

meaning "mowing." Originally, aftermath meant a second mowing of a
field of grain or grass. Now it is used figuratively to mean "results" or
"consequences." Aftermath loosely refers to anything that follows, but
it should be applied only to results (second harvests) that are unpleasant,
harmful, or tragic: "Destruction is an aftermath of war." Blowing
automobile horns after a wedding ceremony is not an aftermath but a
custom or practice.
afternoons, evenings, mornings. Some purists object to the use of
these plural forms in the senses of "during the afternoon" and "every
afternoon." Idiomatically, however, it is permissible and correct to say
or write "Sue works only afternoons" when what is meant is "Sue
works every afternoon" or "Sue works only in (or during) the after-
noon.''''
In various parts of the country, afternoon, evening, and morning have
 10
afterward, afterwards

different meanings and applications. Afternoon means the time from

noon until evening, but when does evening come? In certain sections of
the West and South, one hears "Good evening" as a greeting anytime
from noon until midnight. To some, evening may mean the period
between noon and nightfall. But what is night? Is it the time between
sunset and sunrise? Does morning apply to the time between midnight
and noon or that between sunrise and noon? The only sensible plan is to
use these terms as your friends and neighbors do, recognizing that such
usage may be misunderstood in other sections of the country.

afterward, afterwards. Each of these words, meaning "subsequently"

or "at a later time," is acceptable. Afterward is preferable because it is
shorter and is generally used throughout the United States. Afterwards is
in common use in Great Britain.
agendum, agenda. These terms (from a Latin word meaning "to act,"
"to do") refer to something to be done. The former is singular; the latter,
plural. Agendum is rarely used but occasionally is employed to refer to
one item in a list or a program of action, to a single act or topic for
discussion. Agenda applies to a list of items, such as a program for a
meeting or discussion group. Although plural in form, agenda is a
collective noun and is commonly used with a singular verb: "The
agenda for this meeting has been set." A less-used form, agendums,
requires a plural verb: "The agendums are lengthy and involved."
Preferably use agenda (with a singular verb) or agendum if you wish to
single out a particular item. See also ADDENDUM.

aggravate, annoy, irritate. Aggravate means "to intensify," "to

increase something unpleasant," "to make worse," "to make more
grave or serious." Used informally and loosely, aggravate means "to
irritate," "to annoy." Annoy means "to harass," "to pester," "to
disturb," "to irritate by bothering." Irritate, meaning "to excite to
impatience," is a virtual synonym for annoy but refers to a milder
disturbance or lesser upset. Aggravate is the strongest of the three
terms. "Sneezing aggravated Jack's open wound." "The buzzing mos-
quito annoyed me." "Rude remarks about his ability irritated the fore-
man."

agnostic, atheist. An agnostic disclaims any knowledge of God; an

atheist denies the existence of God. That is, an agnostic says "I don't
know whether there is a God"; the atheist says "There is no God." An
agnostic does not deny the existence of a deity but claims that he does
not know and that no one else can either. An atheist believes that God
does not now exist and that He never has existed. Related terms are
disbeliever, doubter, freethinker, unbeliever.

ago, since. These words refer to past time, but they should not be used
together. Do not write "It was five years ago since I last saw Ben."
 11
alien, alienist, alienate

Follow ago with that or omit ago: "It was five years ago that I last saw
Ben." "It isfiveyears since I last saw Ben." The construction ago since
is both wordy and illogical. Ago carries thought from present to past
time; since conveys thought from past to present. Our minds are shaky
already; they are not helped by meeting themselves coming back.
aid. See HELP.

aim, intend. When aim is used in the sense of positioning, it is always

followed by at: "Don't aim the gun at me." When used in the sense of
"to intend" or "to try," it may be followed by at (I aim at your
happiness) or by an infinitive (I aim to make you happy). Aim should not
be followed by both at and a gerund. Avoid saying or writing "I aim at
proving you wrong." Intend, meaning "to design" or "to have in
mind," is considered a more suitable and refined word than aim. Intend
may be followed by an infinitive (I intend to ride with you), by a gerund
(I intend riding with you), or by a clause (I intend that you follow me
promptly).

ain't. This contraction of am not has been extended to mean also "is
not," "has not," "are not," and "have not." Ain't is considered illiter-
ate, colloquial, or dialectal and is cautioned against in so-called standard
speech and writing. It is occasionally used informally by educated per-
sons, but it has not been accepted as have been isn't (is not), hasn't (has
not), haven't (have not), aren't (are not), and weren't (were not).
a la. This phrase from French is a shortened form of a la mode de ("in
the style of"). In English, a la is used, frequently overused, to mean "in
the manner of," "like," "according to." Its appearance in a sentence
such as "She dresses a la a Hollywood star" is correct but also preten-
tious and forced. Restrict use of a la to such standard expressions as "a
la carte" and "h la mode," for which there are no acceptable substitutes
in English.
alibi. Precise and careful speakers and writers limit the use of alibi to its
meaning in law; "a plea or fact of having been elsewhere when an offense
was committed": "The defendant's alibi was that he was out of town
when the crime took place." Alibi is overused in the informal sense of
"excuse" or "any kind of defense." Instead of saying "The players
offered no alibi for their defeat," say "They offered no excuse." Instead
of saying "Honest men never alibi," use some form of plea, justifica-
tion, or acknowledgment.
alien, alienist* alienate. An alien is a foreigner, someone born in or
belonging to another country: "He was an alien for ten years and then
became a naturalized citizen." The term is also applied to one who is
excluded in some way (that is, is an outsider) and to matters that are
strange or unfamiliar: "He was forced to adjust to an alien culture." "In
 12
all, all of

his ragged clothing, he felt an alien in such plush surroundings." An

alienist is a medically trained person who gives testimony (legal evi-
dence) on questions of sanity and insanity: "Opposing alienists /will
testify at this murder trial." Alienate means "to turn away," "to affect
by causing an atmosphere of unfriendliness," "to make indifferent":
"His constant rudeness alienated most of his friends." Alien, alienist,
and alienate imply or suggest either difference or opposition.

all, all of. When preceding a pronoun, all must be followed by of (all of
them, not all them or all us). When all is followed by a noun, of may be
omitted and often is by speakers and writers who wish to avoid using an
unnecessary word: "A// (or all of) the workers went on strike."
all-around. See ALL-ROUND.

all but o n e . See MORE THAN ONE.

alleged, accused, suspected. Each of these words is used to refer to

persons involved in legal problems. To allege means "to state posi-
tively," "to assert without proof," or "to urge as an excuse or reason."
To accuse is "to charge someone with an error or crime." To suspect
means "to imagine," "to think guilty without proof of guilt." Newspa-
pers and broadcast news programs often publish stories about an alleged
swindler, an accused burglar, or a suspected arsonist. These terms are
used as a possible hedge against being sued for libel, but their use in such
instances is both debatable and doubtful. One cannot allege a swindler
but rather a condition or a crime. An accused burglar is not a burglar
who has been accused but a person who has been accused as a burglar.
Even so, individuals need the protection such words attempt to provide
as a defense against the charge of slander, just as newspapers and radio
and television stations do against suits for libel. For this purpose, alleged
is preferable to either accused or suspected.

allegedly, reportedly, reputedly. Each of these words means "accord-

ing to a statement or affirmation," but the two have slightly different
connotations. "The driver was allegedly ill" means that someone
asserted, claimed, or openly stated an opinion of the driver's condition.
"The driver was reportedly ill" means that the driver's condition was
actually reported in writing or through rumor, gossip, or common talk.
"The driver was reputedly ill" indicates that he was estimated to be or
considered ill, a condition not necessarily made public or openly
declared. Reputedly also has a slight connection with reputation, a
shade of meaning not present in allegedly or reportedly .
allergic. This word means "unusually sensitive to a condition or sub-
stance" (an allergic reaction to nylon) and is also loosely overused to
suggest dislike or disregard (allergic to the plays of Shakespeare).
 13
allusion, delusion, elusion, illusion

Allergic is often misused as in this sentence: "Tom is allergic to hay

fever." Tom's condition results from an allergy (a state of hypersensitiv-
ity); he is allergic not to hay fever but to the pollens of goldenrod or
ragweed or whatever.

all of. See ALL.

allow, permit. Allow means "to grant," "to let have," and implies that
no direct prevention or obstruction is involved: "Does your supervisor
allow you to dress as you please?" Permit, a more formal word than
allow, specifically involves the idea of permission: "Does your ticket
permit you to enter at that gate?" An everyday synonym for allow and
permit is let. See also ADMIT, ALLOW.
all ready. See ALREADY.

all right. See ALRIGHT.

all-round, all-around. In such phrases as "all-round man" and "a//-

round athlete," this hyphenated adjective is preferable to its twin, all-
around. In this sense, round provides the idea of completeness or fullness,
whereas around suggests position with relationship to a center. By this
reasoning, one should say "The dog walked around the chair" rather than
* 'round the chair." Neither all-round nor all-around (both adjectives)
should be confused with all round and all around (two adverbs): "Jack
walked all around the waterfront."
all the farther. This expression is colloquial or dialectal and should not
be used in speaking or writing. Do not say "This is all the farther I intend
to go." Say "This is as far as I intend to go." Similarly, do not say "Is
this all the faster your car will go?" but "Is this as fast as your car will
go?"
all together. See ALTOGETHER.

allude, elude. Allude means "to refer indirectly or casually" and is

followed by to: "He alluded to his former occupation." "This memo
alludes to a misplaced letter." Elude is sometimes confused with allude
because of similarity in pronunciation and spelling but has an entirely
different meaning ("to avoid," "to escape," "to slip away from," "to
dodge"): "He eluded the pursuing policemen."

allusion, delusion, elusion, Illusion. These words, somewhat alike in

sound and spelling, have different meanings and uses. An allusion is an
indirect reference or mention: "He made an allusion to a character in a
TV melodrama." Delusion means "a false belief," one usually held as a
result of self-deception. It is commonly used to refer to a person suffer-
 14
all ways

ing from a mental disorder: "Bob suffers from delusions of grandeur."

"Alice is under the delusion that she is Joan of Arc." Elusion, a rarely
used word, means "an escape," "an evasion": "Not attending the
meeting is an elusion of your obligation to vote." Illusion is related in
meaning to delusion; it refers to a false mental image or idea, to some-
thing that is imagined and that may or may not be based on fact: "A
mirage is an illusion." "At times, Charlie is under the illusion that he is a
star football player." A delusion is more likely to be harmful or serious
than is an illusion.
all ways. See ALWAYS.

almighty. This word, meaning "having unlimited power" or "over-

powering," is informally overused in the senses of "extreme" and
"terrible." A Supreme Being is almighty, but it is doubtful that one can
or should be "in an almighty bit of trouble" or "almighty tired." Even
the almighty dollar has lost much of its worth and worldwide standing.
almost, most. As an adverb, almost is preferable to the colloquial most
in the senses of "all but," "very nearly." Say "almost every person
there" rather than "most every person there." As a pronoun or adjec-
tive, most means "the greater part or number": "Most of us agreed with
the speaker." "This is the most money he ever earned in one day." As
an adverb, most is used in the comparison of adjectives and adverbs:
wisely, more wisely, most wisely. See also NEARLY.

alone, only. Alone has several meanings ("separate," "apart," "iso-

lated," "unique"), as in such expressions as "all alone" and "Man shall
not live by bread a/one." Only means "without others," "solely,"
"exclusively." Alone and only can be synonymous. One may say "She
worked alone" (No one was with her) and ' Only she worked" (No one
else worked). But one can also correctly say "She alone worked" (No
one else worked).
along this line. This expression meaning "in this manner," "simi-
larly," or "according to this pattern" is not incorrect, but it is vague and
trite. In most instances, it is a mere filler and can be omitted without real
loss.

aloud, out loud. Each of these expressions means' 'audibly," ' 'in a loud
tone." Both are correct, but aloud is considered less colloquial and is
also preferable because it is shorter.

already, all ready. Already is an adverb expressing time and means

"earlier," "previously": "When she arrived, her friend had already
left." "We discovered that the tickets were already sold." All ready is
used as an adjective to mean "completely ready": "They will start for
the office when they are all ready."
 15
altogether, all together

alright, all right. Alright is a common misspelling of all right, an expres-

sion with numerous meanings: "satisfactory," "correct," "very well,"
"yes," "safe," "acceptable." There is no such word as alright.
also, and also. Also is an adverb meaning "besides," "in addition":
"He also likes music" implies that he likes something other than or in
addition to music. In writing, also should not be used as a conjunction to
join words or to introduce a sentence; avoid such statements as "I like
steak, also bacon." Preferably write "I like steak and bacon" or "I
like steak and also bacon." In talking, one might carelessly say "We
played bridge during the party. Also we danced." In writing, also should
not be forced to do the job of and, and also, likewise, moreover, and in
addition.
alter. See CHANGE.

alternate, alternately, alternative, alternatively. As a verb, alternate

means "to change back and forth," "to occur in successive turns." It is
pronounced with primary accent on the first syllable and is usually
followed by with: "Sunny and rainy days alternate with each other at
this season." As an adjective, alternate is also pronounced with accent
on the first syllable but is not followed by with: "He introduced an
alternate proposal." Alternately, an adverb, carries the same general
meaning as alternate: "The hiker alternately walked and jogged."
Alternative refers to a situation involving a choice: "You have the
alternative of speaking or of keeping quiet." As both noun and adjective,
alternative is pronounced with primary accent on the second syllable.
The distinction between alternately and alternatively is that the former
suggests a meaning of "one after the other" and the latter carries a
meaning of "one or the other." Neither alternative nor alternatively is
restricted to a choice between only two: "The alternatives are stagna-
tion, cold war, peace, or compromise." To keep these distinctions in
mind, remember that alternate and alternately have a basic meaning of
"by turns" and alternative and alternatively pertain to some kind of
choice.
although, though. These words meaning "even though," "regardless,"
"in spite of the fact that" may be used interchangeably in most
instances: "Although I was nervous, I got to my feet." "Though I was
nervous, I got to my feet." However, although is more commonly used
at the beginning of a sentence. Though is the more commonly used word
in linking words and phrases (sadder though wiser man) and is preferred
over although at the end of a statement (He looked healthy to me,
though).

altogether, all together. The first of these "look-alikes" means

"wholly," "completely": "He was not altogether pleased with his new
car." Altogether also has the specialized meaning of "in all" or "all
 16
alumnus, alumna, alumni

told": "Six men altogether volunteered for the mission." "In the alto-
gether" is an informal, artificial phrase meaning "nude." All together
means "all in company" or "everybody in one place": "The family was
all together for the holidays."
alumnus, alumna, alumni. An alumnus is a male graduate of some
institution, usually a college or university. An alumna is a woman
graduate. Respective plurals are alumni and alumnae. The term alumni
is now often used to refer to men and women graduates of coeducational
institutions. To refer to graduates as alum or alums is nonstandard.
"Beth is an alumna of Smith College." "Barbara and Roberta are
alumnae of Mount Holyoke College." "Jack is an alumnus of Duke
University." "Joy, Jill, and Tom are alumni of Dartmouth College."

always, all ways. Always is an adverb meaning "forever," "cease-

lessly," "on every occasion": "He was always on time for appoint-
ments." "Joe said he would love Becky for always." All ways is a
phrase meaning "every way," "all possible ways": "The teachers tried
in all ways to interest Joe in studying."
amateur, novice, neophyte, tyro. Amateur, much the most widely
used of these four terms, is applied to someone who follows or pursues
any art, study, or other activity simply from love of doing so. In certain
activities, especially sports, an amateur is one who, regardless of excel-
lence, receives no payment for his performance: "Stan played as an
amateur for five years before becoming a professional." A novice is a
beginner, a person new to any field or activity: "Some young brides are
novices at housekeeping." Tyro is closely related in meaning to novice;
it refers to someone who is inexperienced: "Bill was a tyro during his
first weeks at training camp." Neophyte also refers to a beginner (nov-
ice, tyro), but the term is usually applied to a recent convert, especially
to a novice in a religious order and to a recently ordained priest. An
amateur may be skilled and even experienced, but novices, tyros, and
neophytes never are. A tyro, novice, or neophyte may be a professional,
but an amateur never is.

amatory, amorous. These terms refer to lovers or love-making. Each

has a sexual connotation and may be considered less chaste than loving
when used as an adjective. An amatory or amorous look is stronger
(more sexual) than a loving glance. There is little distinction in meaning
and usage between amatory and amorous, although the latter is more
often applied to persons than is the former (an amatory letter; an
amorous relationship between Hal and Judy).

amaze, astonish, surprise. Amaze means "to bewilder," "to per-

plex," "to astound," "to stun." Its meaning can be recalled by thinking
that to be amazed is to be "lost in a maze": "I thought you were dead;
 17
among, between

your reappearance amazes me." Astonish means "to strike with sudden
fear or wonder." To be astonished is to be dazed or silenced, to be
"turned to stone." Surprise means "to take unawares." We are amazed
at what seems extremely difficult, impossible, 'or improbable; we are
surprised by the merely unexpected or unanticipated; we are astonished
when our surprise is so great as to silence or daze us. Paralyzing
(numbing) shock is implied by astound and its colloquial equivalent,
flabbergast. A story is told of Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), English
author and lexicographer. His wife unexpectedly came upon him kissing
a household maid and said, "I am surprised." Dr. Johnson reportedly
replied, "No, Madam; I am surprised; you are astonished."

ambiguous, equivocal, unequivocal. Ambiguous means "having sev-

eral possible meanings," "open to differing interpretations": "I don't
understand your answer; it's ambiguous." Equivocal is closely related
in meaning to ambiguous, but it is more often used to signify "not
determined," "of doubtful nature," "open to a double interpretation":
"The judge found the loyalty of this citizen to be equivocal." Ambig-
uous is applied only to written or spoken statements; equivocal can
apply to speech, writing, actions, and ideas. Unequivocal, directly oppo-
site in meaning to equivocal, means "clear," "having only one possible
meaning or interpretation": "His refusal to pay the bill is unequivocal.''''

amend, emend. Amend means "to put right," "to change for the
better." We amend by adding or altering, as the noun amendment
suggests. Emend, once merely another spelling of amend, has a similar
meaning but is properly used only to refer to corrections or changes
made in a literary or scholarly work; the corresponding noun is emenda-
tion. Both amend and emend are verbs; amend in plural form (amends)
becomes a noun meaning "recompense" or "compensation": "He made
amends for his careless driving."

amiable, amicable. These words are closely related in meaning; they

are derived from the same Latin word meaning "friendly." Amiable
implies sweetness of temper, kindheartedness, or good-natured obliging-
ness. Amicable has somewhat similar meanings but stresses the idea of
being at peace, not disposed to quarrel. "Mr. Jacks is a kindly and
amiable employer." "All of my fellow employees are amicable.''''
amn't. This is a contraction for am I not? It has not been so fully
accepted or so widely used as have been hasn't (has not), weren't (were
not), and other similar shortened forms. One reason for its lack of
acceptance is its sound. At present, amn't is considered silly or preten-
tious.
among, between. Standard usage requires that among be employed to
show the relationship of more than two objects or persons and that
 18
amoral, immoral, unmoral

between be employed to refer to only two objects or, occasionally, to

more than two when each object is considered in relation to others. This
distinction probably traces from the fact that the tween in between
comes from the Old English word for two. The majority of careful
speakers observe this distinction, but remember that between can cor-
rectly refer to more than two objects in certain instances. We speak of "a
trade agreement between Great Britain, France, and the United States"
because each country has an individual obligation to each of the others.
And we do not say that a triangle is the space among three points or that
the water-level route runs among New York, Albany, Cleveland, and
Chicago. Keep these examples in mind: "We distributed the toys among
Heather, Greg, and Gray." "We distributed the toys between Jill and
Gray." "Understanding between nations is desirable."

amoral, immoral, unmoral. Amoral means "not concerned with moral

standards," "not to be judged by the criteria or standards of morality."
Animals and morons may be considered amoral. Immoral means
"wicked," "depraved," "contrary to accepted principles of right and
wrong." The acts of thieves, rapists, and murderers are immoral.
Unmoral means "having no morality," "unable to distinguish right from
wrong." Thus, an infant or a mentally retarded person may be consid-
ered unmoral. Amoral, unmoral, and the less-used nonmoral are virtual
synonyms.

amorous. See AMATORY.

amount, number. Amount is used of things involving a unified mass—

bulk, weight, or sums. In accounting, it has the same meaning as total;
generally, it is safe to use amount to refer to anything which can be
measured. Number is correctly used to refer to items which can be
counted in individual units. "What is the amount of the bill?" "He has
left only a small amount of food." "Joe has a number of old suits for
sale."

ample, enough. Ample means "more than enough," "more than ade-
quate in size, capacity, or scope." Enough means "sufficient," "in or to
a degree or quantity that satisfies." Since ample means what it does, it is
silly to attempt to qualify it; "barely ample'''' and "scarcely ample" are
illogical. Adequate synonyms: abundance for ample, sufficient or ade-
quate for enough. "The cabin was stocked with anamp/e supply of food,
enough to last us longer than our two-week stay." See also ENOUGH.
an. See A, AN.

analysis, synthesis. Meaning "separation of a whole into its parts,"

analysis is the antonym (opposite) of synthesis ("putting together"):
"This is an analysis of the campaign for mayor." "The synthesis of
cadmium acetate is accomplished by the interaction of acetic acid and
 19
angry, mad

cadmium oxide." Both analysis and synthesis are overused for the
words study, examination, and consideration. Few persons other than
laboratory scientists normally engage in either analysis or synthesis.
Corresponding verbs, analyze and synthesize, are also often used inex-
actly. Noun plurals are analyses and syntheses, with the last e in each
having the sound of ea in easy.

and all. This is what is known as a filler, a word or expression that adds
little or nothing to meaning but consumes time in saying and space in
writing: "You know what I mean and all." This useless phrase, as well
as other fillers, is likely to appear only in informal talk, hardly ever in
writing.
and also. See ALSO.

and etc. This is a redundant expression from which and should be

dropped. Etc. is an abbreviation of the Latin et cetera and means "and
so forth." It looks out of place in formal writing. Furthermore, it cannot
be pronounced in speech without sounding individual letters or giving the
entire phrase. Sometimes we use etc. at the end of a list to suggest that
much more could be added. But do we really have anything in mind?
and/or. This expression, formerly used exclusively in legal documents
and business communication, has become acceptable English primarily
because it is a convenient saver of time and words. And/or means about
the same as each and every and is often equivalent to the simple word
or. You can say "boots and/or shoes." You can also say "boots or
shoes or both." Purists object to and/or as being awkward and
unsightly, but it is permissible in all save fastidious usage.
and so forth. This English form of etc. (see AND ETC.) is standard but is
sometimes used unnecessarily at the end of a statement to suggest that
something could be added. Probably all that needs to be said has been
said, and anything else would be waste or wordiness.
and which, and who. Correct sentence structure provides that these
phrases should appear in clauses only if preceded by clauses also con-
taining which and who. This rule, which also applies to but which and
but who clauses, is a matter of parallel construction. Do not say "He is a
man of intelligence, and who is an industrious worker." You can omit
and or add a who clause: "He is a man who is intelligent and who is an
industrious worker." Better still, eliminate the verbiage and say "The
man is intelligent and industrious." The best way to improve "He
showed much energy at first, but which soon vanished" is to omit but.
angry, mad. Angry means "indignant," "wrathful," "inflamed." In
idiomatic English, you may be angry about a situation or event, angry at
an animal or an inanimate object, and angry with (not at) a person. In
 20
annoy

precise English, mad has a suggestion of abnormality, of being "disor-

dered in intellect," "insane." A mad person is insane; a mad dog has
rabies; mad haste is frenzied; a mad idea is senseless or unwise. The
formal word for wrathful is angry. Colloquially (that is, informally), mad
is often used to mean "angry," but mad is employed by careful speakers
and writers to convey only a sense of disorder or abnormality.

annoy. See AGGRAVATE.

antagonist, protagonist. An antagonist is someone who contends

with, or opposes, another in a fight, struggle, or battle of wills: "Once
close friends, they became antagonists in the courtroom." In literature,
an antagonist is the principal opponent of the main character involved in
a play or novel, a person known as the protagonist. In Greek, protago-
nist meant "first combatant," the principal or central character. In
Shakespeare's Hamlet, the protagonist is Hamlet; among the antago-
nists are King Claudius and Laertes. See also ADVERSARY.

ante-, anti-. The first of these common prefixes means "before" or

"prior"; the second means "against" or "opposite": "Wait in the
anteroom for me." "Do you have an antidote for this poison?"
anxious, eager. In careful use, anxious implies anxiety, worry, or
uneasiness: "The physician was anxious about the pulse rate of his
patient." Eager means "keenly desirous," "wanting to": "Bob was
eager to see his old friend." Eager is rarely used where anxious is
meant, but anxious is often incorrectly substituted for eager: "The small
boy was eager (not anxious) to go fishing." One is anxious about
something of which he is fearful. He is eager concerning something
looked forward to.

any, any and ail. Any is a useful word with several meanings, "one,"
"a," "an," "some," "no matter which," "every." "Do you have any
money?" Any is considered informal (colloquial) when it is used as an
adverb to mean "at all": "He did not work any last month." You can
substitute at all for any in such a sentence. Or you can, if you wish,
consider that any in the sentence quoted is a pronoun rather than an
adverb. Any and all is a wordy, trite expression.
anybody. See ANYONE.

anyhow. This adverb means "in any manner whatever," "in any
event." It is a standard word but one which is overused, vague, and
imprecise. Omit anyhow from a sentence such as "I didn't want to go
anyhow."
anymore. This term, preferably spelled as one word rather than two,
means "now," "at present," "from now on." It is a standard word, but
 21
apology, excuse, pardon

when it is placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, it often is

meaningless or ineffective: "Anymore they are coming to see us."
"They are picking apples anymore." Yet when used with a negative,
anymore is standard: "Susie doesn't stay there anymore." Suggestion:
use anymore only when it is accompanied by a negative such as not,
doesn't, or won't.
anyone, anybody. These pronouns are singular forms and take singular
verbs: "Is anyone going with me?" "Anybody is welcome to come."
They may be used interchangeably in the sense of "any person," but
formal speakers and writers prefer anyone to anybody, possibly because
of sound or appearance. Anyone should be spelled as one word except
when it singles out a particular or definite person or item: "He saw three
plays that week and did not enjoy any one of them." Anybody should
also be spelled as one word unless you are referring to an actual body:
"A homicide was thought to have been committed, but the police could
not discover any body."

anyplace, noplace, someplace. Preferably spelled as one word, any-

place is an adverb, a colloquial and informal synonym for anywhere. It
should be avoided in careful speech and writing. As a noun, anyplace (or
any place) is standard: "You may go to anyplace (or any place) you
want to." The same restrictions apply to noplace and someplace when
they are used adverbially, although both expressions are standard as
nouns.
anyway, anyways. Anyway should be spelled as one word when it is
used to mean "in any event," "no matter what": "Whether or not the
storm is bad, we plan to leave at noon anyway." In all other possible
meanings, write the expression as two words: "You cannot in any way
be blamed for the accident." Anyways is a nonstandard form of anyway,
used only by illiterate or uneducated persons. As two words, the expres-
sion may be used correctly: "I can't think of any ways in which we could
have acted differently."
anywheres. Anywheres is an expression characteristic of uneducated
speakers. So are nowheres and somewheres. Omit the final s in each
word; say anywhere, nowhere, somewhere.

apology, excuse, pardon. An apology is an admission of discourtesy

or error together with an expression of regret. An excuse is a statement
made or reason given for being released from blame. An apology accepts
guilt and seeks to make amends; an excuse seeks to shift blame, deny
guilt, and avoid censure: "Please accept my apology for neglecting to
send you an invitation." "His excuse for being late is that his alarm
clock failed to go off." Does one correctly say "Excuse me" or "Pardon
me"? The former is a weaker expression than the latter, which implies
guilt and a request for forgiveness. "Excuse me" is the correct term to
 22
apparent, evident

use when asking someone to be allowed to pass or to overlook a minor

matter. "Excuse me" should be used many times more often than
"Pardon me," which is usually an expression of mistaken gentility and
affectation.
apparent, evident. These words are closely related in meaning, but
apparent often suggests the use of reasoning: "It is apparent that
Jackson will win the election." Evident implies the existence of external
signs, facts of some sort: "His sorrow was evident." Apparent has
another meaning, that of "seeming," "not necessarily real or actual":
"The apparent unconcern of the patient did not fool Nurse Brown."
appraise, apprise, apprize. Appraise means "to judge," "to esti-
mate": "The auctioneer appraised the furniture." Apprise means "to
inform," "to notify": "A newspaper account apprised me of the trag-
edy." Apprize is another, less-used spelling of apprise.
apprehend, comprehend. Apprehend means "to seize," "to capture":
"The sheriff will apprehend the forger." Comprehend means ' 'to under-
stand": "I did not comprehend the lecturer's remarks."
apprise, apprize. See APPRAISE.

a priori. This Latin phrase meaning "from the one before" is used in
English to refer to matters not based on examination or prior study:
"The lawyer made an a priori judgment of his client's case." Like most
foreign expressions brought intact into our language, it should be used
sparingly. Even so, it is an expression for which there is no satisfactory
English equivalent.

apt, liable, likely. Distinctions in the meanings of these words have

broken down somewhat, but careful speakers continue to observe them.
Apt suggests fitness or tendency: "Jake is apt in physics." Liable
implies exposure to something unwanted, disadvantageous, or burden-
some: "The driver is liable for damages." Likely means "expected,"
"probable": "It is likely to rain today." Likely is the most commonly
used of the three words; apt and likely are near-synonyms; use liable
only in the sense of "responsible," "answerable."

arbitrate, mediate. Although similar in meaning, these words have

different applications. Arbitrate means "to decide between contending
or opposing parties or sides." An arbitrator actually hears evidence,
arrives at a decision, and then makes an award. Mediate means "to act
as an intermediary in a dispute," "to be a go-between." Arbitrators have
no authority to mediate, just as mediators have no right to make ultimate
decisions and issue awards. A mediator offers suggestions that may or
may not be acceptable to contending parties; an arbitrator arrives at a
solution intended to be binding upon both sides in a dispute: "The
 23
ashamed of, ashamed for

Family Court judge asked a marriage counselor to mediate the couple's

disagreements." "An impartial expert was appointed to arbitrate the
issue of fringe benefits."
aren't I? Aren't I is ungrammatical and not entirely logical (no one
would say "I are not"). The phrase, which seems pompous or affected to
most users of American English, is often employed by educated English-
men and, occasionally, by speakers in the Northeastern part of the
United States.
arise. See GET UP.

around. See ABOUT.

artless. See UNSOPHISTICATED.

as. One of the most useful and most overworked words in the language,
as is a proper conjunction and adverb essential to good idiomatic En-
glish. As a conjunction, however, as is usually weaker (less effective)
than since, because, and when, each of which is more exact: "Since
(preferably not as) it was snowing, we stayed indoors." As is often used
for a more specific that or whether: "I don't say that (not as) he was
right." "I doubt whether (not as) he was correct." As is incorrectly
used for who in a sentence such as "Those as have no tickets are out of
luck" and for whom or that in "The car hit the man as I had just spoken
to."
as . . . as, so . . . as. In negative comparisons, unusually careful writers
and speakers prefer so . . . as to as .. . as: "Tom is not so talkative as
his sister." But as . . . as is in reputable use, although the term is not
considered quite so correct as "so .. . as."
as a whole, on the whole. These two phrases are trite through over-
use and should usually be avoided. If you do use them, note that as
a whole applies to a group but not necessarily- to individuals; on the
whole means "for the most part," "in general." "As a whole, our
salesmen get much credit and attention, but some salesmen are low in
prestige and income." "On the whole, the storm did little damage."

as follows. See FOLLOWS.

as good as. This expression indicates comparison: "This suit is as

good as that one." But it is a wordy substitute for practically in
sentences such as "He as good as promised to go" and "This suit is as
good as new." See also PRACTICALLY.
ashamed of, ashamed for. Ordinarily, use ashamed of: "I am
ashamed of myself (of them, of their deed)." Use ashamed for only
 24
aside from

when referring to someone who should be, but isn't, ashamed 0/himself:
"I am ashamed for the team's action."
aside from. This is a wordy expression more economically expressed by
besides: "Besides (or aside from) his cruelty, he was also arrogant."
as if, as though, like. Each of these expressions is permissible. As if is
used more often in speech and in informal writing than is as though,
which is preferred by careful writers. Both expressions are followed by a
verb in the subjunctive mood: "He left the room as though (as i f ) he
were angry." In informal or substandard use, like sometimes substitutes
for as if and as though but is never followed by the subjunctive mood.
See also LIKE.

ask a question. The verb ask means "to inquire about," "to put a
question to." In nearly every conceivable situation and meaning, a
question should be omitted from ask a question; ask implies a question
and should stand alone: "A member of the audience asked (not asked a
question) about inflation."
as per, as regards. As per is an overworked business expression for in
accordance with or according to. Often the expression itself, as well iis
its less-tired equivalents, is not needed at all. As regards is a wordy and
overworked expression for concerning or about. It is an example of
jargon and should be avoided. See also REGARD.

assay, essay. Assay means "a test" or "to test": "The chemist started
to assay the mineral." Essay means "to attempt," "an attempt," or "a
literary effort": "Will you essay this difficult task?" "This is a delight-
fully written essay."
assist. See HELP.

assume, presume. These words have related but distinguishable mean-

ings. To assume is "to take for granted," "to infer without proof':
"Mrs. Black assumed that her husband had paid the bill." To presume is
"to believe something to be a fact," "to infer as true without actual
proof to the contrary." When Stanley came upon another explorer in the
jungle, he did not say "Dr. Livingstone, I assume'''' but "Dr. Living-
stone, I presume?" because circumstances clearly indicated that the
man he was meeting could be no one else. In ordinary conversation,
however, the words may be used interchangeably.
assure, ensure, insure. Assure means "to convince," "to guarantee":
"I assure you of my good intentions." Ensure and insure mean "to make
certain," "to guard against loss": "Please insure this package." Insure,
the preferred spelling, is applied to both people and property, but assure
usually refers only to persons.
 25
au

as though. See AS IF.

as to. Are these words necessary? Usually, a more precise single word
will serve better. "Eleanor was in doubt as to his meaning" is better
expressed "Eleanor was in doubt about his meaning." As to whether is
even more useless and wordy. Instead of saying "Sandy expressed
concern as to whether it would snow," say "Sandy expressed concern
that it would snow." As to where can usually be shortened to where.

astonish. See AMAZE.

at, at about, at ail. At is a preposition and requires an object. One

should not ask "Where are you staying at?" but "What motel are you
staying at?" or, better, "At what motel are you staying?" At is unneces-
sary in expressions such as at about and at around (see ABOUT). At all,
meaning "to the slightest degree," is nonstandard when used in a
statement such as "They were thoughtless at all." When used to mean
"wholly" or "completely," at all should be replaced by of all: "Sue is
the finest girl of all."
at, in. These two prepositions are among the most used words in the
language; "look at her," "at the door," "at night," "at the party," "at
noon," "at the controls," "at peace"; "in the rain," "in a moment,"
"struck in the leg," "in cash," "in control," "in fear," "in haste." But
can these two words be used interchangeably? If you are a native
speaker of English, your sense of idiom will not fail you: you will say "I
am all at sea" but "Whales live in the sea." And yet, do you arrive in a
city or at a city? An airplane arrives at its destination, but does it arrive
in or at a city? Is there a distinction between reaching a place and
arriving at a place and then entering it? No clear rules can be stated for
the use of these words. Let your ear and your sense of idiom be your
guides.
at about, at all. See AT, AT ABOUT, AT ALL.

atheist. See AGNOSTIC.

attend to, tend to. Tend to is more often used than attend to: "Please
tend to the store while I'm away." However, attend to is idiomatically
more acceptable in the sense of "to wait upon" or "to care for": "Will
you attend to that customer?" "Kindly attend to this matter at once."
Tend to has the more exact meaning of "to lean toward": "Sam tends to
be cautious about new ideas." In many constructions, to can be omitted
from either phrase.
au. This is a term from French meaning "to the," "at the," "with the."
It is considered an affectation to use foreign words unnecessarily, but
there is no suitable English equivalent for au in such phrases as au
 26
audience

beurre ("with butter"), au contraire ("on the opposite side," "to the
contrary"), au fait ("expert" or "experienced"), au gratin ("with
cheese"), and au naturel ("in the natural state"). Unlike & la, it is
always used with another French word. See also k LA.
audience. Because audience is derived from a Latin word meaning "to
hear," some experts insist that the word can properly apply only to a
group of persons engaged in listening. Such purists feel that where
looking (seeing) is the primary activity involved, persons comprising an
audience should be called spectators. Audience is now widely and
acceptably applied to listeners and viewers collectively—to persons
attending a theater or concert as well as those reached by radio or
television broadcasts, by books, newspapers, and magazines, and by
public speakers: "The studio audience was convulsed with laughter."
"Many works of art have a wide and devoted audience."
audio. See VIDEO.

aught, ought, naught. Aught means "any little part," "in any
respect": "You are right for aught I know." Ought indicates duty,
obligation: "Everyone ought to attend the meeting." Naught means
"nothing," "zero": "Our work availed naught."

aural. See ORAL.

authentic, genuine. These words may be used interchangeably to mean

"trustworthy," "reliable." Authentic has an added meaning of "not
fictitious," "not false or copied": "This is an authentic seventeenth-
century antique." Genuine has an additional meaning of "sincere,"
"free from pretense": "My Mend Sally is a genuine person."
author. An author is a person who writes, one who practices writing as
his profession or vocation. The use of the word as a transitive verb (to
author a book) is widespread but is not considered standard. Instead of
"to author" say "to write" or "to compose'''' or "to create.''''
autograph. See SIGNATURE.

avenge, revenge. Avenge is used in the sense of achieving justice:

"Jim avenged his mother's injury." Revenge stresses retaliation and
usually has for its subject the person wronged: "He revenged himself'
or "He revenged the injury done to him."
average, median, mean. Average applies to what is midway between
extremes on a scale of evaluation. With a series of numbers, you would
find the average by adding them and dividing by their number. You
would find the median by discovering the middle number in an arithmeti-
 27
awhile, a while

cally arranged series. You would find the mean by adding the two
extreme numbers and dividing by 2. Thus, with the numbers 4, 6, 8, 12,
and 15, the average would be 9, the median would be 8, and the mean
would be 9Vi.
averse. See ADVERSE.

avert, divert. These words are both based upon a Latin term meaning
"to turn," but they have different meanings and applications in English.
Avert means "to turn away," "to ward off": "He quickly averted his
eyes." "Drive carefully and try to avert an accident." Divert means "to
turn aside," "to distract," "to entertain": "Listen carefully; don't let
anything divert your attention." "After the conference, the diplomats
diverted their minds by attending a musical comedy." See also ADVERT.
avocation, vocation, calling. Avocation suggests a hobby, something
one does apart from regular work. One's vocation is one's calling, one's
principal endeavor or source of livelihood. "My vocation is teaching
school, but my avocation is gardening." Calling is synonymous with
vocation but is usually applied to work that has been entered as a result
of a call, summons, or strong impulse: "He began the study of theology
as a result of an inner calling." "He felt a calling to become a minister."
awake, awaken. See WAKE.

award, reward. Award implies a decision or something given as a prize.

Reward usually refers to something given in recompense for a good deed
or for merit. "Jack received an award for his flower display." "The
fireman received a reward for saving the child's life."

aware, conscious. Aware implies knowing something either by percep-

tion or through information:' The lecturer was aware that he had lost his
audience." Conscious has much the same meaning but is more often
applied to a physical situation: "The injured player was conscious but
could not stand." In informal use, the words are employed interchangea-
bly.
away. This frequently used adverb has many meanings, all acceptable in
standard English: "hence," "far," "aside." As an adjective, away
means "absent," "gone," "distant." Away is colloquial when used to
mean "without delay," "immediately," as in "All right, sing away" and
4
' Let's leave right away."
awhile, a while. These words cause trouble with spelling, but their
meanings are easily distinguished. While is a noun meaning "a period of
time'' and with a is correctly spelled and pronounced as two words in a
sentence such as "Ellie had to wait a while for the bus." The meaning of
 28

axiom, adage, proverb.

awhile is "for a period or interval of time." The for is definitely part of

the meaning, so that it is wordy to write "I then rested for awhile." The
distinction between awhile (an adverb) and while (a noun) is shown in
this sentence: "He asked me to stay awhile, just a little while longer."
axiom, adage, proverb. An axiom is a universally accepted rule or
principle or a self-evident truth: "There can be only one straight line
between two points." "It is an axiom of economics that supply and
demand are closely related." An adage is a statement given credit by
long usage and general acceptance: "It never rains but it pours." "It is
always darkest before the dawn." A proverb is a short saying, usually of
unknown origin, that expresses a useful thought or commonplace truth:
"A rolling stone gathers no moss." "A stitch in time saves nine." The
general word saying embraces the meanings of these terms and also
those of aphorism, maxim, apothegm, epigram, and motto.
 B
back of, in back of, behind. Use of back of and in back of to mean
"behind" is widespread, but opinions differ as to their respectability.
Each should be considered standard, but both are wordy and can safely
be omitted in favor of behind: "The wheelbarrow is behind (back of or
in back of) the barn." No one questions the reputability of in front of,
although before is shorter and normally will serve as well.
backward, backwards. The first of these terms is generally preferred to
mean "toward the back or rear," "in the reverse," "retrogressive," or
"bashful." It can always be used in these meanings, whereas backwards
is improper in a sentence such as "Jack was a backwards youth." One
can move forward or backward or backwards, but why not use the
shorter form in every instance?
bacteria. See GERM.

bad, badly. Bad is an adjective, badly an adverb. Despite this clear

grammatical distinction, people tend to say "I feel badly" about as often
as the more correct "I feel bad." In time, distinction between the forms
may break down further, but as of now "I feel bad" is preferable. When
the verb is to be modified, that is, when one is referring to a sense of
touch, or feel, only badly is accurate: the student learning braille might
say, "1 feel badly this morning."

balance. The use of balance in an extended sense of "rest" or "remain-

der" is debatable and should be avoided except in informal speaking
situations. The central meanings of balance deal with weighing and
bookkeeping. Say "The remainder (not balance) of the day was
wasted." Also, "on balance" has become a tiresome phrase through
overuse.
baleful, baneful. These "look-alikes" mean "harmful," "pernicious,"
"menacing." In ordinary use, the words are interchangeable, although
baneful also means "poisonous" and is normally applied to substances,
causes, and influences that result in death. "The gathering clouds prom-
ised a baleful storm." "Some poisons are merely injurious, but others
are baneful." You are not likely to be arrested if you give a rival a
baleful glance, but watch out if you give him a baneful dose of arsenic.
 30
bank on

bank on. This trite expression is overused to mean "to depend on," "to
count on": "You can bank on his giving you bad advice." In this sense
the phrase departs from its original meaning of making bank in gambling
games. The literal meaning of bank on is not "to rely on" but "to be
absolutely certain o f ' : "You can bank on this, a gamble that you cannot
lose."

barbaric, barbarous. These words are closely related to each other and
to such terms as barbarian, barbarism, and barbarity. Both barbaric
and barbarous are adjectives meaning "uncivilized," "primitive,"
"without civilizing influences." Barbaric is occasionally used in a favor-
able sense to refer to those elements in a culture, such as vigor, ardor,
and love of splendor, that the speaker or writer finds praiseworthy (a
splendidly barbaric people). Barbarous is more often used to refer to the
cruel and vicious customs and practices of uncivilized groups (the inhu-
man deeds of barbarous Huns).

barely. See HARDLY.

basal. See BASIC.

based on. This phrase is not an absolute participle such as are consider-
ing and given. As a result, a sentence such as "Based on your record,
you are clearly qualified for the job" is ungrammatical because based on
is a dangling modifier with nothing to attach to. Instead of using based on
in such a statement, try given or considering or on the basis of.

basic, basal. Each of these words means "fundamental." Basal is

rarely used except in such phrases as "basal metabolism," but basic is
overused in the senses of "fundamental" and "bottom." Instead of
referring to "Jim's basic problem in learning," why not say fundamen-
tal? Instead of writing "the basic salary for this position" why not refer
to the bottom or starting salary?
bear, borne, born. Bear has numerous meanings, one of which has to
do with procreation: carrying and giving birth to something or someone.
In this sense, the past participle borne is the correct form for all active
constructions and for passive constructions followed by by: "Ten chil-
dren have been borne by Mrs. James." "Mrs. James has borne ten
children." Born, also a past participle, is the correct form for all other
passive constructions dealing with birth: "One of Mrs. James's children
was born in Singapore."
because. This conjunction is definite and specific in its meaning of
"since" or "for the reason that." It is used solely to express cause or
reason: "He left the party early because he was tired." As a subordinat-
 31

beside, besides

ing conjunction, because should not be used to mean "that" (a relative

pronoun); say "The reason is that," not "The reason is because." We
do not say "The cause is because"', logically, we should state not the
cause for the reason but the reason itself. "The reason for my absence
was illness" is more concise and more logical than "The reason for my
absence was because of illness" or ". . . because I was ill." Also, note
that "because of the fact that" is an excessively wordy expression.
begin, commence. These words are alike in meaning "to start," "to
originate," "to cause to come into being": "Come on, let's begin the
meeting." "When will the fireworks display commence?" Commence is
stronger in its suggestion of initiative, of action originated by some
person or force; it is also a more formal word than begin: "The prosecut-
ing attorney will commence proceedings in the trial." In normal speech
and writing, prefer the shorter, less formal begin.
beg to advise. This expression is overworked, particularly in business
correspondence. "I beg to advise you that your valued order has been
received" can more simply and economically be expressed by omitting
all words before your: "Your valued order. . . . "
behind. See BACK OF.

being as, being as how, being that. Each of these phrases borders on
illiteracy; all are vague, wordy, and illogical. Say "Because (not being
as, being as how, or being that) I am already here, I'll help."
believe, feel. Precisely, believe suggests "to have convictions about,"
"to judge," "to think"; feel indicates emotion rather than reason. In
daily use, the words are interchangeable: "I feel (or I believe) that we
should go." Careful distinction is shown in such a sentence as "I feel
cheerful when I hear from you, because I believe you still like me."
belittle, disparage. These words are related in meaning:' 'to speak of as
unimportant," "to regard something as less important or impressive than
it apparently is." Disparage is a stronger word than belittle in that it
tends to bring reproach or discredit upon the topic being considered,
whereas belittle means simply "to make less," "to minimize": "Don't
belittle my efforts; I'm trying hard." "The prosecuting attorney dispar-
aged the testimony of the witness."
belly. See ABDOMEN.

beside, besides. In reputable usage, beside is usually a preposition

meaning "by the side of." Besides, also a preposition, meaning
"except," is more commonly used as an adverb in the sense of "more-
 32
be sure and

over" and "in addition to." "I am resting beside (not besides) the
stream." "I have more work to do; besides (not beside) I am not in the
mood to go."
be sure and. Each of these three words is inoffensive, but the idea
which their combination expresses should be conveyed by "be sure to."
In such a construction, what follows be sure is always an infinitive, not a
group of words connected by and: "Be sure to (not and) let me hear
from you."

bet. See GAMBLE.

better had. This is a substandard (illiterate) expression used to mean

"should," "must," or "ought to." When one is told to do something, a
nonreputable reply would be "I guess I better had." These two words
reversed (had better, meaning that something would be safe or wise or to
one's advantage) are also often substituted for ought or should, but
inversion does not remove the inexactness. Also illiterate are some other
forms of these expressions: would better and 'd better (you'd better).
See also HAD BETTER.

between. See AMONG.

between you and me. This is a standard phrase, grammatically and

idiomatically acceptable. It is overused, however, in situations in which
a speaker or writer attempts to create an atmosphere of familiarity or
shared secrets: "Don't tell anyone, but just between you and me. ..."
Between is a preposition in this construction and requires a following
pronoun (or noun) in the objective case: me, him, her. Avoid the mistake
of saying "between you and J " or "between you and she."

bewilder. See PUZZLE, PERPLEX, BEWILDER.

biannual, biennial. A distinction exists between biannual ("twice a

year," "semiannual") and biennial ("once in two years" or "lasting two
years"). Fix in mind that bimonthly means "every two months" and that
its use as "twice a month," or "semimonthly," is nonstandard.
Biweekly means "once in two weeks." If you remain in doubt, it's
always safe to say, somewhat wordily, "twice a month" and "twice a
week." See also BIMONTHLY.
big, large. Each of these words refers to quantity and size and in most
speaking and writing situations can be used interchangeably (a big
building, a large building). Large, however, carries a meaning of
immensity or importance not conveyed by big (a man of large vision
rather than a man of big vision). Big carries additional meanings of
generosity or kindness, as in the phrases "a big heart" and "a big man
 33
blame it on me, blame me for it

in every way." Although distinctions in meaning have broken down

somewhat and although big is more often used than large, your language
sense will tell you to use big when you mean either size or importance
and large when th«re is an added suggestion of scope or range: "a big
liar," not "a large liar," and "a man of large outlook" rather than "a
man of big outlook." But remember that big is an overworked term and
that it appears in numerous trite, slangy expressions that should be
avoided in all but informal conversation: "big on" ("enthusiastic
about"); "talk big" ("to speak boastfully"); "go over big" ("to be
successful"); "big cheese," "big shot" ("important person"); "big
eye" ("invitation," "summons"); "big idea" ("unsolicited or objec-
tionable proposal or plan"); "big mouth" ("loud person"); "big talk"
("exaggeration"); "big time" ("enjoyable time," "high level"); "big
wheel," "big wig" ("influential person"); "big head" ("conceit,"
"egotism"); "big house" ("penitentiary"). It's possible that you use big
in even more expressions than those listed here. Be big and avoid them
all.

bilateral. See UNILATERAL.

bimonthly. See BIANNUAL. Because bi- (a learned borrowing from

Latin) can correctly mean both "two" and "twice," our language would
be more exact if we employed semi- ("half') more often. A good rule to
follow is this: use bi- to mean "two" and semi- to mean "half."
bipartisan, partisan, bipartite. Bipartisan is made up of the prefix bi-,
meaning "two," and partisan, meaning "an adherent or supporter."
Thus we refer to "a strongly partisan member of the Democratic party"
and to "a bipartisan foreign policy supported by Democrats and Repub-
licans." Soldiers fighting against an invader of their country may be
called partisans; members of a United Nations force attempting to keep
peace in a country may be referred to as bipartisan. Bipartite means
"joint," "shared by two," "in two parts": "Germany and Italy signed a
bipartite pact prior to World War II. After World War II, Germany had a
bipartite government of occupying forces and its own leaders."

bisect. This word can mean only "to cut or divide into two parts":
"This is where the road bisects the railroad tracks." Bisect and dissect
should not be confused. One bisects a laboratory animal when he divides
it into two equal or nearly equal parts; he dissects it when he cuts it into
numerous segments.
biweekly. See BIANNUAL.

black. See NEGRO.

blame it on me, blame me for it. When a preposition is needed with the
 34
blatant, flagrant

verb blame, standard idiomatic usage requires for: "She blamed me for
the accident," not "She blamed the accident on me." The construction
"blame on" (filame this situation on your employee) is becoming
acceptable, although formal usage would stipulate "Blame your
employee for . . . " or "Place the blame on. . . ."
blatant, flagrant. Blatant means "offensively noisy" and "brazenly
obvious" (a blatant orchestra, a blatant lie). Flagrant means "shock-
ing" and "disgraceful" (a flagrant criminal act, a. flagrant oversight).
Blatant stresses offensiveness and noisiness; flagrant emphasizes evil
and wrongdoing. One who eats peas with his knife commits a blatant
error. One who drives a car on the highway while drunk performs a
flagrant act.

bloc, block. A bloc is a group or coalition such as "a bloc of voters" or

"a bloc of legislators opposed to the bill." In political campaigns,
reference is made to the farm bloc and the labor bloc. Block has
numerous meanings, the most common of which refers to a part of a
town or city enclosed by four neighboring streets: "This block contains
four large stores."
bloom, blossom. Each of these words refers to the flower of a plant.
One may correctly say "The cherry tree is in bloom" or "It is in
blossom." One may also say "The cherry tree bloomed" or "It blos-
somed." When used figuratively, that is, in a nonliteral sense, these
words have slightly different applications. One would refer to the bloom
(not the blossom) of youth. One would more suitably write "The slight
youth blossomed into a sturdy athlete" than "He bloomed into one."
Why not use flower and avoid worrying about the minor distinctions
involved?

boat, ship. A boat is a small vessel, one propelled by oars, sails, or an

outboard motor: "We rowed our boat to a nearby island." A ship is a
large or seagoing craft, powered by engines or sails: "The ship required
five days to cross the Atlantic." This distinction breaks down, however,
in such terms as ferryboat and FT boat. Strictly speaking, one would go
to Europe by ship, not by boat; yet this usage is often ignored by even
educated speakers and writers. If in doubt, say vessel or even craft and
avoid any possible confusion. It may also help to remember that an
airplane is sometimes referred to as a ship, not a boat.
borne, born. See BEAR.

bourgeois, proletariat. Bourgeois refers to a member of the so-called

middle class, sometimes defined as persons engaged in shopkeeping,
merchandising, and similar pursuits. As an adjective, bourgeois means
"conventional," "characterized by materialistic concerns or activities."
The general meaning of bourgeois may be inferred from its origin: a
 35
bring, take

burgess is, or was, a citizen who was neither of the nobility nor a serf.
Proletariat refers to persons who depend for support upon employment
rather than property. The word is derived from a Latin phrase referring
to individuals who contributed to the state only through their offspring.
In brief, bourgeois means "middle-class," and proletarian means
"working-class." Most Americans do not think of themselves as being
either bourgeois or proletarian.
brand-new. This expression, meaning "entirely new," "fresh,"
"unused," may also be spelled bran-new. Brand-new is preferred.
breadth. See BREATH.

breakdown. This word has two primary meanings: "a wearing out,
collapse" and "analysis, decomposition": "Millie suffered a breakdown
following the accident." "The factory was closed because of a break-
down in machinery." "The treasurer made a careful breakdown of
income and expenses." In the second of its meanings, breakdown is
overused and loosely used. Instead of using this word vaguely, occasion-
ally say analysis, classification, examination, or itemization. See also
ANALYSIS.

breath, breathe. A breath is an exhalation of air. To breathe is "to take

in (of exhale) air. "His breath was frozen in the cold air." "Breathe
deeply and you will feel better." Neither breath nor breathe should be
confused with breadth, meaning "distance" or "width": "The stream
was 50 feet in breadth."

bridegroom. See GROOM.

brief, short. Brief applies especially to duration of time (a brief stay in a

hospital). Brief also means "concise," "curt," and "succinct": "The
chairman made a brief talk of only five minutes." Short applies to both
time and space: "That was a short meeting." "Joe is a short man." It is
informal to refer to "a brief distance" or "a brief skirt." That is, short
can be used in almost any situation, but brief should be applied only in
circumstances involving time.
bri ng, take. Bring indicates movement toward a place identified with the
speaker; it suggests "to come here with." Take suggests movement
away from such a place and indicates "to go there with." One takes
money to a supermarket and brings home groceries (and no money). In
ordinary usage, these words are often interchanged, but the distinction
just noted persists to a degree. You can take or bring someone to a
party, take or bring someone to have lunch, but the word selected has
some bearing upon the relationship to the speaker of the place involved
in the action.
Both bring and take combine with many prepositions to form phrases
 36
bring up

with distinct meanings: "bring about," "bring around," "bring down,"

"bring forward," "bring in," "bring off," "bring on," "bring out,"
"bring over," "bring to," "bring up"; "take aback," "take after,"
"take apart," "take back," "take for," "take on," "take over," "take
to," "take up." Each word also appears in many trite expressions,
normally to be avoided. "Take it lying down," "take it on the chin,"
"take aback seat," and "take five" are examples. So, too, are "bring to
an end,'" a wordy expression since end conveys the full idea, as it does in
"put an end to" and "come to an end." The cliche "bring to a head" is
really an unpleasant expression, as well as being trite and wordy: it
means "to cause pus to form." Why not say, instead, precipitate or
crystallize? "Bring to a boil" and "bring to a climax" are less unpleas-
ant but equally trite expressions.

bring up. In the sense of "to rear," "to care for during childhood," this
term is acceptable but is considered less refuted and somewhat more
informal than rear (see RAISE). Use bring up in ordinary conversation if it
is a term widely used in your locality; use rear in writing and in all formal
speaking situations. Bringing-up is acceptable in the sense of "upbring-
ing" and "childhood training" but is less preferred than rearing and
upbringing. As a verb meaning "to introduce" (Why bring up that
subject?), the term is tiresomely overused. Possible substitutes for bring
up in this meaning are introduce, inject, advance, and suggest.

brittle. See FRAGILE.

broad, wide. Each of these adjectives is used to indicate horizontal

extent. Broad is preferable when the word it modifies is a surface or
expanse viewed as such (broad stream, broad field, broad shoulders).
Wide is preferably used when the sense of space is stressed (the table is 4
feet wide) or when the distance across a surface is mentioned indefinitely
(The lake is wide at that point). These words are often interchangeable,
but idiomatic usage normally prevails: "wide mouth," "broad grin."
broadcast, broadcasted. The past tense and past participle of broad-
cast ("to transmit—to cast abroad—programs from a television or radio
station") are either broadcast or broadcasted: "The program was
broadcast (or broadcasted) at noon." "The senator broadcast (or
broadcasted) his appeal yesterday." Because the principal parts of cast
are cast, cast, cast, broadcast may sound better to your ear, but
widespread usage has made broadcasted an also-acceptable form.
brochure, leaflet, pamphlet A brochure (derived from a French word
meaning "to stitch") is a paper-covered booklet, usually not longer than
24 pages. A leaflet is a smallflator folded sheet of printed matter, usually
not exceeding 4 pages in length. A pamphlet is a complete unbound
publication of less than 100 pages, stitched or stapled together. These
 37
bust, burst

terms are often used interchangeably, understandably so, since neither

the printing trades nor dictionary makers have agreed on their precise
meanings. If the printed item is quite small, call it a leaflet; if larger, a
brochure; if almost the length of a small book, a pamphlet.

bulk. This word refers to mass, volume, and size: "The steamship was
of great bulk." It is also used to refer to the greater part of something
(the bulk of mankind). The alternative to bulk in this second meaning is
majority, a term which indicates or suggests counted numbers. It is
permissible to refer to the bulk of the armed forces (mass, size, volume)
but preferable to say "the majority of those present" rather than "the
bulk of those present."

bunch. A bunch is a group of similar items (a bunch of flowers, a bunch

of sticks). It is informal when applied to a crowd, group of people, or set
of acquaintances; "our group (or crowd or set or coterie)" is preferable
to "our bunch."
burglar. See ROBBER.

burlesque, parody. Burlesque is an imitation intended to ridicule by

exaggeration; it consists of an attitude, style, or idea handled by distor-
tion in such a way that an important or significant subject is treated
trivially. Discrepancy between subject matter and style is the essence of
burlesque. Parody is a humorous, satirical imitation of a person or
event. It is designed to make fun of or to criticize by clever duplication.
A striptease act is a burlesque of legitimate dancing, singing, and acting.
A comedian delivering his version of the Gettysburg Address is engaged
in parody. Related terms are caricature, lampoon, travesty, and satire.
burned, burnt. Each of these forms is correctly considered a principal
part of the verb to burn: burn, burned or burnt (past tense), burned or
burnt (past participle). Don't worry about which form to use; use the one
you prefer. However, it would be well to avoid both when you mean
"disillusioned" or "cheated"; also, "to burn oneself out" is an excep-
tionally trite phrase, as is "burned up" ("angry").
burst. See BUST.

business. This term is overworked as an approximate synonym for

commerce, traffic, trade, industry, calling, vocation, company, firm,
duty, or employment. Expressions such as "to mean business," "get
down to business," "mind one's own business," and "have no busi-
ness" are as trite as they are inexact. "To give one the business (or the
works)" is slang at its best—or worst.

bust, burst. The principal parts of burst are burst, burst, burst. As verb
 38
but also

forms, bust and busted are illiteracies. "To get busted" ("to be
arrested"), "to go bust" ("to become bankrupt"), "to bust up" ("to
disagree," "to break up"), and "a bust" ("failure") are slang expres-
sions.

but also. See NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.

but what. This phrase is informally used for but that: "I don't know but
what (better, but that) I had better go with you." Use but that instead of
but what in all statements such as "Scarcely an hour goes by but that
I think of you with love."
but which, but who. See AND WHICH.

by. This word has many reputable uses as a preposition, adjective, and
noun. Such phrases as "by the same token," "by and by," "by the by,"
"by the boards," and "by and large" are tiresomely overused; the last-
named not only is hackneyed but is usually a meaningless conversational
filler. "Bye now" and "bye-bye" are baby talk for good-by.
by about. This is a wordy phrase from which by can usually be omitted.
Drop it from a sentence such as "I can be ready by about midnight."
See also ABOUT.
 c
cache, hide, stash. As a noun cache means a hiding place, and as a
verb it means "to conceal": "The Joneses placed their silverware in a
cache upstairs." "You had better cache that money somewhere so that
it won't be discovered." Hide, the most commonly used of these three
related words, means "to put or keep out of sight": "Hide that letter in
the file." Stash is an informal word of unknown origin that means
precisely what cache does. Differences in use are slight: cache involves
concealment in a place unknown to others and suggests storage with a
view to later use; hide refers to putting physical items out of sight and
also to disguising or withholding one's thoughts and feelings. Substitutes
for these three words include secrete, bury, conceal, screen, and cloak.

calculate, reckon, guess. These words are localisms for think, sup-
pose, and expect. Each has standard and reputable meanings (for exam-
ple, one can calculate a mathematical problem), but each should be
avoided as narrowly dialectal and somewhat old-fashioned terms for
forming a mental concept.
calling. See AVOCATION.

can, may, might. Can suggests mental or physical ability: "Jane can
sing beautifully when she tries." May implies permission or sanction:
"Babs may borrow my suitcase if she wishes." This distinction between
can and may is illustrated thus: "Jim can swim, but his mother says that
he may not." May also expresses possibility and wish (desire): "It may
snow tonight (possibility)." "May you have a good rest this weekend
(desire)." Might is used after a governing verb in the past tense, may
after such a verb in the present tense: "She says that we may go." "She
said that we might go."

cancel out. Cancel means "to cross out," "to offset," "to delete."
Therefore out is not needed and should be "canceled" from this tire-
somely overused and wordy expression: "This order will cancel (not
cancel out) our plans."
candid, frank. These terms mean "open," "sincere," "without reser-
vation," "straightforward." Thus we may speak of a "frank statement"
or "a candid reply," meaning something that is without disguise, pre-
tense, or reserve. Candid, derived from a Latin term meaning "to
 40
cannot

glow," is less blunt in meaning than frank; a candid remark is less

outspoken and perhaps more tactful than a. frank one, but the meanings
of these terms are normally interchangeable. Approximate synonyms
include open, unrestrained, uninhibited, and outspoken.

cannot. This term should be spelled as one word (cannot) unless you
wish to emphasize not. Such usage is rare, but it is permissible in a
statement such as "I can hear you, but I can not understand you." Use
of can't for cannot is sanctioned by widespread usage and is preferable
except in very formal writing and speaking situations.

cannot (can't) help but. In this expression, but should be omitted

because its use results in a double negative (cannot, or can't, and but).
Instead of saying "I can't help but think you are mistaken," say "I can't
help thinking you are mistaken," a more concise statement with no
double negative involved. See also DOUBLE NEGATIVE.

can't hardly. Omit the not in the contraction so as to avoid a double

negative. Prefer can hardly to can't hardly (and can't scarcely). See
also DOUBLE NEGATIVE.
can't seem to. Is seem to ever needed in this expression? Doesn't can't
express the idea by itself? What does seem to really add?
canvas, canvass. Canvas is a kind of cloth. To canvass is "to
request," "to solicit." "The canvas of the tent was covered with pine
needles." "Jim was asked to canvass the block for donations to the
United Chest."

capable. This word means "having adequate capacity to do, make, or

receive an action": "Larry is a capable player." "This problem is
capable of solution." A common error arises from using able for capa-
ble in one of these senses: "This law is capable (not able) of being
enacted." One should say "I am able to solve this problem" and "I am
capable of solving this problem."

capacity. See ABILITY.

capital, capitol. The first of these words may be employed in all mean-
ings except that of a building. A capitol is an edifice, a building. "He
raised new capital for the company." "The sightseeing bus in the
capital passed the state capitol."
carat, caret, carrot, karat. Carat refers to weight: "The diamond
weighed 1 carat." A caret is a mark: "Use a caret to show the missing
letter." A carrot is a vegetable beloved by rabbits and some people: "A
carrot may be edible if it is scraped." Karat is a variant spelling of carat.
 41
catsup

care to. In such expressions as "Do you care to play?" this substitute
for prefer to or want to is an overworked phrase.
carrot. See CARAT.

carton, cartoon. A carton is a box, especially one made of corrugated

paper; a cartoon is a drawing. The two words also differ in spelling and
pronunciation: carton (KART un), cartoon (kar TOON).
case. In origin, case really is two different words, one derived from a
form meaning "receptacle" or "container," the other meaning
"instance" or "example." In both senses, the word has been abused and
overused. Case is slang in such expressions as "case the joint" ("to
examine the place or premises") and "Jack's a case" ("Jack is an
eccentric or peculiar person"). The phrase "the case o f ' is nearly
always verbiage and adds nothing to any statement: omit it in both
speaking and writing.
casual, causal. This pair of words is often mispronounced and mis-
spelled. Casual, meaning "relaxed," "unconcerned," "not planned," is
pronounced "KAZH-oo-uhl" or "KAZH-yoo uhl"; causal means
"involving a cause" or "expressing a cause" and is pronounced
"KO zel," with the o sounded like aw in paw. The difference in meaning
between these words is illustrated in this sentence: "The causal element
in his failure was his casual approach to work."

catchup. See CATSUP.

category, class. Although category has come to be used in the sense of

any division, classification, or even class, it is correctly employed to
refer only to a scheme of classification, a specific division of some topic
or item usually in the fields of science or philosophy. A class is a number
of items or persons considered as forming a group. "This class of
students is working exceptionally well." "A spider belongs in the cate-
gory of arachnids that spin webs."
catholic, Roman Catholic. When spelled with a small c, catholic
means "universal," "widespread," "of interest or appeal to many."
When we say of someone that she has catholic tastes or interests, we
mean that she is broad-minded and far-ranging in her attitudes and
concerns. When spelled with a capital C, the word usually refers to the
Roman Catholic Church or to an adherent of that faith. The word
Catholic is normally used to distinguish a person or a religious faith from
Protestant or Jewish; the word catholic does not necessarily have any
religious meaning at all.
catsup. This word is interchangeable with ketchup and may also be
 42
causal

spelled catchup. Ketchup is preferred by precise speakers, largely

because this term for any of various sauces for meat and fish is derived
from a Chinese word, ke-tsiap, meaning "pickled-fish brine."
causal. See CASUAL.

cause, cause of. Cause and reason are often confused in meaning.
Reason is what one produces to account for or justify an effect; cause is
what actually produces an effect. "His reason for speaking is clear."
"The cause of his leaving early is debatable." Cause of and on account
of do not have the same meaning. "The cause of my lateness was a slow
bus" is preferable to "The cause of my lateness was on account of my
bus was slow." See also BECAUSE.

celebrant, celebrator. We celebrate birthdays and anniversaries,

meaning that we observe them as occasions for festivity, merrymaking,
or special note. One who makes merry or acts with enthusiasm or delight
is a celebrator: "When in New Orleans, we became celebrators in Mardi
Gras festivities." A celebrant is one who participates in a religious rite
or other solemn ceremony: "The Reverend Samuel Barry was a cele-
brant at the funeral services." "Members of both houses of Congress
were celebrants at the placing of wreaths on the Tomb of the Unknown
Soldier."

cement, concrete. These terms are used interchangeably by many

people but not by persons in construction industries. Cement is an
adhesive consisting of clay and rock materials that form a paste when
mixed with water. Concrete is a construction material made up of such
items as gravel, slag, and pebbles held together by cement. That is,
cement is the binding element in concrete: "The contractor failed to put
enough cement into his concrete mixture."

censer, censor, censure. A censer is an incense burner. To censor is

"to examine." To censure is "to condemn" or "to find fault." "He
bought a lovely ornamented censer." "The authorities censor all mail."
"The superintendent will censure you for laziness."

centenary, centennial. As both adjective and noun, each of these

words refers to a period of 100 years, a hundredth anniversary, or
recurring once every 100 years. The words are interchangeable; the
former is more often used in Great Britain than in the United States. "In
1876, the United States celebrated the centennial of the signing of the
Declaration of Independence."
center around. This is a wordy phrase in which around can always be
replaced by the shorter and more accurate on. Both center about and
center around are informal ways to say focus.
 43

check, curb, restrain, constrain

ceremonial, ceremonious. Both of these adjectives have to do with

ceremony, a formal act or deed performed in accordance with custom or
ritual. Ceremonial is usually applied to things, ceremonious to persons
or things: "Weddings are ceremonial occasions." "In dress, manner,
and speech Dr. Smart is a ceremonious person."
certain, certainly, sure, surely. Certain and sure are adjectives; cer-
tainly and surely are adverbs. Say "I certainly (or surely) am going" and
"Bob is a certain (or sure) winner in that contest." Certainly and surely
are rarely misused, but sure and certain constantly occur in statements
requiring adverbs.
chair. In the sense of presiding over a meeting, chair is widely used as a
verb: "The delegate was asked to chair the first session." Some linguists
feel that chair may be used only informally in this function. They argue
that if one can chair a meeting, one might "pulpit" a sermon or church
or "dais" a dinner. Widespread usage, however, has made chair a
respectable substitute for chairman. One may chair a meeting or act as
chairman of it. The term chairperson is coming into use as an inclusive
synonym for chairman and chairwoman.
change, alter. Change is the simpler and more often used of these
words, but alter is more exact in the primary sense of "to modify" or
"to make different." Actually, change conveys these meanings, but it
also means "to convert," "to substitute," "to interchange," "to make
an exchange" and conveys a half-dozen other impressions and ideas.
When one changes his habits, he may perform any of several acts, but
when he alters something, he preserves its identity while changing its
appearance. When one alters his clothing, he does one thing; when he
changes it, he may do several quite different things.
cheap, inexpensive. These words agree in their meaning o f ' 'low-cost''
but differ in application. Cheap suggests inferiority, shoddiness, poor
workmanship, small value: "This is a cheap piece of workmanship."
"This coat was made with cheap fur." Inexpensive indicates "more
expensive than cheap" and suggests that, although low in price, an
inexpensive article is worth its cost: "She bought an inexpensive but
attractive suit." "Jock purchased an inexpensive car whose value
equaled its cost." In stores, merchants recognize the distinction between
these words: they invariably refer to low-cost items as inexpensive,
never as cheap.
check, check into. As a verb meaning "to investigate," "to inquire,"
"to verify," check is tiresomely overused. Check into is a wordy phrase
from which into can nearly always be omitted.
check, curb, restrain, constrain. These words refer to putting some
 44

Chiefly

control on action, movement, development, or progress, but they differ

in minor ways. Check means "to arrest suddenly," "to halt": "The rider
checked his horse and leaped from the saddle." Curb implies the use of a
chain, strap, rope, or similar device for guiding, controlling, or forcing
within boundaries: "The rider used a heavy bridle to curb his mount."
Restrain suggests the use of actual force to hold back or control: "The
referee restrained the angry player by grasping his arms." Constrain is
related to restrain but also implies the idea of compulsion: "His con-
science constrained him to return the money." In ordinary conversation,
however, one may curb or check his tongue, and one may check, curb,
restrain, or even constrain his impulses and desires.

chiefly. See LARGELY.

childish, childlike. The suffix -ish often has unfavorable connotations.

Childish refers to undesirable characteristics (childish temper, childish
selfishness). The suffix -like frequently causes neutral or pleasing reac-
tions (childlike innocence, childlike faith). Childish and infantile are
only approximate synonyms; their antonyms are adult and mature.

choral, chorale. Each of these terms may be used to refer to a chorus (a

choir, or group of singers), but chorale more specifically applies to (1) a
choral composition, (2) a sacred tune, or (3) a group of singers specializ-
ing in singing hymns. That is, any band of singers may be referred to as a
choral group, but only a group specializing in some particular form of
music is a chorale. Also, choral is nearly always used as an adjective,
chorale as a noun: "Judy is a member of a choral group.'" "Jessie
belongs to a chorale that sings under the direction of a former concert
artist."

chord, cord. A chord is a combination of musical tones: "The pianist

played the opening chords." A cord is a string or a rope: "Tie your
packages with sturdy cord,"
circumlocution. See LOCUTION.

city, town, village. No specific guidelines exist for deciding what one
should call a populated area. Size is relative, and importance is largely in
the eye and mind. One can fairly say that a town is smaller than a city and
larger than a village, but no reliable regulations suggest just what is
needed to make a town a city or a village a town. A suburb may be a
village within a town, itself one of a group of towns making up a thickly
populated area that in turn is called a city. A village may be either a
small town or a group of houses and other buildings in a rural area; in
some states, a village is a settlement or hamlet until it is incorporated
and forms its own local government. A town or township has fixed
 46
climactic, climatic

gifts": "You should be a patron of the arts." Client refers to one who
seeks the advice of a lawyer or other professional person: "When I was
charged with the crime, I became the client of an excellent firm of
lawyers." "In his need, he became the client of a social service
agency."
climactic, climatic. Climactic pertains to climax, the final and most
forceful one of a series of ideas or events: "The duel was the climactic
scene of the drama." Climatic pertains to climate, or weather condi-
tions: "Edith likes climatic conditions in the Virgin Islands."
climax. See ACME.

clinch. See CLENCH.

clique, coterie. A clique (preferably pronounced "kleek") is a small,

exclusive group or set of people. So is a coterie. But clique is usually a
term of contempt or derision applied to persons who take themselves too
seriously, set themselves up as authorities, and act selfishly. Coterie is
less often used as a term of contempt and is more likely to apply to
groups in the world of art than to those in society generally. "Barbara
belongs to a snobbish clique of the country club set." "This perform-
ance is designed for a coterie of dedicated lovers of music."
close. See NEAR, CLOSE.

close, shut. These words mean "to cause something not to be open,"
"to stop or obstruct." Close is somewhat more refined and less blunt
than shut. For instance, you might tactfully suggest to a child that he
close his mouth while chewing but would say "Shut your mouth" or
"Shut up" if you were angry, rude, or annoyed. Signs on public struc-
tures are more likely to read "This building is closed on Sunday" than
"This building is shut on Sunday." Shut, however, derived from an Old
English word related to bolt and shoot, is vigorous and emphatic and
should be used when you really mean that something should be barred,
bolted, or blocked.

clue, clew. These words derive their meaning from the use of a ball of
thread that enabled a mythical character to find his way out of a puzzling
place (a labyrinth). A clew or clue is anything that helps to guide or
direct in the solution of a mystery or problem. Both spellings are
acceptable, although clue is more generally used. In fact, "Clue me in"
is a tiresome, overused, and weary phrase.
cohere. See ADHERE.

college. SeeUNIVERSITY.
 47

common, ordinary

collusion, connivance. Collusion means a secret agreement for some

tricky, underhanded, or fraudulent purpose: "Drivers acted in collusion
with warehousemen to rob the manufacturer." Collusion is close in
meaning to conspiracy and should not be confused with collaboration.
Connivance, from a Latin word meaning "to wink at," signifies avoid-
ance of noticing something, assisting wrongdoing by not acting or speak-
ing: "The connivance of museum guards circumvented regulations for-
bidding smoking." When one acts in collusion, he does something; when
he connives, he ignores or overlooks something.
combat, contest. Combat suggests a direct encounter, one actually
involving physical force: "The FBI is supposed to combat crime." "The
fight between the boxers was a frightful, bloody combat." Contest
applies to either a friendly or a hostile struggle for a prize or goal. A
baseball game is a contest; a battle between armed forces is both contest
and combat. Contest should be associated with struggle and contention;
combat should be related to conflict and fight.

come and. The verbs come, go, and try are often followed by and
(come and get your food, go and get your ticket, try and get some rest).
In such expressions and is a substitute for to. These phrases are idiomat-
ically sound but are informal and, although widely used, are not recom-
mended.

comely. See HOMELY.

commence. See BEGIN.

commentate, commentator. Since the word commentator has become

well known because of radio and television, people generally have felt
the need for a verb to describe what a commentator does. Thus a
neologism has been born. The phrase "to commentate a game (or
fashion show)" is considered dubious usage by most authorities. Why
not stick with comment, comment on, describe, or narrate?
common, mutual. These words are loosely interchangeable, but they do
have distinct meanings. Common refers to something shared by two or
more persons (our common heritage). Mutual refers to something done
or felt by each of two persons toward the other: "Jack and Bill share a
mutual dislike." Many good speakers and writers, however, do not
preserve this distinction.

common, ordinary. Common has specific meanings such as "shared,"

"belonging," and "united" (<common goals, common property, a com-
mon purpose). It is often confused with ordinary, which means "com-
monplace," "plain or undistinguished," "of the usual kind." Thus one
should refer to "the common lot of mankind," "the common desires of
 48
compact

all dedicated parents for their children," "the ordinary suit worn by
businessmen," and "an ordinary day at the office."
compact. See PACT.

comparatively. See RELATIVELY.

compare, contrast. These words are often confused, perhaps because

they aire related in meaning. To compare is to examine in order to note
similarities more than differences; to contrast is to set in opposition in
order to show differences more than similarities. Idioms are compare to
and compare with. As a verb, contrast is usually followed by with; as a
noun, contrast often takes between. The phrase "in contrast" may be
followed by to or with. Examples: "How can you compare a man with
(or to) a mouse?" "It is easy to contrast one's life in peace with that in
war." "Let's compare this hat with that one." "The contrast between
yesterday and today is astonishing."

compel, impel. These words agree in the idea of using physical or other
force to result in a course of action, to cause something to be done.
Compel has a greater sense of coercion, of actual force, than does impel:
"My mounting debts compelled me to seek a loan." "Heavy fines
compel drivers to obey traffic signals." Impel involves the idea of
motive or incentive or inner drive: "His conscience will impel him to
confess his guilt." "I feel impelled to question that statement." Impel
may involve the concept of pushing forward (Wind impels the small
boat), but usually it suggests pressure in a figurative sense (I was
impelled by a sense of obligation). See also IMPEL, INDUCE.

complement, compliment. Complement implies something which com-

pletes: "This jewelry will complement your dress." A compliment is
flattery or praise: "Beulah enjoyed the compliment paid to her."
complementary. See SUPPLEMENTARY.

compose, comprise, include. Each of these words involves the idea of

containing, embracing, comprehending, or surrounding as, for example,
a whole in reference to its parts. Compose has the additional meaning of
making, or forming, by combining things: "This chemical compound is
composed of five elements." Comprise suggests including or containing:
"This section of the book comprises ten different subjects." To include
is to contain as a part or member: "The list of names includes yours and
mine." Use comprise when all parts are named or referred to and include
when only some are. "Comprised o f ' is a wordy expression. Omit the
of. See also CONSIST OF.

comprehend. See APPREHEND.

 49
confidant, confident

comprehensible, comprehensive. Although these words have differ-

ent spellings, pronunciations, and meanings, they are sometimes con-
fused. The first means "intelligible," "capable of being known or under-
stood." Comprehensive means "including much," "large in content or
scope." Examples: "What you say is so exaggerated as not to be
comprehensible." "This book provides a comprehensive study of the
topic."

comprise. See COMPOSE.

concave, convex. Concave means "curved inward," and convex

means "curved outward." That is, concave means having a surface that
is curved or rounded inward, like a segment of the interior of a hollow
sphere or circle. In keeping the meaning of concave straight, it may help
to think of a cave as something that actually turns or curves inward from
the earth. Convex means precisely the opposite.

concept. See IDEA.

concise. See SUCCINCT.

concrete. See CEMENT.

condemn, contemn. The first of these words means "to censure," "to
express disapproval of," "to judge unfit": "His guilty looks condemn
him." "If the appraisers condemn the ship, it will be sold for scrap
metal." Condemn also means "to acquire ownership for a public pur-
pose": "The town condemned the tract of land and turned it into a
public park." Contemn, a less-used word, means "to treat with scorn,
disdain, or contempt," "to despise": "If you do that, all right-thinking
persons will contemn you (hold you in contempt)."

confess, admit. Confess means "to declare, own, or admit as true" and
is closely related in meaning to grant and concede. When one confesses
some crime or wrongdoing, he admits it and also accepts responsibility
for the soundness of that admission. "I confess that I have neglected
you" implies that the speaker recognizes, or admits, guilt or shame for
the neglect. When followed by the -ing form of a verb, confess takes the
preposition to: "I confess to neglecting you." For further comment on
admit and closely related words, see ACKNOWLEDGE, ADMIT and ADMIT,
ALLOW.

confidant, confident. Confusion between these two similar words

results in an impropriety. Confidant (kon-fuh-DANT) refers to one to
whom secrets or other private matters are entrusted. A female confidant
is a confidante (kon-fuh-DANT). Confident, an adjective meaning
"assured, certain of success," is pronounced "KON'fuh'duhnt" or
 50
confidently, confidentially

"KON'frduhnt." Examples of use: "Edith was my trusted confidante. I

was confident that I could trust her."
confidently, confidentially. Confidently means "with assurance, cer-
tainty, confidence": "Joe acted confidently, but his speech was halt-
ing." Confidentially means "in secret," "intimately," "in confidence":
"The postman told me confidentially that the letter has been destroyed."
congenial, genial. Congenial means "compatible," "allied in spirit,
temper, and feeling," "suited to one another": "The players on this
team are congenial." "At the party you will find a congenial atmo-
sphere." Genial means "cordial," "cheerful," "sympathetic": "Our
host was in a genial mood." Genial also means "favorable for growth or
comfort": "They enjoy the genial climate of Florida." A group of genial
persons is likely to find that they are congenial with each other.

connivance. See COLLUSION.

connotation, denotation. Connotation applies to the overtones of

words—values and meanings that are suggested rather than specifically
expressed in a dictionary definition. For example, San Francisco is "a
seaport city in northern California," but the name itself has such conno-
tations as "Golden Gate," "Chinatown," "Barbary Coast," "Gateway
to the Orient," and "earthquake of 1906." Connotative words have
implied, suggestive, associated meanings. Denotation is the exact, literal
meaning of a word as contrasted with its connotation, or suggestive
meaning. Thus, home has a denotative meaning of "house," "apart-
ment," "fixed dwelling place." Its connotation might be "refuge,"
"place of peace," "retreat," or "haven of rest."
connote. See DENOTE.

conscious. See AWARE.

consecutive, successive. These words mean "following one another

in order," "marked by logical sequence." Consecutive suggests uninter-
rupted succession, whereas successive means "following in a regular
sequence" with one thing in relation to another. Four consecutive
months means four months in a row without interruption: March, April,
May, and June. Four successive months would correspond to calendar
order but might mean March, May, July, and October. See also CONTIN-
UAL.

consensus. Often misspelled and misused, consensus means "general

agreement" or "collective opinion." The word is related to sense and
has no connection with census. The phrase "consensus of opinion" has
been used so freely and widely that it is a stock expression; however, it is
 51
contact

wordy (of opinion is not needed to express the thought) and is now a
hackneyed term.
consequent. See SUBSEQUENT.

conservative, moderate, radical. As they relate to ideas and opinions

involving politics, morals, property, and manners, these words have
widely differing applications. What one person considers moderate,
another might term conservative or radical. In meaning, however, con-
servative refers to a person or state of mind that is disposed to favor
gradual rather than sudden change, that wishes to preserve existing
conditions and institutions, that is, at most, "cautiously" moderate. In
politics and other activities, a moderate is one who opposes views and
goals unless they are kept within what he considers reasonable bounds
and are not extreme or excessive. A radical favors drastic reforms in
politics, morals, manners, or whatever. Each of these words is an
adjective as well as a noun: thus one may refer to "a conservative way of
dressing," "a moderate degree of success," and "a radical departure
from established customs."

consistently, constantly. Consistently is a adverb meaning "stead-

fastly," "unwaveringly," "withoutchange": "He is consistently behind
in his payments." "This student consistently objects to all authority."
Constantly means "unceasingly," "without interruption," "perpetu-
ally": "My concentration was constantly broken by the loud ticking of a
clock." "My mail is constantly filled with second-class matter." Related
words that might express meaning more exactly than either consistently
or constantly are perseveringly, persistently, enduringly, continually,
and unceasingly.
consist of, contain. These words are used interchangeably, but contain
is a synonym only of consist of, not consist in. Consist of and contain
express the notion that something so exists that something else can be
placed or noticed within it: "The can contains gasoline." "His appeal
consisted of his charm, good looks, and honesty." Consist in is used to
define an identity, to indicate a quality or ingredient that is possessed by
something: "Happiness consists in attaining goals that are desired and
then appreciating them." See also COMPOSE.
constantly. See CONSISTENTLY.

constrain. See CHECK, CURB, RESTRAIN, CONSTRAIN.

consul. See COUNCIL.

contact. As a noun, contact denotes "a coming together" and also "a
connection," "a person who might be of use." In both senses, its use is
 52
contagious, infectious

now considered reputable. As a verb meaning "to get in touch with,"

contact is considered an informality or impropriety. One should avoid
contacting someone else, an unfortunate recommendation since get in
touch with says the same thing but says it wordily. Other possibilities:
telephone, call, call upon, communicate with, write, speak to.
contagious, infectious. These words have precise scientific meanings,
but in everyday usage they are often confused. As for illness, a conta-
gious disease is one communicated or transferred by contact; an infec-
tious disease is indirectly communicated by such agencies as water and
air. An infectious disease is not necessarily contagious. Contagious
emphasizes the speed with which contagion (contact, communication,
medium) spreads: "Contagious fear ran through the audience." Infec-
tious suggests the powerful or irresistible quality of the source of conta-
gion: "Mark Twain's infectious humor stimulated prolonged laughter
and applause."

contain. See CONSIST OF.

contemn. See CONDEMN.

contemplate, meditate. These words mean "to think about," "to look
at with attention." Both words apply to stages of consideration in which
a decision to act or not to act is thought about. Meditate involves deeper
thought and a more serious purpose than does contemplate. For
instance, one might contemplate taking a weekend trip but is more likely
to meditate the advantages and disadvantages of changing jobs. Con-
template is related in meaning to plan, devise, and contrive, whereas
meditate is close to ponder, muse, cogitate, ruminate, and study.

contemporary. This word means "existing, living, or occurring at the

same time." It is not a synonym for either present-day or modern unless
no other question of time is involved and the inference is "contemporary
with now." If the time frame of reference is that of Queen Elizabeth I,
then a lecture on contemporary drama would mean plays of Elizabethan
times. If the frame of reference is to drama of the present day, the time of
Elizabeth II, then contemporary would mean "now." Because contem-
porary means what it does, it is an error to use it with more (meaning "to
a greater degree"). It is impossible for something to be more contempo-
rary; probably what is meant is more modern. "An Elizabethan play in
modern costume" is clearer in meaning than "an Elizabethan play in
contemporary dress."

contentious. See CONTROVERSIAL.

contest. See COMBAT.

contiguous. See ADJACENT.

 53

cooperate together

continual, continuous. In some senses and uses, these words are syn-
onymous. One distinction is that continual implies a close recurrence in
time, or rapid succession, whereas continuous suggests "without inter-
ruption," "constant." "The continual ringing of the doorbell" and "The
ticking of the clock was continuous " illustrate this distinction. See also
CONSECUTIVE a n d CONSISTENTLY.

continuance, continuation. In law, continuance means the adjourn-

ment of a proceeding to a later time. In other uses, continuance and
continuation are generally interchangeable: one may refer to the contin-
uation or the continuance of a state of war or period of drought.
However, continuation means "the extending or prolonging of time or
space": the continuation of a structure might involve adding a room or
wing, whereas the continuance of that structure would refer to the
period of its existence, its time of standing. Thus you might speak of a
politician's continuance in office and the continuation of the process by
which he is elected.

continue. See RESUME.

continue on. The word continue means "to go on," "to keep on."
Therefore, on should be omitted from this phrase. Vary your word
choice: why not try persist or persevere or last or endure?
continuous. See CONTINUAL.

contrast. See COMPARE.

controversial, contentious A subject or topic is controversial; an

individual is contentious: "Every political issue is controversial to this
contentious man." Controversial means "debatable," "arguable,"
"disputable." Contentious means "quarrelsome," "argumentative."
convex. See CONCAVE.

convey back. The word convey means "to carry, bring, or take from
one place to another." Omit back from such a statement as "Please
convey my regards back to your associates."

convince, persuade. These words are related in meaning but do have

different uses. Convince means "to satisfy the understanding of some-
one about the truth of a statement or situation": "Johnny convinced me
by quoting exact figures." Persuade suggests winning over someone to a
course of action, perhaps through an appeal to reason or emotion: "Jim
persuaded the grocer to consult a lawyer."
cooperate together. Cooperate means "to work together," "to act in
combination." Drop the together; all it adds is a useless word.
 54
copy

copy. See REPLICA.

cord. See CHORD.

corespondent, correspondent. These words differ in spelling, mean-

ing, and pronunciation. It is usually safer to be a correspondent
(KOR-rspon1 dent), one who writes letters, than a corespondent
(KO'ri'SPON'dent), one charged with adultery in a divorce proceeding.

corpus. See HABEAS CORPUS.

coterie. See CLIQUE.

couldn't scarcely, couldn't hardly. See CAN'T HARDLY. Couldn't is a

contraction of could not. Drop the negative part of the phrase when using
it with scarcely or hardly: "He could hardly see the road through the
heavy fog."
could of. In normal speech, could have sounds like could've, which in
turn sounds like could of. Not only could of but also may of, might of,
should of, and would of are illiteracies. Of is not a verb. "I could have
(not could of) paid the bill."

council, consul, counsel. A consul is an official: "Robin visited the

American Consul in Naples." Council means "an assembly," "a
group": "This is a council of senior citizens," Counsel is both noun and
verb and means "advice" or "to advise": "The physician gave me
expensive counsel." "The manager will counsel fast action by the board
of directors."
councilor, counselor. A councilor is a member of a council, an assem-
bly of persons formed for deliberation or action: "Jesse was appointed a
member of the Mayor's Council on Mass Transportation." A counselor
is one who gives advice or counsel (opinion, instruction): "Martha acted
as a counsel to the Committee on Welfare." The corresponding verb
form is counsel: "Please counsel me in this matter." Counselor is also a
term applied to lawyers, although among attorneys the word is often
employed humorously or sarcastically. Certain employees at summer
camps are called counselors.

counsel. See COUNCIL.

country. See NATION.

couple. In ordinary conversation, couple is sometimes placed immedi-

ately before a noun (a couple weeks, a couple dollars). Although this
usage follows that of dozen (a dozen roses), it is not standard; couple
 55
criterion, criteria

should be followed by of (couple of months). However, when such words

as less and more appear, the of is dropped (a couple more seats). Couple
may correctly be used with a singular or a plural verb: "The couple was
dancing" or "The couple were dancing." "Couple together" is a wordy
phrase. Couple alone expresses the idea; omit together.
courteous. See POLITE.

covert, overt. These "look-alikes" are sometimes confused despite the

fact that they are antonyms. Covert means "covered," "sheltered,"
"hidden," "secret," "concealed"; overt means "open to view,"
"plain," "manifest," "apparent," "public." To keep them distin-
guished, associate overt with open and covert with cover: "His every
act and aim was overt, a matter of public record." "These politicians
entered into a covert agreement about the paving contracts."

covet. See ENVY, COVET, DESIRE.

credible, creditable. Credible means "believable," "worthy or capable

of confidence and belief," "trustworthy": "The jury found the witness's
statement credible." Creditable means "deserving credit," "bringing or
deserving credit, esteem, or honor": "His performance during the game
was entirely creditable." The antonym, or negative, of credible is
incredible; the antonym of creditable is discreditable. An allied word,
credulous, means "willing to believe too easily," "gullible." Its oppo-
site is incredulous.
credit, accredit. As a verb, credit means "to put faith in," "to trust,"
"to believe in": "I do not hesitate to credit you with good intentions."
Accredit means "to certify," "to attribute to," "to invest with power or
authority": "That statement was accredited to Winston Churchill."
"When he left the Senate, he was accredited as Ambassador to Peru."
When some act or deed is thought of as being put to someone's advan-
tage, either word may be used: "The discovery of this virus was credited
(or accredited) to Professor John O'Reilly."
creditable. See CREDIBLE.

creditor, debtor. A creditor is one to whom money is due; a debtor is

one under financial obligation to someone else: "This wealthy mortgage
holder is a creditor to ten property holders in this town." "Three small
loan companies were able to prove that I was their debtor.'''' The usual
abbreviation for creditor is cr. The abbreviation for debtor is dr.
credulous. See CREDIBLE.

criterion, criteria. Meaning "standard, rale, or test for forming a judg-

 56
cross-section

ment or decision," criterion (KRAI • TEER • ee • uhn) is singular in form

and meaning. The plural criteria (KRAITEEReeuh) cannot be used for
criterion in such expressions as "a.criteria," "one criteria." Criterions
is a less-preferred but acceptable plural. "One criterion for success is
hard work." "The criteria in judging the papers will be neatness, thor-
oughness, and length."
cross-section. See SECTION.

cue, queue. Cue is more widely used than queue in all meanings, but
carefiil speakers and writers continue to distinguish between them. A
queue refers to a braid of hair and to a file, or line: "She wore her hair in
a queue which hung down to her waist." "Let's queue up for the next
bus." A cue refers in the theater to an indication of following action or
speech and in general use to any kind of hint or suggestion; in games, cue
means the tipped rod used in billiards and pool: "I don't have a single
cue as to his intentions." "When he missed the shot, the player broke
his cue in anger."

cultured, cultivated. As applied to people, both of these words mean

"educated," "refined," "interested in and acquainted with what is
regarded as superior in learning and the arts." Cultured is considered the
more elegant and refined word in this meaning, perhaps because culti-
vated is more often associated with labor, especially with the output of
agricultural products. Nevertheless, a praiseworthy goal for everyone is
to be either cultured or cultivated.

curb. See CHECK, CURB, RESTRAIN, CONSTRAIN.

curious, inquisitive. Curious suggests a desire to know, especially to

learn about matters that are not really one's concern or business: "This
resident is curious about the activities of his neighbors." Inquisitive
implies the asking of questions, the act of prying, in order to satisfy
curiosity: "This determined fieldworker was inquisitive in her
research." A person can be curious while doing nothing more than
wondering, but an inquisitive individual engages in spying, peeping, or
prying.

curiously enough. This is a widely used expression which, curiously

enough, has little meaning. Remove the phrase from the sentence you
have just read and from your speech and writing. Nothing will be lost.
currently. See PRESENTLY.

custom, practice, habit. Each of these words refers to an accustomed

or established way of doing things. Each can be applied to the activities
of people, animals, or entire communities. Custom refers particularly to
 57

cyclone, hurricane, tornado

the practice and preservation of social activity or usage: "It is a commu-

nity custom to go to church on Sunday." Practice is closely allied in
meaning to custom but applies particularly to an unvarying procedure:
"It is the practice of a careful man to balance his checkbook." Habit,
applied especially to people and animals, refers to the repetition of an
action so constantly that the act becomes natural or spontaneous: "John
has a habit of counting to 10 before he answers any question." "Our dog
has a habit of turning around before lying down."
customary. See USUAL.

customer. See CLIENT.

cyclone, hurricane, tornado. Each of these terms applies to a distur-

bance of intense severity. Technically, a cyclone is a large-scale wind and
pressure system characterized by circular wind motion with low pressure
at its center. In the Southern Hemisphere, motion of the wind in a
cyclone is clockwise; in the Northern Hemisphere it is counterclock-
wise. A hurricane is a violent tropical storm occurring mainly in the
western North Atlantic, with wind speeds in excess of 70 miles an hour.
The term hurricane is applied loosely to any storm accompanied by high
winds. A tornado is a violently destructive and usually localized wind-
storm occurring over land. The most visible part of a tornado is its long
funnel-shaped cloud, filled with debris, that extends toward the ground.
 D
data. This term, meaning "facts," "information," "statistics," is really
the plural of datum. In general use, however, data now appears as a
singular and plural collective noun. The plural construction (These data
are . . .) is appropriate in formal usage, although "This data is . . . " i s
more often used. The use of datum and data is not entirely comparable
to that of agendum and agenda (see AGENDUM). Agenda conveys such a-
strong sense of the singular that it has loosely developed its own plural,
agendums. This situation does not apply to data, which has no coined
plural. Those who use data as a singular obviously regard it as meaning
"a body" or "a store" of information. Strictly formal writers and
speakers presumably will continue to use a plural verb with data, but a
majority will employ a singular or a plural verb as they choose.

deadly, deathly. Deadly has several meanings, among them "fatal" (a

deadly disease), "relentless" (a deadly enemy), "like death" (a deadly
paleness), and "boring" (a deadly speech). Deathly means "resembling
death" and "utterly": "There was a deathly odor from the tomb." "I
was deathly afraid of the huge guns." In general, use deathly when you
mean "death-dealing" and deadly in all other senses. Both words are
intensives, strongly emotional terms that should be used sparingly.
debar, disbar. Debar means "to shut out or exclude" (The doorman
will debar all who are not members) and "to hinder or prohibit" (Debar
all candidates below the age of eighteen). Disbar has much the same
meanings but is applied specifically to the legal profession in the sense of
"to expel": "The legal society decided to disbar both attorneys for their
conduct at the trial."
debtor. See CREDITOR.

debut.' This importation from French is pronounced "de BYOO,"

"DAY'boo," and "DAY'byoo." As a noun, it means "first public
appearance," "beginning of a career," or "formal presentation." Debut
is not yet established as a verb in standard usage, although it is appearing
ever more frequently in both speech and print: "The actress debuts
tonight in a new play." "The company will debut its new model tomor-
row." Until debut is accepted as a verb by reliable dictionaries, continue
to use the word only as a noun.
 59
defer, delay, postpone

decisive, incisive. Decisive means "conclusive," "final," "having the

power of putting an end to something": "This was the decisive battle of
the entire war." "The lawyer's final argument to the jury was decisive in
arriving at a verdict." Incisive means "sharp." "keen," "penetrating":
"The last speaker was blunt and incisive in his remarks. In fact, his
appeal was so incisive that it turned out to be a decisive factor in the
campaign."
decorum, propriety. Each of these words, as well as etiquette, refers to
the requirements and demands of behavior in so-called polite society.
Decorum involves the idea of dignity and reserve in speech, dress, and
actions: "This school for foreign officers stresses the importance of
decorum at all formal functions." Propriety, a more general term, refers
to established conventions and applies to matters of taste and morals as
well as dignity. It is usually used in the plural: "When in a foreign
country, try to observe the proprieties expected of a well-bred Ameri-
can."

deduce, deduct. To deduce is to reach a conclusion from something

known or assumed: "The officer deduced that the criminal was a man."
To deduct is "to take away from," "to subtract": "After you deduct
your expenses, you will have little left." See also ADDUCE.
deduction. See INDUCTION.

defective, deficient. The first of these terms should be related to

defect, the second to deficit. For example, money that is counterfeit is
defective because of its defect. Money is deficient if there is not enough
of it. Defect is the general word for any kind of imperfection or short-
coming; deficit is the general word for "shortage" or "lack." Thus one
might refer to a child as being "mentally deficient" ("lacking normal
intelligence") and "physically defective" ("imperfect in hearing or
speech").
defendant. See PLAINTIFF.

defer, delay, postpone. Each of these words implies keeping or pre-

venting something from happening until a later time: "I recommend that
we defer (or delay or postpone) this action to our next meeting." To
defer is to make a decision to do something later: "I shall defer making a
decision until tomorrow." To delay is to lay something aside, to impede
or hinder, to put something off: "I'll delay answering this letter until I
feel like writing." To postpone is to put something off to a particular
time in the future with the intention of following up: "This election
should be postponed until our next session." Each of these words may
be followed by an -ing form of a verb but not by an infinitive: "He
 60
deficient

deferred leaving (not he deferred to leave), delayed leaving, postponed

leaving."
deficient. See DEFECTIVE.

definite, definitive. These words apply to that which is clearly set forth
and explained, but definitive also has a meaning of "final," "total," or
"complete": "The time of his arrival is definite.'''' "This is a definitive
life of the author."

definitely. See ABSOLUTELY.

degenerate, deteriorate. These words mean "to make or become

worse," "to decline in physical, moral, or mental qualities." Degener-
ate suggests that a decline is due to some loss of virtue or worthwhile
quality, whereas deteriorate has more the meaning of "to wear away" or
"to weaken": "This able official degenerated into a pompous loud-
mouth." "The argument deteriorated into name-calling and squab-
bling." "A degenerate treasurer managed to deteriorate the cash posi-
tion of his company."

degree, extent. These words have a shared meaning: "a point in any
scale," "the space to which something extends." "To a degree" means
"up to a point" or "to an extent." Extent also emphasizes the idea of
limitation: "I agree with you to an extent." Both extent and degree are
overused in wasteful, wordy expressions; "to a great extent" means
nothing more than "greatly"; "to an important degree" can be more
economically expressed by "importantly." The phrases "by degrees"
and "to some degree" are more often fillers than meaningful expres-
sions.

deism, theism. Deism is a belief in the existence of God based on

reason but rejecting supernatural revelation. Theism is belief in one God
as the creator and ruler of the universe without rejection of superhuman
forces and manifestations. Thomas Jefferson considered himself a deist.
A follower of Christianity or Judaism is a theist.

delay. See DEFER.

delimit. See LIMIT.

delusion. See ALLUSION.

demand, claim. Demand means "to ask for with authority," "to insist
boldly": "He demanded to see the charges against him." Claim means
"to assert a right"; "The driver claimed that he was entitled to a
 61
desert, dessert

hearing." Claim should not be used when you mean say, assert, state,
or declare unless a right is involved: "The student claimed his right to an
examination." "The student asserted (or said or stated or declared)
that he was going to college."

democracy. See REPUBLIC.

denotation. See CONNOTATION.

denote, connote. To denote is "to indicate," "to be a sign or mark o f ' :

"The thermometer denotes that he has a high fever." To connote is "to
suggest" or "to signify": "The word welcome connotes hospitality."
The distinction in meaning between these words is related to that
between denotation and connotation. In short, denote "means" and
connote "implies." See also CONNOTATION.

deny, repudiate. Each of these words has certain meanings that they do
not share, but in the sense of stating that something is not true, repudiate
is the stronger, more emphatic term. One might deny that water seeks its
own level; he might repudiate all of mankind's accumulated observation
and experience. Similarly, a father might deny a daughter use of the
family automobile, but he would repudiate her only if he disowned her or
threw her out of the house. See also REFUTE.

depositary, depository. Each of these terms can correctly be used to

refer to a place where something is deposited for safekeeping. A safe
deposit box stored in a bank vault is a depository or depositary. The
latter word, however, is more often used to refer not to a place for
safekeeping but to a group or even an individual entrusted with the
preservation of something. The officers of a bank or the trustees of a
museum, for instance, would more likely be called depositaries than
depositories.

deprecate, depreciate. Deprecate means "to express disapproval of,"

"to plead against," "to protest." Depreciate means "to belittle," "to
lower in value." Because the two words look somewhat similar, depre-
cate is sometimes carelessly used in the sense of "to belittle" (Jesse
deprecated his contribution to the cause). "The teacher deprecated the
laziness of his students." "The property depreciated in value."
desert, dessert. As a noun, desert differs in spelling, pronunciation,
and meaning from dessert. The term for an arid region is pronounced
"DEZ-uhrt." The term for a pastry, pudding, or other final course of a
meal is pronounced "diZUHRT," as is the verb desert: "While roaming
in the desert he had to do without dessert." "Do not desert your job
now." The word desert, as in "just deserts," has nothing to do with
 62

desire

either arid regions or sweet concoctions. It derives from the same root as
deserves and means "rewards or punishments": "Every contestant will
receive his just deserts."
desire. See ENVY, COVET, DESIRE.

deteriorate. See DEGENERATE.

determinism. See FATALISM.

devoted. See ADDICTED.

dialect. See VERNACULAR.

dialogue. See MONOLOGUE.

diction, vocabulary. Diction is the choice and use of words for the
expression of ideas. The word comes from Latin dictio, which means
"saying," "word," and which appears in such familiar terms as diction-
ary, dictator, and' dictate. Diction has been broadened in meaning to
refer to one's whole style of speaking and writing: "This speaker was
distinguished for his forceful, precise diction." Vocabulary refers to the
Complete stock of words used or known by an individual or nation:
"Joan's German vocabulary is limited, but she has a wide-ranging
knowledge of Italian." Vocabulary is a more embracing term than
diction: the latter refers to only words and expressions chosen and used
by a speaker or writer, but the former includes not only the terms one
uses but those that are in his recognition and reading store of words as
well.

dictionary, glossary, thesaurus. A dictionary is a book containing a

selection of words, usually arranged alphabetically, concerning which
information about meanings, pronunciations, etymologies, and a wealth
of other detail is provided: "The Frenchman purchased a dictionary of
the English language." A glossary is a specialized dictionary, a list of
terms in a particular subject, area of usage, or field of study: "This is a
glossary of recent American slang." "At the end of this volume you will
find a glossary of terms that may be unfamiliar to you," A glossary is
designed to explain or define terms but Usually does not deal with
pronunciation, derivation, and other information provided by a diction-
ary. A thesaurus is still another kind of specialized dictionary, one that
usually confines itself to a treatment of synonyms and antonyms:
"Roget's International Thesaurus is a helpfiil book for everyone who
writes, speaks, or reads."

die of, die from, die with. In its customary sense of "to cease living,"
die is preferably followed by of: "He died of (not from) a coronary
 63

direct, directly

attack." Die with expresses an idea not related to a cause of death: "He
died with courage."
different. This word is an adjective, not a noun. "He doesn't know any
different" is standard informal usage, but "He doesn't see any different
between them" is an illiterate statement. In a remark such as "I con-
sulted three different lawyers," different is superfluous. It is also
unneeded in "I bought three different kinds of soap."
different from, different than, different to. The first two of these
expressions are widely used, but different from is preferred by careful,
educated writers and speakers: "This specimen is different from (not
than) that." Unfortunately, but correctly, different from often leads to
extra words because than is a convenient shortcut for from that which.
Even so, say different from rather than different than until widespread
usage sanctions the latter term. Different to appears more often in
British than in American usage.

differentiate, distinguish. Each of these words suggests an attempt to

note and analyze characteristic features of some item or person. Differ-
entiate involves pointing out exactly and in detail the differences or
partial similarities of two things being considered: "It is difficult to
differentiate between the symptoms of pneumonia and influenza." "One
who takes up the study of cells must quickly learn to differentiate among
them in size and structure." Distinguish has much the same meaning as
differentiate but implies general recognition of characteristics that estab-
lish the identity of something without giving attention to specific details:
"It is easy to distinguish an elephant from a buffalo."
dilemma. See PREDICAMENT.

diminish, minimize. Diminish means "to make smaller, less, or less

important," "to reduce, shrink, decrease, or contract": "Two aspirin
tablets will diminish your pain." Minimize means "to reduce to the
smallest possible amount, degree, size, or extent" and also means "to
belittle": "It is always unwise to minimize the horrors of war." "Since I
am doing the best I can, you should not try to minimize my efforts."
Minimize is an absolute term and should not be accompanied by adverbs
such as somewhat and greatly. Instead of writing greatly minimize,
write diminish or reduce.
direct, directly. As an adjective, direct means "straight," "by the
shortest course," "not turning aside": "This is a direct route to the
house." As an adverb, direct is interchangeable with directly when used
in this sense ("in a straight line") and when it means "without anything
intervening": "The team went directly (or direct) to the locker room."
"These vegetables came directly (or direct) from a nearby farm." But
 64
disability

one cannot say "I was direct concerned" or "I will be there direct." In
the first sentence, use directly or immediately or clearly. In the second,
say directly or soon or immediately or even in a short time.
disability. See INABILITY.

disassemble. See DISSEMBLE.

disaster, holocaust, tragedy. A disaster is an event causing damage or

hardship. The word comes from Greek and Latin terms suggesting "from
the stars" and hence has a connotation of bad luck: "Lillian felt that the
loss of all her money was a minor disaster." "The collision of the cars
was a disaster, but not a fatal one." Holocaust comes from a Greek
word meaning "burnt" or "burned" and refers to complete devastation
or destruction. That is, a holocaust is a disaster, but a disaster is not
necessarily a holocaust. Floods, collisions, train wrecks, and accidents
of many kinds are disasters, but holocaust is a term that should be
reserved for immense destruction and widespread devastation: "The
bombs falling in the crowded area resulted in a holocaust." Tragedy, a
more general term, refers to any calamity or disaster, any dreadful or
fatal event. One may, for instance, refer to the disaster or holocaust or
tragedy of modern warfare.

disbar. See DEBAR.

disc, disk. These words are spelled differently but mean the same thing:
"a thin, flat, circular plate or object." One refers to a "discus thrower"
but may call a person who conducts a broadcast consisting of recorded
music a "disc jockey" or a "disk jockey."
disclose. See DIVULGE.

discomfort, discomfit, discomfiture. The first of these words is widely

used to refer to lack of comfort, uneasiness, and even mild pain: "His
wet clothing caused him considerable discomfort." "Her distress over
missing the train made her feel some discomfort."Discomfiture, a much
stronger term, means "rout," "complete overthrow," "utter defeat":
"The downfall of the government caused discomfiture throughout the
nation." When you suffer discomfiture, you also experience discomfort,
but discomfort alone rarely results in discomfiture. Discomfit, a verb
only, means "to defeat," "to thwart," "to confuse," "to disconcert":
"This direct question will discomfit the speaker."
discover, invent. Discover means "to get knowledge of," "to find
out," "to learn of something previously unknown" («discover America,
discover uranium). To invent is "to originate," "to conceive of or devise
first": "invent the sewing machine." Synonyms for discover, none of
 65
disregardless, irregardless

which apply to the basic meaning of invent, are detect, discern, notice,
ferret out, and espy.
discreet, discrete. These words, pronounced alike, have entirely dif-
ferent meanings. To be discreet is to be prudent, cautious, careful,
trustworthy, circumspect: "Never one to talk much, she kept a discreet
silence." "The late President Truman often referred to George Marshall
as a discreet official." Discrete means "separate," "distinct," "apart,"
"detached": "This question consists of six discrete parts." "Manufac-
turing, advertising, selling, and collecting payment are discrete divisions
of this business."

disinterested, uninterested. Disinterested means "impartial," "un-

biased," "not influenced by selfish motives." Uninterested suggests
aloofness, indifference, or lack of interest. Say "The judge rendered a
disinterested verdict" and "The judge was uninterested in the court-
room behavior of the accused."

dislike. See HATE.

disorganized. See UNORGANIZED.

disparage. See BELITTLE.

displace, misplace. These words suggest putting something in a place

Where it should not or ought not to be. To displace is to shift something
(usually solid) more or less permanently from its accustomed place:
"The flood displaced every structure in that section of town." To
misplace is to put an object in a wrong place so that it is difficult to find:
"She could no longer sew, for she had misplaced her scissors." A
person who has been compelled to leave his home or country is dis-
placed; a worker in a position for which he is unsuited is misplaced.

disposal, disposition. Disposal refers to the act of getting rid of some-

thing by throwing away, giving away, burning, or assigning: "The prob-
lem of waste disposal in this village is acute." "What disposal will you
make of these old clothes?'' Disposition also conveys the idea of placing,
arranging, and ordering, but only when such acts are performed accord-
ing to a plan: "The general ordered a strategic disposition of his troops."
"The deceased man's will arranged for the disposition of his property."
Think of disposal as "disposing of," of disposition as "disposing."
disqualified. See UNQUALIFIED.

disregardless, Irregardless. Both words are illiteracies. The prefixes

ir- and dis- are superfluous. Say regardless, unmindful, heedless, any-
way, or even the wordy in spite of everything and thus avoid a double
 66
disremember

negative (dis- and ir- plus -less): "Regardless (not disregardless or

irregardless) of what you say, I shall do as I wish."
disremember. This word is dialectal rather than illiterate, but good
speakers prefer forget or fail to remember: "Did you forget (or fail to
remember) what I said?"

dissatisfied. See UNSATISFIED.

dissect. See BISECT.

dissemble, disassemble. Dissemble means "to conceal," "to give a

false appearance," "to feign": "Try to dissemble your lack of interest
by looking alert." "Roy dissembled his guilt by grinning broadly."
Dissemble is a synonym of dissimulate. Disassemble means "to take
apart": "He disassembled the motor and then found he could not put it
together again." Disassemble is the antonym of assemble.
dissimulate, simulate. To dissimulate is to conceal or hide; to simulate
is to pretend: "He dissimulated his injury by waving his arms." "She
simulated pain by writhing on the grass."
distinctive, distinct, distinguished. These words are related but not
interchangeable in meaning. Distinctive means "characteristic," "indi-
vidual," "set apart": "the distinctive roar of a lion." Distinct means
"clear," "plain," "definite," "unmistakable in its identity": "Oxygen
has properties distinct from those of helium." Distinguished stresses the
quality or characteristic of being eminent, outstanding, renowned: "This
official has had a distinguished career in public service." What is dis-
tinct is clearly seen and not easily mistaken for something else; what is
distinctive is something so set apart as to be conspicuous; what is
distinguished is conspicuous by reason of excellence and distinction.

distinguish. See DIFFERENTIATE.

divert. See AVERT.

divide. See SEPARATE.

divulge, disclose. These terms mean "to make known to others what
was intended to be kept secret, private, or confidential." Divulge is more
likely to be used when something previously secret is revealed to a small
number of people or a particular group; disclose usually refers to a
general sharing'of knowledge or information with others: "Barbara
divulged to her roommates her plan to be married within a month."
"The Warren Commission attempted to disclose the facts concerning
 67
doubt if, doubt whether, doubt that

President Kennedy's assassination." Neither word is widely used, per-

haps because reveal, tell, and expose convey much the same meaning.
doctor. See PHYSICIAN.

dominate, domineer. The first of these words means "to control, gov-
ern, regulate, or tower above": "The superintendent dominated the
hospital staff." "The tall pine dominated the coastline." Domineer
means "to rule or govern arrogantly and tyrannically," "to regulate like
a despot": "Mussolini domineered (or domineered over) his country-
men for some twenty years." Domineer has more unpleasant and unfa-
vorable connotations than dominate, but neither suggests a happy situa-
tion for those being regulated.

donate, give. These terms mean "to make a present of," "to bestow,"
"to contribute": "This company donates (or gives) to the Red Cross
every year." Donate is considered a genteel and polite word; it has been
suggested that one gives a small sum and donates a large one. Both
words are standard, but using give is recommended because the word is
shorter and simpler and is fully as meaningful as donate. Only when
referring to services (The actor donated his services) is donate prefera-
ble to give.

don't, don't think. Don't is a contraction of do not. Avoid such illitera-

cies as "he don't," "they don't got," and "it don't seem." Do is a verb
in the present tense and is never used in the third-person singular; use
does. Don't think, a familiar, widely used expression, is not wholly
logical. When one says "I don't think I want to leave," what he is really
saying is that he does think that he doesn't want to leave or he thinks
that he wants to stay. Don't think is not ungrammatical, but it is a wordy,
careless expression.

double negative. The phrase "double negative" is not itself an error of

any sort, but it does name a construction considered illiterate or nar-
rowly dialectal. Such a construction employs two negatives to express a
single negation. Illiterate or careless speech abounds with such expres-
sions as ""can't hardly," "haven't scarcely," "can't scarcely." Such
double negatives have been allowable in past centuries, but they are now
out of style and unacceptable. You are not likely to say "I didn't get no
money" or "I haven't seen nobody," but you should be careful to avoid
using not with such negative words as no, but, nor, only, hardly, barely,
scarcely, and except: "I did not have but five hours' sleep." "You can't
help but love that child."
doubt if, doubt whether, doubt that. Both doubt and doubtful are
often followed by clauses introduced by i f , whether, and that. A choice
 68
doubtlessly

among the three depends upon the kind of sentence involved. That is
used when a negative or interrogative idea is involved: "There is little
doubt that you are mistaken." "Can you any longer be doubtful that you
are mistaken?" Whether is used in statements conveying genuine doubt
and uncertainty: "It is doubtful whether he will live." "They doubt
whether he was ever there." If is usually to be avoided after both doubt
and doubtful, although some accomplished speakers feel that if and
whether are interchangeable. Since the use of if is debatable in doubt
constructions and the use of whether is limited, why not always use
that?
doubtlessly. See UNDOUBTEDLY.

draft, draught. A draft is (1) a drawing, sketch, or design; (2) a current

of air; (3) the act of drawing or pulling loads; (4) the taking of money or
other supplies from a source; (5) selection by lot. A draught refers to (1)
drawing liquid from a container; (2) the act of drinking; (3) a drink. Both
terms refer to air currents but otherwise have distinct meanings,
although in Great Britain draught is the preferred spelling for several of
the meanings listed under draft. Examples: "Suddenly she felt a cold
draft (or draught) of fresh air." "Jim took a long draught of cold beer."
(In recent years, draft has been more frequently used in this sense.) "I
shall issue a draft against your account at the bank." "He owns two
heavy draft horses." "When a draft of fresh air entered the room, he
took a draught of it into his lungs."

dreamed, dreamt The past tense and past participle of dream are
either dreamed or dreamt: "She dreamed a lovely dream last night" or
"She dreamt a lovely dream last night." One may say has dreamed or
has dreamt with equal correctness. Dreamed is more often used in the
United States, dreamt in Great Britain. Both forms of the verb require
the preposition of when followed by a verb form ending in -ing: "She
dreamed (or dreamt) of taking an exciting journey to Europe."

drought, drouth. These words with different spellings refer to dry

weather, lack of rain or other precipitation, and to any extended short-
age. Drought is pronounced "drout"; drouth is pronounced with a th
ending. Drought is the preferred spelling. Examples: "The drought
(drouth) extended for three months, ruining all hopes for a good crop of
vegetables." "The team went without a victory for the entire season, a
long period of drought (drouth)."
due to. The phrase due to, when used in a prepositional sense meaning
"owing to" and "caused by," is in common and reputable use: "His
accident was due to a fall on the icy pavement." Many careful speakers
avoid due to in introducing an adverbial construction (He began to shake
due to his fear), but actually due to is grammatically as sound and
 69
dwell

correct as the phrases it replaces: owing to, because of, on account of,
and through. However, due to and, especially, due to the fact that are
wordy ways of saying since and because.
dwell. See RESIDE.
 E
each. This pronoun is singular and implies one even when not followed
by one. Plural words used in modifying phrases do not change the
number: "Each has his own reasons." "Each of the girls has her own
reasons." When each appears after a plural subject to which it refers,
the verb should be plural: "Bill and Jack each have their own reasons."
each and every. This is a redundant (wordy) phrase; when used, it
requires a singular verb: "Each and every one of you has his own
reasons." Preferably, use each or every, not both.

each other, one another. In standard speech, each other is used when
two persons are involved; one another is preferred when three or more
persons are concerned: "The man and his wife spoke to each other
excitedly." "The six motorcyclists were arguing with one another."
Common usage (not recommended, however) permits such a statement
as "The five culprits regarded each other with distrust." Be safe: use
one another when three or more persons are involved.

eager. See ANXIOUS.

early, soon. These words have a shared meaning, "in the near future."
One can say, "An early departure time has been scheduled for the
flight" or "The flight will arrive soon." Something referred to as early,
however, also means something that comes or appears before the
appointed or scheduled time: "One plane arrived early and had to wait
for the other." Soon means "within a brief period after a specified time
or event": "Once the second plane arrived, welcoming ceremonies soon
began." Early on, a British expression that has become popular in the
United States, is now a trite phrase. It is also a wordy one. Omit the on
and say early, soon, quickly, or immediately.

earthy, earthly. These words have a common origin but different mean-
ings. Earthly means "of or pertaining to the earth," "possible or con-
ceivable in this world": "The travel folder claims that this resort is an
earthly paradise." "Your help can be of no earthly use to me." Earthly
is concerned with the earth, either literally or figuratively, and nearly
always implies a contrast to that which is not of the earth, that is,
heavenly. Earthy means "characteristic of earth or soil": "These roots
have an earthy smell." Earthy also means "realistic," "practical,"
 71

effective, efficient, effectual

"coarse," and "unrefined": "His sense of humor is earthy." "His goals

in life are earthy rather than idealistic."
easy, easily. These words are not interchangeable in standard speech
and writing. Easily is an adverb; easy is an adjective. Such expressions
as "Take it easy," "Go easy," and "Travel easy by bus" are informal,
although widely used. Examples of standard use: "This is an easy task."
"You can do that easily." Because they are trite or highly informal,
avoid such expression as "Easy does it," "go easy on," "easier said
than done," "slow and easy," "easy money," and "on easy street."
eatable, edible. These words, both in standard usage, have a shared
meaning of "not poisonous or harmful," "fit to be eaten": "This food
does not look appetizing, but it is eatable (or edible)." Edible is more
formal and somewhat more refined than eatable, a word often used in the
plural: "The sack contained a quantity of various eatables." Edible is
preferable in a statement such as "These berries were once thought
poisonous, but they are edible."
economic, economical. Economic applies to material wealth and to
business or household enterprise. Economical means "prudent in man-
agement," "not wasteful," "thrifty." Thus one refers to "economic
resources" and "economical management," to "economic problems"
and "economical living." Examples: "The Brown family moved to a
smaller house for economic reasons." "Mrs. Brown learned to be
economical in budgeting household expenses."
edible. See EATABLE.

edition, impression, printing. These terms are frequently used inter-

changeably, but they have distinct meanings. Edition, from a Latin word
meaning "to give out," refers to (1) the format (size and shape) in which
a work is published; (2) the entire number of copies (impressions) of a
published work (book, magazine, newspaper) printed from a set of type
in one continuous run; (3) a version of any work, printed or not, that is
publicly presented, as, for instance, the latest edition of a play or opera.
If a new printing involves no changes in the text or illustrations of a-
work, or only minor corrections, the result is not a new edition but a new
impression. A thorough revision resulting in a noticeably different ver-
sion is a new edition. A first edition is a work as it is or was originally
published. An impression is one of a number of printings of the same
edition made at different times from the same set of type.
effect. See AFFECT.

effective. See AFFECTIVE.

effective, efficient, effectual. Effective refers to something that has the

power to produce, or that actually does produce, an effect or result:
 72
egoism, egotism

"This medicine is an effective remedy for acid indigestion." Efficient

implies the use of energy, skill, or industry to accomplish a desired
result: "This foreman is an efficient executive." Effectual refers to any
agency or force that produces an intended or desired result: "Neighbors,
making an effectual search of the area, found the lost children." An
efficient salesman is an effectual agent for a company that desires to
make its public image effective throughout the country.

egoism, egotism. Both words and their adjectival forms, egoistic and
egotistic, refer to preoccupation with one's own self, or ego. Egoism,
less commonly used than egotism, emphasizes self-importance in rela-
tion to other things: "Joe has quite enough egoism to understand his role
in society." Egotism is an often-used word for excessive or boastful
reference to, or emphasis upon, oneself: "His egotism made it impossi-
ble for him to hold many friends." An egoist is one devoted to his own
interests; an egotist is a conceited, boastful person.

either . . . or, neither . . . nor. Either means "one of two"; neither

means "not one of two." Or goes with either, nor with neither: "Either
Sarah or I will go, but neither Bill nor Jane will." When used alone, both
either and neither take verbs in the singular: "Either is ready to go with
you." "Neither is now ready." The use of either . . . or and neither . . .
nor to coordinate more than two words, phrases, or clauses is considered
permissible by some authorities but not by the majority: "Either tele-
phone or write." "Neither Jack nor Jill knows." "He is studying
mathematics, chemistry, and physics, but he is proficient in none (pref-
erably not neither)." In either... or and neither. . . nor constructions,
these conjunctions are properly followed by similar parts of speech or
similar structures. That is, write "Either he keeps quiet or he leaves the
room," not "He either keeps quiet or. . . ."

elapse, lapse. Elapse, once used as a noun and a synonym for lapse, is
now in standard usage as a verb only: "Ten minutes have elapsed since
the fire alarm sounded." Lapse is properly used both as a noun meaning
"an interval of time," "a slip or failure," and "a decline" and as a verb
meaning "to cease to exist": "No one could account for the lapse
between the alarm and the arrival of firemen." "I must have suffered a
lapse of memory." "The policy will lapse if the premium is not paid
promptly."

elder, eldest, older, oldest. The first two words of this group apply
only to persons, whereas older and oldest may apply to persons or
things. Also, elder and eldest (much less common than the other two
terms) apply principally to members of a given family or business estab-
lishment and indicate age or seniority {elder brother, eldest partner).
However, say "He is older (not elder) than his brother."
elemental, elementary. Although these words have a shared meaning
 73
emigrant, immigrant

of dealing with, or referring to, agencies and forces of nature, they are
distinguished in ordinary usage. Elemental is applied to basic elements
such as .power, size, or strength (the elemental force of the wind).
Elementary is used, to refer to that which is simple, introductory, or
easy: "This is a book on elementary arithmetic."

elicit. See ILLICIT.

else, else's. Else is an adjective meaning "other" or "different" or

"more," as in the statement "She wanted something else." Else can
also be an adverb (Walk carefully on the ice or else you will slip), but it
appears most often in compound pronouns such as somebody else,
everybody else, and who else. In such constructions, the possessive is
formed by adding an apostrophe and s to else: "She is someone else's
girl." The construction is not entirely logical, but it is idiomatically
correct; never say or write "someone's else," "everybody's else," or
"anyone's else." However, the possessive form of who else can be
written as who else's or whose else but not as whose else's: "Is this hat
yours? Whose else (or who else's) could it be?"

elude. See ALLUDE.

elusion. See ALLUSION.

emend. See AMEND.

emerge, emerse, immerge. Emerge, meaning "to come forth," "to

rise up," and "to come into sight," is followed by the preposition/rom:
"Martha emerged from the pool with her hair dripping." "The sun
emerged from behind fleecy clouds." Emerse no longer appears in the
language except in an adjectival (past-participle) form used in botany: A
water lily standing out of water and surrounding leaves is said to be
emersed. Immerge means "to plunge into" and "to disappear." In the
former meaning it is synonymous with immerse: "The chemist
immerged (or immersed) the solution in acid." The other meaning of
immerge is illustrated in a statement such as "The faint moon immerged
into the shadow of the sun."
emerge, issue. The basic meanings of emerge are stated in the preced-
ing entry. Issue also means "to come forth," but it is applied in situa-
tions involving a forceful breaking out of something that has been
confined or enclosed: "Fire-streaked smoke began to issue from the
chimney."
emerse. See EMERGE, EMERSE, IMMERGE.

emigrant, immigrant. These words, together with emigrate and immi-

grate, emigration and immigration, are related to the basic verb migrate,
 74

eminent, imminent

which is used with reference to place of departure and to destination.

Emigrant and emigrate refer specifically to a place of departure and
emphasize movement from that place. Immigrant and immigrate refer
mainly to destination and are followed by to, as emigrate and emigrant
are by from: "Johnson immigrated to England in 1965." "Johnson
emigrated from Sweden in 1965." A person moving from one country to
another is an emigrant. One who has already moved to another area is an
immigrant.

eminent, Imminent. Eminent (pronounced "EM-uh-nuhnt") means

"distinguished," "high in rank," "noteworthy" (an eminent states-
man). Imminent (pronounced "IM'uh'nuhnt") means "about to occur,"
"impending" (an imminent rain squall).

empathy, sympathy. Empathy, a more specific word than sympathy,

refers to actual identification with the thoughts and feelings of someone
else or to a sharing through vicarious experience with the attitudes and
emotions of another: "Empathy is more meaningful in this time of
sadness than is any letter or gift of flowers." "Through empathy the
young reader felt that Maugham's novel Of Human Bondage was a
mirror of his own life." Sympathy refers to a general feeling of harmony
or agreement between persons, a fellow feeling of understanding: "The
mechanic expressed his sympathy but said that his garage was closed for
the night."

empty, vacant. These words mean "containing nothing," but they have
different applications. Something that is empty is lacking in its usual or
customary contents: an empty house contains no furniture; an empty
store contains no merchandise. Vacant is applied to something that is
temporarily unoccupied: a vacant bed (no one is in it at the moment); a
vacant house (it is unoccupied at the time). A vacant apartment would
contain all its furnishings but would house no occupants. If a position is
not filled, it is said to be vacant, not empty. A look which lacks
expression would be called a vacant stare because the implication is that
the absence of feeling is only temporary.

enclose, Inclose. These words mean "to shut in," "to close on all
sides," "to surround," and "to insert": "High mountains enclosed (or
inclosed) the valley." "Enclose (or inclose) a check with your letter."
Enclose is the preferred spelling. So is enclosure rather than inclosure.
Expressions such as "enclosed herewith" and "enclosed herein" are
wordy because enclose conveys the idea of herewith and herein.
"Enclosed please find" is a piece of business jargon not only wordy but
also silly. Say, rather, "I am enclosing. . . ."

end, ending, ended. Both end and ending refer to a termination or

close of something, a conclusion, the final part of an action or happening.
 75
endorse, indorse

Thus one may refer to the end or the ending of a war, a book, a play, or a
love affair. End, however, is more often applied to the actual completion
of an action, whereas ending refers to the process of completing or
winding it up. That is, the end of a novel is the final line of the narrative;
the ending of a novel can have the same meaning but may also apply to
the final pages, the last full episode. The end of a war refers to that
moment when hostilities cease; the ending of a war may equally apply to
a longer period during which a war is winding down while negotiations
for a cease-fire or armistice are in progress. That is, what is ending is
"coming" to an end or is "about" to end. What is ended has actually
come to an end at some time in the past. "He never left town during the
six months ended last June." "He hopes to make several trips during the
period ending next December."
Although the practice is widespread, avoid the use of ending to refer to
any period of time other than one to be completed in the future. Also,
remember that end itself is an overworked word, appearing in numerous
trite, wordy, or illogical expressions. End is informal when used to mean
"duty," "obligation," or "part" (your end of the bargain). It appears
often in such trite expressions as "go off the deep end" ("behave
recklessly or impulsively"); "make both ends meet" ("manage to live
within one's means"); "no end" ("a great deal"); "hold one's end up"
("care for one's own responsibility"); "at loose ends" ("unsettled");
"at one's wit's end" ("at the end of one's resources"); "put an end to"
("finish," "terminate");"e/ufo of the earth" ("remote regions," "every-
where"). "End result" is a wordy phrase; result conveys the idea of
end. Since a result is an end, avoid this trite, redundant expression.

endemic. See EPIDEMIC.

endless, innumerable. These words are often used interchangeably,

but they have distinct meanings. Endless means "without an end,"
"boundless," "interminable," "continuous": "The endless prairie
stretched before his eyes." "During his recent illness, he felt that his
pain was endless." "The workmen are replacing an endless conveyor
belt." Innumerable means "too many to count," "countless," "num-
berless": "The daisies in that huge field were innumerable." The tasks
of a housewife may seem endless, but they are hardly innumerable. The
leaves on a tree may be innumerable but they are not endless; neither
are the innumerable snowflakes falling in a winter storm.
endorse, Indorse. Both of these words are in standard use, although
endorse is generally preferred. Each has two primary meanings: (1) "to
support or approve" (Please endorse my campaign); and (2) "to write
one's signature" (Please endorse this check). The second syllable,
dorse, means "back," as one might refer to the dorsal fin of a marine
mammal. Therefore, "Endorse on the back" is a wordy, unacceptable
phrase. If you are fortunate enough to receive a check, write your name
on it or endorse it, but don't "endorse it on the back."
 76
enervating, invigorating

enervating, invigorating. Possibly because enervate looks and sounds

something like energy, some writers and speakers confuse the meanings
of enervating and invigorating, which are almost antonyms. Enervating
means "weakening, devitalizing, sapping the strength o f ' (a humid,
enervating climate); invigorating means "animating, giving energy or
vigor" (a brisk, invigorating climate).
enigma. See RIDDLE.

enough, sufficient. These words are interchangeable, as is pointed out

under AMPLE, ENOUGH. Each means "adequate," "equal to the required
amount": "We have enough food to last us for a week." "We have
sufficient money to buy more when we need it." These words should not
be used together; "sufficient enough" is a wordy expression. Sufficient
is felt to be more refined and elegant than enough, but the words are
equally acceptable. Enough, which can be used as a noun, adverb, and
adjective, can also be overused as a conversation filler. These are trite
phrases: " oddly enough," "strangely enough," "peculiarly enough." If
a modifier is needed, then omit the enough. See also CURIOUSLY
ENOUGH.

enquire, inquire. Both spellings of this word are acceptable, although

inquire is more widely used. Similarly, the noun inquiry is preferable to
enquiry. Enquire (enquiry) is sometimes used for the act of questioning,
whereas inquire (inquiry) refers to a more detailed or prolonged ques-
tioning, an investigation. This distinction hardly seems worthwhile:
"The cashier made an inquiry (enquiry) into the cash shortage."

enrage, incense. These words alike mean "to anger," "to put in a
rage," "to infuriate," "to cause to be angry." "A woman is enraged
when she is provoked to violent anger." "Susan was incensed by the
rude remark of her companion." Incensed has these characteristics: (1)
it suggests greater dignity and self-restraint than does enraged; (2) it
implies a greater degree of provocation than does enraged; (3) it is used
to refer to someone toward whose anger we feel sympathetic.

ensure. See ASSURE.

entail; See INVOLVE.

enthuse. Meaning "to show enthusiasm," enthuse is nonstandard.

Instead of saying "She enthused over the dance," say "She was enthu-
siastic over (or about) the dance."

entrance, entry. As a noun meanirig "entering" or "a passage that

affords entry," entrance is pronounced "EN*trans." As a verb meaning
"to put into a trance" or "to delight," the word is pronounced
 77
envy, covet, desire

"enTRAHNS": "The entrance to the cave was 7 feet wide." "The

audience was entranced by her performance." Entry has the same basic
meanings as the noun entrance, and the two words may be used inter-
changeably. In law, entry has the special meaning of "something
recorded" (an entry in the register of deeds) and "the act of taking
possession by means of entering" (the landlord's right of entry to the
property).

enure. See INURE.

envelop, envelope. The first, of these words, a verb meaning "to

encase, enclose, or surround," is pronounced "en-VEL-uhp." The noun
envelope, meaning "something that envelops," "an enclosing wrap-
ping," is pronounced "EN-vuhlohp," "ONvuhlohp," or
"AHN vuh lohp": "Clouds will soon envelop the mountaintop." "Put a
stamp on the envelope before mailing it."

enviable, envious. Enviable, meaning "desirable," is a milder (less

strong) word than envious, which has the same basic meaning but
suggests strong discontent and resentment. Enviable may even be used
as an expression of praise: "His solid strength of character is enviable."
Envious never implies praise, since it involves both resentment and
desire: "Because Bill was envious of his supervisor's position, he tried
hard to undercut him."

environment, environs. These related words, each meaning "sur-

roundings," "surrounding area," are pronounced respectively
"enVArruhn'muhnt" and either "enVAI'ruhnz" or
"EN'vuh'ruhnz." Although not a true plural and without a singular
form, environs should not be used with any word involving number: one
cannot say "three environs of the city" or "many environs in this
state."
envision, envisage. These words are so often used interchangeably by
knowledgeable speakers and writers that distinctions in meaning have
vanished. In strict usage, envision means "to have a vision," "to
foresee," whereas envisage has more a meaning of facing, seeing face to
face, or confronting: "Even when desperately ill he could never envision
a life of inactivity." "In his outlook for the city, the mayor envisaged
definite plans for slum clearance." Both words are so ponderous that
neither should be used in ordinary circumstances.

envy, covet, desire. Both envy and covet suggest resentment of

another's fortune or condition and a desire to have that condition or
situation for oneself. Desire is a weaker word than either envy or covet,
since it expresses "wishing" or "longing for" without necessarily imply-
ing spite, malice, or resentment of another's possessions. Envy is broad-
 78

envy, jealousy

est in meaning of the three terms because it combines desire and ill will.
"Because he will never be well, he will always envy persons in good
health." "This is a prize which everyone in the club should covet." "He
desires a good reputation more than fame or money."
envy, Jealousy. These words are often used interchangeably, although
jealousy is much more common. They do have distinct meanings. Envy
suggests a discontented, unhappy longing for what someone else has;
jealousy implies suspicion, fear, and uneasiness. "Her youthful beauty
was the envy of everyone in the room." "His attitude toward his favored
rival in the race changed from sympathy to dislike to outright jealousy."
That is, if one's attitude toward the possessions or attainments of others
is mildly desirous, use envy; if resentment and spite are involved, use
jealousy.

epic. This short word with powerful meanings and associated meanings
should not loosely be used to refer to events, spectacles, or other matters
unless they are notable for grandeur, scope, majesty, and heroism. It is
doubtful that many sports events, films, TV shows, or books should
really be called epic.

epicure. See HEDONIST.

epidemic, endemic. Endemic means "peculiar to a given country or

people"; in medicine, the term is applied to a disease characteristic of, or
confined to, a particular locality: "Malaria is endemic in certain warm,
humid countries." Epidemic, much more often used, means "breaking
out suddenly in such a way as to affect many individuals at the same
time"; the term is used especially to refer to contagious diseases (see
CONTAGIOUS): "In that year an epidemic of cholera broke out." See also
PANDEMIC.

episode. See EVENT.

epitaph, epigraph. Both of these terms refer to an inscription on a

monument or tomb or a brief piece of writing in praise of someone now
dead: "The visitor paused in front of the shaft erected in memory of
Queen Victoria and read the epitaph (or epigraph) carved on its face."
Epigraph has the additional meaning of a quotation at the beginning of a
book or chapter of a book: "The epigraph preceding this section is from
the Book of Genesis."
equable, equitable. Equable means "uniform," "free from varia-
tions," "unchanging," and "tranquil": "The climate of Puerto Rico is
equable." "Marsha is well liked because of her equable temperament."
Equitable means "just," "right," "fair," "reasonable": "The speaker
claimed that he would campaign for equitable treatment of all citizens."
"Both sides insisted that the settlement of their dispute was equitable."
 79
essential

equal. Like unique, perpendicular, and other words with absolute

meaning, equal should not be preceded by more or most because it is
not capable of comparison. "More nearly equal" and "more equitable "
are more acceptable and precise expressions than "more equaV: "The
Governor sought a more nearly equal distribution of state funds."
equally as. The adverb equally is redundant (wordy) when combined
with as. Omit equally in a statement such as "Hard work is (equally) as
valuable as ability." Delete as from a remark such as "Equally (as)
significant is one's desire to improve his lot."
equitable. See EQUABLE.

equivocal. See AMBIGUOUS.

erratum, errata. Erratum, derived from a Latin verb meaning "to wan-
der," means "an error," one usually resulting from a misprint in a book
or any mistake in something written by hand. Errata is the plural form of
this noun and requires a plural verb: "The errata in this volume are
numerous." Errata may also mean a list of errors or corrections, but
even in this meaning is preferably followed by a verb in the plural. The
word erratas is sometimes found in print, but the form is not generally
approved. "The one important erratum in the volume was noted on an
inserted page." "The major errata in this work have been listed in an
appendix."

eruption, Irruption. An eruption is a violent breaking out; an irruption

is a violent breaking in. The discharge of lava from a volcano or of water
from a geyser is an eruption. An invasion by an army is an irruption. In
ecology, an irruption has the specialized meaning of an "increase," such
as of the population of a country: "Improved health care and an
increased birth rate resulted in an irruption during the past decade."
esoteric. See EXOTIC.

especial, special. These words are widely used interchangeably, with

special being more common. There is a distinction in meaning, however.
Especial means "exceptional," "outstanding," and special means "of a
distinct kind," "particular," "individual": "This rule is of especial
importance to all members of the club." "Jack is a special friend of
mine." The adverb especially is more widely used than specially, per-
haps because it embraces the meanings of "chiefly," "principally,"
"notably," and "mainly": "Last year we had an especially severe
winter."

essay. See ASSAY.

essential. See NECESSARY.

 80
essentially, substantially

essentially, substantially. As ordinarily used, these words are inter-

changeable: There is no difference between saying "This report is essen-
tially the same as that one" and "This report is substantially. . . ."Each
word conveys the idea of "basic" and "of the essence." Adjectival
forms do differ, however: an essential service is an indispensable one,
such as health care or fire fighting. A substantial service may or may not
be indispensable, but it is always of considerable amount, quality, or
size.' 'This drive raised a substantial amount of money for the hospital."

estimate, estimation. An estimate is a calculation or judgment as to the

value, size, or qualities of something. Because an estimation is the
forming of an estimate, the two words are often used interchangeably,
although estimate is more often applied to things and estimation to
persons, especially in the sense of opinion or belief. "His estimate of the
storm-related damages ran into the millions." "In the estimation of his
countrymen, he was a great man." In most instances, the words opinion
and judgment are effective synonyms for estimation.

etc. See AND ETC.

eternal. See EVERLASTING.

ethics, morals. Ethics is used to refer to a system of moral principles, as

one might mention "legal ethics," "medical ethics," or "the ethics of
this community." Morals refers to standards or accepted customs of
conduct and generally applies to right living in a society. It is not
incorrect to refer, as one linguist has done, to ethics as the science,
business, and practice of moral's and to morals as the practice of ethics.
Today, morals is more likely to have a religious application than ethics
and often has a sexual connotation that ethics rarely has. To say that
someone is a person of the highest ethics implies that he or she is
honorable and upright in his or her private life and business dealings. To
call someone a person of the highest morals would likely suggest that he
or she is not guilty of sexual laxity. When meaning the moral sciences as
a whole, ethics is a plural noun. It may be used with a singular verb when
it refers to fitness or propriety: "The ethics of his decision is (or are)
debatable." The adjective form is always ethical, not ethic, which is the
singular form of the noun.

evenings. See AFTERNOONS.

event, incident, episode. Each of these words refers to something that

happens or is regarded as happening, to some action or occurrence. An
event is an important happening, one connected with previous happen-
ings: "The principal event of the meeting was the report from the
treasurer." "The historical events of the conflict are well established."
An incident is a minor happening that takes place in connection with a
 81
evidence, proof, testimony

more important event or series of occurrences: "The groom's dropping

the ring was an amusing incident in the wedding ceremony." An episode
is one of a series of occurrences, an action distinct from the main course
of events but nevertheless interesting in itself: "His first trip to Europe
was an exciting episode in the life of Senator Bottomley."

ever. See NEVER.

ever, every. Ever means "constantly," "always," "at any time,"

"repeatedly." Every means "each and all without exception." Few
speakers confuse these words except in the phrases "ever so often" and
"every so often." Ever so often means "frequently," whereas every so
often means "occasionally," "now and then." Trite phrases involving
ever and every include "ever and ever," "ever and anon," "for ever
and a day," "every which way," and "every now and then."

everlasting, eternal. Everlasting means (1) "lasting forever"; (2)

"incessant," "never-ceasing"; (3) "boring," "tedious": "Theeverlast-
ing hills were inspiring to the artist." "His severe illness caused him
everlasting agonies throughout his body." "Children, please stop your
everlasting chatter." That which is eternal is without beginning or end,
is always existing: "She thought of God as the eternal father of every-
one." Related words which might come closer to expressing a given
meaning are permanent, unending, perpetual, ceaseless, endless, and
enduring.
every. See EVER.

everybody, everyone. These words are interchangeable in their mean-

ing of "every person," although everyone is considered by some speak-
ers as more refined and euphonious than everybody. Both pronouns,
when used as subjects, require singular verbs; accompanying pronouns
should also be singular: "Everyone has (not have) an obligation to cast
his (not their) vote." Spelled as one word, everyone means "every-
body." Every one (two words) refers to each person of a group and is
followed by of: "Every one of them is loafing on the job."
everyplace. This word is informal when used to mean "everywhere."
Spelled as one word or two, everyplace is less standard than every-
where.
everyway. This adverb is a correct word when used to mean "in every
way," "in every direction or manner": "We tried everyway we could to
convince him of his error." There is no standard word everyways. "In
every which way" is not a standard expression; omit which.
evidence, proof, testimony. These words are occasionally used as
 82
evident

synonyms, but they do have distinct meanings. Evidence is information

given in an investigation to support a contention: "At the trial, the
witness presented evidence to convict the accused." Proof is that kind of
evidence which is so weighty as to remove any possible doubt: "His
signed confession is proof of his guilt." Testimony is the statement of a
witness, usually given under oath: "The jury listened attentively to the
testimony." Evidence and testimony are often confused, but testimony
should be used to refer only to statements and evidence to any ground
for belief that is spoken,' written, or presented in any other form.
evident. See APPARENT.

evidently. This word, meaning "obviously" or "apparently," is fre-

quently mispronounced. It has only four syllables, pronounced
"EV-uh-duhnflee" or "EViduhnt'lee." The ending of the word is not
pronounced "TAL li" or "TUH;lee."

example, instance, sample. An example is a part of something, one of

a number of things: "This is an example of his better work." The word
also means "pattern," "model," or "specimen": "His devotion to work
set an example for all of us." An instance is that kind of example used to
prove or illustrate: "His bad behavior that day was an instance of his
surly character." A sample is a small part of something and has the basic
meaning of "specimen": "This sample of cloth is lovely." Although
"for instance" and "for example" are interchangeable, instance and
example are not: your behavior can set a good example for others but not
a good instance.

exceedingly, excessively. The first of these words means "to an un-

usual degree," "extremely," "very much": "Everyone in the class is
studying exceedingly hard." Excessively means "too much," "beyond
proper or normal limits": "It was excessively cold for a day in spring."
except. See ACCEPT.

exceptionable, exceptional. These often-confused words are not

interchangeable. The former means "objectionable"; the latter means
"extraordinary," "uncommon," "unusual": "The judge ruled the
behavior of the witness exceptionable and had him removed from the
courtroom." "Martha has always been an exceptional student."
excerpt, extract. These words have several different meanings as both
noun and verb, but each may refer to a passage or scene selected from a
book, play, or article. Basically, to excerpt is "to pick out," "to pluck,"
whereas to extract is "to remove, often with force": "The professor
read us an excerpt from the novel." "From this poem, please excerpt
your favorite lines." "Don't extract the wrong meaning from my
remarks." "The dentist will soon extract this bad tooth."
 83

expertise

excessively. See EXCEEDINGLY.

excuse, excuse me. See APOLOGY.

execrable, inexecrable. Execrable means "very bad," ''abominable,"

"detestable": "The drunken actor gave an execrable performance."
"Your rude behavior is execrable." Inexecrable occasionally appears in
print, but it is obsolete and is probably mistaken for some such word as
inexorable.
exercise, exorcise. When these two words are misused, the mistake is
probably due to misspelling or mispronunciation. Exercise means
"something done or performed," "bodily or mental exertion," "to train,
develop, or condition": "This is an exercise to strengthen one's back."
"Exercise your mind or it will become slack." Exorcise, a verb only,
means "to cast out," "to expel," "to deliver from": "The faith healer
tried to exorcise an evil spirit from the sick man."
exhaustive, exhausting. Exhaustive means "thorough," "comprehen-
sive," "completely consuming": "This is an exhaustive study of the
subject." Exhausting means "using up fully," "expending the whole
of," "exerting to the point of fatigue": "Digging trenches is an exhaust-
ing task."
exhibit, exhibition. An exhibit is a display of items or a collection of
articles in an exhibition. An exhibition is a large-scale display, such as a
fair, an exposition, or an art showing. One or more paintings by one artist
might be an exhibit in an exhibition of modern art.
exist, subsist. To exist is "to live," "to be," "to have life": "Rac-
coons exist in that forest." "Hatred of war exists in all nations." To
subsist also means "to have life" but with the additional idea of doing so
by dependence upon something else, such as food, water, and shelter:
"Only an experienced explorer can subsist in the Arctic."
exorcise. See EXERCISE.

exotic, esoteric. Exotic means "of foreign origin," "striking," "un-

usual," "strange," "exciting": "Mac loved the exotic food, exotic
dress, and exotic speech which he encountered in Singapore." Esoteric
means "understood or appreciated by only a few," "private," "secret":
"It is difficult to grasp this esoteric poetry because of its many allusions
to ancient mythology."
expertise. This widely used synonym for skill, knowledge, and expert-
ness has become as trite as know-how. Expertise is acceptably used in
formal and informal speaking and writing, but a synonym can always be
found for this now-hackneyed term.
 $4

explicit, implicit

explicit, Implicit. Explicit means "distinct," "specific," "clearly

defined": "The foreman gave us explicit instructions." Implicit means
"understood though not expressed": "A commitment to duty was
implicit in his every act and thought." Implicit may also mean "com-
plete," "unreserved" (implicit faith in our system of government).
explosion, Implosion. An explosion is a violent expansion of some
sort, a bursting out of gas, air, fuel, or other substances. An implosion is
a similar bursting but one that is directed inward. When a gas tank
explodes, debris is hurled outward; when it implodes, walls collapse and
fall inward. A similar distinction is found in the words eruption and
irruption (see ERUPTION).
expostulate, postulate. Expostulate means "to reason earnestly," "to
remonstrate," "to demand": "The policeman expostulated with the
motorist about the dangers of fast driving." Postulate is derived from the
same Latin word as expostulate but means "to claim, assume, ask, or
request without any degree of urgency or force": "The lecturer postu-
lated the idea that all of us are selfish."

expurgated. See UNABRIDGED.

extant, extent. Extant (pronounced "EKS'tuhnt" or "ek STANT")

means "still in existence, not destroyed or lost." Extent (pronounced
"ek-STENT" or "ikSTENT") means "scope," "range," "comprehen-
siveness." "The extent of the land can be determined by extant property
lines."

extemporaneous, impromptu. These words are applied to something

said or done without special or advance preparation, as one might make a
speech or perform some act on the "spur of the moment" (the meaning
of extemporaneous in Latin). Extemporaneous is especially applied to
an unmeihorized speech given from notes or an outline: "Following the
main address, someone in the audience began a heated extemporaneous
discussion of the issues." Impromptu, derived from a Latin phrase
meaning "in readiness," is applied to a speech given, a poem recited, or
a song sung without advance notice or warning: "Although she was
startled, Cissy gave an excellent impromptu talk."

extemporize. See TEMPORIZE.

extended, extensive. Extended means "stretched-out," "prolonged,"

"widespread," "outstretched": "When the basketball player's body
was fully extended, he was nearly 7 feet tall." "The wires were then
extended from one post to another." "His extended remarks lasted for
nearly an hour." Extensive shares these meanings with extended but
more specifically means "wide,"' "of great extent," "broad," "far-
 85
extraneous, intrinsic

reaching": "His influence is extensive throughout the region." "As he

continued to purchase acreage, his holdings became more and more
extensive." "Although his knowledge of the subject was extensive, the
speaker's remarks seemed boringly extended."
extent. See DEGREE a n d EXTANT.

exterior, external. These words share meanings of "out," "outer,"

"outside," and "outward," but they do have a few different applica-
tions. One might say of a liniment, for example, that it is designed for
external use but would not say that it is intended for exterior use. Also,
external is an adjective only, whereas exterior is also a noun: "The
exterior (not the external) of this house needs repairing." Use exterior to
refer to "outer surface" and external as the opposite of internal: "The
exterior of the melon was firm and clear, but the fruit inside was
spoiled." "He had his own code of conduct and was not swayed by
external influences."
extract. See EXCERPT.

extraneous, intrinsic. Extraneous means (1) "coming from or intro-

duced from without"; (2) "irrelevant," "not belonging"; (3) "foreign,"
"external": "Judge this matter on its merits, not on extraneous consid-
erations." "Stick to the subject; don't make any extraneous com-
ments." Intrinsic is a near-antonym of extraneous. Its basic meaning is
"belonging to something by its very nature," "innate," "native,"
"without regard to added properties or qualities": "The intrinsic worth
of this proposal should be evident to everyone." "The intrinsic value of
this coin is only 10 cents, but its extrinsic worth—what it would bring at
auction—is many times greater."
 F
fable. See MYTH.

facility, faculty. These words are loosely interchangeable when used to

mean "ability," "skill," and "aptitude": "Henry's facility in handling
tools made him a competent mechanic. His faculty for making friends
brought him many customers." Facility has an added meaning of some-
thing that makes possible an easy or fluent performance or action:
"Sue's facility in playing the piano made her a welcome addition to our
group." A facility is also a convenience or service: "An additional
washroom is a much-needed facility for this office." A faculty is a power
or capability of mind or body: "He used every faculty of his mind in
wrestling with the problem." Also, faculty refers to a department of
learning or collection of teachers: "TTie faculty of this college is distin-
guished."

fact. There is no such thing as a "false fact." Therefore, "true fact"

and "true facts " are wordy expressions. Don't say "The true facts are
. . ."; omit true. Suppositions and allegations are preferable to the
expression "loose facts."
factitious, fictitious. The basic meanings of factitious are "artificial,"
"contrived," "not spontaneous": "The centerpiece on the table was
made of factitious leaves and flowers." "Many gadgets in the home are
but factitious conveniences." Fictitious has a related meaning of "not
real," but it is more often applied to works of the imagination, such as
novels, plays, and stories: "His account of the experience was partly
accurate and partly fictitious." A factitious lawsuit is one that has been
contrived with little basis in fact; a fictitious lawsuit is one that has a
completely imaginary basis.

factor. This noun has several precise meanings, but it is loosely and
vaguely used to mean "element," "condition," or "situation," which
themselves are terms of jargon. "One factor that made me take the job
was the salary offered" can better be expressed "I took the job partly
because of the attractive salary." Possible substitutes for factor include
ingredient, component, and element, although none is really precise. A
factor is an element leading to a result, so that the expression "contrib-
uting factor" is a phrase from which contributing should be omitted. A
factor is only an element or a cause, never an event or occurrence in
 87
fashion, manner, mode

itself. Omit factor from speech and writing as often as you can: it's a
loose, vague term.
faculty. See FACILITY.

faker, fakir. A faker is one who fakes, that is, a swindler, a trickster, or
a fraud. The term is also applied to a person who pretends, who conceals
something in order to deceive others, who assumes a false front: "This
faker tried to sell property that he did not own." A fakir is a Muslim or
Hindu religious person, usually one who devotes his life to contempla-
tion and self-denial: "This fakir is a member of an Islamic religious order
with which I am not familiar."

famed, famous, notorious. The first two of these words have about the
same meaning: "celebrated," "acclaimed," "renowned." Each, how-
ever, is overused in an exaggerated sense of "well-known." Notorious
has a meaning of "infamous," "known widely and unfavorably."
George Washington was famed and famous; Benedict Arnold was noto-
rious.
fancy, fantasy. Fancy is a term for imagination that is light, playful,
unreal, and whimsical: "I often indulge in the happy fancy that I am both
rich and powerful." "Sue's belief that she is irresistible is merely her
playful fancy." "She let her fancy play with the idea of a luxurious trip
to Paris." Fantasy is applied to that kind of fancy that is unrestrained,
extravagant, and erratic: "It is a dangerous fantasy to believe that you
canflythrough the air byflappingyour arms." "The fantasy of this artist
resulted in paintings that are weird and unbelievable."
farther, further. Distinction between these words has been breaking
down for many years, but careful speakers use farther and farthest to
refer to a measurable distance or space: "The ball traveled 10 yards
farther." Further indicates "greater in quantity, time, and degree" and
also means "moreover": "We should discuss this problem further.'"
See also ALL THE FARTHER.

fashion, manner, mode. In ordinary use, these three words (especially

the first two) are interchangeable in their meaning of "prevailing cus-
tom" and "accepted style." Thus one can refer to someone's fashion in
dress, manner of dress, and mode in dressing. Slight differences in
meaning do exist, however. Fashion may be defined as that which sets
apart (distinguishes) the manners, dress, and habits of a group or period
of time: "That hat would have been in fashion thirty years ago."
"Dipping snuff is not the fashion of today's tobacco users." Manner is
more often applied to the actions and behavior of individuals: "This
hostess has a gracious manner in welcoming guests." "Ned's table
manners could stand improvement." Mode has to do with a method of
 88
fat, plump, obese, stout

acting, with form, with a way of doing something: "Solar heat is a new
mode of warming buildings." "Jack tries hard to keep up with the latest
mode in everything he does." Approximate synonyms for fashion,
manner, and mode in the meanings indicated here are style, vogue, and
fad.

fat, plump, obese, stout. Fat is the customary, everyday word apply-
ing to someone who has too much flabby tissue: "Is it true that nobody
loves a fat man?" Whereas fat usually has as unpleasant connotation,
plump and stout suggest a roundness that is pleasing or a heavy build
that is not unpleasant: "This is a jolly plump (or stout) old man." "Her
stout (or plump) figure was attractively covered by a well-designed
gown." Obese, meaning "excessively fat," "overweight," is used more
often in scientific circles than by the general public: "The physician
outlined a strict diet for all his obese patients." If none of these terms
expresses what you have in mind, consider corpulent, well-fed, adipose,
pudgy, portly, bulky, thickset, rotund, chubby, and fleshy.
Fat appears in many slangy or trite expressions for which less-worn
synonyms can usually be found: 'fat chance" ("slight chance"); 'fat
lot" ("little" or "not at all"); "chew the fat" ("engage in informal
conversation"); "the fat is in the fire" ("the action is started and cannot
be stopped"); " t h e f a t of the land" ("the best of anything");' fat cat"
(''wealthy or important person"); "fathead" ("stupid person"); "fats,"
"fatso" ("overweight person").

fatal, fateful. These words, derived from a Latin term meaning "des-
tiny" or "fate," have distinct meanings. Fatal means "causing death"
or "capable of resulting in destruction or ruin": "The highway accident
was fatal to four persons." "Your lack of support will be fatal to my
campaign." Synonyms for fatal include deadly, lethal, and mortal.
Fateful means "important," "highly significant," "involving momen-
tous consequences": "The meeting between Hitler and Mussolini was
fateful for the history of Europe and the entire world." Fateful may
mean "fatal," as in the preceding example, but what is fatal is not
always fateful: Your unwillingness to lend me money to buy a coat may
be fatal to my wardrobe plans but is hardly a fateful occurrence.

fatalism, determinism. Fatalism is the belief (doctrine) that all events

are in the control of fate, that everything is the result of inevitable
advance arrangement. Fatalism also involves the acceptance of fate, a
submission to all occurrences as bound to happen: "The soldier's fatal-
ism helped him to face the prospect of death without terror." Determi-
nism has a related but distinguishable meaning—all events and facts result
from natural causes; all choices and decisions can be accounted for on
the basis of sufficient cause: "Because of his faith in the doctrine of
determinism, he felt that his lot in life had been settled by the conditions
under which his grandparents lived."
 89
ferment, foment

fateful. See FATAL.

fatuous. See FOOLISH.

faze. This word, which may also be spelled fease or feaze, means "to
bother," "to disconcert," "to disturb," "to disrupt." It is a variation of
feeze, an obsolete and dialectal word derived from Old English meaning
"to drive away," "to put to flight." At best, faze is an informal word; at
worst, it is tiresomely overused in such expressions as "Nothing fazes
him." Do not confuse faze with phase, a word with a completely
different meaning but the same pronunciation.

feasible, possible. Feasible means "capable of being done"; possible

means that something can happen. Feasible suggests the ease with which
something can be done and implies desirability for doing it: "This is a
feasible plan that I hope you will adopt." Possible refers to that which is
likely to happen: "It is possible that prices will continue to rise." "It is
possible (not feasible) that we will have rain tomorrow."
feature. This word, admittedly overused, is now acceptable as a noun
(What is the feature of the show?), an adjective (This is the feature
attraction), and a verb (The newspaper featured that story). Its use to
mean "to imagine" or "to conceive o f ' is informal and dialectal. Avoid
such statements as "I cannot feature his holding that job" and "He
features himself as a great storyteller."
feel. See BELIEVE a n d SENSE.

feet. See FOOT.

felicitous, fortuitous, fortunate. Felicitous means "well-suited,"

"apt," "appropriate": "The speaker's felicitous joke put the audience
in a jovial mood." Fortuitous means "accidental," "produced by
chance," "lucky": "Our meeting today on the street is fortuitous." "A
typical success story is filled with fortuitous events." Fortunate means
"resulting favorably," "having good fortune," "auspicious": "It is
fortunate that you slowed down before reaching the curve." Some
fortuitous happenings may be both felicitous and fortunate, but the
three words are not usually synonymous.
female. Current usage restricts female to designations of sex in scien-
tific contexts. If female is considered objectionable in other contexts,
and it is, we lack a word to express "female human being of whatever
age."
ferment, foment. In the sense of causing trouble, these words can be
used interchangeably: "Rebel soldiers fomented (or fermented) unrest
 90
festive, festal

among the people." Ferment literally means "to act upon as a ferment,"
that is, to cause the giving off of gases that induce bubbling and rising:
"The mash will ferment for several days." Because fermentation is a
state of unrest and agitation, as a noun ferment means "excitement,"
"commotion," and "tumult": "The lover's mind was a ferment of
emotions." To foment is "to cause rebellion or discord," "to incite,"
"to arouse," "to inflame": "The inmates of the prison tried to foment a
rebellion against the guards." Foment, a verb only, conveys the idea of
causing unrest; ferment, both noun and verb, stresses the idea of being
in, rather than causing, a state of unrest.

festive, festal. These words refer to a festival or feast, but festive has
an added meaning of "joyous" or "merry." That is, a festal occasion
may be festive, but not aH festive occasions are connected with a feast or
festival: "Decorations for the dance were imaginative and festive.'"''
"The reunion of our class was a festive occasion." Many festal rites are
connected with such occasions as Christmas, Easter, and Passover:
"Following church services, the congregation will sit down to a festal
meal."

fewer, less. Both of these words imply a comparison with something

larger in number or amount. Fewer is preferred when number is involved
Cfewer houses on this street, fewer fish in the stream). Less is used in
several ways: it is applied to material in bulk (less sugar in the coffee);
with abstractions (less honor in business dealings); with matters involv-
ing degree and value (1 is less than 2). Although many writers and
speakers use these words interchangeably, fewer should be used to refer
only to numbers or to units capable of being counted: "The less money
we have, the fewer supplies we can bring."

fictitious. See FACTITIOUS.

figuratively, literally. Figuratively means "not literally," that is,

"metaphorically" (by means of a likeness or figure of speech). Literally
means "really," "actually." Literally means "in a manner true to the
exact meaning of the words it accompanies"; figuratively means "in a
manner of speaking": "The heavy work literally drained his remaining
energy." "This author writes figuratively about the terror of solitude."
figure, number. In the sense in which it is often confused with number,
figure means "a numerical symbol," "an amount or value expressed in
numbers": "The little boy had difficulty writing the figure 5." "What
figure did you arrive at as the total?" A number is a symbol or word, or a
combination of symbols or words, used to denote a sum: "The number
of people at the party exceeded 100." A number may be expressed in
words (one hundred) or figures (100). The use of figure as a verb to mean
"to compute" is standard (Figure what I owe you), but its use to mean
 91
fix

"to judge" or "to think" or "to conclude" is substandard. As a verb,

figure is an overworked word for which the following might be substi-
tuted: calculate, comprehend, compute, contrive, determine, reason,
suppose, and think. "Figure out" is both trite and informal, as are "cut a
figure," "figure on," and "it figures."
final, finale. Final is primarily an adjective meaning "coming at the
end," "last in place, time, or order": "This is the final event on the
program." "The decision of the Supreme Court is final.'''' As a plural
noun, finals refers to a decisive examination or concluding series of
events: "He attended the finals of the club tennis tournament." Finale,
used only as a noun, means the concluding part of any performance or
set of proceedings: "As the finale of her program, she sang an aria of her
own composition."
finalize. In the sense of "to complete," "to conclude," "to make final,"
finalize has been used so often that it is now accepted by most dictionar-
ies as a standard word. Some careful speakers avoid the word because of
its associations with bureaucracy and big business: "Let's finalize (or
conclude) this meeting by summing up our objectives."

first, firstly, secondly. All three of these terms are in acceptable use,
but first is more common than firstly. A speaker or writer will often
start with first and then move on to secondly and thirdly. Although these
-ly words are in respectable use, it is simpler and more economical to
employ shorter forms (first, second, third, fourth), especially since these
short forms can be used adverbially or adjectivally: "Several points need
to be stressed: first (or firstly) there is the matter of money." "Who
came in first?" "Let us first (or firstly) consider the refugees." Numbers
greater than four usually come after first (the first twenty applicants);
numbers smaller than four may precede or follow first (the first three
applicants, the three first applicants). Recommendation: drop the -ly
forms and always use first, second, third, etc., or one, two, three, etc.
No need or excuse exists for such phrases as "first of all" and "second
of all." Use first or firstly, second or secondly, and drop the useless of
all. See also OF ALL.
fiscal. Fiscal is derived from a Latin term meaning "treasury" or
"basket" and is employed to refer to the monetary practices and policies
of a government, company, or institution: "The fiscal arrangements of
this store are in hopeless shape." The term "fiscal year" refers to any
twelve-month period for which an organization plans the handling of its
funds: "During this fiscal year the company's cash flow increased 10
percent."
fix. Fix has a basic meaning of "to place" and "to fasten securely," but
it is overused in a variety of meanings only loosely related to establish-
 92
flagrant

ing, securing, or repairing. As a noun, fix is used to refer to (1) a dilemma

or predicament, (2) the position of a plane or ship, (3) bribery and
collusion, and (4) an injection of heroin or some other opiate. These uses
of fix are ranked as standard, informal, or slang by different dictionaries,
but all are employed so widely that it seems useless to recommend
against them. As a verb, fix has some thirty different meanings, most of
which are vague, loose, and imprecise. Try to substitute a more exact
word, because it doesn't make sense to use the same expression in such
locutions as "fix a toy," "fix a drink," "get a fix," "fix your position at
sea," "fix your face," "fix your hair," "fix a bet on a game," "fix an
engagement," "fix a sentence," "fix a fight," and "be in a fix." Fixings
is an informal word for "trimmings," "accessories": "turkey and all the
fixings (or fixin's)."

flagrant. See BLATANT.

flair, flare. Flair means "natural talent," "aptitude," "bent,"

"knack," or "keen perception": "This mechanic has a flair for spotting
engine troubles." "She lived in Europe for many years, developing her
flair for languages." Flare applies to a sudden burst offlameor the act of
flaming: "His quick temper flared at the insult." "The guide used a flare
to show me the way to our camp."

flammable, inflammable. These words mean the same thing and are
interchangeable. They are not contrasted, as are, for example, capable
and incapable, mature and immature. Although both words are correct,
flammable is more often used by scientists and in technical pursuits,
whereas inflammable is more common outside manufacturing contexts.
In referring to someone's temperament or behavior, inflammable seems
more appropriate than flammable (his inflammable disposition). Possi-
bly someday everyone will settle on flammable.

flare. See FLAIR.

flaunt, flout. These words are often used interchangeably, but they have
distinct meanings. Flaunt means "to show off," "to make a boastful
display." Flout means "to scoff at," "to scorn." Say: "This prisoner
has continued to flout (not flaunt) the law." "The cook flaunted (not
flouted) his skill in flipping flapjacks."

fleshly, fleshy. Both these words refer to flesh and the body, but they
should be distinguished in use. That which is fleshly is "physical,"
"bodily," "corporeal," or "carnal," "sensual," and "worldly": "His
belief in God caused him to give up all fleshly pursuits." Fleshy means
"fat," "plump," "having much flesh": "The more she ate, the more
fleshy she became." See also FAT.
 93
folks

flotsam, jetsam. These terms usually appear together to refer to that

part of the wreckage of a ship and its cargo found floating on the water or
washed ashore. The phrase "flotsam and jetsam" now has an extended
meaning of "useless trifles," "odds and ends": "The attic wasfilledwith
the flotsam and jetsam of many years." Although the words are now
inseparable, in law they have distinct meanings. Flotsam (from an Old
English word meaning "to float") is that part of a wreck that is floating
on the surface; jetsam (from a Latin term meaning "to throw") refers to
cargo tossed overboard to lighten a ship or improve its seaworthiness.
Centuries ago, the flotsam of a wreck belonged to the king, jetsam to the
lord of the manor off whose property the wreck occurred.
flout See FLAUNT.

fluctuate, vacillate. Each of these words means "to move back and
forth," "to change continually," "to vary." What little distinction in
meaning there is between them is that fluctuate can apply to both
persons and actions, whereas vacillate is usually applied only to per-
sons: "The stock market will undoubtedly fluctuate during the coming
year." "She vacillated between washing her hair and going to the
movies."

flurried, flustered. These words are virtual synonyms; both mean

"excited," "confused," "agitated": "Constant criticism flustered (or
flurried) her." In one sense, to fluster someone is to flurry him, but
fluster is a stronger term than flurry. A flurried person is upset or
confused; a flustered person is agitatedly nervous or wildly disturbed:
"Early during the evening he was flurried, but he became more and more
flustered as the party wore on."
focus, nexus. Derived from a Latin word meaning "hearth," focus now
has a basic meaning of "gathering point," "center of attraction, atten-
tion,, or interest," "point of concentration": "Their home is the focus of
community activity." "At the dance, she was the focus of everyone's
interest." Nexus comes from a Latin word meaning "binding" and
refers to a tie, a link, a means of connecting: "The nexus of this student
body is school spirit." "Respect for everyone else is the nexus of
civilized society." "Focus down on" is a wordy, trite phrase from which
down should be dropped. See also CENTER AROUND.

folks. This is an informal, even archaic, term for "people," "folk,"

"relatives," or "race." "Just folks" and "plain folks" are trite phrases
implying simplicity and unpretentiousness. Folksy is an informal term
for "sociable" or "genial": "The President is a sociable (genial, com-
panionable, friendly) man." If he is so folksy as to be "of the folk," he
may not deserve to be President.
 94
follows, as follows

follows, as follows. Regardless of the singular or plural form of the

noun that precedes, one can never say "as follow." This is a matter of
idiom, established usage, that has no regard for grammatical convention:
"His comment was as follows." "Events on the schedule are as fol-
lows." If as is omitted, use follow or follows in accordance with usual
grammatical principles: "His comments follow." "His comment fol-
lows." "Events on the schedule follow."
foment. See FERMENT.

foolish, fatuous. These words, along with silly, simple, asinine, vapid,
stupid, witless, and senseless, mean "lacking in judgment or intelli-
gence, or both" and may ordinarily be used interchangeably. But they do
have slightly different meanings and applications. A foolish person lacks
both judgment and common sense and in addition may have a weak
mind: "Eating heavily when you are not hungry is a foolish thing to do."
"Your remarks are not only out of place but entirely foolish." Fatuous
implies being not only dull and stupid but satisfied and complacent:
"Because I have only one daughter, whom I adore, I realize that I am
fatuous about her." "The lecturer haughtily provided fatuous answers
to our questions." A foolish person cannot always help himself; a
fatuous person usually can.

foot, feet. Foot has many meanings, the most common of which are (1) a
part of the body and (2) a unit of length. The plural of foot is feet. The
singular is preferred in such expressions as "a 3-foot ruler'' and' 'a 9-foot
wall," despite the fact that the numerals involved indicate more than
one. However, idiom requires that one refer to "a ruler 3 feet long" and
"a wall 9 feet high." One can say "a 6-foot man" but should say "a man
6 feet tall." That is, foot is normally used in forming compound adjec-
tives (barefoot girl), and footed (not feeted) is employed in such terms as
"four-footed" and "sure-footed." Foot appears in such trite phrases as
"put one's best foot forward," "put one's foot in one's mouth,"
"always underfoot," "footloose and fancy-free," "get off on the wrong
foot," "have one foot in the grave," "put one's foot down," "put one's
foot into it." Feet is tiresomely used in "set someone on his feet" and
"feet first."

forbear, forebear. These words are tricky because forbear is a variant

but correct spelling of forebear. A forebear is an ancestor, a forefather:
"Chinese are said to have great respect for their forebears." "This
man's forebears emigrated from Scotland." Forbear means "to desist,"
"to keep back," "to be patient and self-controlled": "The kind teacher
will forbear telling us what we did on the test." "The jury decided to
forbear in this case and rendered a verdict based on mercy, not justice."
Recommendation: always spell the word for "ancestor" with two e's,
remembering that such a person was alive before you were.
 95
forgot

forcible, forceful. These words are closely related in meaning but

should be distinguished in usage. Forcible applies to that which is
accomplished by force or violence: "The firemen made a forcible entry
into the burning building." Forceful applies to that which is effective or
notable because of force: "You have a forceful personality." "The
attorney made a forceful plea for his client."

forebear. See FORBEAR.

forego, forgo. To forego is "to go before," "to precede." Forego is a

rarely used word, but it would be correct, although somewhat archaic, to
say "The singing of a song will forego the main speech." Forgo (also a
correct variant spelling offorego) means "to give up," "to abstain," "to
renounce": "I'm not hungry and will forgo dinner." Although forgo
may be spelled "forego," forego may not be spelled "forgo."

foreseeable future. Foreseeable involves seeing beforehand, exercis-

ing foresight. Foreseeable future, probably meaning "the future as far as
we can now anticipate or predict it," is not only trite but lacking in good
sense. None of us, no matter how smart or clever, can "see" even one
minute into the future.

foreword, forward. Although these words give some trouble with spell-
ing and pronunciation, their meanings are clearly distinguishable. A
foreword is a preface, introduction, or introductory statement: "The
foreword of this book runs for five pages." Forward means "in front,"
"located in advance," "ahead": "Troops will move forward on the
count of four." "His cabin is located in the forward part of the ship."
See also FORWARD.

for free. This is wordy slang, often used by careless speakers who forget
that free means "for nothing."

forget, forgot, misremember. The past tense of forget is forgot: "I

forgot to turn off the stove." The past participle is forgotten or forgot:
"You seem to have forgotten (or forgot) me recently." Forgotten is
more widely used than forgot as the past participle, but both forms are
acceptable. The past-tense form forgat is archaic. Misremember is an
archaic or dialectal synonym for forget and should never be used except,
possibly, for humorous effect. See also DISREMEMBER.

forgetful. See OBLIVIOUS.

forgo. See FOREGO.

forgot. See FORGET.

 96
for instance, for example

for Instance, for example. See EXAMPLE.

former, latter. Former applies to the first of two in a series. When you
refer to the first of three or more, say either first or first-named. In the
sense in which it contrasts with former, latter refers to the second of two
things mentioned. When you mention the last of three or more, say last-
named, not latter. Examples of use: "Of these two solutions, I prefer the
former." "The latter of these solutions is inferior to the former." "The
first-named soldier in the company will now step one pace forward."
"After I call the roll, the last-named student will please raise his hand."
formidable, Impressive. Each of these words means "arousing feelings
of admiration," "superior," "exceptional": "This candidate is a formi-
dable (or impressive) opponent." "You are asking me to undertake an
impressive (or formidable) task." Formidable has the additional mean-
ing of "intimidating," "feared," "dreaded," "awesome": "His strength
and quickness made him a formidable fighting man." Impressive has the
added meaning of "solemn," "moving": "The funeral was an impres-
sive ceremony." Approximate synonyms for formidable include fearful,
menacing, appalling, frightful, and threatening. Words allied in meaning
to impressive are imposing, majestic, and lofty.

fortuitous, fortunate. See FELICITOUS.

forward, forwards. One can say "step forward" or "step forwards"

with equal correctness, although forward is more often used. Only
forward can be used to apply to a following noun: one can say "a
forward movement" but hardly "a forwards movement." Forward is
also preferred in such constructions as "bring forward," "come for-
ward," and "from this day forward." As a verb, one can use only
forward: "Please forward my mail to me." Since forward is never
incorrect, why not always use it in preference to forwards? See also
FOREWORD.

fragile, brittle, frail. These words are interchangeable in their meaning

of "weak" and "delicate," but they do have distinct uses. Fragile is the
opposite of sturdy and suggests that something must be handled carefully
to avoid breakage or damage: "This beautiful china is fragile." Brittle
also refers to something that snaps or breaks into pieces but is usually
applied to objects that have a hard surface or finish: "This material is as
brittle as glass." Frail applies particularly to persons, rather than things,
and usually refers to such matters as health, mental qualities, and
temperament: "After a wasting illness, his body seemed more frail than
ever." "His bold hopes for the future have a. frail foundation." Bric-a-
brac is fragile, some conversation is brittle, and an invalid is frail.
frank. See CANDID.
 97

funeral, funereal

Frankenstein. This is a name for someone who creates a monster or a

destructive agent that he cannot control and that brings about ruin.
Frankenstein is often used to mean "a monster," but when this meaning
is intended, the expression should be "Frankenstein monster." (Baron
Frankenstein, a character in a nineteenth-century novel, discovered the
"secret of life" and created a monster. In trying to escape from his
monstrous creation, the baron lost his life.) Rigidly accurate users of
language would add "monster" to a sentence such as "The administra-
tion has created this Frankenstein and must now deal with it."
free gratis. Gratis means "freely," "for nothing," "without charge."
Say free or gratis, but don't use both in the same phrase:' 'This excellent
service is gratis."
frequent. See RECURRING.

from whence. Although this phrase has been widely used in previous
centuries (even in the King James version of the Bible), it is wordy. Omit
from or whence or just say where: "Where did that boot come from?"
-ful, -fuls. In recipes, the plural of cupful (cup full) is cupfuls, presum-
ably because the same container is used more than once. If you fill two
cups with coffee, however, you have two cups full. Because the same-
container rule usually applies, the plurals are mouthfuls, armfuls, table-
spoonfuls, teaspoonfuls, handfuls, etc. Note, however, that you serve
four guests four glasses full of iced tea.
function, work, Job, position. These words have associated meanings
but should be applied carefully. Function means the kind of activity that
is suitable and proper to a person or institution: "The function of this
committee is to approve the budget." Work has many meanings of which
the principal one is "toil," "labor," "exertion": "At what time did you
finish work today?" Job refers to a post, location, or situation of
employment; in fact, it is a colloquial and widely used synonym for
position: "What job do you have in this firm?" Position refers to any
type of work above the lowest kind of labor and applies to occupation
that is desired: "He sought a position that would pay him more money."
Work, position, and job are all overworked. Perhaps one of the following
might express your meaning more exactly: station, place, rank, spot,
task, project, responsibility, occupation. Job is slang when used to mean
a theft or similar crime and a person: "She was a sweet job." "Lie down
on the job" and "on the job" are trite expressions. As a verb, job is
slang when used to mean "to cheat" or "to defraud": "Hsjobbed me on
that deal."

funeral, funereal. These words have related meanings, but funeral

(FYOOnuhruhl) usually means "burial rites," whereas funereal
 98
funny, strange, peculiar

(fyoo'NEER'i'uhl) has an additional and more regularly intended mean-

ing of "sad," "doleful," and "gloomy" (a funereal expression on her
face).

funny, strange, peculiar. Funny is much overused to mean "curious"

and "odd" (I had a funny feeling that you would come here), but actually
the word means "witty," "humorous," "droll," "absurd," "comical,"
"farcical," "ludicrous," or "laughable." Perhaps many of us find some-
thing amusing in that which is unusual or hard to understand. Strange
means "curious," "extraordinary," and "unusual": "Fran's loud
behavior at the party was strange because she is usually quiet and
reserved." Approximate synonyms for strange are bizarre, abnormal,
queer, and singular. Peculiar also means "uncommon" or "eccentric":
"Your accent is most peculiar." Strange and peculiar can be used
interchangeably in most situations, but when you use funny, ask yourself
"Do I mean '/w/my-peculiar' or funny-ha-ha'?"

further. See FARTHER.

 G
gage, gauge. In the sense of a standard of measurement, these words
are interchangeable (a narrow-gawge or -gage railroad), although gauge
is the preferred spelling. Only gage can refer to a variety of plum and to a
challenge or pledge: "This is a can of gage (really greengage) plums."
"The swordsman threw his glove on the ground as a gage." "This ticket
represents a gage at the pawnbroker's."

gamble, wager, bet. All three of these words may be used as verbs or
nouns. Gamble is a general term meaning "to play at any game of chance
for stakes." Perhaps because it suggests risking something that should
not be afforded, gamble has an unfavorable connotation: "The workman
gambled away his week's wages." Wager means "to risk something on
an uncertain event" and is closely allied in meaning to gamble. It has a
somewhat less unfavorable connotation than gamble, perhaps because it
conveys the idea of venture: "The foreman wagered that production for
the day would exceed 1,000 barrels." Bet, the most commonly used of
these three words, literally means a pledge that is to be forfeited if one's
prediction, or forecast, about a future event is incorrect: "I placed a bet
that Pounditout would win the fifth race."

gantlet, gauntlet, gamut. One may run a gantlet (a former kind of

military punishment). One may also run a gamut (a series of musical
notes or the whole range of anything). But one may not run a gauntlet
because it is a kind of glove. "To take up the gauntlet" ("to accept a
challenge") and "to throw down the gauntlet" ("to challenge to com-
bat") are correct but hackneyed expressions.
garnish, garnishee. Garnish means (1) to decorate, to adorn, to supply
with something (A good chef will garnish a casserole like this with
parsley); and (2) to attach money or property (If you don't pay the debt,
we shall have to garnish your salary). The verb garnish is more usually
rendered as garnishee, which is also a noun meaning a person whose
money or property has been attached:4 'The judge ordered the creditor to
garnishee half of my pay."

gauge. See GAGE.

gauntlet. See GANTLET.

 100
gender, sex

gender, sex. Gender is a grammatical term indicating (in the English

language) whether nouns and pronouns are classed as masculine, femi-
nine, or neuter. The number of genders in languages other than English
varies from two to more than twenty; in some languages, gender disre-
gards sex entirely. For example, a sexless (neuter) article, the noun pen,
is, in French, feminine (la plume). In Old English, the word for wife was
considered neuter and woman was masculine. Gender can never be
substituted for sex. Sex, a word of many meanings and applications,
applies specifically to the fact or character of being male or female (see
FEMALE). Thus we say that Bill is a proper noun in masculine gender and
that Bill is a member of the male sex. Substitute sex for gender in this
statement: "Students in this school are classified on the basis of age,
gender, and previous training."

general, generally. General and generally are loosely overused in

many expressions: "generally speaking," "in general," "in a general
way." Possible substitutes: prevailing, customary, ordinary, regular,
popular, catholic, common, universal, and their corresponding adverbial
forms (universally, etc.). "Generally always" is a wordy, trite expres-
sion. "Generally speaking" is usually a mere filler.

genial. See CONGENIAL.

genius, talent. These words have had varied meanings over the centu-
ries, but in current use genius is a much stronger word than talent to
refer to ability and aptitude. Genius means "exceptional natural capac-
ity," "high intellect," "strong creative or inventive power": Shake-
speare was an unquestioned genius. Talent is more correctly applied to
ability or aptitude in a particular field: "a talent for making friends," "a
talent for playing the piano." A genius may have manv talents, but a
talented person is not necessarily a genius.

gentleman, lady, woman. In medieval times, a gentleman was a man

above the rank of yeoman (the owner of a small farm), but the term is
now applied to a person of good manners and breeding or as a mark of
respect to any man: "A gentleman should never give offense to others."
"Will every gentleman please come this way?" Gentleman is now rarely
used in everyday speech, but gentlemen is customary in such expres-
sions as "Wliat will the gentlemen have to drink?" and "Ladies and
gentlemen." Lady, a term originally applied to a loaf-kneader, has been
used as a polite form of address. Lady normally has no more justification
than does gentleman in place of man. True, you would say to a waiter in
a restaurant "The lady will have" rather than "The woman will have,"
but the social distinction between lady and woman has all but disap-
peared. Woman is a general term for the adult female human being as
distinguished from the male: "This woman just gave birth to twins."

genuine. See AUTHENTIC.

 101
give

germ, microbe, bacteria, virus. These terms are so closely related that
only a scientist would ordinarily need to differentiate among them. A
germ is a microbe, a disease-producing microorganism. In biology,
germ refers to an initial stage in development, as "a germ cell of such-
and-such a form." By extension, germ also is used to refer to anything
that acts as a source or initial stage: "I have the germ of an idea." A
microbe is a bacterium, the singular form of bacteria, which refers to
any of numerous microscopic organisms involved in such processes as
fermentation, putrefaction, and disease. A virus is an infectious agent,
especially one that reproduces only in living cells. Virus is really a
medical term for the active element that infects with and produces a
contagious disease: "the virus of yellow fever." Germ is a general term
which will serve in all ordinary situations.

get. This word of many meanings has a primary one: "to obtain," "to
come into possession of." It has numerous informal, idiomatic, or slangy
meanings and appears in several hackneyed expressions. Among infor-
mal meanings of get and got (the past tense of get) are "to comprehend"
(I don't get you); "to get the advantage o f ' (Overeating will get him);
"to be forced or obliged (I have got to leave soon); "to strike or hit"
(The bullet got him in the arm). Among slangy or trite uses may be
mentioned "to puzzle" (That remark got me); "to observe" (Did you
get that look?); and "get about," "get ahead of," "get across," "get
along," "get around," "get around to," "get away with," "get back
at," "get by," "get down to business," "get nowhere," "get something
off one's chest," "get out of," "get together," "get through to some-
one," "get up and go." Do you get the idea that get is overused?

get up, arise. These words mean the same thing, "to sit up or stand,"
"to ascend or move upward": "Get up and move." "Arise and eat
breakfast." Arise has the additional meaning of "to come into being,"
"to spring up": "New problems seem to arise every day." In the sense
of sitting up or standing, arise is less often used than rise, but both words
are correct, and both are considered somewhat more formal and refined
than get up. Spelled as one word or hyphenated, getup (or get-up) is an
informal and not-recommended term for costume, style, outfit, overall
arrangement, and format: "You look silly in that getup." "What is the
getup of our new assignment?"
gibe, ]ibe. Gibe means "to scorn," "to sneer at": "Please don't gibe at
me." Jibe has the same meaning as gibe but may also be used to refer to
changing direction: "The boat jibed twice on the homeward run."
gild, guild. To gild something is to overlay it with gold. A guild is an
association or union. "The potter will gild this vase for you." "Joe
belonged to a guild of craftsmen."
give. See DONATE.
 102
glamour, glamor

glamour, glamor. Glamour is the preferred (really the only) spelling of

that which compels charm and induces romance and excitement: "She
secured a position in the theater which is loaded with glamour." "Joe
longed for the glamour of becoming an astronaut." The verb form is
spelled differently, however (Don't glamorize your job), and the adjecti-
val form is glamorous: "She is the most glamorous woman in the entire
film world."

glance, glimpse. A glance is a quick look; to glance is to direct one's

gaze briefly: "Take a glance at the morning paper." "Read the book
carefully; don't just glance at it." A glimpse is a brief or momentary
sight of something; to glimpse is to obtain a brief view of something: "I
caught only a glimpse as she passed." "I glimpsed the bird as it flew
past me." What one sees in a glance is a glimpse.
gloomy, pessimistic. These words are nearly but not quite synony-
mous. A gloomy person is dejected, depressed, or sad; a pessimistic
person is also gloomy but holds the opinion that everything is evil now
and will continue to remain that way. A pessimistic person is exception-
ally and excessively gloomy and, furthermore, tends to remain a pessi-
mist indefinitely. One's gloom may soon depart; one's pessimism
reflects a philosophical attitude that evil in the world has always out-
weighed the good.

glossary. See DICTIONARY.

glutton. See GOURMAND.

go and. See COME AND.

good, well. Good is an adjective: "to see a good play"; "to have a
good time." Well is both an adjective and an adverb, but with different
meanings; as an adjective, "in good health," and as an adverb, "ably":
"Since my illness, I have felt well." "The cast performed well in the first
act." Good may be used correctly after such linking verbs as seem,
smell, and taste. In such uses, good remains an adjective that qualifies
the subject and is not an adverb that modifies the verb: "Your report
seems good to me." But good cannot qualify a verb directly: "She
speaks well (not good)." Good appears in such trite, informal expres-
sions as "make good," "good for nothing," "come to no good," "all to
the good," "good and sick," "good and tired," "as good as new," "for
good and all," "good egg," "good Joe," "good-oh," "goodies," and
"goody-goody."

got, gotten. The principal parts of get are get, got, got (or gotten). Both
got and gotten are acceptable words; your choice will depend upon your
speech habits or on the rhythm of the sentence you are writing or
 103

grammar, syntax

speaking. Got is colloquial when used to mean "must," "ought,"

"own," "possess," and many other terms: "I must (not got to) go." "I
ought (not got) to go." "I own (not got) two new suits." See also GET
a n d HAVE GOT TO.

gourmand, gourmet, glutton. These words have to do with eating, but

they are different in meaning. A gourmand is a large, enthusiastic eater
(Diamond Jim Brady was a gourmand, often eating for three hours at a
time). A gourmet is a fastidious eater, an epicure (As a French chef, he
considers himself a gourmet). A glutton is one with a huge appetite, one
who eats to excess and with little delicacy of choice or table manners. A
gourmand is a heavy consumer of food but prides himself to some degree
on his knowledge of cuisine; a gourmet may or may not be a heavy
consumer of food but in any event is a connoisseur, an expert; only a
glutton eats with an unrestrained appetite. The use of gourmet as an
adjective (gourmet foods, a gourmet meal) is not considered standard,
but widespread usage will likely confer reputability upon it as time
passes.

grade school, graded school. Each of these terms is in widespread

use, and each is acceptable. Use the phrase most prevalent in your
community. Both phrases refer to an elementary school in which pupils
are classified (grouped) according to their degree of advancement: "That
building is a grade (or graded) school."

graduate, graduate from. Both graduated and was graduated are

acceptable terms, provided from is also used. Say "He graduated from
college last year" or "He was graduated from college last year." Do not
say "He graduated college last year."
graffiti. This Italian word derived from both Greek and Latin means
"phrases or words written on the walls of buildings, public restrooms,
and sidewalks." Graffito, -an archaeological term, refers to an ancient
writing or drawing scratched on a wall or other surface. When one phrase
or word is concerned, use graffito; when more than one is involved or
mentioned, say graffiti: "This is an amusing graffito." "Most of these
graffiti are obscene."
grammar, syntax. Grammar is not a list of rules involving "do's and
don'ts." As usually applied in speech and in some writing, the word
usage should be substituted for grammar. Grammar itself is the science
that deals with words and their relationships to each other. It is con-
cerned with a consideration and account of the features of a language and
with speech and writing according to various standards of usage but not
according to correctness, as such. When someone is said to use bad
grammar, all that can be meant is that he uses language in some way that
is not currently and generally accepted or that his usage is not in line with
 104
grateful, gratified

prevailing practice. Syntax is a study of the signs that appear in a system

and, as applied to language, deals with the arrangement of words in a
sentence to show their relationship. It is a rather vague and general term
but one for which our language has no adequate substitute. Although
syntax is a branch of grammar, the latter term is more useful in referring
to word order, parts of speech, and the like.

grateful, gratified. Grateful is an adjective indicating appreciation of

personal kindness: "I am grateful for your thoughtful response to my
appeal." Grateful is a synonym of thankful, indebted, and obliged.
Gratified is a verb form, the past tense and past participle of gratify, a
word meaning "to give pleasure," "to satisfy," "to indulge," "to
humor": "He gratified his clothing desires by buying three new suits."
"These customers were gratified by a refund of their money."
gratis. See FREE GRATIS.

greatly. See MATERIALLY.

Grecian, Greek. These words refer to Greece, its language, and its
culture. Greek is much more widely used than Grecian, a term most
likely to be applied to architecture and statuary; many writers, however,
prefer Grecian because of its more pleasing sound. One should refer to
"the Greek Catholic Church," "the Greek language," and "a Greek.''''

groom. This is a word for "manservant," but it is widely used as a

shortened form of bridegroom. Actually, one should say bridegroom
rather than groom when this meaning is called for, because in Old
English bryd meant "bride" and guma meant "man."

guarantee, guaranty. A guarantee is a promise or assurance that

something is of specified content or quality or that it will perform
satisfactorily: "This percolator carries an unconditional five-year guar-
antee." Guarantee and guaranty are synonymous when used to mean a
warrant, pledge, or assurance that someone else's obligation or debt will
be fulfilled: "This bond will serve as a guaranty for his appearance in
court." Guarantee can be used as both noun and verb; guaranty is
primarily a noun and has limited use as a verb.

guess. See CALCULATE.

guild. See GILD.

guts. This is a slang term when used to mean "courage," "bravery."

The word is in such widespread use that it would be absurd to suggest
that you never use it in this sense. Intestinal fortitude is stuffy and
 105

guy

pretentious, but you might occasionally use fortitude, resolution, tenac-

ity, mettle, spirit, boldness, audacity, grit, pluck, backbone, heroism,
gallantry, or valor.
guy. This word has several meanings but is most often used colloquially
to refer to a man, boy, or individual generally. Some experts regard this
use of the word as slang; it should be avoided in standard English. "To
guy someone" is a slangy way to express the sense of teasing or joshing.
 H
habeas corpus. Translated literally from Latin, this phrase means
"You have the body." In English usage, habeas corpus is a writ (written
order) designed to secure the release of someone from unlawful restraint.
In his first inaugural address, Jefferson referred to "freedom of person
under the protection of the habeas corpus." The term is pronounced
"HA bee us KORposs."

habit. See CUSTOM.

habitable, inhabitable. Habitable means "capable of being lived in."

It is applied to buildings in which people might reside: "This house is so
flimsy that it is hardly habitable." Inhabitable refers to countries or
large areas in which human beings or animals can live: "Most persons
feel that the Sahara Desert is not inhabitable." The antonym of inhabit-
able is uninhabitable.

habitat, habitant. Habitat means (1) "a place of abode," "an area for
residence"; and (2) "the native environment of an animal or plant":
"This is a likely habitat for rabbits." "These creatures can live only in a
tropical habitat." Habitant means "an inhabitant," that is, a person or
animal that lives in a specified place: "Few habitants (inhabitants) of
this section escaped severe damage from the tornado."

habitual. See USUAL.

had better, had rather. Had better is widely used in giving advice or
issuing a mild threat: "We had better get started before midnight."
"You had better apologize to me for that remark." The phrase had best
can be substituted for had better in such expressions. Neither is so exact
as should. Better had (You better had get here soon) is dialectal or
illiterate. Had rather (and also would rather) indicates a preference: "I
had rather (or would rather) stay than go."
hadn't ought. This is a nonstandard expression for shouldn't: "You
shouldn't (not hadn't ought) do that." Had ought is as illiterate as
hadn't ought. Do not use it for should in a statement such as "You had
ought to leave at once."

had rather. See HAD BETTER.

 107
happen, transpire, occur

hamstring, hamstrung. A hamstring is one of the tendons around the

hollow of the knee. (One meaning of the word ham applies to the part of
the human leg back of the knee.) As a verb, hamstring means "to cripple
or disable," "to render powerless": "You are trying to hamstring my
efforts on this job." The past tense of hamstring is hamstrung or ham-
stringed. Also correct are hamstrung and hamstringed as the past
participle. Because of familiarity with the principal parts of string as
string, strung, strung, most writers prefer hamstrung: "You have con-
sistently hamstrung everything I have attempted."
handicap, hindrance. The word handicap (derived from a game of
wagering in which participants put their hands in their caps and withdrew
varying amounts of money) most often is used to mean "disadvantage"
or "disability": "His thin voice is a handicap in speaking to large
crowds." "The player was handicapped by bruised ribs." A hindrance
is something that impedes, prevents, or stops; it acts as a check or
restraint of some kind: "His lack of money is a hindrance in the
development of his business." A severely handicapped child is hindered
from pursuing the normal activities of children. You will discover,
perhaps, that youth and inexperience are hindrances to finding a job, but
neither is necessarily a handicap.
handle, manage. These words are interchangeable when used to mean
"to control," "to train," or "to influence": "This teacher can handle
(or manage) all kinds of students. She can manage (or handle) them in
all situations." Handle should be used when hands are actually
involved; manage is preferable when nonphysical control or direction is
indicated: "He handled the gun as though it were loaded." "Seth is
prepared to manage this office when the supervisor is absent."
hanged, hung. The principal parts of hang are hang, hung, hung.
However, when the word refers to the death penalty, the parts are hang,
hanged, hanged. "The draperies are hung." "The murderer was
hanged."
happen, transpire, occur. These words are frequently used inter-
changeably, but not by careful users of language. Happen means "to
take place," "to come to pass": "A fatal accident just happened at that
intersection." Happen, which originally indicated the taking place of
something by hap or chance, should be used for events that are sponta-
neous or accidental. Occur has much the same meaning as happen but is
more specific as to time or event: "His election occurred the month
before." That which is scheduled (prearranged) may be said to take
place; that which occurs or happens is more likely to be unplanned.
Transpire is a formal word that means "to escape from secrecy" and
should not be used as a synonym for happen, occur, or take place. Its
literal meaning is "to be emitted as a vapor," "to be breathed out."
 108

harangue, tirade

From this meaning, transpire has come to suggest leaking out and
becoming known. One can ask "Has anything transpired during my
absence?" but only if he means "Has any secret leaked out?" or "Has
anything come to light that was previously hidden or unknown?" Since
the correct use of transpire is limited, why not always say happen,
occur, take place, come to pass, befall, or present itself?
harangue, tirade. An harangue is a passionate and vehement speech,
one that is usually lengthy and delivered before a public gathering: "The
candidate indulged in an (or a) harangue that dealt more with his
opponents than with the issues at hand." A tirade is a prolonged
outburst of emotionally toned, vehement denunciation of some person or
object. The distinctions between harangue and tirade are these: (1) A
tirade is always an attack; an harangue may be only a long, violent
speech. (2) An harangue is always made to an audience of some size; a
tirade can be directed to or at one person only.

harass. See TANTALIZE.

harbor. See PORT.

hardly, scarcely, barely. These three adverbs imply the doing or

accomplishing of something by the narrowest of margins: "The injured
man was hardly (scarcely, barely) able to move his lips." What slight
difference exists among them is that hardly suggests difficulty, the
hardness of something (My lungs hurt so much that I could hardly
breathe); scarcely suggests a margin so small as to be almost unbelieva-
ble (You would scarcely believe he could be so stupid); and barely
stresses the idea of narrowness and thinness (He barely passed the
examination). All three words have a negative quality and should not be
used with another negative; do not say "hardly never," "scarcely
never," "couldn't hardly," "wouldn't scarcely," and "not barely."
See also DOUBLE NEGATIVE.

harmony, melody, tune. Each of these words refers to musical sound.

Harmony is the study of the structure and relation of musical chords,
that is, the blending or mingling of sounds. Melody is the rhythmical
relation of successive sounds that combine to make a tune. A tune is a
series of sounds forming an air. Harmony and melody are two of three
basic elements of most Western music (the third element is rhythm).
Examples: "In this orchestra there is complete harmony between the
brass section and the violins." "Gene sang a tuneful melody while he
showered." "The only tune he could play was 'On, Wisconsin.'" The
adjectives melodious and tuneful are synonymous in their meaning of
"forming a pleasing succession of sounds," "agreeable to hear."

hate, dislike. Hate implies strong and passionate dislike, a feeling of

 110
help but

help and aid; it implies making only a minor contribution or acting in a

secondary role. In frequency of use and degree of actual participation in
providing what is being sought, the words rank in the order listed above:
"He helped the ill woman into a taxicab." "This book will aid you in
arriving at a better idea of democracy." "Although I can provide you
with no active aid or help, someone should assist you in becoming more
tolerant of other people."

help but. See CANNOT (CAN'T) HELP BUT.

helpmate, helpmeet. These words, of which the first is more often

used, mean "a helpful companion" and usually refer to a spouse, espe-
cially a wife. In the second chapter of the Book of Genesis, God creates
Eve as a "help meet",for Adam, with help meaning "someone to
provide assistance" and meet meaning "suitable," "proper." Later,
help and meet were joined by a hyphen and still later were run together
as helpmeet. Because helpmate sounds better and more logical to the
modern ear and mind, helpmate is preferable, but helpmeet is equally
correct.
hence. See THENCE.

heterodox, orthodox. These words, derived from Greek expressions

meaning, respectively, "differing in opinion" and "having the right
opinion," refer to agreement with or denial of accepted beliefs, espe-
cially church doctrine and teachings. A heterodox person is an unortho-
dox individual who breaks with tradition or convention. An orthodox
person adheres to accepted, traditional, established, and customary
beliefs, practices, and attitudes. A so-called solid citizen is considered
orthodox; a student rebel is heterodox.

hiccup, hiccough. These words referring to a spasm of the diaphragm

are pronounced alike: HICK-up. ("HICK o f f ' is a regional, unrecom-
mended pronunciation.) Both spellings are standard, although some
writers apparently consider hiccough more genteel than hiccup.
hide. See CACHE.

high. See TALL.

highbrow, lowbrow. These terms are being used so increasingly in

writing and speaking that presumably they will, in time, be accepted as
standard usage. Their status now is that of either slang or colloquialisms,
depending upon the authority consulted. For a while, at least, they
should not be used in formal writing and speaking. Lowbrow refers to a
person lacking, or considered to lack, cultivated and intellectual tastes;
highbrow, naturally, applies to a person who does have such attain-
 Ill
home, house

ments. Both terms are frequently used in a derisive or derogatory

manner.
him, himself. Him is the objective case of the third-person personal
pronoun he. Himself is a pronoun that suggests emphasis (He, himself,
will go) and that turns action back on the grammatical subject (He bathed
himself carefully). Use him, not himself, in a statement such as "Sandy
remarked that his aunt would spend the week with Mrs. Sandy and
him."
hinder. See PREVENT.

hindrance. See HANDICAP.

historic, historical. The senses of these words overlap, but historic

should be used to refer to something that is renowned, influential, or
history-making (the historic meeting of Livingstone and Stanley). His-
torical means "concerned with or contained in history" (a specialist in
historical studies). Pronounce them "hiSTORik" and
"hiSTORikal." Historically has five syllables: "hiSTORikaHy."
History should be pronounced "HIS-tulrri," not "HlS'try." See also
A, AN.

hither, thither. Hither is a rarely used adjective and adverb that has
been largely replaced by here. It is correct, but somewhat old-fashioned,
to say "Come hither," meaning "Come here," and "the hither side of
the stream," meaning "the nearer side." Thither is an archaic word
meaning "in that direction," "there," "toward that place": "I'll meet
you on the thither side." Hither and thither appear with some frequency
in the expressions "hither and yon," meaning "from here to over
there," and "hither and thither," meaning "here and there."
hoard, horde. A hoard is a store of laid-up articles or items: "This is the
squirrels' hoard of nuts." Horde means "crowd": "A horde of picnick-
ers descended upon the beach."
hoi pollol. This is a Greek term meaning "the masses," "the many." If
you use it, do not say "the hoi polloi," because hoi is Greek for "the":
"This dictator thinks of everyone in the country as hoi polloi."
holocaust. See DISASTER.

home, house. These words identify any kind of shelter that serves as
the residence of a person, family, or household. House lacks the associ-
ated meanings attributed to home, a term that suggests comfort, peace,
love, and family ties. It may be said that what a builder erects is a house
which, when lived in, becomes a home. Such a statement may be
 112
homelike

considered sentimental, echoing the lines of Edgar A. Guest ("It takes a

heap o' livin' in a house t' make it home"). Sentiment or not, one usually
speaks of "buying a home" and "selling a house." But firemen put out a
fire in a house, not a home, and reference is always made to a "house
and lot," not a "home and lot." Conversely, one usually refers to a
"home for the aged," not a "house for the aged." Since home and house
are so subtly differentiated in use, why not sometimes resort to resi-
dence and dwelling and save confusion?

homelike. See HOMEY.

homely, comely. Although comely is a rarely used word, it is some-

times confused with its direct opposite, homely. A comely person is
pleasing in appearance, attractive, pretty, handsome, good-looking, or
personable. A homely person is unattractive, not beautiful, even ugly.
Homely can also be used to mean "plain" or "domestic": "Jean was
used to the homely duties of cleaning and cooking."

homesickness. See NOSTALGIA.

homey, homelike. These words mean "comfortable," "cozy," "famil-

iar," "like home." Both emphasize attractiveness and peacefiil security,
but homelike is preferable because it is less sentimental and informal:
"This hotel tries to create a homelike atmosphere for its guests."
homicide, manslaughter, murder. Homicide, the killing of one human
being by another, is a general term that includes manslaughter and
murder. Homicide and manslaughter are synonyms in general use,
although, in legal terms, manslaughter is referred to as the unlawful
killing of a human being but without premeditated (aforethought) intent.
Murder is the killing of a person with malice aforethought. Special
statutory definitions and degrees of murder are common in the United
States. The killing of someone, whether accidental or planned, is homi-
cide: an accidental death from a traffic occurrence is homicide. Some
legal jurisdictions would hold that a traffic death caused by careless
driving would be manslaughter but one resulting from the fault of the
victim would be homicide. Murder is generally a killing planned ahead
and committed with deliberate intent.

homonym, homograph, homophone. These words are based on a

common element, the Greek term homo, meaning "same." A homonym
is a word like another in sound and spelling but different in meaning:
"the bow of a boat" and "to make a bow"; "the bark of a dog" and
"the bark on a tree." A homograph is a word of the same written form
as another but of different origin and meaning and possibly of pronuncia-
tion: sole ("only," or part of a shoe); wound ("injury," and the past
tense of wind). A homophone is a word pronounced the same as, but
 113
humor, wit

differing in meaning from, another, whether spelled the same way or not:
key and quay, tear and tier, heir and air.
honorarium. This word is occasionally used to refer to a fee (payment)
for services rendered by an eminent or professional person. An honorar-
ium is considered a reward for some act for which custom or tact forbids
the setting of a fixed amount, or fee: "The ambassador received a small
honorarium for speaking at our meeting." The word is a kind of euphe-
mism for fee; an honorarium is not considered a recognition in money so
much as a token of the honor conferred by the presence of the person
rendering the service.
horde. See HOARD.

horrible, horrid. Each of these words means "dreadful," "extremely

unpleasant or disagreeable," "abominable." One can speak of "a horrid
disease" or "a horrible disease" with equal meaning and emphasis. Both
words are intensives, that is, terms that have a strong emotional meaning
and that usually exaggerate what is actually in mind. Consequently,
horrible and horrid should be used thoughtfully and sparingly. Few acts,
conditions, or thoughts can truly be said to cause horror, an overwhelm-
ing and painful feeling caused by something frightfully shocking, terrify-
ing, or revolting. Perhaps slightly less forceful words may, on occasion,
be more apt: shocking, fearful, horrendous, dismaying, frightening,
startling, intimidating, scary, alarming.

house. See HOME.

huh-uh, hunh-uh. See UH-UH.

human, humane. Human refers to the form, nature, or qualities char-

acteristic of man. Formerly, human being was recommended over
human, but both expressions are fully acceptable now. Humane refers
to such good qualities in man as mercy, compassion, and kindness (a
humane citizen of this town). Human is pronounced "HYOOmuhn";
humane is sounded "hyoo MAYN."
humbleness, humility. Humbleness is a standard word but one now
rarely used. It denotes a state of feeling inferior or insignificant, of
holding oneself low in rank, position, and importance. Humility is as
much overused as humbleness is neglected; it means about what hum-
bleness does: a modest estimate of one's rank or significance. Humility
suggests acceptance of one's low station, whereas humbleness merely
identifies that position. We acknowledge the humbleness of a man's birth
and honor his humility in accepting that origin.
humor, wit. Humor may be defined as a comic quality causing amuse-
 114
hung

ment: "The humor of his predicament caused him to laugh at himself."

Humor is also applied to the abilities and faculties of seeing, understand-
ing, appreciating, and expressing what is amusing and laughter-produc-
ing and to a frame of mind (in a good humor that day). Humor consists
largely of a recognition and expression of oddities, peculiarities, and
absurdities in an act or situation. Wit is derived from an Old English
word, witan, meaning "to know," and still possesses the idea of under-
standing and recognizing. Wit is an intellectual display of cleverness and
quickness of perception, whereas humor is less obviously mental in its
approaches to absurdity and incongruity. Wit plays with words; humor
rises from situations or incidents and involves a sympathetic and even
kindly recognition of the follies and stupidities of mankind. In Shake-
speare's Henry IV, Part I, Falstaff demonstrates his wit through the use
of puns and verbal fencing. His bluffing, his laughter at himself, and his
recognition of the ludicrousness of various situations are examples of
humor.

hung. See HANGED.

hurdle, hurtle. Hurdle means "to leap over," "to overcome": "I can
easily hurdle that small stream." "He is determined to hurdle every
obstacle in his path." Hurtle means "to move with great speed," "to
rush," "to go violently": "The motorcycle hurtled down the road."
"An avalanche will soon hurtle down the mountainside."
hurricane. See CYCLONE.

hypothecate, hypothetical. These words look as though they are

related, but they have different origins and different meanings. Hypothe-
cate means "to mortgage," "to pledge to a creditor as security": "To
complete this transaction you will have to hypothecate your stocks and
bonds." Hypothetical means "assumed," "supposed," "conjectural":
"This is only a hypothetical example." To hypothesize is to form an
hypothesis (a proposition, premise, or assertion).
 I
idea, concept, notion. Any thought existing in the mind may be called
an idea, concept, or notion. The most widely used of these words, idea,
should be applied to thoughts that are serious or elaborate: "The sur-
geons weighed the idea of an immediate operation." "The idea of armed
conflict is frightening." A concept (or conception) suggests a thought
that is complete, detailed, and even intricate: "The artist's concept of
portrait painting is highly unorthodox." A notion is a fleeting, vague,
hastily formed, or imperfect thought: "I had no notion this is what you
were planning." Recommendation: use notion for an idea that has not
been pondered and weighed; use idea or concept for important thoughts
that have been given serious attention. Occasionally try substituting for
idea (the generally used term) such words as opinion, belief, view,
conviction, theory, hypothesis, or whim. Any word that you use may be
as vague as idea, but you will avoid overworking a threadbare term.

idiot. See MORON.

idle. See LAZY.

if, whether. In formal use, if introduces one condition only; whether

introduces alternate conditions, usually with or not expressed or
implied: "If we try hard, we can do the work." "We were wondering
whether we could do the work." In less precise use, both if and whether
are used to introduce clauses of various kinds, but if is not used when it
causes doubt about meaning; for example, the sentence "The physician
asked to be telephoned if the patient was in a coma" could mean at what
time or whether the patient was in a coma. Also, prefer whether in a
sentence such as "7/1 was going to pay the bill was the question raised
by the letter."
if and when. This is a hackneyed and wordy phrase from which and
when can be dropped without loss of meaning. Other related wordy
phrases that need excision are when, as, and if (only if is needed) and
unless and until (unless expresses the thought).
If not the. See ONE OF THE . . . IF NOT THE.

ignorant. See ILLITERATE.

 116
ill, sick

ill, sick. These terms mean "of unsound physical or mental health,"
"unhealthy," "diseased," "afflicted," "not well." In the United States,
they are used interchangeably, with ill being considered the more formal
and sometimes applied only to more serious maladies and afflictions:
"This patient is ill with pneumonia. That one is sick with a cold." In
Great Britain, sick is used almost exclusively to mean "nauseated," but
that restriction does not apply in American usage. Sick, the more often
used word, appears in such trite terms and phrases as "sick at heart,"
"sick to (or at) the stomach," "a sick headache," "sick for home"
("suffering from nostalgia"), "sick humor," and "sick smell." Possible
substitutes for sick are ailing, indisposed, nauseated, and infirm.

illegal, unlawful. These words mean "contrary to statutes and regula-

tions," "not legal." Illegal is restricted to these meanings, but unlawful,
a more general term, is also applied to acts that are not only against the
law but generally unauthorized or unacceptable. That is, something
unlawful may go against not only the law but also moral standards; a
synonym for unlawful is illicit. For example, gambling is not illegal in
some states, but in every state some persons consider it unlawful. An
unlawful act may or may not be illegal, but it is always "not approved,"
"not sanctioned." See also ILLICIT.

illegible, unreadable. These words have a shared meaning of''difficult

to read," "hard to make out or decipher": "Your handwriting is illegible
(or unreadable)." "The manuscript was so faded and worn that it was
unreadable (or illegible)." Unreadable has additional meanings of
"dull," "tedious," "not interesting": "I quickly became bored with
what seemed to me an unreadable book." "The professor handed me an
unreadable treatise on metaphysics."

illegitimate, legitimate. Illegitimate means "illegal," and legitimate

means the precise opposite, "legal" (see ILLEGAL). Illegitimate also has
these specialized meanings: (1) "born out of wedlock (born a bastard)";
(2) "irregular" (an illegitimate forward pass); (3) "invalid" (a logically
illegitimate conclusion). Legitimate is the antonym of illegitimate in
each of these three meanings and is also used to mean "rightful" (a
legitimate sovereign); "genuine" (a legitimate claim); and "pertaining
to professionally produced stage plays" (the legitimate theater), as
opposed to radio, television, films, and other forms of entertainment.
As is suggested in the entry ILLEGAL, illicit means
illicit, licit, elicit.
"unlawful," "not sanctioned or authorized," "improper": "Millie was
accused of being an illicit trader in cigarettes." "You are in illicit
territory because this area is off bounds to all personnel." Licit means
the direct opposite of illicit. Elicit means "to bring out," "to draw
forth": "The judge tried to elicit the truth from this defendant." "The
 117
immanent, imminent

politician tried hard to elicit a favorable response from the assembled

crowd."
illiterate, ignorant. An illiterate person is someone unable to read. The
term has been broadened to mean "unable to read or write." Somewhat
loosely and inexactly, illiterate is now used also to mean not only
"unlettered" but "lacking knowledge or culture" either in general or in
some particular subject or area: "Because he was illiterate, he had to
sign his name with an X." "Because the old woman was illiterate, the
nurse had to read the letter to her." "I am a musically illiterate person."
An ignorant person is one lacking in training or knowledge, either
generally or in some particular subject: "Although an ignorant man-can
be dangerous, he is not to be despised or feared." "Trish considered
herself ignorant in mathematics." Ignorant is a broader and more
inclusive term than illiterate, but the latter is rapidly acquiring all the
meanings of the former. Possible substitutes to avoid overusing either:
untaught, uninstructed, uneducated, unlettered, uninformed, unaware.
See also LITERATE.

Illusion. See ALLUSION.

imaginary, imaginative. Imaginary means "not real," "fancied,"

"existing only in the imagination": "Jock is acting: his illness is only
imaginary." "This novelist makes imaginary characters seem more real
than actual people." Imaginative applies to someone who can form
mental images of what is not actually present to the senses. An imagina-
tive person imagines or conceives ("dreams up") matters that are not
real; an imaginary man does not exist at all but is the product of some
imaginative person's mind.
Imagine, suppose. These words are so constantly used interchangeably
by so many people of all degrees of education that it seems useless to
attempt differentiating between them. You can say "I imagine that's
true" or "I suppose that's true" with equal correctness. If you wish to
be precise, use imagine to mean "to form a mental image of something
that is not actually available to one's senses": "I imagine that Napoleon
was a vain and pompous little man." Use suppose to mean "to assume
something without reference to its truth or falsity'': 4 'Suppose the cost to
be more than we have in hand." "I suppose that you will use imagine
and suppose to mean the same thing."

Imbecile. See MORON.

Immanent, imminent. Immanent is a rarely used word meaning

"remaining within," 4'indwelling," "inhabiting," "inherent": "Some
people believe that God is immanent in everything." "The immanent
 118
immature, premature

and controlling force of logic is reason." Imminent, which means

"impending," "likely to occur now or soon," is further discussed under
EMINENT.

immature, premature. Immature means "not perfected," "not devel-

oped," "not ripe," "not complete": "All infants are immature."
"Thinking that the world owes you a living is an immature concept."
Premature means "too soon," "not yet ready": "The society editor
made a premature announcement of the wedding." Some newborn
babies are premature; all newborn babies are immature.
immerge. See EMERGE, EMERSE, IMMERGE.

immigrant. See EMIGRANT.

imminent. See EMINENT a n d IMMANENT.

immoral. See AMORAL.

immunity, impunity. These "look-alikes" mean "exemption," but

immunity has a larger number of applications. Impunity means only
"exemption from punishment" or "freedom from unpleasant conse-
quences": "You cannot disobey the law with impunity." "No one can
exhaust himself physically with impunity." Immunity shares these
meanings with impunity but also means a state of being exempt from (not
subject to) a disease and from any liability, obligation, or service: "He
was granted immunity from local taxation." "He was healthy enough to
think that he possessed immunity from all diseases."

immured, inured. Immured means "confined," "shut in," "impris-

oned," or "enclosed": "The flower beds were immured between gravel
walks." "A country boy, he felt immured in his small room in the city."
Inured (which may also be spelled enured) means "accustomed,"
"habituated," "hardened by exercise or custom": "His rugged early life
inured him to labor and pain." "Recruits quickly become inured to the
rigors of army life." "In later life, the benefits of social security inured to
him and his family." See also INURE.

impeach. This word means "to accuse" (especially an official), "to

bring charges against," "to challenge the credibility of someone," "to
call to account." Impeach comes from a Latin term meaning "to trap,"
and, contrary to widespread opinion, does not mean "to convict," "to
find guilty." President Ancjrew Johnson was impeached; that is, charges
were brought by the House of Representatives, but he was not convicted
(found guilty) by the Senate. To impeach is to indict, not to convict.
Impeachment is followed by a trial to determine guilt or innocence.
 119
impractical, impracticable, unpractical

impediment. See OBSTACLE.

Impel. See COMPEL.

Impel, induce. Does one say "I wonder what impelled him to do that"
or "I wonder what induced him . . ."? Impel means "to drive or press
on," "to incite," "to propel": "The angry speaker was impelled by his
sense of injustice." "The coach's fiery talk to his players impelled them
to play harder." Induce means "to lead or move by persuasion," "to
bring about": "This medicine will induce sleep very quickly." "Your
remarks have induced me to change my attitude." In the first sentence of
this entry, use impelled if some force or outside influence was operating;
use induced if some inner conviction led to action.

imperious, imperial. These words are derived from the same Latin term
and share a meaning of "domineering," "overbearing," "dictatorial":
"The judge had an imperious (or imperial) manner in court." Originally,
imperious meant "befitting or suitable to an emperor or ruler," as in
Shakespeare's lines from Hamlet: "Imperious Caesar, dead and turned
to clay,/ Might stop a hole to keep the wind away." Now, imperious is
more often used to mean "imperative" or "urgent": "There is an
imperious need for food in this stricken area." One might speak of an
imperious dictator who lives in the imperial capital city of his country.

impertinent. See IMPUDENT.

implicit. See EXPLICIT.

implosion. See EXPLOSION.

imply, Infer. To imply is to suggest a meaning only hinted at, not

explicitly stated. To infer is to draw a conclusion from statements,
evidence, or circumstances. "Your remark implies that Bill was untruth-
ful." "The officer inferred from the fingerprints that the killer was left-
handed."

Imply, insinuate. To imply is to indicate without actual statement some-

thing that is to be inferred (see IMPLY, INFER). TO insinuate is to hint
slyly or subtly, to instill an idea by tricky, subtle, or underhanded means.
Insinuate also means "to enter or introduce by devious ways." "Sis
insinuated herself into the group over the protests of some members."
"This is propaganda insinuated into the unsuspecting minds of citi-
zens." "Did the speaker intend to imply that we have insinuated in
people's minds doubt about the real purpose of his actions?"

impractical, impracticable, unpractical. Distinctions in the meanings

 120
impression

of these words have largely broken down, but impractical actually

means "theoretical" or "speculative." Impracticable means "not capa-
ble of being used," "unmanageable." "The architect's recommenda-
tions are impractical, and his blueprints are impracticable." Unpracti-
cal is interchangeable with impractical but is considered less formal.

Impression. See EDITION.

Impressive. See FORMIDABLE.

Impromptu. See EXTEMPORANEOUS.

Impudent, Impertinent. These words refer to bold, rude, and arrogant

acts or speech. Impudent suggests shameless impertinence: "an impu-
dent young person," "an impudent response to a friendly suggestion."
Impertinent has a primary meaning of "inappropriate," that is, "not
pertinent," and therefore implies unwarranted, uncalled-for intrusion
into something that does not concern one, that is none of one's business:
"This is an impertinent interruption of a serious meeting." The opposite
(antonym) of impudent is courteous; that of impertinent is polite.
Approximate synonyms for one or the other of these words are fresh,
insulting, pert, saucy, brazen, and officious.

impunity. See IMMUNITY.

In, at. See AT, IN.

in, into. In has a basic meaning of "within a space or a place": "The

family was sitting in the room." As distinguished from in, into indicates
movement or direction to an interior location. Say "Molly was in the
kitchen" and "Molly walked into the kitchen." If you pause between in
and to (say in to rather than into), in becomes an adverb: "You may
now go in to see the new baby." In is an indispensable word, but
perhaps one does not have to use it so often in such trite expressions as
"have it in for" ("hold a grudge"), "ins and outs" ("twists and turns,"
"changing conditions"), "all m" ("fatigued"), "in for" ("guaranteed,"
"about to receive"), "in that" ("since"), "have an in" ("possess
access or favor"), "in group" ("incumbent or favored group"), "in
with" ("on friendly terms"), s'w apple-pie order," "in black and
white," "in the last analysis," "in the same boat," and "in spite of the
fact that" and in a rash of new terms such as laugh-in, teach-in, talk-in,
sit-in, be-in.

inability, disability. Inability means "lack of ability," "lack of capac-

ity, power, or means": "His inability to pass a driver's test disturbs
him." Disability also implies lack of power or ability, but a lack due to
some permanent flaw, weakness, or handicap, either mental or physical:
 121
include

"Jeb was excused from service in the armed forces because of a serious
physical disability." Inability is traceable to some inherent lack of talent
or power that may or may not be due to actual disability: One's inability
to speak may have been caused by a birth defect; his disability in
speaking may have been caused by an injury.
Inapt, Inept, unapt. Inapt and inept mean "not apt," "not fitting,"
"without aptitude or capacity": "This person is inapt in computing the
sales tax on purchases." "Tom is a good mechanic, but he is inept in
keeping customers satisfied." Inapt and inept share such approximate
synonyms as unsuited, inappropriate, awkward, and clumsy. The exact
opposite (antonym) of inapt is capable; that of inept is suited. Inapt is
more commonly used than inept in the meanings indicated above. Unapt
also has meanings of "inappropriate" and "unsuitable" but is more
often used to mean "not likely" or "not disposed": "The supervisor is
unapt to let you leave early."

in back of. See BACK OF.

incapable, unable. These words mean "without the necessary power,

capacity, or ability" to perform some particular act. "The speaker was
incapable of making himself heard in the rear of the hall." "The speaker
was unable to make himself heard in the rear of the hall." Unable is
always followed by to, incapable by of. Incapable usually refers to a
permanent or long-standing lack of some sort; unable refers to a tempo-
rary inability: "This truck is incapable of carrying more than 2 tons."
"For several minutes he was unable to breathe normally."

incense. See ENRAGE.

Incentive. See MOTIVE.

incident. See EVENT.

incidentally, Incidently. Although incidentally has a primary meaning

of happening in connection with something else, it is more often used to
mean "apart from the main point" and "by the way": "Incidentally, I
forgot this minor matter." "Whether you come or stay is incidentally
unimportant." Although incidently was once in good use, it no longer
appears in the language and is considered an illiteracy. Incidentally
should be spelled and pronounced with five syllables.

Incisive. See DECISIVE.

inclose. See ENCLOSE.

Include. See COMPOSE.

 122
incomparable, uncomparable

Incomparable, uncomparable. Incomparable means (1) "unequaled"

and "matchless" and (2) "incapable of being compared." Uncompara-
ble shares the second of these meanings but not the first. "Helen of
Troy's beauty was said to have been incomparable." "Bananas and
potatoes are uncomparable."
Incomparable is also a term applied to certain words that are consid-
ered absolute in meaning and that cannot be used in a comparative or
superlative sense. Some students of language have turned incomparable
into a noun and list as incomparables such words as UNIQUE. If one says
"more unique" or "most unique," what becomes of this word that is
used to designate the only one of a kind? If something is perfect, how can
it be "more perfect"? A short list of incomparables would contain these
words with absolute meaning: eternal, equal, final, total, supreme,
infinite, absolute, and fatal.

Inconceivable, unthinkable. Inconceivable means "incredible,"

"incapable of being explained," "incapable of being conceived or visu-
alized in one's mind": "It is inconceivable that he would have done this
to me." "It is inconceivable that water should not be wet." Unthinkable
refers to something that cannot be made an object of serious thought, but
the word is more often applied to matters that are improbable or difficult
to accept: "It is unthinkable that he would have left me no money for
food." "No matter what the minister says, I consider eternity to be an
unthinkable subject."

in connection with, in this connection. The first of these phrases is a

wordy, wasteful way of saying about or concerning. Substitute either of
these shorter words for in connection with in a sentence such as "The
insurance adjuster and the driver had an argument in connection with the
damages involved." In this connection is an all-purpose phrase that
really has no purpose and can usually be omitted entirely.
incredible, incredulous. Incredible means "unbelievable"; incredu-
lous means "skeptical," "unbelieving." "The story Bill told us was
incredible.'''' "The speaker's remarks left his audience incredulous."
incubus, succubus. The first of these words appears frequently, the
latter rarely. A succubus was originally an imaginary demon in female
form that descended upon sleeping men and had intercourse with them.
Similarly, an incubus was an evil male spirit that descended upon
women. By extension, incubus (but not succubus) has come to mean
something that weighs upon one's mind or anything that oppresses. A
nightmare is a kind of incubus, but the word means any kind of burden or
obstacle: "His mortgage was an incubus that he could not shake."
"Knowledge of his guilt weighed upon the murderer like an incubus."
inculcate, indoctrinate. These words mean "to teach," but to teach by
 123
induction, deduction

repeated statements, by direct advice, by pointed suggestion: "By lec-

turing earnestly and persistently, the professor inculcated is his students
a love for good literature. He indoctrinated them with the underlying
theories of creative imagination." The Latin word from which inculcate
is derived means "stamped" or "trodden," thus emphasizing the idea of
forceful instruction. Indoctrinate suggests doctrine, so that the word is
usually applied to teaching that involves principles and ideas, especially
religious or moral doctrines and beliefs.
indention, indentation. These words mean "a cut, notch, or recess."
Either spelling is correct. Reference is usually to the setback from the
margin which appears in the first lines of paragraphs as they are normally
written or printed: "The indention of paragraphs was uniform through-
out the manuscript."

indict, indite. Indict means "to accuse" or "to charge with crime":
"Bolo was indicted for manslaughter." Indite means "to write," "to
compose'': "Lincoln indited a beautiful letter to the Widow Bixby."
individual, party, person. Individual is loosely overused to refer to
"one person only" and often has a humorous or contemptuous meaning:
"Who is that individual with the loud mouth and wide grin?" Except in
legal and telephonic language, party is not recommended as a reference
to one person. Party refers to a group (a supper party, the Socialist
party) and is dubious in a sentence such as "Who is the party that
brought you to the store?" In most situations, person should be pre-
ferred to either of the other two terms when reference is being made to
one. Phrases such as "individualperson," "each individual member,"
and "individual self' are wordy.
indoctrinate. See INCULCATE.

indolent. See LAZY.

Indorse. See ENDORSE.

indubitably. See UNDOUBTEDLY.

induce. See IMPEL, INDUCE.

induction, deduction. The common methods of thinking are deduction

and induction. The former method tries to establish a specific and limited
conclusion by showing that it is allied with, or conforms to, a general
truth or principle. In deduction, thought moves from the general to the
particular: "From the general principle (fact) that most Scandinavians
have blue eyes, the deduction may be made that Lars, a Scandinavian,
probably has blue eyes." Induction seeks to establish a general truth, a
 124
inedible

principle. In induction, one observes a number of facts, classifies them,

and arrives at a conclusion, or principle: "From observation of hundreds
of Scandinavians, most of whom have blue eyes, one may induce (make
an induction) that most Danes have blue eyes." Through induction, the
laws (principles) of science have been arrived at. Through deduction,
these principles (laws) are applied in specific situations, such as the
development of a vaccine or the manufacture of a synthetic fiber.
inedible. See EATABLE a n d UNEATABLE.

Ineffective, ineffectual. These words mean "not effective," "incom-

petent," "futile": "I tried hard, but I turned out to be an ineffective
speaker." "All the remedies for a cold that I have tried seem ineffec-
tual." The only distinction between the meanings and uses of these
words is this: an ineffective person may be "powerless" or "futile" or
"incompetent" in only one endeavor or undertaking, whereas an inef-
fectual person is likely to be "not competent" in everything he under-
takes. The distinction hardly seems worthwhile. Possible substitutes for
either or both words include useless, worthless, valueless, vain, unavail-
ing, pointless, and feeble.
inept. See INAPT.

inexecrable. See EXECRABLE.

inexpensive. See CHEAP.

infectious. See CONTAGIOUS.

infer. See IMPLY, INFER.

inferior than, inferior to. Although inferior than is widely used, idio-
matic usage decrees the proper expression to be inferior to. This usage is
not a matter of grammar but of idiom, a speech form that is peculiar to
itself: "This automobile is inferior to (not inferior than) that one." See
also SUPERIOR THAN.

inflammable. See FLAMMABLE.

inflict, afflict. These Words have different meanings and applications,

although the base flict is common to both. (Flict is derived from a Latin
word meaning "to beat down," "to strike against.") Inflict means "to
lay on," "to impose," and always has a connotation of something
burdensome or unwelcome: "Don't inflict any more work on me today."
"Society inflicts penalties and punishments upon some wrongdoers, but
not upon all of them." Afflict means "to trouble," "to distress," "to lay
on bodily or mental pain": "Several of the boys were afflicted with
 125

inhuman, unhuman

boils." "Severe depression afflicts many persons who are mentally ill."
inform. See TELL.

informer, informant. Each of these words identifies someone who com-

municates information or news. An informer, however, is one who
informs (that is, tells on) someone else for the purpose of collecting
money or other reward. An informer can be anyone who supplies facts
or alleged facts: newspaper reporters and radio and television broad-
casters are informers. An informant conveys to authorities information
about criminal acts or other wrongdoing that is designed to lead to
prosecution of the guilty person. The Internal Revenue Service, for
example, relies on informants to supply information about persons who
have not folly declared their incomes.
infra dig. This Latin phrase, an abbreviation of infra dignitatem, means
"beneath one's dignity," "undignified," and is pronounced "IN'frah
DIG": "The winner of the prize considered it infra dig to accept it."
Infrequent. See UNFREQUENT.

ingenious, ingenuous, naive. Ingenious means "inventive,"

"resourceful," "talented," "imaginative." Ingenuous means "naive,"
"frank," "unsophisticated," "artless." "Alex's suggested solution is
ingenious." "She is an ingenuous little child." Naive (correctly spelled
with a dieresis over the i but also considered correct without this mark or
spelled naif) has much the meaning of ingenuous. It is applied to persons
who reveal natural simplicity, artlessness, and innocence. Naive usually
suggests traits that are amusing to the user of the word but not to the
person so described. Probably no one would like to be Diane in a
statement such as "Diane is so naive she believes everything her boy-
friend tells her." See also UNSOPHISTICATED.
inhabitable. See HABITABLE.

Inhibit, prohibit. These words mean "to prevent," "to hinder," "to
restrain," and "to forbid." Each suggests a command, law, or impulse to
refrain from some action. Inhibit is preferable when the checking or
hindering of acts or impulses comes from some inner feeling or condi-
tion: "His conscience will inhibit his taking advantage of weak per-
sons." "Fear of cancer may inhibit his continuing to smoke." Prohibit,
a more formal word, is preferably used when something is forbidden by
law or other authority: "Library regulations prohibit smoking in the
main reading room." "State law prohibits the sale of alcoholic beverages
after 8:00 P.M."
Inhuman, unhuman. Inhuman means "cruel," "brutal," "lacking nor-
 126
innumerable

mal human compassion, pity, sympathy, and kindness": "Treatment of

prisoners in that jail was considered inhuman." "Nero is usually
described as having been an inhuman Emperor." Unhuman, a much less
common word, is occasionally used, somewhat loosely, in the above-
mentioned meanings of inhuman. Careful use confines unhuman to the
meaning of "not human," "without the characteristics and attributes of
human beings": "The sounds issuing from the wounded man's throat
were unhuman." "To make mistakes is human; never to make a mistake
is unhuman."
innumerable. See ENDLESS.

inquire. See ENQUIRE.

inquiry. See QUERY.

inquisitive. See CURIOUS.

in re. See RE.

Insanitary. See UNSANITARY.

inside, inside of, outside of. Inside is an adverb, adjective, noun, and
preposition. In each of its grammatical functions, inside suggests mean-
ings of "inner" or "within": "inside the room" (preposition); "step
inside" (adverb); "an inside seat" (adjective); "the inside of the build-
ing" (noun). Outside, with a meaning directly opposite that of inside, is
also used as four parts of speech. Except when functioning as nouns,
neither inside nor outside should be followed by of: One should say
"inside the room," not "inside of the room" unless the meaning is "the
inside of the room." The correct phrase is "outside the house" unless
the meaning is "the outside of the house." Inside of does have an
informal use in reference to distance or time: "We passed the car inside
of a mile." "The doctor arrived inside of ten minutes." Outside of can
also be used to mean "with the exception of," "except for": "He cares
for nothing outside of his stamp collection." "Outside of giving you
some money, there is nothing I can help you with."

insignia, insigne. Insignia, meaning "a distinguishing mark, sign, or

badge," is both singular and plural in number and has an additional plural
form, insignias: "A black armband is an insignia of mourning." "Flags
flying above the building are insignia (or insignias) of national identity
and pride." In Latin, the singular form is insigne, a form occasionally
appearing in English: "The official wore the insigne of his position."
General use suggests that insignia be employed in both singular and
plural functions and that insigne, if used at all, should appear only as a
singular.
 127

intense, intensive

insinuate. See IMPLY, INSINUATE.

insipid. See VAPID.

Instance. See EXAMPLE.

instinct, intuition. These words are used interchangeably to apply to an

inborn tendency, natural impulse, or inner perception. "My instinct was
not to trust that man" probably means the same thing as "My intuition
told me not to trust that man." An instinct is something inborn and
natural, not dependent upon any thinking process of any kind (an instinct
to fear falling from a height); intuition does not depend upon reasoning
either but does convey the idea of knowledge and awareness: "a
woman's intuition"; "a speaker's intuition that his talk is too intellec-
tual." An infant is born with instincts, some of which are preserved into
adulthood; an infant is born without intuition but forms opinions and
judgments as he experiences life. A baby is born with the instinct to
survive. Later, that baby becomes aware (has an intuition) that survival
requires effort.

insure. See ASSURE.

Integration, segregation. These words, despite being antonyms, are

sometimes confused. Integration means "combining"; segregation
means "separating." An integrated school is one in which students are
drawn from various ethnic groups, races, and religions. A segregated
school is one from which one or more racial, religious, or ethnic groups is
separated, set apart, withdrawn. In an integrated prison, all inmates are
housed together; in a segregated prison, hardened criminals might be
placed in separate quarters.
Intelligent, intellectual. An intelligent person is quick to comprehend
and understand, has a high mental capacity, has the ability to reason
clearly. An intellectual person has not only a high degree of understand-
ing but also a clear, distinct, and active taste and capacity for higher
forms of knowledge. An animal can be intelligent but not intellectual; a
distinguished professor is intellectual and is presumed to be intelligent.

intend. See AIM.

Intense, Intensive. Intense means "strong," "acute" (intense fear);

"to a high or extreme degree" (intense cold); "severe," "great" (intense
sunlight); "strenuous" (intense activity); and "emotional" (an intense
person). Intensive has several of the meanings of intense, but it is
usually used to indicate concentration or compression: "The chemist
spent a year in intensive research on this compound." "The attorney
directed intensive questioning at his client." "That battalion received
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intentionally

intensive shelling from the enemy." That which is intensive is usually

intense, but what is intense need not be intensive: "The fire chief will
make an intensive search for causes of this intense fire."
intentionally. See ADVISEDLY.

Inter-, intra-. These prefixes, appearing in hundreds of words commonly

used, are often confused. Inter- is a prefix occurring in loan words from
Latin where it was used to mean "between," "among," "mutually,"
and "together." English words include interact, intergroup, intercept,
intercollegiate, interfere, international, intermarriage, interview, inter-
section, and interrupt. Intra- is a borrowing, also from Latin, meaning
"within" and appearing in such words as intramural, intramuscular,
intrastate, and intravenous. When a college fields athletic teams to play
against other colleges, it engages in intercollegiate athletics. When
athletes in a college play against each other (that is, within their walls)
they engage in intramural athletics. "Intrastate commerce" refers to
commerce within a state; "interstate commerce" means "commerce
between and among states."

interest. See INTRIGUE.

interject, interpolate. These words are related in meaning because of

their common prefix (see INTER-). TO interject is "to put between," "to
introduce between parts": "Let me interject another topic at this
point." "The speaker then interjected several remarks that he hoped
would amuse his hearers." Interpolate conveys much the same meaning
as interject but is usually applied to the insertion in written matter of
material that is false, deceptive, or extraneous: "Someone has interpo-
lated several passages in the court records."

interpretative, interpretive. Both of these words mean "explanatory,"

"serving to make clear and explain," and both are correct: "We
attended a program of interpretative (or interpretive) dancing." Inter-
pretative is more commonly used, but follow your own preference.
in this connection. See IN CONNECTION WITH.

into. See IN, INTO.

intra-. See INTER-.

intrigue, Interest. Each of these words means "to cause to become

involved with," "to arouse the curiosity or hold the attention o f ' :
"Your plan interests me." "Your plan intrigues me." However, some
experts- -object to the use of intrigue for interest otf the ground that it
suggests an often-unwarranted sense of mystery and suspense. One
 129

irony, satire, sarcasm

should use interest unless a suggestion of drama, secretiveness, or

underhandedness in involved. A love story interests; a suspense story
intrigues.
intrinsic. See EXTRANEOUS.

Intuition. See INSTINCT.

inure, enure. Inure is the preferred spelling of this word meaning "to
accustom," "to habituate," "to make used to something by exercise":
"His poverty-stricken early life inured him to the hardships of old age."
"The food was poorly prepared, but after several weeks I became inured
to it." "His muscles soon became inured to the heavy lifting involved."
See also IMMURED.
Invent. See DISCOVER.

invigorating. See ENERVATING.

Involuntary, voluntary. The meanings of these words are so different

that they should never be confused, but they often are. Involuntary
means "unintentional" or "unconscious" (an involuntary movement of
the eyes); "independent of one's will," "made or done other than by
One's own choice" (an involuntary witness to the crime). Voluntary
means "undertaken or brought about by one's own choice, one's free
will (a voluntary contribution to the campaign); "according to one's own
will or desires" (voluntary cooperation with the police). Voluntary
implies the previous use of judgment and consideration (a voluntary
admission of guilt); involuntary implies lack of conscious control and is
the direct opposite of intentional (involuntary twitching of tired mus-
cles).

involve, entail. These words are closely related in meaning but have
slightly different applications. Involve means "to contain or include,"
"to have as an essential feature or necessary consequence," "to
absorb," "to complicate": "My work involves a lot of hard work."
"This contract involves monthly payments for services rendered." "Do
not try to involve me in your problems." Entail shares these meanings of
involve but more particularly means "to impose as a burden or prob-
lem," and, in legal use, "to limit and direct the succession of property":
"Losing weight usually entails controlling one's appetite." "The attor-
ney will so entail the estate that you can inherit nothing."
Irony, satire, sarcasm. Each of these words indicates ridicule, con-
tempt, or mockery of someone or something. Irony is a figure of speech
in which the literal (exact, denotative) meaning of a word or statement is
the opposite of that intended. Cicero defined irony as "the saying of one
 130

irreftitable

thing and meaning another." A person uses irony when, on a miserable

day, he says "Nice day today, isn't it?" Considered the most ironic
writing in all literature is Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal, in which
the author "recommends" that the Irish sell their babies to English
landlords for food. Satire is the ridiculing of stupidity, vice, or folly; it
often employs irony and sarcasm to denounce the frailties and faults of
mankind. Satire blends wit and humor with a critical attitude toward
human activities and institutions. An attack on man's overconsumption
of electricity and fuel would be a satire (satirical treatment) of man's
folly in exhausting his supplies of energy. Sarcasm is a form of irony that
consists of bitter and often cruel derision. Sarcasm is always personal,
always jeering, and always intended to wound: "What a great friend you
turned out to be!" "You couldn't tell the truth to save your life!"

Irrefutable. See REFUTABLE.

Irregardless. See DISREGARDLESS.

irrevocable, Irreversible. Irrevocable means "unable to be repealed or

annulled," "not to be called back": "The judge declared that the fine
was irrevocable." "After jumping from an airplane, one realizes that his
act is irrevocable." (Irrevocable should be pronounced with emphasis
upon the second syllable: irREV'O'ca'ble.) Irreversible has much the
same meaning: "incapable of being changed or reversed." What little
distinction there is between the words is that irrevocable is more often
applied to statements, single acts, and decrees and irreversible to a
course or pattern of action: "His decision to resign was irrevocable
"The life-style of a hardened criminal is sometimes considered irreversi-
ble."

irritate. See AGG;L\VATE.

irruption. See ERUPTION.

Israel, Israeli. Israeli should be used to refer to a native or inhabitant of

the state of Israel. Some Israelis prefer using the adjective Israel to
mean "pertaining to the state of Israel," but Israeli is more often used in
this context in cultural and historical applications. An Israelite was a
descendant of Jacob, especially a member of the Hebrew people who
lived in the ancient kingdom of Israel.
issue. See EMERGE, ISSUE.

is when, Is where. The use of is when and is where in explaining and

defining something is a common error in speech and writing. Rather than
misuse an adverbial clause (Anemia is when the blood is deficient)
 131

-ize

employ a noun or a noun with modifiers (Anemia is a disease in which

deficiencies appear in the blood.) To say, for instance, "Stealing is
where you take . . . " instead of "Stealing is the act of taking . . ." is to
be awkward, if not illiterate.

it, its, It's, It's me. It is a short, necessary word often used in a vague or
indefinite way to stand for, or refer to, a variety of things and ideas. The
term also appears in expressions that are trite or slangy, such as "to get
with it," "be with it," "have it" ("be attractive"), "had it" ("reached
the end of endurance or patience"). It is a singular pronoun in the third
person; "i7 don't" and "it weren't" are illiteracies. Its is the possessive
form of it. "The dog has lost its collar." "I'm sorry about its arriving
too late for your birthday." It's means "it is" (It's raining) and "it has"
(It's been raining). Awkward and stilted though the expression may
sound, one should say "It's I" rather than "It's me," because a
predicate complement is in the nominative case. If you don't like to say
"It's / " (or "It is / " or "This is /"), then say "This is" followed by your
name. Similarly, watch out for such expressions as "It's us," "It's
them," "It's her," "It's him." If you think the correct forms of we,
they, she and he in these constructions sound strained, then use names:
"It's Jane," "It's Jim."

-Ize. This suffix has aided in the creation of hundreds of standard words
such as pasteurize, dramatize, sterilize, and hospitalize. Unfortunately,
many weird improprieties have also resulted, such as powerize, concer-
tize, and headlineize. Most verbs and adjectives in the language can be
treated with -ize, but it would be well not to finalize or permanentize or
concretize or definitize an attachment to them until such coinages are
widely accepted.
 J
Jealous, zealous. A jealous person feels resentment or suspicion
because of rivalry or competition of some sort: "Sue was jealous of her
beautiful sister." A zealous person is active, diligent, devoted: "He was
the most admired, zealous worker in the plant." Jealous is pronounced
"JEL-uhs"; zealous is sounded as "ZEL-uhs."

Jealousy. See ENVY, JEALOUSY.

Jetsam. See FLOTSAM.

Jibe. See GIBE.

Job. See FUNCTION.

jocular. See JOLLY.

join together. Join means "to unite," "to connect," so that together is
here wordily unnecessary. Since marriages are sometimes shaky, per-
haps they require the statement, "What therefore God hath joined
together, let not man put asunder," but in other instances avoid redun-
dancy.

jolly, jocular, jovial. These words are closely related in meaning to each
other and to such adjectives as merry, convivial, gay, mirthful, jocund,
jocose, gleeful, happy, cheerful, blithe, sportive, sprightly, airy, light-
hearted, lively, vivacious, and frolicsome. Jolly especially denotes a
natural, good-humored, expansive gaiety of mood or disposition: "We
had a jolly crowd at the last party." "For he's a jolly good fellow."
Jocular suggests "joking," "jesting," "waggish," "facetious": "Many
jocular remarks were addressed to the bridegroom." "Being in a jocular
mood, the speaker told several amusing stories." Jovial suggests a
hearty, earthy, joyous humor, a spirit of good-fellowship: "He was a
jovial host who made everyone feel welcome."

judge. See JURIST.

judge, adjudge. As a verb, judge shares with adjudge the meanings of

"to think," "to consider," "to guess," and "to estimate": "We judged
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just, justly

(or adjudged) our best move was to get away as soon as possible."
Adjudge, a more formal term than judge, is usually reserved for such
meanings as "to announce formally" and "to decree" (The court
adjudged the will to be valid) and "to award judicially" (The verdict was
adjudged to the plaintiff)- Judge has a variety of meanings, as suggested
by uses such as these: "The coach will have to judge between us."
"Listen to both of us and judge accordingly." "You shouldn't judge a
magazine by its cover." "The foreman judged me to be right." "The
pilot judged the distance to be 1 mile."

judicial, Judicious. Although these words have a common Latin base

meaning "judgment," they have different uses today. Judicial refers
only to justice, courts of law, and judges: "Judicial proceedings are
likely to be slow and involved." "The attorney tried to assume a look of
judicial gravity." "There is a difference between the judicial and legisla-
tive operations of a government." Judicious, like judicial, refers to wise
and balanced judgment but is not restricted to concerns of law and justice
and has added meanings of "discreet," "prudent," and "expedient":
"Try to make judicious use of your money." "After careful examination
of those present, Sam made a judicious choice of a dancing partner."

juncture, junction. These words have a primary meaning, "the act of

joining": "The torn cartilage lies at the juncture (or junction) of these
bones." In this sense, junction is more widely used and is preferred:
"the junction of tributary and river"; "the junction of a railway and bus
line." Juncture is favored when reference is to a point of time and to a
serious state of affairs: "At this juncture, we must decide whether to
advance or retreat." "We must decide now, for the affair has reached a
critical juncture." In linguistics, juncture is a term for a distinctive
sound feature of the language such as, for example, the difference in
sound between, and time required to pronounce, already and all ready.
jurist, judge. Although these words are often used interchangeably,
they are not synonyms. A judge is an official authorized to hear and
determine cases in a court of law. A jurist is someone acquainted with
the law and versed in it: a lawyer, for instance, or a person who writes on
the subject of law. A judge is a jurist, but a jurist may or may not be a
judge.
just, justly. Just is an adjective with the primary meaning o f ' 'guided by
fairness, truth, and reason." Justly is an adverb conveying this same
meaning: "A just man is justly honored by others." Justly should never
be used as a noun. In its adverbial use, just has additional meanings. It is
used to mean "precisely" (just perfect), "narrowly" (just missed the
bus), "recently" (just got here), and "only" (just a taste). Phrases such
as "just exactly" (I have just exactly $10) and "just recently" (He just
 134

just, justly

recently got here) really say the same thing twice. "Just about" (I'm just
about to leave) seems self-contradictory, since the words mean "pre-
cisely approximately." However, this book is not just about going to
deny that the idiom is common and deep-rooted, although one might
occasionally say very nearly or almost, instead of the idiomatically (but
not logically) acceptable "just about."
 K
karat. See CARAT.

ketchup. See CATSUP.

kid, youngster. Kid means "a young goat," in which sense it is rarely
used. But kid in two other senses is one of the most ubiquitous words in
the language. We use it to refer to a "child or young person" and we use
to lad when we mean "to tease, banter, jest with." In both uses, the
word is slangy and should be employed sparingly. Youngster is always
acceptable for reference to a child or young person, whether boy or girl.
Other names for young males are youth, lad, and stripling.

kin. See KITH AND KIN.

kind. This word has many meanings, among them "class" (a kind of
preacher), "subdivision of a category" (that kind of orange), and, with
of, "rather" or "somewhat" (kind of sorry). Kind is singular, so that
one should not say "these (or those) kind of shoes" but "this kind of
shoes" or "these lands of shoes." (The same principle applies to sort as
to kind.) Both "kind of a" and "sort of a" are wordy phrases from which
a should be omitted. See also SORT OF.
kindly, please. In a statement such as "Kindly answer my letter soon,"
one with equal correctness and propriety could write "Please
answer. . . . " In such use, kindly and please are courteous formalities
that convey a primary meaning of "obligingly." Each, a polite addition
to a request, no more conveys exact meaning than the dear in the
salutation of a letter expresses affection. Please is the more commonly
used word in this situation, possibly because kindly seems to some
people to carry an air of affectation or smugness. Take your pick.
kind of a. See KIND.

kingly, royal, regal. Each of these words refers to anything that is

suitable for a king or closely associated with one: "The tall old man with
a long white beard had a kingly (or regal or royal) look about him."
Each also has a meaning of "stately, splendid": "The ambassador and
his staff made a regal (or royal or kingly) entrance into the ballroom."
Kingly is a word closely associated with a monarch (a kingly crown);
 136
kith and kin

regal refers to the grandeur and majesty of the office of kingship (regal
authority, regal robes); royal applies particularly to the person (body) of
the king (royal residence, royal bedchamber).
kith and kin. This is a tiresomely overworked phrase meaning
"acquaintances and relatives." Kith and kin are not synonymous: kith
means "friends, neighbors, and the like"; kin means people actually
related through family ties, persons descended from a common ancestor.
When properly used, both kin and kith are plural, so that one relative
cannot be called kin and is not kith at all.

knot. It is an error to mention "knots an hour" or "knots per hour." A

knot in this sense refers to a unit of speed, "1 nautical mile an hour."
Consequently, the word knot should never be followed by an hour. A
ship can travel "at 10 knots" or "at 10 nautical miles an hour," but not
"at 10 knots an hour." Nor can a ship "cover such and such a number of
knots.'''' It speeds (or crawls) at so many knots and covers so many
nautical miles in a day.

know. See REALIZE.

Kodak. Trademark for a portable camera, belonging to the Eastman

Kodak Company. The word should not be used to refer to any and all
portable cameras and should never be used as a verb.
kudos. This is a word taken from Greek meaning "glory," "renown,"
"praise," and "approval." The final s in kudos is not the sign of a plural;
there is no such thing as a kudo: "The diplomat received kudos for his
role in bringing about peace."
 L
lack, want, need. Lack refers to a deficiency, to the absence of some-
thing desirable, customary, or needful: "He feels a lack of confidence
among his followers." "I am suffering from a lack of money and time."
Want and need, as nouns, may have much the same meaning: "a
necessity," "something that is required or demanded." One may say
"My wants (or my needs) are few." Need has connotations that give it
an emotional appeal (a need to be loved). Approximate synonyms for
lack and want include dearth, scarcity, inadequacy, deficit, and insuffi-
ciency. Distinctions among these words when used as verbs can be
suggested by these sentences: "These plants lack water." "These plants
want water." "These plants need water." In the first sentence, lack
suggests deficiency; in the second, want suggests desire; in the third,
need implies necessity.

lady. See GENTLEMAN.

laid, lain. Laid is the past tense and past participle of lay. Lain is the
past participle of lie. Choice between laid and lain, therefore, depends
upon which verb is involved. The primary meaning of the verb lay is "to
set down," "to put or place in a horizontal position." Lay implies both a
subject (an active agent) and an object: "The girl laid the book on the
table." "The storm had laid the grain flat." The verb lie has two basic
meanings, "to make a false statement" and "to be in a prostrate posi-
tion." When a falsehood is involved, the principal parts are lie, lied, lied:
"I lie today." "I lied yesterday." "I have lied every day this week."
When lie is used in its second meaning, the principal parts are lie, lay,
lain: "I lie down." "I lay down yesterday." "I have lain down every
day this week." Lay always takes a direct object; lie never does. These
sentences reveal correct uses of laid and lain and other forms of lie and
lay: "She laid the towel on the bed." "She has lain in bed for three
days." "The pen is lying on the desk." "Laying wallpaper is difficult
work." "The doctor lies down every day after lunch." "This hen lays
lots of eggs." "The garbage has lain there for a week." "Bill enjoys
lying in bed on a rainy day." "The dinner table was laid for six people."
"Are you lying down on the job?" "The river lies between two hills; it
has lain there for centuries." See also LAY.
lapse. See ELAPSE.

large. See BIG.

 138
largely, chiefly

largely, chiefly. Largely means "to a great extent," "generally," "in

great part": "That opinion is largely incorrect." "My reaction will
depend largely on the kind of answer I get." Chiefly, a stronger word
than largely, means "principally," "mainly," "essentially": "My inter-
est is chiefly in the salary." Related words include notably, signally,
especially, markedly, and exceptionally.

last, latest. The adjective and adverb late has later for its comparative
degree and last and latest as the superlative. Both superlatives mean
"coming after all others," but last has more extended meanings than
latest. Latest is restricted to a meaning of "current'' and' 'most recent'':
"This is the latest bulletin on the disaster." "His suit was cut in the
latest style." Last means "final" (in his last illness); "conclusive" (the
last word in the argument); "extreme" (the lasl degree of agony);
"pertaining to the end" (the last day of the year); and "single" (every
last seat in the house). Remember that last suggests an end, a finality,
that latest does not: "Let's hope his latest mistake will be his last."
"When I last saw her, she was excited about her latest boyfriend."

latter, later. As is mentioned in the entry FORMER, latter means "the

second of two": "I prefer your latter suggestion to your first." Latter
also has the meaning of "more advanced in time" and "near the end":
"In the latter years of his life, he was a happy man." "In these latter
months she has become angry and frustrated." In sentences such as
these two, later, being the comparative degree of late, could be substi-
tuted for latter. However, later is more likely to be used to refer largely
or solely to time references, whereas latter can refer not only to time but
to any kind of series: "I may be free or occupied in the morning; in the
latter event, I shall have to see you later in the day."

laudable, laudatory. Laudable means "praiseworthy," "commenda-

ble," "deserving approval": "Your suggested plan is both practical and
laudable." Laudatory means "containing or expressing praise": "The
speaker addressed several laudatory remarks to the class before he
handed out diplomas."

lavish, profuse. These words refer to that which exists in great quan-
tity. Lavish implies excessive openhandedness and generosity: "The
food, decorations, and entertainment at the party were lavish." Profuse
suggests exaggeration and overstatement: "Please accept my profuse
thanks for your hospitality." Related words are excessive, unstinted,
improvident, generous, and openhanded.
lawful. See LEGAL.

lay, lie. Lay means "to place" and is a transitive verb requiring an
object. Lie, in the context here, means "to recline," is intransitive, and
 139

least, less, lest

takes no object. "I shall lay the rug on the floor." "Please lie down
here." The principal parts of lay are lay, laid, laid, laying; the principal
parts of lie are lie, lay, lain, lying. Among hackneyed expressions
employing lay and lie may be cited "lay down the law," "lay of the
land," "lay oneself open," "lay by the heels," "lay down one's life,"
"lay heads together," "lay one's cards on the table," "lay a course,"
"lay about one," "lay for," "lay it on with a trowel (or shovel)," "lay it
on thick," "lie down on the job," "lie low," "take lying down," "lie in
wait," and "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." See also LAID.
lazy, idle, indolent. These words mean "not active," "not in use or
operation," "doing nothing." Although lazy can be used without imply-
ing reproach or condemnation, as in "lazy afternoon," it usually sug-
gests criticism: "That boy is too lazy to learn." "I'm looking for a helper
who is not incurably lazy." Idle suggests temporary inactivity or doing
nothing through necessity, and hence carries no implication of faultfind-
ing: "The machines are idle during the noon hour." "Because supplies
did not arrive that day, the work crew was idle for seven hours."
Indolent is applied to someone who not only avoids effort but likes to
indulge in relaxation: "Jon was a contented, indolent fisherman." "Sell-
ing from door to door is no occupation for an indolent person." Related
words that convey greater degrees of reproof than either lazy or indolent
are sluggish and slothful.

lead, led. These words are sometimes confused because the past tense
of lead is led, which is pronounced like the metal lead. When an object
is covered or treated with lead (the metal), it is leaded, but such a
condition bears no relationship to the verb that means "to show the
way," "to conduct or escort": "If you lead the way, I'll follow you."
"You have led me to make a foolish mistake." "This experiment has led
me to believe that lead is a heavy, soft, malleable metal."
leaflet. See BROCHURE.

learn, teach. In standard usage, learn (meaning "to gain knowledge")

is never acceptable in the sense of teach ("to instruct," "to impart
knowledge"). One can learn something, but he cannot learn someone
else anything: "This should teach (not learn) you to stay out of trou-
ble." "If you will take the time to teach me, I'll try to learn."

least, less, lest. Least is the superlative degree of little; less is the
comparative: "Toby has less money that I have; in fact, she has the least
money of any girl in our group." Both least and less always refer to
amount, size, or importance: "less value," "least importance," "least
influence," "less distance." (For the distinctions between less and
fewer, see FEWER.) "At least" and "not in the least" are frequently
mere fillers in conversation and are overworked phrases. Neither least
 140
leastways, leastwise

nor less should be confused with the conjunction lest, which means "for
fear that": "He kept moving his fingers lest they freeze in the bitter
cold." Lest also conveys the meaning of "so that" when used to
introduce a statement suggesting a need for caution: "Don't say much
lest the opposition steal your plan."

leastways, leastwise. These words are dialectal, appearing only in

regional speech and never in formal writing. They mean "at any rate,"
"in any event," or "at least": "Leastways, that's what I thought he
said." "You could leastwise try harder." Both words are highly infor-
mal conversation fillers and should not be used in writing or speech
unless employed for the purpose of characterizing an uneducated person.

leave, let These words are interchangeable only when accompanied by

alone: "Leave (or let) Eleanor alone." In correct usage, let normally
means "to allow," "to permit," "to cause": "Let me do that for you."
Leave usually means "to go away from" or "to cause to remain": "If
you leave me undisturbed, I can finish the work quickly."

led. See LEAD.

legal, lawful. The basic meanings of legal and lawful, as well as the
distinctions in meaning between them, are explained in the entry ILLE-
GAL. Legal means "according to human law," but lawful has further
meanings of "conforming to moral principle" and " in line with religious
or ethical doctrine." Thus one refers to "legal rights" or "lawful
rights " but is more likely to say "lawful marriage" than "legal mar-
riage" and "lawful living" than "legal living."

legend. See MYTH.

legible. See READABLE.

legitimate. See ILLEGITIMATE.

lend, loan. Loan has long been established as a verb, especially in

business circles (loan the firm some money), but lend is considered
preferable by many careful writers and speakers: "I refused to lend (not
loan) him my car for the evening." Loan (not lend) should be used as a
noun. If you prefer to use lend rather than loan as a verb (perhaps
because "Distance loans enchantment" sounds odd), remember that the
past tense and past participle are lent: "The bank lent him money
yesterday." "The bank has lent him money many times."
lengthy, long. The serviceable and most often used word to indicate
"extending in space," "of considerable duration," "not short," and
"not brief' is long: "London is a long distance from Budapest." "The
 142

lighted, lit

means "long in passing," "whole": "She spent the livelong day on the
beach."
lighted, lit. The past tense of light is lighted or lit. Thus, it is correct to
say "Bill lighted a cigar" and "Bill lit a cigar." Take your choice; one is
as standard as the other. True, you are more likely to refer to a ' lighted
cigarette" than a "lit cigarette," but you are also more likely to say "Bill
lit the match" than "Bill lighted the match." Since light may also mean
"to descend" or "to land," either lighted or lit may be used to refer to
all things that come down, whether planes, snow, or birds: "The bird
lighted (or lit) on the roof."

lightening, lightning. Lightening (pronounced "LAITun ning")

means "making lighter in weight," "lessening." Lightning (pronounced
"LAIT-ning") is an electrical discharge. "By lightening the load, we can
travel faster." "What is your opinion of the story about Ben Franklin
and lightning?"

like. In recent years, like has been used so increasingly for as or as if

that this usage is now accepted as popular or informal in constructions
formerly considered nonstandard. When like precedes a noun that is not
followed by a verb, its use is standard: "He talked like an expert." The
use of like as a subordinating conjunction is not recommended, however
(He drank beer like it was going out of style). In standard usage, say as
or as if in clauses of comparison: "You should do as I tell you," not
"You should do like I tell you." No longer do you need to avoid like
"like" you once did, but it is preferable to use it only in a prepositional
sense. In other situations, use as i f , though, and as though not only for
correctness but for effective variety. You will then speak as (not like) a
good speaker should.
In recent years, like has become a filler, a throwaway word used
constantly in the speech of many persons, especially young people:
"You know, I want to, like I said, try to do better, but something always,
like, gets in the way." One can sympathize with the nervousness or
ignorance that presumably causes this misuse and overuse, but one can
also avoid the practice himself. See also AS IF.

like for, like to. These phrases are nonstandard in expressions such as
"Yd like for you to have it" and "She Me to have drowned." From the
first example, omit for; for like to have in the second, substitute nearly
or almost.

likely. See APT.

likes of. This is a nonstandard expression when used to mean "of a

kind," "of a sort." Avoid a statement such as "She wore a hat the likes
 143
litany, liturgy

of which I'd never seen before." Use like or omit the expression
entirely.

like to. See LIKE FOR.

likewise. This is a standard adverb meaning "moreover," "in addi-

tion": "Mrs. James is likewise our best hostess." Likewise also means
"similarly," "same here," "in the same way." It must be this latter
meaning that causes a person to acknowledge an introduction to some-
one who says "I'm glad to meet you" with the silly comment "Like-
wise." Why not respond "I am, too" or with the ungrammatical but
familiar "Me, too"?
limit, delimit. To limit is to restrict, contain, or keep within bounds:
"The chairman will limit each speaker to five minutes." "Please limit
your expense accounts for the next few weeks." To delimit is to mark off
boundaries, to separate by fixing lines: "The line of demarcation will
delimit the fighting areas." "A stone wall delimits my property on the
south."
lineage, linage. Confusion between these words is due to spelling and
pronunciation. Linage is a word of two syllables (LIE'nij) meaning the
number of printed lines covered by an article, story, advertisement, or
the like and also the amount charged or received for each printed line. It
is always pronounced in two syllables but may also be spelled lineage, a
word preferably reserved to mean "ancestry" or "line of descendants."
In this meaning, the word (however spelled) is pronounced in three
syllables (LIN'e'ij). "The linage in this issue of our magazine is down by
10 percent from last month." "She tried to trace her lineage to early
settlers in Jamestown, Virginia."

liqueur, liquor. These words refer to alcoholic beverages, but a liqueur

is a sweet, strong, highly flavored alcoholic drink such as creme de
menthe (literally, "cream of mint") or chartreuse. Another name for
liqueur is cordial. A liquor is a distilled or spirituous beverage, such as
brandy or whiskey, which is distinguished from fermented beverages like
beer and wine. The broth from meats or vegetables is also called liquor.
"The partygoers had several drinks of liquor before dinner and turned to
liqueurs after dessert." "His favorite liqueur is Drambuie; his favorite
liquor is bourbon." "The liquor from these greens is rich in vitamins."

lit. See LIGHTED.

litany, liturgy. A litany is a ceremonial form of prayer. It consists of a

series of invocations (calls) or petitions followed by responses: "The
language of the litany in the Book of Common Prayer is considered
 144
literally

beautiful." Litany may also refer to any recitation or recital of lines and
to a prolonged or monotonous account: "His recital of mishaps was a
litany of bad luck." Liturgy refers to a form of public worship, to a ritual
of services. It is applied especially to what is known as the Eucharist in
the Eastern Church and as the Mass in the Western Church. "At the
seminary, he studied liturgies, the art and science of conducting public
worship that is known as liturgy."

literally. See FIGURATIVELY.

literate, illiterate. The basic distinctions between these words are

treated in the entry ILLITERATE. In addition to meaning "able to read and
write," literate means "literary" and "possessing skill, polish, and
refinement": "Everyone should be able to read and write, but it requires
hard work and much study to become truly literate."

liturgy. See LITANY.

live. See RESIDE.

livelong. See LIFELONG.

loan. See LEND.

loath, loathe. Loath is an adjective meaning "reluctant," "unwilling,"

"averse," "disinclined": "I am always loath to admit my mistakes."
Loathe is a verb meaning "to detest," "to abhor," "to abominate," "to
feel disgust for": "Most people loathe the rude jangling of an alarm
clock."

locality, location. These words have much the same general meaning:
"a place, district, or spot." Location is much more often used, however,
when people are involved in the reference. That is, locality is usually
restricted to its geographical meaning, whereas location specifically
means "a place of residence or settlement": "Many mines were once
worked in that locality." "This valley is a good location for you to settle
in." Motion picture companies leave studios to film not "in or at a
location" but "on location," meaning a place or spot where action can
be filmed.

locate, settle. Each of these words is used to mean "to establish

oneself, one's residence, or one's business in a place": "He located (or
settled) in a small Western town." Settle is preferred when reference is
to the residences, or living quarters, of people: "The soldiers settled into
the fort quickly." "Government authorities will settle this area with
newly arrived immigrants." Although locate is not incorrect in this
meaning, it is considered less refined and more dialectal than settle. In
 145
lots, heaps

other words, settle has the connotation of location, locate that of

locality. See also LOCALITY.

location. See LOCALITY.

locution, circumlocution. Locution means "a style of speech," "a

manner of oral expression," "phraseology," "a particular form of
expression": "The locution of native-born speakers differs from that of
immigrants." "The locution of deaf persons sometimes seems strained
and awkward." Circumlocution derives its meaning from its prefix,
circum-, an element meaning "around" and "about." That is, circumlo-
cution is locution that is roundabout, indirect, or wordy. "At this point
in time" is a circumlocution for now.or today.
lofty. See TALL.

lonely, lonesome. These words mean about the same .thing and are
frequently used interchangeably. A lonely person is likely to be lone-
some because he is "without companions" or "remote from places of
human habitation." Lonesome, rather than lonely, is more often used to
mean "isolated," "desolate," and "unfrequented": "This is a lonesome
part of the forest." "The narrow path wound through a lonesome stretch
of country." Lonely conveys a feeling of dejection, depression, or
sadness: "Janet was almost in tears because she felt so lonely." In the
sense that lonely and lonesome mean "alone," one of man's greatest
achievements is to be alone and yet possess such inner resources that he
feels neither lonely nor lonesome.

long. See LENGTHY.

longshoreman, stevedore. These words are used interchangeably, but

to discriminating users of language a longshoreman (the word longshore
is a variant of alongshore) is someone employed to load and unload
vessels. A stevedore (a word derived from a Spanish term meaning "to
pack," "to stow") is an employer of longshoremen. A stevedore is a
hiring firm or group of men; a longshoreman is a laborer on wharves.
lots, heaps. In the meaning o f ' 'a great many'' or "a great deal," these
words are informal: "lots of trouble," "a lot of money," "heaps of
food," "heaps of good times." When used in this sense (an indefinitely
large amount), both lot and lots are singular when appearing alone and
plural when followed by of and a plural noun: "This is a lot." "Help
yourself to the food; lots is here." "Lots of girls are at the party." Lot
and lots require a singular verb when followed by of and a singular noun:
"This is a lot of money." "There is lots of news on the radio tonight."
Nearly always, many or much can be substituted for a lot, lot of, and
lots of. Meaning "all," "the lot" is informal: "I'll disregard the lot."
 146
loud, loudly

Heaps is at least as casual as lots when used to mean "a great deal."
Avoid saying "heaps of people" and "a heap of misery" unless you are
striving to create a homespun, folksy atmosphere. Heap is slang for an
old run-down automobile, but rattletrap is a more colorful term.
loud, loudly. Loud can be both an adjective and an adverb, but loudly
may be used only as the latter. It is permissible to say "Shout out loud"
or "Shout out loudly." Such optional usage is common after such verbs
as sing, talk, say, scream, and laugh, but among careful speakers and
writers, loudly is preferred. Also, one "boasts loudly (not loud)," and
loudly is accepted idiomatic usage with such other verbs as insist, brag,
state, and exclaim. It is safer to use loud only as an adjective (a loud
noise, the noise was loud).

louse, lousy. Louse is a slang term for a contemptible person. "Louse

up" is slang for "botch" and "spoil." Lousy is slang for "well-sup-
plied" (lousy with money) and "unpleasant," "inferior," "worthless" (a
lousy cold, a lousy meal, a lousy show). Lousy also means "infested
with lice"; if you wish to impress friends, say pediculous.
lowbrow. See HIGHBROW.

lunch, luncheon. These words refer to a light meal eaten at some time
between breakfast and dinner (or supper). Lunch is considered more
informal than luncheon. If the meal is customary and uneventful, use
lunch. If it is an occasion, a formal occurrence, say luncheon. "Pick me
up for lunch." "The annual luncheon for employees will be given next
week." Lunch can also serve as a verb (lunch with me), but luncheon is
a noun only.

lustful, lusty. These words are derived from an Old English word mean-
ing "desire" and "pleasure," but they have different meanings and
applications in modern usage. Lustful means "full of greed": "This
politician is lustful for power." Lustful also means "lecherous," "hav-
ing lewd desires," "sexually desirous": "Persons who like X-rated films
are usually lustful." "Young girls often claim to fear lustful males."
Lusty means "full of vigor," "hearty," "robust," "sturdy," "strong":
"This is a lusty young athlete." "He has a lusty attitude toward life." A
lusty person may be lustful, but not necessarily. A lustful person may
not be lusty at all.

luxuriant, luxurious. Luxuriant means "growing abundantly," "flour-

ishing vigorously": "The tropical foliage was luxuriant." Luxurious
means "fond of, or given to, luxury": "These hotel rooms are luxuri-
ous." Approximate synonyms of luxurious are sensuous, voluptuous,
sumptuous, self-indulgent, epicurean, and rich. Approximate synonyms
of luxuriant are lush, teeming, fruitful, and prolific.
 147

lyric, lyrical

lyric, lyrical. These two adjectives may be used interchangeably to refer

to anything that is characterized by spontaneous feeling, by an outpour-
ing of emotion. Both words are applied to poetry that has the musical
quality of song and to any kind of writing or speech reflecting sensation
and mood: "lyric (or lyrical) poetry," "lyric (or lyrical) song," "lyric (or
lyrical) love letters." Lyric is more often used, and is preferred, except
when the feeling to be conveyed is somewhat unformed and vague: "The
mother was lyrical in praise of her daughter's performance." Use of
lyric to refer to the words of a song (The melody is great, but the lyrics
are poor) is informally colloquial.
 M
machismo. This term from Spanish is now commonly used to indicate
such qualities as courage, virility, and aggressiveness. It may also be
used to mean an attitude of male superiority. Machismo is a useful,
colorful, acceptable term, but widespread employment is rapidly turning
it into a trite expression.
mad. Mad is informal when combined with about or over to indicate
enthusiasm (mad about football). It is slang when used to mean "un-
usual" or "pointless" (mad conversation) and "gay" or "frantic" (a
mad dash for the train). "Like mad" is slang for "wildly" (driving like
mad). "To have a mad on" is slang for "to sulk," "to be angry." "Mad
as a hatter" is a hackneyed expression. See also ANGRY.

madam. Spelled as madam and pronounced' 'MAD'uhm,'' the term is a

title of respect and a form of address to a woman. Spelled as madame
and pronounced "mah DAHM," the word is a French title of courtesy
and is roughly equivalent to Mrs. The plural of both madam and
madame is mesdames (MAY'dahm). It is safe enough to call any woman
madam, but you should be careful not to refer to one as "a madam,"
unless you are in a brothel. Ma'am is an informal abbreviation of
madam and madame. Missus and missis are illiteracies. Mrs. (pro-
nounced "MIS iz") has a plural of Mmes. and is a title prefixed to the
names of married women only. The title Ms., prefixed to the names of
women, married or single, is being used more and more often. See also
MR.

magic, magical. As a noun, magic refers to producing results through

mysterious influences or unexplained powers. It involves the control by
persons skilled in magic of supernatural agencies and the forces of
nature. In view of this meaning, magic seems loosely used and overused
to refer to occurrences that might correctly be labeled "unusual,"
"effective," or "spectacular." "His piano playing was magic" and
"When she smiled, the effect was magic" are examples of such misuses
of a powerfully charged word. As an adjective, magic means much the
same as magical, but here again exaggeration is usually apparent: "The
lovers spent a magical (or magic) night" and "This baritone has a magic
(or magical) range to his voice" are examples of overemphasis. Recom-
mendation: use both adjectives sparingly and always place magic
directly before the word it modifies: "magic number," "magic square,"
"magic lantern," "magic artistry." If this can't be done, use magical.
 149

manifold, multiform, multiple

maintain, repair, service. Use of these words reflects the social atti-
tudes of those who use them fully as much as the basic meanings of the
terms themselves. Presumably because many persons feel that the word
serve suggests something menial and degrading, such terms as mainte-
nance engineer and appliance custodian have replaced the concept of
serving in such terms as repairman and serviceman. (Serviceman is a
term still in general use for a member of the armed forces of a country.)
Maintain means "to preserve," "to keep in due operation and condi-
tion": "The crew is expected to maintain this highway throughout the
winter." The act of maintaining may involve making repairs but is
usually restricted to mean "watching over," "preventing trouble."
Repair suggests restoration or renewal: "The doctor sent him to a dry
climate so that he could repair his health." "The only way to repair this
refrigerator is to install a new motor." Service is an inclusive word with
the meanings of both maintain and repair as well as that of inspection:
"This company will service all parking meters in the city." Service is
incorrectly used for serve in a sentence such as "This bus line services
four counties."

majority, plurality, minority. One meaning of majority is "more than

half." Plurality means "the highest number within a given number,"
"the excess of votes received by the leader over the next candidate when
three or more are competing." If Joe got eighty votes, Jack sixty, and
Bill forty, Joe would have a plurality of twenty but not a majority
because he received fewer than half the votes cast. Majority is often
used as a loose substitute for many. In this context, minority means a
number, amount, or part forming less than half of the whole. Minority
also applies to a group differing in ethnic background, race, or religion
from the majority of a population. "The Democrats form the majority
party in this county." "To win this election, you will need a plurality of
the votes, not necessarily a majority." "In this state, Chinese-Ameri-
cans are a minority group." See also BULK.
male, manly, masculine. These words are closely related but have
distinct meanings and applications. Male always refers to sex: "Jim
belongs to a male choir." Manly implies possession of the most desira-
ble qualities a male can have. Masculine refers to the qualities of a male
as contrasted with those of a female. Male, manly, and masculine have
the shades of meaning concerning men that female, womanly, and
feminine have for women. See also FEMALE.
malodorous. See ODOROUS.

manage. See HANDLE.

manifold, multiform, multiple. Manifold means "of many kinds," with

the added suggestion that the number involved is not only large but
varied and complex: "The superintendent of the apartment building had
 150
manly

duties that were manifold.'''' Multiform means "having many forms of

many different kinds": "The obstacles to saving money are multiform,
but a strict budget will help overcome them." Multiple means "consist-
ing of many parts or elements": "There are multiple risks in starting a
new business." Related words include numerous, multifarious, myriad,
sundry, various, and multitudinous.

maniy. See MALE.

manner. See FASHION.

manner born. This expression has come to mean "accustomed by birth

to a high position." In this expression, manner is frequently spelled
manor, through the mistaken idea that "manor born" means "born to
high estate, to the aristocracy." The word should be manner, meaning
"custom," "habitual practice." One should have no trouble with the
expression if he will recall the Shakespearean passage in which it origi-
nated. In Hamlet, Horatio asks about the sound of trumpets, guns, and
drums. Hamlet tells him that each time the King (Claudius) takes a drink,
the act is followed by this outburst. When asked if this uproar is a
custom, Hamlet replies: "Ay, marry, it is;/ But to my mind, though I am
native here/ And to the manner born, it is a custom/ More honored in the
breach than the observance."

manslaughter. See HOMICIDE.

manuscript, typescript. A manuscript is a letter, document, or book

written by hand; it is writing as distinguished from print. Manuscript
comes from Latin words meaning "written by hand," but the term is
now applied to an author's copy of a work, whether in longhand or
typewritten, that is used as the basis for typesetting. Typescript is a
typewritten copy of a composition; it refers to such matter as distin-
guished from handwritten or printed material. "This manuscript is writ-
ten in pencil." "The typescript of this short story is twenty pages long."

marital, martial. Marital pertains to marriage, martial to war. Only

cynics would maintain that the words are interchangeable. Note both
spelling and pronunciation: MAR-uh'tuhl and MAHR-shuhl. "Marital
disagreements sometimes lead to separation and divorce." "The ancient
Spartans were considered a martial people."
marriage, nuptials, wedding. Each of these words applies to the cere-
mony ofjoining couples in matrimony, uniting them in wedlock. Marriage
is the most commonly used word; it refers not only to the ceremony itself
but to the union of a couple as long as that union lasts: "The proud
parents recently announced the marriage of their daughter." "The
Blakes' marriage lasted for fifty years." Nuptials is a formal word
 151
materially, greatly

usually applied to a ceremony involving persons of high social standing,

wealth, or nobility: "The royal nuptials of Elizabeth and Philip were
celebrated by millions of people." Wedding, a term applying only to the
ceremony (unlike marriage), has emotional and sentimental connota-
tions: "Her wedding was so beautiful that it had many guests in tears."
martial. See MARITAL.

martyr, victim. A martyr is someone who (1) willingly suffers death

because of his beliefs and attitudes or (2) is tortured or killed because of
his principles or unwillingness to give up a cause or faith. The word is
loosely overused to refer to anyone who undergoes severe suffering or
hardship or who seeks attention by pretending pain or loss. A person
who dedicates his life to some cause at the expense of his health or
financial standing may be called a martyr: "He lived his adult life as a
martyr to the cause of equal rights for everyone." A parent who stays at
home to care for children rather than going out to play bridge or engage
in hanky-panky is something less than a martyr. A victim is a sufferer
from any iiyurious or destructive action or event or one who is cheated
and deceived by others: "The hospital is filled with accident victims."
"Joe was the victim of his own stupidity." "Because of his immaturity,
he is often the victim of misplaced confidence."
masculine. See MALE.

masterly, masterful. These terms imply having the skill or art of a

master. Masterly is usually restricted to a meaning of "skillful," how-
ever, whereas masterful suggests authority, dominance, and force:
"Napoleon, a masterful man, deployed his troops in a masterly way."

material, materiel. The more common of these words, material

(muh-TIR'i-uhl) means "matter," "substance," "constituent element."
Matiriel (muh'TEER-rel) is usually limited to equipment or supplies
and is distinguished from personnel (people). "The material in this dress
is shoddy." "The retreating army left behind vast quantities of mate-
riel"
materialize. This word means "to give form to," "to make physically
apparent": "The money we hoped to make in this venture never mate-
rialized. " Materialize is overused as a polysyllabic synonym for "to take
place," "to develop," or "to happen" and should not be used in a
sentence such as "The anxiety which I expected to feel never did
materialize."
materially, greatly. Materially means "considerably," "to an impor-
tant degree": "The small check he sent did not help my problem
materially." Materially also means "physically" when used with refer-
 152
materiel

ence to material matters and conditions: "Because of the condition of the

roads it was materially impossible to make good time." In nearly every
situation arising in speech or writing, greatly can effectively substitute
for materially and is less likely to be misunderstood. "My health is
materially improved" can just as effectively be stated "My health is
greatly improved."

materiel. See MATERIAL.

matinee performance. A matinee (derived from a French word mean-

ing "morning") is a performance or entertainment presented in the
daytime, usually in the afternoon. To say "There will be an extra
matinee performance next week" is to be unnecessarily wordy. Omit
performance.
matricide. See PATRICIDE.

maunder, meander. Maunder means "to talk in a meaningless, ram-

bling, foolish way": "The speaker maundered on and on for what
seemed hours." Meander means "to ramble," "to wander aimlessly,"
"to go by an indirect course": "The stream meandered down the
mountainside." It is true, however, that one can meander in speech as
well as in movement, so that a speaker can be said to meander or
maunder. If the wandering in speech is clever or brilliant, call it mean-
dering; if it is dull and pointless, call it maundering.

may. See CAN.

maybe, may be. Maybe is an adverb meaning "possibly," "perhaps":

"Maybe it will snow tonight." May be is a verb phrase, two words that
express possibility or likelihood: "It may be that it will snow tonight."
mean. See AVERAGE.

meander. See MAUNDER.

media, medias. See MEDIUM.

median. See AVERAGE.

mediate. See ARBITRATE.

meditate. See CONTEMPLATE.

medium, media, medias. These words refer to an agency, means,

method, or instrument by which information and advertising may be
made public. Such agencies and means include principally newspapers,
magazines, radio and television broadcasting, and films. The singular is
 153
meticulous, scrupulous

medium: "Television is an important medium for national advertisers."

The plural is mediums and media: "In his campaign, the congressman
used such media (or mediums) as spot announcements on radio and
television and paid newspaper advertisements." It is nonstandard to
refer to "a mass media such as television." Medium means "one
method of mass communication." Media (or mediums) means "more
than one method." Medias is an incorrect plural.
meet, meet with. In the sense of "to come into the company of," meet
and meet with have different meanings: "The mayor wishes to meet the
new members of the council. " "The mayor wishes to meet with the new
members of the council." In the first sentence, meet means "to make the
acquaintance o f ' ; in the second, "to join the company of." Both meet
and meet with can mean "to come across," "to encounter": "I rarely
meet her on the street since her illness." "My plan will meet with
considerable opposition." Meet with (not meet) is used in the sense of
"to suffer," "to undergo," and "to experience": "Betty met with a
serious accident."

meet up with. This is a wordy, nonstandard expression. "I met up with

some girls on the beach" is better expressed by "I met some girls on the
beach" or "I encountered some. . . . "
meet with. See MEET.

melody. See HARMONY.

memo, memorandum. Memorandum is a word of Latin origin meaning

"short note," "record of events," "brief message." Memo is an infor-
mal but widely used and acceptable abbreviation: "This executive begins
each day with a memorandum (or memo) to all salesmen." The standard
plural of memorandum is either memorandums or memoranda; the
plural of memo is memos: "Please stop sending me so many memoran-
dums (or memoranda or memos)."
meridian, meridiem. These words are so closely related in meaning that
using one for the other is understandable and usually unnoticed. Merid-
ian means "midday," just as meridiem does. Thus postmeridian (one
word) and post meridiem (two words) mean "occurring after noon," "in
the afternoon." When the abbreviations A.M. and P.M. are spelled out,
the word should be meridiem (ante meridiem, post meridiem).
metaphor. See SIMILE.

meticulous, scrupulous. These words are often used interchangeably

but should not be. Meticulous means "unusually careful about small
details," "exact," "precise," "finicky": "She spends hours working
with her hair because she is meticulous about her appearance." "A
 154
microbe

watchmaker has to be meticulous in his work." Scrupulous means

"conscientious," "principled," "showing regard for what is considered
right": "This person has a scrupulous regard for the dignity of others."
microbe. See GERM.

might, mighty. Might is the past tense of may {see CAN). Avoid such
nonstandard expressions as "might o f ' and "might could" (for might
have or might). In the senses of possibility and permission, may is more
intense than might. "He may die" is stronger than "He might die," and
"May I stay?" is more forceful than "Might I stay?" As a noun, might
appears in such trite expressions as "with might and main" and "with all
his might." Mighty is informal in the sense of "very" (mighty scared).

militate. See MITIGATE.

minimal, minimum. Minimal is an adjective meaning "smallest,"

"least possible": "He secured a loan at a minimal rate of interest."
Minimum is primarily a noun meaning "the least quantity or amount
possible" (Jack expended a minimum of time on studying), but is also
used as an adjective with the same meaning as minimal: "This is a
minimum risk." Neither minimal nor minimum means "just a little" or
"not much"; both mean "the least possible." In adjectival use, careful
speakers prefer minimal to minimum.

minimize. See DIMINISH.

minister. See PASTOR.

minority. See MAJORITY.

mishap. See ACCIDENT.

misplace. See DISPLACE.

misremember. See FORGET.

mitigate, militate. These "look-alikes" are easily confused. Mitigate

means "to lessen," "to soften," "to moderate": "Because the culprit
readily confessed his guilt, the judge mitigated the sentence." Militate
means "to have effect or influence," "to operate against or for (usually
against)": "The fact that he is an addict militated against him." "Every-
thing militated in his favor because of mitigating circumstances in his
background."

mobile, movable. What is mobile is movable, but what is movable is

not always mobile. Movable means "capable of being moved" and
 155

money, monies

"able to be rearranged": "This statue is heavy but movable.'' "Easter is

a movable date." Mobile means "capable of moving," "responding to
impulses and emotions": "Although the player was badly injured, he
was still mobile." "She is a lively person with a mobile expression." A
heavy sofa may or may not be movable but is never mobile. The
antonym of movable is immovable; that of mobile is immobile.

mode. See FASHION.

moderate. See CONSERVATIVE.

modern, modernistic. These words can correctly be used synony-

mously, but in some situations their meaning differs. Modern should be
applied as an adjective to anything that exists in the present age, exists
now in contrast to existence in an earlier period:4 'Becky cannot adjust to
modern city life." "Bob prides himself on his modern viewpoints."
"That building is an excellent example of modern architecture.' * Modern-
istic can be used as modern is, but it is more often applied to items or
ideas that have been, or may be, short-lived, exaggerated, or experimen-
tal: "I like up-to-date styles, but this furniture seems too modernistic to
me." "His life-style is so modernistic as to seem unorthodox and even
incredible."
modest, shy. A modest person is humble, someone who is free from
egotism, vanity, and boastfulness. A modest individual is moderate in
his behavior and speech. "Lincoln was a great but modest man." "Mrs.
Morgan is a self-respecting, modest woman." A shy person is timid,
easily frightened, and bashful. A shy girl wishes to escape notice and
avoids close association with others: "Beth was once a shy, retiring girl
who blushed easily." A shy person is diffident; a modest person is
unassuming.
momentarily, momently. Momentarily means (1) "at any moment," (2)
"from moment to moment," and (3) "for a moment": "The Wast will be
set off momentarily." "Our chances are improving momentarily."
"Let's sit down and rest momentarily.'''' Momently, now rarely used,
formerly meant only "at any moment": "He will get here momently." In
current speech and writing, momently may occasionally be used in any
of the three meanings of momentarily but has largely disappeared from
the language.

money, monies. Money is money, a collective noun or mass word that

rarely appears in plural form. When a plural is needed, as in referring to
the currencies of different countries, the preferred spelling is moneys:
"The moneys of Great Britain, France, and Germany have a different
base." In some financial reports and legal papers, the plural monies
appears, but this form is not generally approved.
 156
monologue, dialogue

monologue, dialogue. From Greek terms meaning "one word" or

"one person," monologue refers to a speech by one person. In drama,
monologue applies to a form of entertainment by a single speaker or to
an extended part of the text of a play uttered by an actor or actress.
Monologue is sometimes used disparagingly to refer to the comments of
someone who talks glibly and incessantly: "Several of the most moving
passages in Hamlet are the monologues delivered by leading charac-
ters." "It's impossible to have a conversation with him because all he
does is talk in monologue." Dialogue, from Greek words meaning "two
words" or "two speeches," refers to conversation between two or more
persons. Dialogue is a currently popular term for an exchange of ideas
on such issues as politics, human rights, economics, and religion: "The
managers and workers in this plant should have a dialogue about their
common problems."
moonlight, moonlit, moonlighted. Although moonlight is used most
often as a noun ("the light of the moon"), it is also an adjective (a
moonlight evening) and a verb ("to work at a spare-time job"). When
used as a verb, moonlight forms its principal parts as does light: moon-
light, moonlighted or moonlit, moonlighted or moonlit. Thus it is correct
to say "He moonlighted for extra money"; "It was a moonlighted (or
moonlit) night"; "The evening was moonlighted (or moonlit)." Moonlit
is the preferred form of both adjective and past participle. Moonlighted
is the preferred past tense of the verb. See also LIGHTED.

moot. This word when used as an adjective means (1) subject to debate,
arguable, unresolved; and (2) of only slight importance or significance:
"This is a moot question." "Whether the player is black or white is a
moot consideration." That is, "a moot question" is debatable; "a moot
point" is of no importance. In law schools, a moot court is a mock court
in which contrived cases are tried as a method of training; in this
situation, moot is used to mean both "arguable" and "hypothetical."

moral, morale. These words are distinct in pronunciation and meaning

as well as in spelling. Moral (MOR*uhl or MAWR uhl) is concerned with
the goodness or badness of human action and character. Morale
(mur-RAL or muh-RAHL) refers to the state of spirits of a person or
group. "Most philosophers consider man a moral being." "A bonus plan
was adopted in order to boost the morale of the sales force." No exact
one-word synonyms exist for morale, but for moral you can use ethical,
upright, righteous, virtuous, noble, and scrupulous.

morals. See ETHICS.

morbid, sordid. Although these words have a slight connection, they

should be differentiated. A morbid person is in an unhealthy mental
state, is excessively gloomy: "Dick has a morbid view of man's future."
 157

Moslem, Muslim

Morbid also means "gruesome," "horrible," "grim": "Motorists

slowed down to observe the morbid sight of the recent accident." Sordid
means "poor" or "run-down" (a sordid place to live) and "selfish" or
"base" (the sordid methods of narcotics dealers). Approximate syno-
nyms for sordid are degraded, soiled, unclean, foul, and depraved.
Words related to morbid are unhealthy, diseased, tainted, corrupted,
and unwholesome.

more preferable. More should be dropped from this wordy expression;

preferable means "more desirable." Say "This apartment is preferable
(not more preferable) to that one." (Notice that to is used in the
preceding sentence; never say "prefer than.'''') The comparative degree
of adjectives and adverbs expresses the idea of more (or less): better (not
more better); sicker (not more sicker)', slower (not more slower)', faster
(not less, or more, faster).

more than one. Although this phrase obviously expresses a plural idea,
it is followed by a verb in the singular: "More than one story about this
event has been printed." The verb is singular because of its relation
(attraction) to one, not more. If the phrase is divided, however, the verb
becomes plural: "More stories about this event than one have been
printed." The same grammatical consideration applies to the phrase "all
but one": "Sue says that all but one child has been fed." "All of the
fifteen children but one were fed."

mornings. See AFTERNOONS.

moron, idiot, imbecile. Such experts in dealing with the human mind as
psychologists and psychiatrists have never agreed on the exact meanings
of these terms for mental deficiency. Each word is loosely used for
individuals who seem silly, stupid, dull, half-witted, and foolish; each is
often rejected in favor of dunce, dolt, and numskull. In the scale of
mental ability, an idiot ranks below a moron or an imbecile. An idiot is
one judged to be utterly senseless, foolish, and hopelessly deficient in
developing beyond the mental age of three or four. An imbecile ranks
above an idiot but lacks the capacity to develop beyond a mental age of
seven or eight. A moron is someone with an intelligence quotient of 50 to
75 and a mental age of somewhere between eight and twelve years.

mortgager, mortgagee. A mortgager (the word is also correctly

spelled mortgagor) is one who mortgages his property, that is, obligates
or pledges material goods as security for repayment of money. (The word
mortgage is derived from Latin terms meaning "death pledge.") A
mortgagee is someone to whom property is mortgaged. See also LESSEE.

Moslem, Muslim. These terms refer to a believer in, or adherent of,

Islam, a religion based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammed.
 158
most, mostly

Moslem is the spelling preferred in popular and newspaper usage, but

students of religion normally use Muslim. This latter form is also
employed by members of the Nation of Islam, an organization of Ameri-
can Negroes who call themselves Black Muslims.
most, mostly. Although most and mostly are adverbs meaning "almost
entirely," "for the most part," they are not always interchangeable.
When the desired sense is "extremely" or "to the greatest degree,"
most should be used: "Those most influenced are young children." In
the sense of "in the main" or "on the whole," mostly is preferable:
"The marchers were mostly weary." (If you mean the marchers were
utterly exhausted, say "most weary.") See also ALMOST.

motion. See RESOLUTION.

motive, motif, incentive. A motive is a desire, need, or emotion that

prompts or causes a person to act in a certain way; it is an inner urge that
produces an act, but it also applies to the result of action: "Jeb's motive
was to get even with those who had not helped him." "Fear was his
motive in trying to escape." An incentive is something offered as a
reward or prize, especially one proffered to spur competition: "Profit
sharing is an incentive for every employee in this company." Motif
comes from the same French word as motive, but it means (1) "a
dominant idea or feature," (2) "a recurring subject or theme in an artistic
work," and (3) "a distinctive form or shape in a design": "Isn't the profit
motif the principal guide in every business?" "The motif of Verdi's
Rigoletto differs from that of his "// trovatore." "I like the motif of this
wallpaper." Words allied in meaning to motive and incentive are stimu-
lus, spur, inducement, incitement, impulse, goad, prod, and encourage-
ment.

motto. See SLOGAN.

movable. See MOBILE.

Mr., Mrs., Ms. Mr. is the abbreviated form of the title Mister when used
with a name. The plural is Messrs. (For comment on Mrs. and Ms., see
MADAM.) Examples: "Mr. Seth Mieley and Mrs. Alix Greenway won the
dance contest." "Mmes. (or Mesdames) Fogarty and Sloan and Messrs.
Nieley and White attended the play." "Since I don't know and don't
care whether Barbara is married or single, call her Ms. Barbara Ken-
neally."

muchly. This adverb has gradually gone out of use. Its departure from
the language is no loss since much does all it ever did and with one less
syllable: "What you have done pleases me much." "I was much grati-
fied by your reply."
 159
mysterious, mythical, mystical

mulatto, quadroon, octoroon. Each of these terms has a scientific

basis, but each is considered offensive by many persons. Degrees of
racial designation such as these terms and half-caste and half-breed do
not always hide contempt or disdain. Although their use is not recom-
mended, one should be accurate if he does need to employ them. A
mulatto is someone with one white and one Negro parent, a person of
mixed Negro and Caucasian ancestry. The term is loosely applied to
individuals with light brown skin pigmentation. A quadroon is one-
fourth Negro, one of the grandparents being Negro, the three others
white. An octoroon is someone with one-eighth Negro ancestry.
multiform, multiple. See MANIFOLD.

murder. See HOMICIDE.

musical, musicale. Musical is an adjective referring in some way to

music and its production: "The piano is a musical instrument." "We
were invited to a musical entertainment." Musicale, a noun with its final
syllable accented as "KAL," refers to a program of music forming all or
part of a social occasion: "The musicale consisted of chamber music
performed by six senior students."

Muslim. See MOSLEM.

must. In the sense of "something not to be missed" or a "requirement,"

must is tiresomely overused: "Paris is a must on any European trip."
"A college degree is a must for this position." Musta is a clipped,
unrecommended pronunciation of must have. Another nonstandard sub-
stitute for must have is must of.
mutual. For a discussion of the use of mutual, see COMMON, MUTUAL.
An additional suggestion: avoid using mutual with words that imply
working or being together. "Mutual cooperation" is a wordy phrase
from which mutual should be deleted. How often is mutual needed with
words such as collaboration, concert, collusion, complicity, partner-
ship, fraternity, fellowship, federation, tie-up, teamwork, unison, com-
radeship, combination, and concurrence?

myself. This word is a reflexive pronoun, normally used in a sentence

with I as the subject (I hurt myself). The use of myself for me as the
object of verbs or prepositions is nonstandard; say "The supervisor
spoke to Jane and me (not myself)." Also, do not use myself as the
subject of a verb; say "The policeman and I saw the accident," not "The
policeman and myself saw the accident." See also HIM.
mysterious, mythical, mystical. Each of these words refers to some-
thing that is not easily understood or explained. By being unknown or
 160

myth, fable, legend

puzzling, that which is mysterious produces curiosity, awe, or amaze-

ment: "He is suffering from some mysterious illness that baffles the
doctors." "She acted in a most mysterious way." That which is mythi-
cal involves a myth (a traditional or legendary story about superhuman
beings) or is imaginary and without foundation: "His account of the trip
was wholly mythical." "This tale about dragons and unicorns is a
delightfully mythical narrative." Anything that is mystical has a secret
significance or meaning: "These rites are a mystical symbol of brother-
hood." "Many of Edgar Allan Poe's best stories are mystical." Related
words include occult, secret, esoteric, cryptic, obscure, inscrutable,
enigmatic, and puzzling.
myth, fable, legend. A myth is not only a legendary or traditional story,
usually one concerning a superhuman being and dealing with events that
have no natural explanation (see MYSTERIOUS), but also an unproved
belief and an invented idea or story: "The story of Atlas holding up the
world on his shoulders is a myth." "It is a myth that all sharks are
dangerous." "His excuses for his failure are only myths." A fable is a
simple story with animals as characters, one designed to teach a moral
truth: "His favorite fable was the one about the fox and the grapes."
Fable is also applied to stories about supernatural beings (resembling a
myth), to accounts of extraordinary events, and to outright falsehoods:
"Jim's account of flying with self-made wings is an outright fable." A
legend is a tradition or story handed down from earlier times and now
popularly accepted as true, believable, or delightful: "A legend forms
the basis of Irving's short story about a headless horseman in 'The
Legend of Sleepy Hollow.'"

mythical. See MYSTERIOUS.

 N
naYve. See INGENIOUS.

naked, nude. Each of these words means "without covering or cloth-

ing," "bare," "undressed," "undraped," "exposed." "The children
ran naked on the lawn." "The fields lay naked under the winter moon."
"Please tell me the naked truth." "This is a nude stretch of land laid
bare by forest fires." "Some students make money by posing in the nude
for art classes." Possibly naked seems "more bare" than nude, but the
latter can hardly be termed a euphemism. Nude is reserved, however,
for reference to an artist's painting of the human figure; Renoir painted
nudes, not naked women.

nation, country. These words are used interchangeably, but careful

writers distinguish between them. A nation is primarily a body of people
who are associated with a particular territory. A country is a tract of
land, a territory, that incidentally is the home of certain people. Empha-
sis upon either people or area is suggested in these sentences: "The
United States is a nation of diverse peoples." "The United States is a
country of vast dimensions."

natural. See NORMAL.

naught. See AUGHT.

nauseous, nauseated. Nauseous (NAW'zee-us) means "causing sick-

ness"; nauseated means "feeling sickness," "being queasy." A gas, for
instance, is nauseous and causes a person to become nauseated. (Nau-
seous is related in meaning to noisome, which means "foul," "filthy,"
or "dangerous," as in "a noisome odor.") "The audience was nau-
seated by the play." "Foul air nauseated the huge crowd." "Because
the fumes were nauseous, the people became nauseated.''''
naval, navel. Naval has to do with ships: "What is the naval strength of
that country?" "Tess is studying naval architecture." One's navel is a
mark, or depression, in the surface of the abdomen marking the point of
attachment of the umbilicus. A navel orange is so called because it has a
formation shaped like a navel that contains a secondary fruit.
near, close. These words mean "at or within a short distance or interval
 162
near, nearly

in time or space," but close is closer or nearer than near. That is, use
close when you wish to stress immediate proximity: "a close shave," "a
close call," "a close friend." Near more often conveys the idea of a
narrow margin or approximation: "a near resemblance," "a near
escape," "near neighbors." A photo finish is a close race, not a near
one. Also, one does not set a near-record. Only a record is recorded, not
a near-record.

near, nearly. Near is used as an adverb (come near me), as an adjective

(the near side of the moon), as a preposition (near the house), and as a
verb (the train nears the station). Nearly is an adverb only, with such
meanings as "almost," "all but," "intimately," "with close agree-
ment": "nearly sick with fear"; "a nearly perfect evening"; "nearly
related persons." As an adverb, nearly is usually preferable to near
except when place is involved: "I was nearly sick with a cold (not near
sick)." "I was sitting near (not nearly) you." See also NEAR, CLOSE.

nearly, almost. Some linguists have tried to distinguish between these

words by suggesting that nearly applies to time, space, or quantity
(nearly midnight, nearly at his destination, nearly enough money) and
almost to degree (almost nothing, almost dead). This distinction hardly
seems worthwhile; in the illustrations given here, almost and nearly are
interchangeable. If you wish to think of nearly as a positive word
representing an approach and almost as a "minus" word subtracting
from an idea, all right, but the difference seems too subtle for ordinary
common sense. It is true, however, that in referring to one's state of
mind or feeling, almost is preferable. One is almost afraid to do some-
thing, not nearly afraid. See also ALMOST.

necessaries. See NECESSITIES.

necessary, essential. These words are used interchangeably to mean

"indispensable or requisite for the fulfillment or accomplishment of
something." What is necessary or essential cannot be done without,
cannot be dispensed with: "Water is necessary (or essential) to sustain
life." "It is essential (or necessary) that you vote today." Essential is
the stronger word: it means "pertaining to the very essence of being." If
you tell someone that he must attend a meeting, that it is necessary for
him to be there, you are expressing strong desire and are implying some
compulsion. But if you tell him that it is essential for him to attend, the
implication is that if he doesn't, the meeting will be canceled.

necessities, necessaries. These terms apply to items or matters con-

sidered essential, necessary, requisite, or at least important: "the
necessities (or necessaries) of shelter and food." Necessities is the
stronger and more generally used of the two, except perhaps in some
 163
never, ever

sections of rural New England where necessaries has the meaning of

"privies" or "chamber pots."

nee. This French word (pronounced "nay") means "born" and is

usually placed after the name of a married woman to indicate her maiden
name: "May I introduce Mrs. Smythe, nee Brown." That is, Mrs.
Smythe had the surname of Brown before she married a man named
Smythe. It is incorrect to refer to a given name after nee. One is born
with only a family name. Avoid saying "Mrs. James Smythe, nee Sally
Brown." Omit the Sally.

need. See LACK.

negligent, negligible. Each of these words implies neglect and disre-

gard. Negligent means "indifferent," "careless," "neglectful": "Some
public officials are negligent in their duties." "Because she cared little
about her appearance, Sis was negligent in her dress." Negligible refers
to something or someone so trifling, unimportant, or small as to be
neglected or disregarded: "The cut on my finger is negligible." "The
added cost will be negligible."

Negro, black. A Negro is a member of the Negroid ethnic division of

the human species. (Negroid is a term in anthropology applying to people
who have black or brown pigmentation.) Negro, always spelled with a
capital letter, is pluralized Negroes. Negro is a reputable term with
scientific backing, but many people prefer the word black, perhaps for
the same reason that white is usually preferred to Caucasian. In the
United States, the term Afro-American is increasingly popular. Terms
such as Negress (see ACTOR), Nigra, nigger, darky, and spade are
offensive, contemptuous, evasive, and condescending words under-
standably resented by all blacks.

n e i t h e r . . . nor. See EITHER . . . OR.

neophyte. See AMATEUR.

neurotic, neurasthenic. See PSYCHOTIC.

never, ever. Never means "at no time whatsoever," "not ever," "on
no occasion," "in no way": "I will never, learn to keep quiet." "Never
mind, I'll help you." Ever has meanings exactly opposite those of never:
"Ever since then, I have been careful." "He is ever alert to the needs of
others." Ever should be used rather than never in negative statements:
"Nobody ever (not never) said that to me before." (See also DOUBLE
NEGATIVE.) Ever should also be used as an alternative to a negative: "I
refused to help him, not then or ever." Never is used as the alternative
 164
nevertheless, nonetheless

to an affirmative idea: "Seldom or never (not ever) have I seen anything

like this." When if precedes, either ever or never may be used: "If ever
I see you again!" "If I never see you again!"
nevertheless, nonetheless. These words mean "notwithstanding,"
"however," "in spite of that": "I don't like what you plan, but never-
theless (or nonetheless) I'll help." Since these are rather long words,
why not occasionally use a shorter one such as however, but, still, or
yet?
nexus. See FOCUS.

nice. This is a blanket word used and overused to describe persons,

things, or events that more exactly may be agreeable, pleasing, delight-
ful, kind, choice, delicate, minute, accurate, respectable, dainty, and
refined. When nice can mean so many things, it is no wonder that it is
rarely used nicely (that is, suitably).
nobody. See NO ONE.

no good, worthless. No good is colloquially used as both noun and

adjective to mean "without worth," "of no use or value," "good-for-
nothing," "useless": "This tramp is a no good." "This steak is no
good." Worthless is more acceptable in the meanings cited above: "This
counterfeit money is worthless." No good is an acceptable term in a
statement such as "Your help did me no good," in which good is a
noun, not an adjective.

nohow. This is a dialectal or illiterate term meaning "not at all," "in no

manner." Never write or say a sentence such as "I couldn't go with you
nohow."
noisome, noxious, obnoxious. Noisome is not related to noise but, by
derivation, is connected with annoy. It means "offensive," "destruc-
tive," "disgusting," and "harmful": "The odor of carbon monoxide is
noisome." "Catarrh is an especially noisome affliction." Noxious and
obnoxious come from the same Latin root meaning "harmful," "hurt-
ful," "injurious" and retain similar meanings: "The mists rising from the
swamp are noxious." "The smells from the biology laboratory are
obnoxious today." Obnoxious rather than noxious or noisome is pre-
ferred to refer to objectionable behavior or acts: "He was asked to leave
the party because of his obnoxious manner." Related words include
detrimental, unwholesome, corruptive, deleterious, rotten, and odious.
nom de plume, pseudonym, pen name. These terms mean "a name
used by an author instead of his real name": The nom de plume (or
 165

normal, natural

pseudonym or pen name) of William Sidney Porter was 0. Henry. Pen

name is a literal translation of the French nom de plume; pseudonym is a
Greek word for a fictitious name used to conceal identity. Nom de plume
and pen name are usually restricted to the names of writers, whereas
pseudonym can refer to a name assumed by anyone.
none. Since none is derived from not one, a long-standing rule provides
that it should always be followed by a singular verb: "None of us is
planning to go." Unfortunately for the sake of simplicity, this rule is
neither grammatical nor logical; none can mean "not any" and "no
amount" at least as often as it does "not one." A more sensible rule is
this: think of none as a plural unless a good reason exists to regard it as
singular. When none is followed by a singular noun, then the verb should
be singular: "None of the money was paid to us." If you wish to stress
the idea of a singular, then use a singular verb: "We were packed in the
bus but none was hurt when we crashed." (Here none is emphasized as
not one, but the sentence might better have employed not one or no one
if the sense is to be "nobody at all.") And what about a statement such
as this: "We have been holding discussions for weeks, but none has
succeeded." It's not likely that "one discussion" is meant. Recommen-
dation: always follow none with a verb in the singular when the clear and
unmistakable meaning of none is "not one" or "no one." In all other
situations, use a plural verb. Illustrations: "None (that is, not one) of us
has any desire to read." "None of the clothing (singular noun) is clean."
"None are more pitiable than the small children wounded by bombs."
"None of my teachers was (or were) really interested in me." Remem-
ber that verbs and related pronouns should agree in number: "None has
his hat on." "None have their hats on."

nonetheless. See NEVERTHELESS.

no one. Meaning "nobody," "no person," "not anyone," no one is

always followed by a verb in the singular: "No one is here." Many
careM users of the language feel that no one is somewhat more refined
than nobody, but it is just as correct to say "Nobody answered" as "No
one answered."

noplace. See ANYPLACE.

nor. See EITHER . . . OR.

normal, natural. Normal means "usual," "regular," "conforming to

the standard type," "not abnormal": "Anyone with normal decency
would have been horrified." "Resting when tired is normal." Anything
that is natural fits in with, and conforms to, its own nature: "Aging is a
natural process." "When someone attacks us, it is natural to strike
 166

normalcy, normality

back in some way." Since normal people usually act in a natural way (in
accord with their natures), the words are often interchangeable. See also
COMMON, ORDINARY.

normalcy, normality. Each of these words is acceptable in the meaning

of "the state of being normal," "adherence to an established level or
pattern": After the strain of war, people long to return to a state of
normalcy (or normality). In 1920, when Warren G. Harding was running
for the office of President, he declared that what the United States
needed was "not nostrums by normalcy." Harding was criticized for
using normalcy rather than normality, but he did not coin a word that
had long been in use and that is now so much more common that one
major dictionary does not list normality at all.

nostalgia, homesickness. Nostalgia comes from a Greek word mean-

ing "return home," but its meaning has been extended to indicate a
desire to return in thought or in fact to a former time in one's life.
Homesickness (home plus sick) is illness, depression, or sadness caused
by a longing for home; it is both more specific and more restricted in
meaning than nostalgia. "Several young soldiers in this company are
suffering from homesickness." "Thoughts of his childhood home and
happy youth caused a wave of nostalgia to sweep over the weary old
man." The adjectives nostalgic and homesick convey the same primary
meanings as the nouns from which they are formed:' 'This young traveler
was often homesick and lonely." "That autobiography is a nostalgic
account of the author's first thirty years."

notable, noted. Notable means "noteworthy," "worthy of notice or

attention." Noted means "celebrated," "famous," "distinguished,"
"eminent," "renowned." Although these terms have related meanings
and are often used interchangeably, notable is more often applied to
events or inanimate objects than noted is, and noted is more frequently
applied to persons. "This new model has had a notable success."
"There has been a notable increase in company profits this year." "Dr.
Popkin is a noted biologist." "This old lady was a noted beauty in her
youth."

not hardly. As is pointed out in the entry HARDLY, not hardly is a

substandard phrase that should not be used in speaking or writing. See
also DOUBLE NEGATIVE.

notion. See IDEA.

not only . . . but also. This construction is common in the speech and
writing of many persons who probably have no idea that they are using
correlative conjunctions: "Not only Fred but also Lynn and Susie are
 167
nowhere near

planning to go." "She was not only cold but also hungry." Two prob-
lems arise in connection with this construction: (1) when to use it and (2)
where to place the words. The phrase not only implies "partly," so that
it is normally followed by but also (or some equivalent word or phrase
like as well, in addition, moreover, furthermore, or too). It makes no
sense to say "It was partly this, but that." It does make; sense to say "It
was partly this, but also that." However, some constructions do not
require the use of also. Also should be dropped from a sentence such as
"Diane is not only a dancer, but also an excellent dancer." Another
point: the not only . . . but also construction is overused in many
instances where and would do as well and save wordage. It is correct to
write "Not only my hopes but also my definite plans centered on
becoming a chemist." It also is correct (and less wordy) to say "My
hopes and definite plans centered. . . . "
Correctly placing the words in this construction depends upon parallel-
ism, which requires that the parts of speech or grammatical construc-
tions following not only and but also be parallel (of the same kind).
Revise a sentence such as "Kelly said that Marian not only knew Don
but also Don's brother" to read "Kelly said that Marian knew not only
Don but also Don's brother" (a noun to follow each part of the construc-
tion). If the construction following not only is an infinitive, that which
follows but also should be an infinitive as well: a clause follows a clause,
a phrase follows a phrase, and so forth.

notorious. See FAMED.

not s c a r c e l y . See DOUBLE NEGATIVE a n d HARDLY.

not too. In this often-used phrase, too means "very" or "much": "I am
not too sure I want to do that." "I am not too inclined to pay the bill."
Not too is an example of litotes, a term meaning "understatement," as in
not bad for good and far from certain for uncertain. Not too is useful in
suggesting modesty or an unwillingness to be dogmatic (I am not too
sure of my position), and there is nothing incorrect about it. The use of
a negative with its opposite is standard practice, but the device has
become trite.
novice. See AMATEUR.

no way. This currently popular expression has already become hack-

neyed through overuse. As everyone knows, it means "not in any way,"
"without a chance," "not at all," and just about any other loose phrase
indicating "No." There is no way in which its overuse can be justified.
nowhere near. This is a colloquial or dialectal expression meaning "not
nearly" or "scarcely." Its use is not standard in a sentence such as "I
am nowhere near ready to eat."
 168

nowheres

nowheres. See ANYWHERES.

noxious. See NOISOME.

nth degree. Although not mathematically accurate, nth degree is a

popular expression for "the utmost extent" or "to a high degree or
power": "Abigail believes in living life to the nth degree." Aside from
there being no sense of largeness or greatness in the expression, the only
flaw in its use is triteness.

nude. See NAKED.

number. See AMOUNT a n d FIGURE.

nuptials. See MARRIAGE.

 o
O, oh. Except as an infrequent variant of oh, O is used in direct address,
is always capitalized, and is not followed by any mark of punctuation:
" 0 Susan, please come here." "O dear!" " 0 God in Heaven." Oh is an
inteijection, may be followed by a comma or an exclamation point, and
follows the usual rules of punctuation: "Oh, what a shame." "Oh! what
is that?" "But, oh how we loved that woman!"
obese. See FAT.

objective. See TARGET.

oblige, obligate. In the sense of binding, constraining, and compelling,

these words are synonymous: "The terms of my mortgage oblige me to
make monthly payments." "I obligated myself to make the purchase."
Oblige has the added meanings of "to make grateful or indebted," "to
gratify the wishes of," "to do a service or render a favor": "We are
obliged for your hospitality." "The charter plane obliged us by arriving
early." Oblige and obligate are not interchangeable in the sense of
gratitude or service, although a person who has been obliged ("rendered
a favor") may feel obligated to return that favor. "Much obliged," a
colloquial expression, is a kind of thanks; it acknowledges a favor or
kindness but stops short of a direct "Thank you."

oblivious, forgetful. Oblivious means "unaware," "unmindful,"

"lacking memory of something." Forgetful implies a faulty memory or a
tendency not to remember. Oblivious stresses unawareness, unrespon-
siveness, and inattentiveness. "Jackie was totally oblivious of her sur-
roundings." "Because I was forgetful, I left the percolator plugged in all
afternoon." Oblivious has been broadened in meaning to include uncon-
sciousness: "In a deep coma, Betsy was oblivious to the world." (<Obliv-
ious may be followed by to or o f ) In most instances, forgetful is
preferable, because more readily understandable, to oblivious in the
senses of "bemused," "abstracted," "unaware," and even "absent-
minded."
obnoxious. See NOISOME.

observance, observation. Observance means acting in accord with

tradition, duty, law, or custom: "Drivers should be careful in their
observance of traffic regulations." "Some religious people are strict in
 170
obsolete, obsolescent

their observance of dietary laws." Observance also means "taking note

o f ' : "National holidays are set apart for the observance of some notable
event." An observation is an instance or act of viewing, perceiving, or
regarding: "Roving policemen make a careful observation of suspicious-
looking persons." "Try to find a good observation point from which to
watch the ceremonies in observance of Veterans Day."

obsolete, obsolescent. Obsolete means "no longer in general use,"

"discarded," "out of date": "In most sections of this country, the horse
and buggy is an obsolete means of transportation." "'Gramercy' is an
obsolete word for 'thanks."' Obsolescent means "becoming outdated,
outmoded, or out of use." Something obsolete has already been dis-
carded; something obsolescent is in the process of being discarded:
"The bow and arrow is an obsolete weapon in warfare; the battleship is
obsolescent."

obstacle, impediment. Each of these words refers to something that

prevents, or interferes with, progress or action. An obstacle is anything
that stands in the way of literal or figurative progress: "Lack of money
was an obstacle to this medical student." "A roadblock was set up as an
obstacle to thefleeingcriminals." Impediment (from Latin words mean-
ing "to snare" or "to weigh down" one's feet) is something that inter-
feres with proper functioning or acting: "Stammering is a speech impedi-
ment." An impediment hinders or slows down rather than stops,
obstructs, or prevents.

obtain. This word is usually replaced by GET. Obtain, from a Latin

word meaning "take hold of," means "to acquire," "to come into
possession of," "to procure" (obtain some information). Words related
to obtain and get are acquire, secure, earn, win, achieve, gain, and
attain. Careful users of the language employ get to mean "to come into
possession o f ' in any manner; obtain is used to suggest the expenditure
of effort: one gets a Christmas present; one obtains a salary increase.

Occident. See ORIENT.

occur. See HAPPEN.

octoroon. See MULATTO.

oculist, optician, ophthalmologist, optometrist. The distinction

between and among these terms is important to those who are one or the
other and to people who have eye trouble. Oculists and ophthalmolo-
gists are holders of the degree of doctor of medicine who specialize in
diseases and disorders of the eye. An optometrist does not hold an M.D.
degree and deals primarily with the range and power of vision. An
optician is a person who makes and sells eyeglasses and other optical
instruments.
 171
O.K.

odd. See QUEER.

odorous, malodorous. Odorous means "having, yielding, or diffusing

an odor" (that property of something which affects the sense of smell).
Odorous usually implies a fragrant or pleasant smell; the word odor
normally refers to a bad or unpleasant smell or scent: "The air was
odorous with the fragrance of lilies." "A rank odor drifted from the
laboratory." Words related to odorous are redolent, fragrant, aromatic,
odoriferous, and perfumed. Malodorous is formed from odorous and the
Latin prefix mal-, meaning "ill" or "bad": "The malodorous skunk is
not a welcome visitor." "The scent coming from this dank swamp is
malodorous."
of, off. Until a few centuries ago, of and off represented different
pronunciations of the same word. Today, of has a basic meaning of
"derived or coming from," whereas off means "at or to a distance from
a nearer place," "no" longer attached or supported." In constructions
indicating possession, of may be followed by an uninflected noun (friend
of my brother) or by a noun or pronoun in the possessive case (friend of
my brother's, friend of his). One objection to the use of of is that it
performs too many functions to be really useful. Another is that it is
often used unnecessarily: one should omit of in expressions like "stay
off of" and "alongside of." Of is also used illiterately as a substitute for
have (must of, should of). Similarly, off should not be followed by from
or of: "He walked off (not off from or off of) the stage." Off is illiterate
when used to indicate a source; say "I got a meal from (not o f f ) her."
Avoid such cliches or slang terms as "ojffand on," "on and off,".offbeat
("unconventional"), " o f f the record," and ofay ("a white person").

of all. This phrase has respectable standing in an expression such as 44 Of

all people, you . . . ," but it is a wordy, useless waster of time and space
in expressions like "First of all," "second of all." See also FIRST.
off. See OF.

official, officious. Official pertains to holding an office or position of

authority: 44Mr. Rand is an official in the Treasury Department." "This
is an official order from the commanding officer." Officious means
"meddlesome," "offering unwanted or unnecessary advice": "The con-
sul's manner toward all tourists was officious." "Because he had no real
authority, the clerk acted in an officious way."

of which. See WHO'S.

oh. See o.
O.K. This everyday term, which may be written with or without periods,
is colloquial or business English for44all right," "correct," ''approved."
 172
old, older

It is occasionally spelled okay, okeh. Of debatable origin, O.K. is

acceptable in general speech. When used as an informal noun or verb, no
one objects to it (get his O.K., O.K. the arrangement). Avoid the use of
O.K. as an adjective (Things are not O.K. with us) and as an adverb (The
car was running O.K.). As noun, verb, adjective, and adverb, O.K. is
overused.

old, older. The everyday word for someone advanced in age is old. Old
is also applied to anything in existence of long standing or that originated
in a prior age: "an old man," "an old church," "an old map," "an old
poem," "an old model," "an old family." Older is the comparative of
old: "This house is older than that one." Old is an overused word for
which any one of several related words might be substituted: aged,
ancient, venerable, elderly, advanced, senile, veteran, senescent, anti-
quated, antique. Old appears in many loose, trite, or slangy expressions
such as "old hat," "old bean," "good old times," "old boy," "old
chap," "old country," "old fellow," "old goat," "Old Nick" and "Old
Scratch"' (Satan), "old lady," "old man," "old school tie," "old-
timer," "old wives' tale," "old fogy," "old-world," "in days of old,"
and "old head on young shoulders."

older, oldest. See ELDER.

Olympic, Olympian. Olympic refers to games, Olympian to a mountain.

Olympic can also mean "pertaining to Mount Olympus," but careful
users restrict its application to Olympia, a plain in ancient Greece where
the Olympic Games were held in honor of the god Zeus. Olympian, by
referring to the home of the gods of classical Greece, has come to mean
"majestic," "superior," "aloof." "This valley has true Olympian
beauty." "He was Olympian in his attitude toward money." "The
Olympic Games of 1972 were held in Sapporo, Japan, and Munich,
Germany."

omission. See OVERSIGHT.

on. See ONTO.

on account of. This is a wordy phrase, especially when, as often

happens, it is combined with cause or due to: "The cause of his absence
was on account o/his illness." Remove the deadwood: "The cause of
his absence was illness." See also CAUSE.
on an average of. From this phrase one can usually drop on. "We sell
on an average of one dozen every day" does not need on.
on balance. See BALANCE.

one another. See EACH OTHER.

 173

onto, on, on to

one of the... If not the. These expressions often occur in comparisons

but are frequently used ungrammatically: "It was one of the first, if not
the first, attempts to bring together these warring nations." The plural
attempts is correct after one of the, but how about "if not the first
attempts"?-To correct this flaw, add of the: "It was one of the first, if
not the first, of the attempts. . . ." If this correction distorts meaning,
and it may, then hold if not the for the end of the sentence: "It was one
of the first attempts to bring together these warring nations, if not the
first." Another comment: one of the is often a wordy, unnecessary
expression: "One of the ideas I have" can be shortened without loss to
"My idea" or "One idea I have."
one of those who. Should the verb following this expression be singular
or plural, since one is singular and those is plural? Because who refers to
those, use a plural verb: "Jack is one of those who were late." But if you
were to say "Jack is the only one of those who was late," you would be
correct in using a singular verb because only one person was late.

oneself, one's self. These expressions may be spelled and pronounced

as oneself or one's self (wuhn-SELF, wunz'SELF). Oneself is generally
preferred because it is shorter and easier to spell and pronounce: "On
this firing range, it is easy to hurt oneself." "It's impossible to become a
great tennis player by oneself"In dangerous situations it is hard to be
oneselfSee also HIM and MYSELF.
only. A frequent error in speech, a mistake made by nearly everyone, is
misplacing a modifier such as only. When one says "Hank only wanted
to borrow $5," he has said that the only thing Hank wanted was to
borrow $5. What he probably had in mind was "Hank wanted to borrow
only $5." Words like only, scarcely, hardly, not, even, today, and
tomorrow are associated with the word or phrase immediately preceding
or following. Modifiers should be placed in sentences so that they convey
precisely the meaning intended. Not only requires as much care in
placement as does only. "He not only saw Jack at the game but Jill, too"
should read "He saw not only Jack at the game but Jill, too." See also
ALONE a n d NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.

on the part of. This is a wordy way to say by, for, or among. Either by
or among, for example, can replace on the part of in "There was no
objection on the part of many of those present."
on the whole. See AS A WHOLE.

onto, on, on to. Onto and on are sometimes used interchangeably, but
onto more strongly suggests movement toward something. "The dog
jumped on the table" may mean that he was already on the table,
jumping. "The dog jumped onto the table" clearly indicates that he
leaped to the table from somewhere else. In constructions where on is an
 174
opaque, transparent

adverb and to a preposition, write and pronounce them as separate

words: "We then moved on to the next building."
opaque, transparent. These words are antonyms but for some reason
are not always readily distinguishable. Opaque means "not transpar-
ent," "not allowing light to pass through," "not bright," "dull," and
"dark": "This thickly woven screen is opaque.'''' "Despite your help,
the problem still seems opaque to me." Transparent has an exactly
opposed meaning. A transparent substance permits light to pass
through, can be seen through; transparent also means "frank," "open,"
and "obvious": "Clean water is transparent." "His eagerness to accept
the offer is transparent." Words related to transparent are clear, pellu-
cid, crystalline, limpid, and translucent.
operator, operative. An operator is someone who operates (works,
handles) a machine, switchboard, or any kind of apparatus: "a switch-
board operator," "a telegraph operator," "a Linotype operator." As a
noun, operative also means "a worker engaged, employed, or skilled in
some particular task." What small distinction exists lies in the fact that
operative is usually applied to someone engaged in a more skilled or
subtle task than an operator: "He is an operative in the Treasury
Department." "This spy spent years as an operative behind the Iron
Curtain." As an adjective, operative means "effective," "workable":
"Ordinances in this city are fully operative."

ophthalmologist. See OCULIST.

opinionated, opinionative. These words are commonly used as syno-

nyms, each meaning "obstinate," "dogmatic," "fixed in one's beliefs,"
"stubborn": "Don't call me opinionated (or opinionative) just because I
am correct in my attitude." A distinction is sometimes made by careful
writers: opinionated is used to convey the senses mentioned above;
opinionative is employed to refer to matters of opinion, usually in the
sense of "hypothetical" or "assumed": "You seem to have reached an
entirely opinionative conclusion." In most instances, use opinionated
and forget about opinionative.

optician. See OCULIST.

optimist, pessimist. Each of these words has a number of vague mean-

ings, and each is loosely applied in everyday use. As commonly under-
stood, an optimist has a tendency, or disposition, to look on the bright
side of events, to anticipate favorable results, to believe that good
triumphs over evil, that there is some good in all reality: "Because Bob is
always cheerful and hopeful, he can only be called an optimist." A
pessimist takes an opposed point of view: he tends to expect the worst
possible outcome of events, to feel that sorrow and evil are more
 175
Orient, Occident

prevalent than happiness and goodness, that all happenings will be

disadvantageous. An optimist has been called "one who makes the best
of it when he gets the worst of it"; a pessimist is "one who is not happy
except when he is miserable," "a man who feels bad when he feels good
for fear he'll feel worse when he feels better."
optimistic, sanguine. As is suggested in the entry OPTIMIST, optimistic,
an adjective, means "inclined or disposed to take a favorable view of
life." Sanguine has the somewhat related meanings of "cheerful,"
"confident," "hopeful": "He is a lively, sanguine person." (Sanguine,
derived from a Latin term meaning "bloody," has acquired its present
meaning because, in medieval physiology, ruddy-faced people were
considered healthy, animated, spirited, and buoyant.) Sanguine is a
more precise word than optimistic, which is overused. In a sentence
such as "Tom is not optimistic about his chances for leaving early,"
either sanguine or hopeful might replace optimistic.

optometrist. See OCULIST.

or. See AND/OR.

oral, verbal, aural. Oral means "spoken rather than written" and "of
or pertaining to the mouth." Verbal means "associated with words."
Verbal can and does refer to what is written; oral does not. Be careful in
using oral and verbal with words like agreement, promise, and under-
standing. If the agreement (promise, understanding) is not in writing,
oral makes that sense clear. That is, verbal is less precise than oral in
conveying the idea of "by mouth." When you can choose between a
word that means two things (verbal) and one that can mean only one
(oral), try to be precise. Why not use oral and written for clear contrast?
Aural, a rarely used word, applies only to the ear and the sense of
hearing: "His aural sense is defective because of a damaged eardrum."
ordinance, ordnance. Ordinance means a regulation, rule, law, or a
public iryunction or decree: "It is a town ordinance to curb your dog."
"The town council recently debated an ordinance concerning garbage
disposal." Ordnance, a shortened form of ordinance, has come to mean
(1) artillery, (2) military weapons of any kind, and (3) that branch of a
military force engaged in securing and storing supplies of varied kinds:
"That recruit was placed in the ordnance department, where he was set
to work stacking ammunition."
ordinary. See COMMON, ORDINARY.

Orient, Occident. Orient, a noun that is always capitalized, means "the

East" and is normally used to refer to countries east and southeast of the
Mediterranean Sea. Orient is commonly restricted to mean Asia, but it
 176
orient, orientate

can mean the entire Eastern Hemisphere, which also includes Africa and
Australia. Specifically, Orient is a term applying to what is known as the
Far East, including China, Japan, Korea, and adjacent areas. Orient is
derived from Latin terms meaning "the east" and "sunrise." Occident
means "the West" and is usually restricted to the countries of Europe
and the Americas. It, too, is an always-capitalized noun. Corresponding
adjectives, oriental and occidental, have numerous meanings, most of
which reflect the sense of east or west. "He has lived in the Orient for
many years, principally in Korea." "Life in the Occident is not always
easy for an Oriental." "Oriental rugs are a prized possession in many
occidental homes."

orient, orientate. Each of these verbs means ' 'to familiarize with condi-
tions," "to adjust to surroundings": "This training program will orient
(or orientate) you in your new position." "These lectures are designed
to orient (or orientate) all recruits." Orient is preferable to orientate and
is much more commonly used. An orientation program is one that
supposedly orients (or orientates) individuals.

ornate, ornamental. Ornate means elaborately or excessively adorned,

dressed, or displayed. It means "showy," "pretentious," or "ostenta-
tious": "This richly carved furniture is ornate." Ornamental has a
related meaning of "decorative," but it does not imply showiness,
ostentation, or vulgarity: "The pot of ivy in that corner of the living room
is ornamental." "The light sweater that Anne wore across her shoulders
was more ornamental than useful."

orthodox. See HETERODOX.

oscillate, osculate. Oscillate means "to swing to and fro," "to

vibrate," "to fluctuate": "His mood oscillated between despair and
fury." Osculate means "to come into close contact" and specifically "to
kiss." It is possible that one who osculates a loved one will begin to
oscillate, but even that person should know whai each action entails.
other, otherwise. As an adjective, other means (1) "additional" or
"further" (one other person); (2) "different" (coming from some other
village); (3) "former" (some customs of other days); (4) "second" (every
other week); (5) "recent" (the other night); and (6) "remaining of two or
more" (on the other hand, the other clerks). As a noun, other means
"the other one" (each loves the other). Other can also be used as an
adverb: "He could not do other than speak out." In adverbial use,
otherwise is preferable: "He could not do otherwise than speak out."
Otherwise can also be used as an adjective: "Jack hoped that Mary's
response would be otherwise."

ought. See AUGHT.

 177
over with

o u t loud. See ALOUD, OUT LOUD.

out of, outside of. See INSIDE. As is pointed out in that entry, not all
double prepositions are incorrect: one can walk out of a room, stroll up
to a house, and go over to a nearby store. However, "looking out of a
window," "walking outside of an office," and "falling off of a stairway"
are wordy, nonstandard phrases.

outstanding. This is a badly overworked word (outstanding job, out-

standing program, outstanding person). Word choice can be varied:
prominent, excellent, distinguished, salient, momentous, conspicuous,
significant, consequential.

overlay, overlie, underlay, underlie. Although lie (see LAY) is always

an intransitive verb (that is, cannot take a direct object), it becomes
transitive when preceded by over- or under-. When lie is combined with
these prefixes, underlie and overlie in some instances are interchange-
able with underlay and overlay: "The principle that underlies (or over-
lies) his actions is the so-called golden rule." The best rule to follow in
choosing which of these four terms to use is to move over or under to the
position of a preposition: "The principle that lies (not lays) under his
actions. . . ." "The paint that lay over the surface of the wall. . . ." In
geology, however, the form lie is preferred: "The clay that underlies the
rocky surface. . . . "

overlook, oversee. Overlook means (1) "to fail to notice," (2) "to
disregard or ignore," (3) "to rise above," (4) "to excuse": "He over-
looked my mistake." "Robin is a girl who overlooks such minor mat-
ters." "My window overlooks a park." "The foreman will overlook
your tardiness." Oversee means (1) "to observe secretly or unintention-
ally"; (2) "to direct, supervise, or manage": "Bert just happened to
oversee the stolen kiss." "The superintendent is expected to oversee the
performance of the entire staff."

oversight, omission. These words have a related meaning, but careful

users distinguish between them. An oversight is (1) a failure to consider
or notice and (2) an error due to carelessness: "Because of my oversight
I never saw the landing." "Through oversight, I failed to date the
check." Omission is a more general word implying something left out,
not done, or neglected: "Lack of a signature is an omission on this
check." An oversight is usually due to carelessness; an omission may be
intentional or unintentional.

overt. See COVERT.

over with. From this phrase with can be omitted. "The pain will soon be
 178
owing to

over" means precisely what is conveyed by "The pain will soon be over
with." Also, one can use ended or finished.
owing to. Owing to is an acceptable, idiomatically correct phrase mean-
ing "because of" or "attributable to": "Owing to the lateness of the bus,
we were unable to make connection with the train." As with due to,
avoid adding the fact that to owing to. See also DUE TO.
 p
pact, compact. These words have a shared meaning: "an agreement,
contract, treaty, or deal": "Lynn and Suzanne made a compact (or
pact) to stop eating candy." "The leading economists of Belgium and
Sweden suggested an economic pact (or compact) between the two
countries." Compact has numerous other meanings as is suggested by
these sentences: "This is a compact trading center (arranged within
small space)." "The congressman made a compact (brief) report."
"This soil is compact (closely packed)." "His body is compact (solidly
built)."

paid, payed. Paid is the past tense and past participle of the verb pay:
"He paid all his bills promptly." Payed is used only in the sense of
paying out a cable or line: "He payed out the anchor line slowly."
pair, pairs. As a noun, pair can be followed by a singular or a plural
verb, but the singular is always used when pair emphasizes unity or
oneness: "This pair of shoes is black." A plural verb may be used when
the members of a pair are treated as individuals: "The pair are running
rapidly now." After any numeral other than one, say pairs, not pair:
"Sue bought three pairs of stockings." Do not say "a pair of twins"
unless you are referring to four people.
paltry. See PETTY.

pamphlet. See BROCHURE.

pandemic. A pandemic disease is one prevalent throughout a country, a

continent, or the entire world. Pandemic suggests "universal," "wide-
spread," and "general": "Fear of atomic warfare is pandemic." See
also EPIDEMIC.

pa nts, trousers. Pants is a term meaning'' a pair of trousers." An abbre-

viation of pantaloons, pants refers to one garment but is treated as a
plural in "These pants are dirty." To use the word with a singular verb,
say "This pair of pants is. . . . " Some "experts" feel that trousers is a
more genteel term than pants, but pants is a word calculated to stay in
and, possibly, up.
pardner, partner. Constant watchers of western films and TV dramas
may need reminding that there is no such word as pardner in standard
 180
pardon, pardon me

use. It is a dialectal version of partner, a word meaning "associate,"

"friend," "colleague," "accomplice," or "sharer": "This is my busi-
ness partner."
pardon, pardon me. See APOLOGY.

parody. See BURLESQUE.

parricide. See PATRICIDE.

part, share, portion. Part is the usual word for "something less than
the whole": "Here is part of the treasure." "For my part, I ask
nothing." Share also means "part" but specifically refers to that which
is allotted or designed for someone; it emphasizes the receiver: "I want
my fair share of the money." "We divided the food into equal shares."
Portion means a "part that is given for a purpose": "My portion of the
job is to entertain the visiting players." Related words include piece,
segment, section, sector, division, fragment, and component.

part and parcel. This phrase is a trite expression meaning "an essential
part": "Devotion to her work was part and parcel of her life." The
phrase has some meaning in law, but it is a verbose expression in
everyday use to which and parcel adds nothing but words.
partial, partially, partly. Partial is an adjective with two distinct mean-
ings. The first meaning is "biased," "prejudiced," "showing favorit-
ism," in such a phrase as "to be partial to." "Hie other meaning of
partial is "not complete or total"; in this meaning the adverb partially is
a synonym of partly. Usually, you should prefer partly to partially
unless the meaning is that of limited degree. "Jeb has always been partial
to blue-eyed girls." "This is a partial payment of what I owe you."
"The accident partially blinded him." "His partial knowledge of the
subject was due partly to his youth."
partisan. See BIPARTISAN.

partner. See PARDNER.

party. See INDIVIDUAL.

passed, past, pass. Passed is the past tense of the verb pass; past is
the past participle: "The car passed us at 60 miles an hour." "Your
troubles are now past. " Pass is not only a verb; it is also a noun. It
appears in hackneyed phrases that are idiomatically sound but informal
or slangy: "make a pass at" ("make a sexually inviting gesture, action,
or remark"); "pass out" ("lose consciousness," "faint"); "pass away"
and "pass on" (euphemisms for "to die"); "pass the buck" ("refuse
 181
pendant, pendent, pennant

responsibility"); "pass off as" ("dispose of, or treat, deceptively");

"come to pass" ("happen," "occur"); "a pretty pass" ("ironic situa-
tion"); "pass up" ("reject," "refuse to take advantage of'); and "pass
over" ("ignore").
pastor, minister, priest. Use of these terms differs between sects and
denominations and even from one community to another. The general
term for persons wholly engaged in religious work and set apart from
nonprofessional and nonordained worshipers is clergyman. A clergyman
may go by the titles of pastor, minister, priest, preacher, parson, cleric,
and reverend. It is always safe to refer to such a person as a cleric,
clergyman, or man of the cloth (unless the individual is a woman), but
choice of other terms depends more upon custom than upon precise
meanings of the words involved.
Pastor comes from a Latin word meaning "shepherd" and is specifi-
cally applied to one who has the spiritual care of persons entrusted to his
charge. Minister, derived from a Latin word meaning "servant," is a
somewhat general term that suggests the serving of spiritual needs by
one dedicated to that service. Priest, a title largely confined to the
Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox churches, refers to
one whose office it is to perform religious rites of various kinds. The
word reverend means "entitled to reverence and respect"; when capital-
ized it may be prefixed to the name of a clergyman but should always be
followed by the title "Mr." or "Dr." or the first name of the individual
specified: the "Reverend Mr. Parker" or the "Reverend Roland Par-
ker," not "Reverend Parker."

patricide, parricide, matricide. The Latin element -cide means

"killer" (as in regicide, the killing of a king; genocide, the planned
annihilation of a cultural, political, or racial group; and insecticide, an
agent used to kill insects). Patricide means "one who murders his
father" or "the act of killing one's father." Parricide means "the act of
murdering one's father, mother, or other relative" or "one who commits
such an act." Matricide is "the act of murdering one's mother" or "one
who murders his mother."
patron. See CLIENT.

payed. See PAID.

peak. See SUMMIT.

peculiar. See FUNNY.

pendant, pendent, pennant. A pendant is a hanging object, an orna-

ment of some kind: "Priscilla fastened a gold pendant on her collar."
Pendent is an adjective meaning "suspended," "hanging down," "dan-
 182
pen name

gling": "The tapestry pendent from the balcony was richly designed." A
pennant is a small flag or emblem: "This pennant symbolizes the team's
championship season."
pen name. See NOM DE PLUME.

people, persons. People and persons both refer to a number of individ-

uals and are used interchangeably in most contexts. Neither can be used
to refer to an individual: "one people" and "one persons" are absurd
expressions. No safe rule exists for choosing between people and per-
sons except possibly this: use people for large groups or an undeter-
mined number of individuals and persons for a relatively small or exact
number: "Thousands of people attended the fair. Fifty persons won
prizes." See also INDIVIDUAL.

per. See A, PER.

percent, percentage. Percent (from Latin per centum, "by the

hundred") may be spelled as one or two words; 10 percent means "10
out of 100" or "10 in 100." Percent is colloquial when used as a
substitute for percentage (the noun). Percentage is colloquial when used
in the meaning of "profit" or "advantage," as in "What's the percent-
age in hard work?"
performance. See RENDITION.

period of tipie. The word period conveys the idea of time; therefore of
time is redundant in this expression. Also wordy is the phrase ' 'lapse of
time," since lapse, like period, connotes time. When a specific amount
of time is mentioned (a lapse of ten hours), no wordiness is involved. See
also POINT IN TIME.
permit. See ALLOW.

perpetrate, perpetuate. Perpetrate means "to commit or perform or

carry out" and usually refers to a crime, misdemeanor, or hoax: "perpe-
trate a holdup," "perpetrate a practical joke." Perpetuate means "to
preserve," "to make perpetual": "This father desires children who will
perpetuate his name." "This foundation perpetuates the work that its
founder began."
perplex. See PUZZLE, PERPLEX, BEWILDER.

persecute, prosecute. These "look-alikes" have related but different

meanings. To persecute is to harass, to torment, to treat badly, to
bother, to worry, to oppress, to trouble: "Some teen-agers feel that their
parents persecute them." "Businessmen sometimes think that govern-
ment agencies are set up solely to persecute them." Prosecute, primar-
 183
perspective, prospective

ily a legal term, means "to seek, force, or obtain by a legal process," "to
start or conduct legal proceedings against." It also means "to carry
forward some action already begun." "If you commit theft and are
caught, you will be prosecuted." "Now that war has begun, the govern-
ment will prosecute it vigorously."

person. See INDIVIDUAL a n d PERSONAGE.

personage, person. Personage is a term reserved for an individual of

importance or distinction and for a character in a play or novel:
"Whether one liked him or not, no one could deny that the late Charles
de Gaulle of France was a personage." "Hamlet is a personage who
shows both strength and weakness of purpose." Person refers to a
human being, whether man, woman, or child: "Every person requires a
certain amount of food." See also PERSONALITY.

personal, personnel. Personnel means "a group of persons." Per-

sonal involves a particular person, an individual. "This is a personal
matter involving Judy and me." "The personnel in this office is very
friendly." Personal is pronounced "PUHR-suhn'uhl"; personnel is pro-
nounced "puhr suh'NEL." The expression "personal friend" is usually
wordy; it is possible to have as a business friend someone who is not
necessarily a personal friend, but such instances are rare. How many
friends can one have who are not personal? See also MATERIAL.

personality. This word has largely taken the place of character and is
now used to refer to the qualities in an individual that impress others:
"Gray is a boy with a pleasing personality." It can also apply to
atmosphere (a room with a warm personality) and, when used as a
plural, can mean "heated remarks" or "quarreling": "The discussion
began pleasantly but soon turned into a series of personalities." Per-
sonality is also overused in the sense of PERSONAGE: "In his day W. C.
Fields was a noted personality."

personnel. See PERSONAL.

persons. See PEOPLE.

perspective, prospective. Perspective is primarily a noun referring to

various techniques for representing three-dimensional objects and depth
relationships. Perspective also refers to a picture or object using this
technique: "an architect's perspective of a building." Often the word is
employed to mean a mental prospect or point of view: "I need a better
perspective on your proposal." Prospective is an adjective meaning
"expected," "potential," "likely," or "in the future": "What are the
prospective results of this campaign?" "She looked him over carefully
as a prospective partner."
 184
persuade

persuade. See CONVINCE.

pessimist. See OPTIMIST.

pessimistic. See GLOOMY.

petty, paltry, trivial. Each of these words refers to that which is so small
or insignificant as to be unworthy of notice or regard. Petty conveys an
idea of contempt or ridicule: "Your petty complaints are really child-
ish." Paltry is an even stronger term, suggesting that what is beneath
notice is actually to be despised: "Such a contribution from a wealthy
person is paltry." That which is trivial is insignificant and even out of
place in contrast to what is really important: "Your trivial comment on a
great performance is silly." Related words include negligible, slight,
inconsequential, inconsiderable, and trifling.

phenomenon, phenomena. A phenomenon is an observed or observa-

ble fact or circumstance, especially one that seems extraordinary or
impressive: "The phenomenon of a man kissing his dog rather than his
wife is not readily explainable." The plural is phenomenons or, prefera-
bly, phenomena: "This ecologist never tired of studying the phenomena
of nature." It is nonstandard to say phenomenas and "This phenomena
is."

physician, doctor. Physician is a general term for a doctor of medicine,

someone legally qualified to practice medicine. The term is often
employed to refer to anyone engaged in the general practice of medicine
as distinguished from such specialists as surgeons, ophthalmologists, and
pediatricians. All qualified physicians are doctors of medicine, but not
all doctors practice medicine. Doctor refers to anyone who has been
granted a doctor's degree. There are doctors of dentistry, veterinary
science, philosophy, the arts, letters, literature, science, and many other
disciplines.

piazza. See PORCH.

picture. As a noun or verb meaning "image," "representation," and

"to represent," "to form an image," picture is a standard word. It is
greatly overused, however, in such loose expressions as "Do you get the
picture?" and "Picture that." "Pretty as a picture" and "picture of
health" are especially trite phrases.

pitiable, piteous. Pitiable means "deserving of pity," "producing com-

passion," or "lamentable": "These hungry children are pitiable." "The
destitute family was living in a pitiable shack." Piteous refers to that
which excites pity because it is suffering and miserable: "The piteous
 185
point of view, viewpoint, standpoint

cries of the dying men echoed through the emergency room." A related
word, pitiful, has the meanings of both pitiable and piteous: "a pitiful
street beggar," "a pitiful exhibition."
plaintiff, defendant. Anyone who has difficulty remembering the dis-
tinction between these words should recall that plaintiff is related to
plaint and complaint (meaning "grievance") and complain ("to pro-
test"). A plaintiff is a complainant, one who brings a suit in a court of
law: "Marcia was the plaintiff in this action." A defendant, as opposed
to a plaintiff, is a defending party, a person sued or accused: "As
plaintiff, you brought the action, and as defendant, I shall oppose you."
please. See KINDLY.

plentiful, plenteous. These adjectives, derived alike from a Latin word

meaning "full," are interchangeable. Each refers to an overadequate
quantity, an abundant amount: "The supply of food was plentiful (or
plenteous)." Plentiful is usually preferable to plenteous because it is
less "literary" and therefore more easily understood. Other words that
could be used in this context include copious, ample, and profuse.
plump. See FAT.

plurality. See MAJORITY.

plus. This word is incorrectly and tritely used in the meaning of "some-
thing added or extra": "That's a plus." Plus does not have the conjunc-
tive force of and; say "Mike and his friends," not "Mike plus his
friends." Since plus is a preposition rather than a conjunction, a follow-
ing verb is singular or plural depending on the number of the subject:
"Three plus three [a unit] equals six." "Their purposes [plural] plus our
general plan are excellent."
point in time. This currently popular expression has become a cliche
because of its widespread Use on television and radio programs. No
excuse for it exists: it is both wordy and jargonish. "At this point in
time" means "now" or "at this time." See also PERIOD OF TIME.
point of view, viewpoint, standpoint. Each of these terms means (1) "a
specified manner of appraising or judging" and (2) "an opinion, judg-
ment, or attitude": "From my point of view (or viewpoint or standpoint)
your suggestion is unworkable." All three expressions are standard.
Viewpoint is not recommended by some linguists because it is consid-
ered an awkward shortening of point of view, but this objection has been
overruled by usage. A few purists have pointed out that standpoint is
incorrect since one cannot stand on a point, a stupid comment since
 186
polite, courteous

point here does not mean a physical point but a mental position. The
only possible objection to any of these terms is that they are tiresomely
overused and often are unnecessary. "From the moral point of view"
says nothing that morally doesn't. "From where I stand" is mere
wordage. Use any of the three terms sparingly and avoid meaningless-
ness.

polite, courteous. A polite person shows good manners toward others

in his speech and actions; he is well bred and gracious. A polite individ-
ual avoids being rude as a result of training and because he is aware of
the demands and requirements of civil manners. A courteous person is
not only polite; he makes an active effort to be kindly, graceful, digni-
fied, and poised. In most instances, the two words are interchangeable,
but courteous is a stronger word than polite and suggests a fundamental
attitude toward others, whereas polite relates to surface manners only: It
is polite to say "Good morning" to someone; it is courteous to treat
others with respect and kindness.

populace. See POPULATION.

popular, vulgar. These words are no longer synonymous, but for many
centuries they were. Popular is derived from a Latin word meaning
"people"; vulgar comes from a Latin term meaning "the general pub-
lic." (The English word mob is a shortened form of Latin mobile vulgus,
the changeable common people.) What is popular is regarded with favor
by people in general (a popular public figure); popular also applies to
attitudes or tastes prevailing among masses of people: "popular supersti-
tions," "popular music." Vulgar can also mean popular in the sense of
"common" or "current" (vulgar success, vulgar soap operas), but the
term is now employed almost entirely in the senses of "indecent,"
"ignorant," "crude," "unrefined," or "lacking distinction": "vulgar
language," "vulgar gestures," "vulgar display." Despite the related
origins of the words and their occasionally shared meaning, no longer
can one say that what is popular is vulgar or vice versa.

population, populace, populous. The population of a country is the

total number of persons inhabiting it: "Tlie estimated population of the
United States in July 1972 was nearly 209 million." Although populace
can be used to refer to all the inhabitants of a place (town, city, country),
it is usually employed to designate the common people of a community
or country as distinguished from the so-called higher classes. That is, the
populace of a city bears some relationship to mob (.see POPULAR).
Populace implies contempt or condescension; population is an objective
word without emotional implications. Populous is an adjective meaning
"full of residents," "heavily populated": "California is the most popu-
lous state in the United States."
 187

practical, practicable

porch, piazza, veranda. Which of these terms one uses depends upon
where he lives and the speech customs of his community. Each refers to
an open space attached to the outside of a house or other building,
usually roofed and partly enclosed. Although some architects distinguish
among them, all three words are in widespread use throughout the
United States. Perhaps porch and veranda have a wider geographic
spread than piazza, a term in use largely in the South and New England.
port, harbor. A port is a place where ships load and unload; a harbor is
a body of water providing protection for ships. Although the terms are
somewhat loosely used interchangeably, port applies particularly to the
town or city, including its commercial aspects, that provides a harbor:
"New York is a great port city with an excellent harbor." Both port and
harbor have a meaning of "haven," a place of comfort, rest, and
security: "any old port in a storm"; "a harbor for weary travelers."
portion. See PART.

position. See FUNCTION.

positively. See ABSOLUTELY.

possible. See FEASIBLE.

postpone. See DEFER.

postulate. See EXPOSTULATE.

potter, putter. Does one potter or putter about the house or in the
garden? In the United States, one putters; in Great Britain, one potters.
The words mean "to dawdle," "to move aimlessly," "to act with little
energy or purpose": "Since this is not a workday, Nan plans to putter
about the house and in her garden."

practical, practicable. A simple method of learning to distinguish the

meanings of these words is to turn to the entry IMPRACTICAL and reverse
the meanings of the terms involved. When applied to persons, practical
means "realistic," "sensible," "efficient"; as relating to acts or proc-
esses, practical means "workable," "manageable." Practicable means
"capable of being used," "feasible," "possible." "Jim is a man with
practical views about business." "What we need is a practical way to
solve this problem." "Your idea is clever but hardly practicable."
"There is no practicable method of keeping boys and girls away from
each other." Basically, what is practicable can be done; what is practi-
cal can be done sensibly or usefully. An act can be both practical and
practicable: It is practical to check the pressure in one's tires before
 188
practically, virtually

starting on a trip (it's sensible to do so); it's also practicable to check the
pressure (it's possible to do so).
practically, virtually. Practically means "effectively," "in a practical
manner," "from a practical point of view": "It is practically useless to
vote in this election." "Try to view your situation practically." "Practi-
cally speaking, you arefinanciallybankrupt." Practically is also used to
mean "nearly," "almost": "The campers were practically out of food."
Virtually means "for the most part," "just about," "almost entirely":
"The loggers virtually completed the work in an hour." "Before he won
the race he was virtually unknown." Recommendation: confine the use
of practically to the meanings of practice and practical; use nearly and
almost more often than practically and virtually, because in one limited
sense, practically means virtually the same thing as virtually.

practice. See CUSTOM.

precede, proceed. Precede means "to come before," "to go in

advance of." Proceed means "to go forward," "to carry on." "Senator
Blunt preceded his staff into the room and proceeded to justify his vote
on the measure."

precedence, precedent. These words have common origins in Latin

terms meaning "to go before" and "to yield." Precedence refers to "the
act or fact of going before," "priority in rank or order," "the right to go
in front": "On highways, ambulances have precedence (or take prece-
dence) over civilian cars." "The Secretary of State has precedence over
other members of the President's Cabinet." Precedent means a preced-
ing instance, case, or example; in law, it refers to a legal decision that
acts as a guide in resolving later cases: "By living thriftily, some parents
hope to set a precedent for their children." "The Brown v. Board of
Education ofTopeka, Kansas, decision of the Supreme Court in 1954 set
a precedent for all cases involving public schooling in the United
States."

precipitate, precipitous. With a common origin in Latin terms meaning

"to cast down," these words have taken on dissimilar meanings. As an
adjective, precipitate means "headlong," "moving rapidly and hastily,"
"rash": "Take your time; don't make a precipitate decision." "Braking
too hard will cause a precipitate stop." Precipitous means "steep,"
"abrupt," "perpendicular," "sheer" and is usually applied to moun-
tains, cliffs, and all steep places: "Some of the streets of San Francisco
seem almost precipitous." "That precipitous cliff is nearly 1,000 feet
high."

predicament, dilemma. Predicament means a difficult, perplexing,

dangerous, or unpleasant situation or condition: "Having no room reser-
 189
presumptuous, presumptive

vation put us into a predicament." A dilemma resembles a predicament

with emphasis upon the puzzling and perplexing elements present:
"Julia's dilemma was how to get Jack out of the house before Tom
arrived." "On the horns of a dilemma" is a trite expression, but it does
accent the perplexity and puzzlement involved. Related words are plight
and quandary.
premature. See IMMATURE.

premiere. This word is used as a noun, adjective, and verb to refer to

the first presentation of a film, play, or other performance or to the
leading lady of a theatrical or film company: "Tonight, the tourists will
attend the premiere of a new film from Italy." "The premiere showing
was attended by hundreds of notable people." The use of premiere as a
verb (She will premiere in that production) is not yet acceptable.
prescribe, proscribe. Prescribe means "to direct," "to order." Pro-
scribe means "to banish," "to outlaw." "What did the nurse prescribe
for your cough?" "Playing the radio after midnight is proscribed."
prescribed. See REQUIRED.

presentiment, presentment. A presentiment is a sense of something

about to occur, a feeling, a foreboding: "Don had a presentiment that his
good luck would soon run out." Presentment is a rarely used word
meaning a "presentation," "the act of presenting, offering, or submit-
ting": "This draft will be honored on presentment to the bank." "Many
stores prefer cash to the presentment of a credit card."
presently, currently. A century ago, presently was used to mean
"now," a meaning that some writers and speakers still attribute to it.
Presently is more precisely used to mean "soon," "before long,"
"directly," and "in a short time": "I will be there presently." Its use to
mean "at this time" is debatable and inaccurate. Currently means "at
the time now passing," "at this moment," "right now": "She is cur-
rently taking a bath." "I am currently far in debt." "Although I am
currently not well, I hope presently to feel better."
presentment. See PRESENTIMENT.

presumably. See SUPPOSEDLY.

presume. See ASSUME.

presumptuous, presumptive. Presumptuous and presumptive come

from Latin words meaning "to undertake beforehand," but they have
different meanings in English. A presumptuous person is arrogant; he
 190
pretty

presumes too much; he takes too much for granted; he takes excessive
liberties; he is bold: "It would be presumptuous of me to tell you how to
handle your affairs." "To argue with an expert such as he is seems
presumptuous." Presumptive, chiefly a legal term, means "based on
inference," "not fully established," "affording only a basis for a suppo-
sition": "This case cannot be tried on merely presumptive evidence."
"Until the will is read, your role as heir to the estate is presumptive."
pretty. This word is overused to mean many things: "attractive,"
"graceful," "pleasing," "delicate," "comely," "fair," and "lovely." It
is also overused to mean "moderately," "somewhat," or "to a degree"
(pretty tired, pretty lucky). Slangy or trite phrases to avoid include
"sitting pretty," "pretty up," "a pretty penny," and "pretty much."
prevent, hinder. These words are related, but prevent is a stronger
word than hinder, When you prevent something, you stop it; when you
hinder something, you slow or delay it. When something is prevented, it
is effectively halted and rendered impossible: "Do not prevent us from
going." "This treaty is designed to prevent war between our countries."
To hinder is to delay progress: "Such interruptions will only hinder our
reaching a solution." Related words are obstruct, impede, thwart,
obviate, forestall, hamper, retard, block, and balk. Both prevent and
hinder are often followed by a gerund: "prevent his going," "hinder his
going." In such a construction, a noun or pronoun preceding the gerund
is preferably in the possessive case; "prevent (or hinder) him going" is
nonstandard, his is standard: "They tried to prevent Jock's leaving (not
Jock leaving) the team."

preventative, preventive. These words mean "serving to hinder,"

"keeping from occurring." The form preventive is preferable and is so
much more widely used that two standard dictionaries no longer record
preventative: "The person arrested was placed in preventive deten-
tion." "What is your opinion of preventive medicine?"

priest. See PASTOR.

primeval, primitive. Primeval, a rarely used word, means "original,"

"belonging to the earliest age or ages." It is derived from a Latin word
meaning "in the first period of life" and was thus used in Longfellow's
Evangeline: "This is the forest primeval." Primitive, from a Latin term
meaning "first" or "in the first place," is more widely used than prime-
val and has several meanings: (1) "uncivilized" and "savage" (the
primitive lusts of mankind), (2) "of the earliest period" (the primitive
beginnings of this country), (3) "unaffected by civilization" (primitive
tribal customs), (4) "crude and unpolished" (primitive living conditions).
Primitive also has certain related meanings with special applications in
 191
propose, purpose

biology, architecture, anthropology, and the fine arts. Related words are
primordial, prehistoric, primal, pristine, antediluvian, aboriginal, and
original.

principal, principle. These often-confused words have clearly defined

and distinguishable meanings. As a noun, principal means "a sum of
money" and "a chief person," "the head man." As an adjective,
principal means "main" or "foremost." "The principal invested in that
scheme amounted to $1,000." "The principal of this school is a woman
of remarkable vigor." "His principal aim is to get well." Principle, a
noun only, means "a governing rule or truth," "a doctrine," "a deter-
mined course of action": "The manager is a man of sound ethical
principle." "That statement expresses a principle of modern physics."
"As a matter of principle, he refused to borrow money from anyone."
"The principal of that academy is a person of principle."
printing. See EDITION.

proceed. See PRECEDE.

profuse. See LAVISH.

prohibit. See INHIBIT.

proletariat. See BOURGEOIS.

prolix. See REDUNDANT.

prone. See PROSTRATE.

proof. See EVIDENCE.

prophecy, prophesy. Prophecy is a noun only, is pronounced

"PROFisee," and means "a prediction," "foretelling," or "revelation
of what is to come": "The official's prophecy was that the energy crisis
would become even more acute." Prophesy is a verb only, is pro-
nounced "PROF i sigh," and means "to predict," "to foretell," "to
indicate what is to come": "The marriage counselor prophesied that the
couple would be reunited." Prophesy is overused for such words as
predict and forecast. Related words are prognosticate, divine, project,
foresee, prediction, and revelation.
propose, purpose. In the meaning of "to intend," these words are
interchangeable: "I propose (or purpose) to go to headquarters myself."
Propose, much the more commonly used word, also means "to suggest"
and "to nominate": "I propose that we send Jim." Propose is pro-
 192
proposition

nounced "pruhPOHZ"; as a noun purpose is pronounced

"PUHRpuhs," but as a verb it may be pronounced "FUHR'puhs" or
"puhrPOSE." One purposes for oneself; one proposes to others.
proposition. This word for plan or scheme is widely overused, espe-
cially in the sense of a matter requiring careful handling. The verb
proposition is an informal term meaning "to propose," "to suggest,"
often with illegal or immoral intent. Approximate synonyms for the noun
proposition are suggestion, overture, design, recommendation, and
proposal.

propriety. See DECORUM.

proscribe. See PRESCRIBE.

prosecute. See PERSECUTE.

proselyte, proselytize. These words with different spellings have iden-

tical meanings as verbs:' 'to convert," "to cause someone to change from
one religion, opinion, party, or belief to another": "His task was to
proselyte (or proselytize) every disgruntled voter in the Democratic
party." As a noun, proselyte refers to a person who has shifted from one
belief, or sect, or whatever to another; such a person can be called a
convert or a proselyte. Possibly because it is shorter and more easily
pronounced, proselyte is the preferred spelling when the word is used as
either noun or verb.

prospective. See PERSPECTIVE.

prostrate, prone, supine. These words are interchangeable in the sense

of "lying flat," "level with the ground or other surface." They differ,
however, in certain literal and figurative applications. Prostrate means
"reduced to weakness," "helpless," "exhausted," "overcome": "The
exhausted hikers sprawled prostrate by the stream." "That stretch of
countryside was left prostrate by enemy shelling." Prone indicates a
face-down position, not solely a horizontal one. A supine position is one
in which a person lies face upward. Prone also has a common meaning of
"inclined toward," "having a natural tendency or disposition": "This
worker is accident-prone." Supine has the additional meanings of "pas-
sive," "indifferent," "inactive": "Jailed persons tend to become supine
after a long stay in prison."

protagonist. See ANTAGONIST.

prototype. This Greek word has earned over into modern English its
meaning of "original." It is now employed to refer to the model upon
which something is based, to someone or something that illustrates the
 193

psychiatrist, psychologist

basic qualities of a model or example, and to anything similar to some-

thing of a different period: "This is a prototype of the first coffee
grinder." "Mr. Shore is a prototype of the commuting businessman."
"Romeo and Juliet is a prototype of the modern musical West Side
Story." The phrase "prototype model" is wordy; use prototype or
model, not both. Related words are pattern, exemplar, and archetype.
proved, proven. The past tense of prove is proved; the past participle is
proved or proven: "The debater proved his point through the use of
many illustrations." "This machine has proved (or proven) satisfac-
tory." The preferred form of the past participle of prove is proved
(David has proved his point). Proven is standard and preferred as an
adjective used before a noun (a proven belief). Also, "not proven" is
more commonly used than "not proved," although both phrases are
standard.

proverb. See AXIOM.

provided, providing. Although originally participles, both provided and

providing have long been accepted as conjunctions, and their use is both
correct and interchangeable. Neither should be used as a general syn-
onym for the word if; each implies a stipulation equivalent to "on the
condition." "You may leave now if you wish." "You may leave pro-
vided (or providing) you have finished your work." Although both are
standard words, provided is preferred and recommended.
prudent, prudential. These words are derived from a Latin term mean-
ing "to look after," "to provide for." Prudent is employed to mean
"wise," "cautious," "practical," "careful in providing for one's inter-
ests," "sensible about planning for the future": "It is always prudent to
plan a trip carefully." "A prudent man will try to save money for family
emergencies." Prudential is used to refer not to acts themselves or to
persons performing acts but to considerations or motives leading to
action. "A prudent person takes care of his health; prudential consider-
ations often cause persons to watch out for their health." "A person is
prudent if he has prudential motives."
pseudonym. See NOM DE PLUME.

psychiatrist, psychologist. A psychiatrist is a specially trained physi-

cian, the holder of a doctor of medicine degree, who practices psychia-
try, the medical study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental
iljkfess. A psychologist is a person trained to do psychological analysis
and research, that is, a study of mental processes and behavior. A
psychologist may hold the degree of doctor of medicine or doctor of
philosophy but not necessarily. Both a psychiatrist and a psychologist
may engage in psychotherapy, the psychological treatment of mental,
 194
psychotic, neurotic, neurasthenic

nervous, and emotional disorders, but it is generally accepted that this

form of therapy, as well as psychoanalysis, is usually restricted to the
practice of persons who have earned a medical degree. See also PHYSI-
CIAN.

psychotic, neurotic, neurasthenic. These terms are loosely used inter-

changeably, and for good reason: it is difficult to separate and apply them
exactly. A psychotic person suffers from a psychosis, any major, severe,
and debilitating mental disease. A psychotic individual may or may not
suffer the breakdown of some organ (or organs) of his body, but his
intellectual powers are severely affected and he tends to withdraw from
reality. A neurotic person experiences a neurosis, which is defined as
any of several disorders of the mind or of the emotions, such as anxiety,
nameless fears, and unwarranted dislikes for persons or objects. Neur-
asthenic applies to someone who is experiencing neurasthenia, a mental
and physical condition marked by loss of energy, fatigue, feelings of
inadequacy, and inability to remember details. A neurasthenic is one
suffering what is vaguely known as a nervous breakdown. Only individu-
als with unusually severe mental illnesses should be referred to as
psychotic. The exact term to be applied to others had best be left to
psychologists and psychiatrists.

pupil, student, scholar. These words have related meanings, but pupil
is usually applied to someone in elementary school, student to one in
high school or college, and scholar to a mature person who is devoted to
learning. "This little girl is a pupil in the second grade." "Del Auray was
a good student in high school and an even better one in college." "It is
said that more than 1,000 serious scholars can be found in the British
Museum at any one time."

purebred. See THOROUGHBRED.

purpose. See PROPOSE.

purposely, purposefully. Purposely means "deliberately," "by

design," "with purpose": "She wore that dress purposely to create a
sensation." "You purposely failed to speak to me on the street."
Purposefully implies the same idea as purposely but suggests the pres-
ence of determination, of deliberation and infused purpose: "He pur-
posefully did everything he could to get me fired." Purposely expresses
the idea of "not unintentionally"; purposefully, a stronger word, means
"intentionally."

putter. See POTTER.

puzzle. See RIDDLE.

 195

puzzle, perplex, bewilder

puzzle, perplex, bewilder. Although these verbs have different origins,

they mean about the same thing and can safely be interchanged. Puzzle,
the most commonly used of the three terms, means "to put someone at a
loss," "to mystify," "to baffle": "What you are trying to do puzzles
me." Perplex means "to confuse mentally," "to make complicated,"
"to confound": "Just what action to take now perplexes the manager."
Bewilder, the strongest of these words, means "to confuse utterly," "to
daze," "to stagger": "Because you treat me differently every time we
meet, I am utterly bewilderedRelated words are nonplus, confound,
mystify, vex, entangle, and frustrate.
 Q
quadroon. See MULATTO.

quaint. See QUEER.

qualitative, quantitative. These "look-alikes" are often confused but

are easy to keep straight. Qualitative has to do cfnly with quality (charac-
teristics, properties, attributes): "Qualitative analysis enables a chemist
to discover what elements are in a given substance." "On a qualitative
basis, this skein of wool is superior to that one." Quantitative has to do
only with quantity (amount, measure, size, volume): "Quantitative anal-
ysis enables a chemist to discover the amounts and proportions of
constituents in a given substance." "On a quantitative basis, this skein
of wool is superior to that one because it is 5 yards longer."

queer, quaint, odd. Queer means "unusually different," "differing

from the normal or expected," "unconventional or eccentric": "His
conception of loyalty to the company is indeed queer." "You have a
queer way of showing your appreciation." Queer is also a slang term
meaning "fake" or "counterfeit" (queer money). As a noun, queer is a
slang term for a homosexual. Quaint means "old-fashioned," "interest-
ing," "curiously pleasing," "out of date but endearing": "It was a
quaint house with its cupola and gingerbread trimmings." "The druggist
has a quaint way of peering at you over his glasses." Odd means
"unusual," "unexpected," "differing from the ordinary," "freakish":
"Wearing sneakers to a formal dance seemed odd behavior to the
committee." "This woman has an odd habit of never speaking to anyone
whom she passes on the street." Related words are unconventional,
strange, peculiar, singular, outlandish, eccentric, extraordinary,
uncommon, rare, bizarre, anomalous, and abnormal.

query, question, inquiry. A query is a question, not an inquiry. As a

verb, query means "to question." An inquiry is a series of queries or
questions, an extended investigation: "The inquiry by the coroner lasted
for several hours." Question is a general term, whereas a query is
usually confined to a specific, definite, and limited matter: "The clerk
has a query about this particular charge." "After a lengthy sequence of
queries (or questions), the judge ended his inquiry by releasing the
accused man on bail."
 197
quiz

question. See ASK A QUESTION.

queue. See CUE.

quick, quickly. Quick is a noun, an adjective, and an adverb. Quickly is

an adverb only. Although such expressions as "Come quick" and
"Move quick" are often heard, experts agree that quickly is preferable:
"By acting quickly (not quick), they expect to make a big profit." It is
better to use quick only as a noun ("cut to the quick" and "the quick
and the dead" are trite expressions illustrating this use) and as an
adjective (a quick mind.)
quid pro quo. This Latin term meaning "something for something" in
English means "an equal exchange": "Helping me weed the garden is a
quid pro quo for my washing your car." Pronounce the phrase
'' KWID• pro' KWOH,'' but use it sparingly because it has become a
cliche.

quiet, quiescent. Both words mean "inactive," "motionless," "still,"

and are interchangeable in this sense: "My closest friend has a quiet (or
quiescent) mind." Quiet, much more commonly used than quiescent,
has several unshared meanings such as "free from noise," "restrained in
speech and action," "not showy or ostentatious": "We live on a quiet
street." "The coach has a quiet way of talking to his players." "The
colors in this room are quiet and subdued."

quiet, quite, quite a. Careless speakers sometimes fail to distinguish

between the sounds of quite and quiet. Quiet is pronounced
"KWAI-uht"; quite sounds like "kwite." The meanings of quite are
"positively" and "completely": "That is quite the reverse of what you
intended." "You were quite wrong in everything you tried." In the
senses of "really," "truly," and "to the greatest extent," quite is
standard usage (quite ill, quite sorry, quite small), but it should not
appear in such phrases as "quite similar" (the ideas are contradictory)
and "quite complete" ("completely complete" makes little sense).
"Quite all right" is logically indefensible, but the expression is widely
used and idiomatically acceptable. The use of quite to mean "rather" (a
quite handsome man) is colloquial but permissible. Quite a is often used
in referring to an extraordinary quality or unusual personality (quite a
joy, quite a comedian); in this sense, its use is informal but not incorrect.
Its use to mean "extended" (quite a period of time) is colloquial.
quiz. As a verb, quiz means "to interrogate," "to question closely":
"At the station house the desk officer will quiz you about the accident."
As a noun, quiz means "an inquiry," "a questioning": "The professor
gave the class a quiz that day." "The Senate quiz of oil dealers lasted for
 198
quote, unquote

five weeks." The use of quiz is informal as both verb and noun; more
importantly, the word has been overused beyond the point of mere
triteness.

quote, unquote. As an abbreviation for the noun quotation, quote is an

informal coinage (neologism) that should not appear in serious writing:
"This is a quotation (not quote) from the Bible." As a verb, quote
means "to copy or repeat the words of someone else," "to cite," "to
refer to for illustration": "In my talk, I expect to quote from the Bible,
the Koran, and other religious works." Cite is often a more appropriate
word than quote, especially when no specific reference is intended. In
the expression "quote and unquote," reference is to quotation marks.
The phrase is often used by a speaker to mark the beginning and ending
of a quotation. This expression is acceptable in speech but not in writing.
 R
rabbit, rarebit. The correct term for a certain kind of cheese dish is
Welsh rabbit, but rarebit has been so widely substituted that both Welsh
rabbit and Welsh rarebit are now acceptable in one's diction, although
perhaps not always in one's stomach. As two words, rare and bit are
standard: "That was a rare bit of acting." Rabbit appears in several
overworked expressions: "rabbit punch" (an example of boxing shop-
talk); "rabbit ears" ("sensitivity to jibes or insults," "television
antenna"); "rabbit's foot" (a good-luck charm).

racket, racquet. Racket has a basic meaning of "din," "uproar," and

"clamor": "The traffic at this intersection makes a frightful racket.'''' It
is a slang term when applied to any business or job and trite when used to
describe any dishonest or illegal practice (the latest get-rich-quick
racket). Racquet, once the only word used to name a light bat employed
in such games as tennis and badminton, is still so spelled in the game of
squash racquets. Today, racket has superseded racquet to the extent
that some modern dictionaries do not list racquet as a main entry.

radical. See CONSERVATIVE.

railroad, railway. These terms are used interchangeably by most speak-

ers and writers. In exact usage, railroad is used to refer to the entire
system involved: the tracks themselves, the stations, rolling stock, land,
ticket offices, and other property used in transportation by rail. Railway
refers specifically to a track providing a runway for wheeled equipment.
"Amtrak is a system of railroads throughout the United States."
"Every foot of the elevated railway in that city has been dismantled."
As a verb, used informally, railroad means (1) "to rush or push through
quickly" and (2) "to imprison on a false charge": "The legislature will
railroad this bill today." "The attorney said, 'My client is innocent;
don't try to railroad him into jail.'"
raise, rear, rise, raze. Once it was maintained that people raised pigs
and corn and reared children. Careful speakers preserve this distinction,
but the general public does not; therefore, you can raise or rear as many
children as you can afford, with no purist in language to prevent you. The
noun raise (a raise in pay) is also standard, although rise (a rise in pay)
was once considered the only proper term in this construction. The
expression "pay raise" is wordy. The verb raise is always transitive; the
 200

rare, scarce

verb rise is always intransitive: One's arm rises; one raises his arm.
Raise and raze are antonyms in the sense that raise means "to elevate,"
"to lift," whereas raze means "to tear down": "The workmen raised
the scaffolding and then razed it." Try to avoid such cliches as "raise
one's sights," "raise Cain," "raise hell," "raise money," "raise a
siege," "rise to the occasion," "rise above the commonplace," "rise in
the world," "rise to one's responsibilities," "rise from the dead," "rise
on one's hind legs," "feel the yeast rising," "rear guard," and "bring
up the rear." A horse rears (pronounced "reers") up on its hindlegs, not
rares (rhymes with dares) up.

rare, scarce. Each of these words describes what is "in short supply,"
"infrequent," "hard to find," "uncommon": "Gasoline and butter were
rare (or scarce) during the war." Rare is usually applied to items of
quality and value, the worth of which is increased by permanent infire-
quency: "Diamonds are rare and precious forms of carbon." "Growing
plants were rare in the dust bowl." Scarce is normally applied to
everyday or ordinary items or occurrences: "Our milk supply is scarce,
but we have enough to last until tomorrow." A rare book is valuable
because of its age or importance or because only one or a few copies
exist anywhere; a scarce book is one in short supply at a particular
source (such as a library) but one of which numerous copies may be
available elsewhere.

rarebit. See RABBIT.

rarely, rarely ever. Rarely means "seldom," "infrequently," "not

often": "She rarely goes to the movies." The phrase "rarely ever" is
wordy, unidiomatic, and illogical. Instead of saying "She rarely ever
sings," say "She rarely sings" or "She hardly ever sings" or "She sings
rarely, if ever" or "She sings rarely or never."
rational, rationale. Rational, an adjective, means "of sound mind,"
"sane," "logical," "reasonable," "sensible": "Your explanation is
entirely rational." "This is a rational plan for lowering the sales tax in
this state." Rationale, a noun, means "a logical basis," "fundamental
reasons," "an exposition of principles": "I cannot understand the
rationale for your action." "Does deliberate cruelty ever have a defensi-
ble rationale?"

raze. See RAISE.

re, in re. These terms are usually reserved for use by the legal profes-
sion, where they have the meaning of "in the matter of," "in the case
of." (Re is the ablative case of Latin res, meaning "thing," "item," or
"matter.") In re is a Latinism, the meaning of which is best expressed by
about, in regard to, or concerning. Let the lawyers have in re.
 201

realize, know

reaction, response, reply. A reaction is "a response to a stimulus"

and properly belongs in scientific work only. It is overused to mean
"opinion," "attitude," "impression," "view," and "feeling." It is also
overused to mean both response and reply. A response is an answer or
the act of replying. A reply is a response by means of word or gesture.
Recommendation: use response and reply interchangeably and don't use
reaction at all unless a stimulus of some kind has been a cause. "The
patient's reaction to the medicine was immediate." "My response to
your proposal is negative." "My reply to your letter is in the mail."

reactionary. A dictionary definition of reactionary is "one who favors

or inclines to reaction," an explanation that clarifies not at all. Reaction-
ary is such an emotionally toned word that it is used to mean what the
speaker or writer wishes it to mean and has little or no actual denotation.
In the areas of morals, politics, religion, and related fields of concern, it
is usually employed as an adjective to mean "backward," "behind the
times," "overly conservative," "antiquated": "This legislator is a
mossback, totally reactionary in his view of all new proposals." See
also CONSERVATIVE.
readable, legible. In the sense of "capable of being read," legible and
readable are interchangeable: "His handwriting was frail but legible (or
readable)." Readable has additional meanings of "interesting," "plea-
surable," "fascinating": "This is the most readable novel I have come
across in weeks." "Although our son's letter from camp is legible, it is
not especially readable." Corresponding nouns are legibility and reada-
bility. See also ILLEGIBLE.
real, really. Although real can be a noun (Is this for real?), it is regularly
used as an adjective meaning "true," "actual," "genuine," and "sin-
cere": "What is the real reason for your laughter?" "This is a story of
real life." "That looks like a real ruby." "They formed a real friend-
ship." Really is an adverb meaning "truly," "actually," "in reality,"
"genuinely," and "indeed": "This is how things really are." "She is a
really lovely girl." "Really, is that your whole story?" Really should be
used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (really ill, really
fast, really moving). Real should be used to modify only nouns and
pronouns (real gems, the real him) and should not be used in expressions
such as "real soon," "real pretty," and "real excited." "Really and
truly" is grammatically correct but wordy and trite; use really or truly
but not both in the same expression. See also ACTUAL.

realize, know. Realize means "to grasp clearly," "to understand

fully." It is a stronger word than know, which also means "to perceive"
or "to apprehend" but without the thoroughness and completeness
suggested by realize. Realize also suggests the idea of warning or
emphasizing. "I know that you are tired." "Do you realize that you
 202
rear

might catch a cold in your weakened condition?" "You know that you
are already late, but do you realize what the penalties for lateness may
be?"
rear. See RAISE.

reason. See CAUSE. Reason appears in numerous trite expressions such

as "It stands to reason," "theirs not to reason why," "within reason,"
"by reason of," "bring someone to reason," and "any reasonable
person." Note that one word, because, can replace five words: "for the
simple reason that." If one overuses reason by itself, he can try under-
standing, intuition, judgment, or discernment. In the sense of "cause"
or "basis for action," occasionally substitute purpose, motive, end,
object, or objective.

reason is because. See BECAUSE.

reason why. The word why is an adverb, conjunction, noun, and inter-
jection and should not be used as a pronoun. Instead of saying "The
reason why he left is unknown," say "The reason that he left is
unknown." When why is used as a conjunctive adverb (that is, part
conjunction and part adverb), it properly appears in a remark such as "I
never realized why he was upset."

rebound, redound. These "look-alikes" are easily confused. Rebound

means "to spring back," "to cast back," "to recoil": "If you really
want to, you can rebound from that bad luck." As a noun, rebound
means "a bouncing back": "The center of that basketball team captured
thirty rebounds during the game." Redound means "to have an effect or
result," "to contribute," "to accrue," "to add to": "This generous act
will redound to your credit." Although a few lexicographers include
"recoil" as one meaning of redound, that meaning is better confined to
rebound. Think of rebounding as "bounding" and of redounding as
"deeds."

receipt, recipe. Only a few years ago, receipt had a basic meaning of
"receiving" and was never used, except by uneducated persons, in the
sense of recipe (a formula for preparing something, a set of directions for
mixing measured ingredients). Today, recipe is still preferable to receipt
in the sense of "formula," but widespread usage is gradually removing
all restrictive labels from receipt. "Let us have your recipe (or receipt)
for that cake." "He will give you a receipt for the money." "What were
the receipts today from your business?"

reckon. See CALCULATE.

recondition, renovate. In the sense of improving by restoring or

 203
redundant, superfluous, prolix

remodeling, recondition and renovate are interchangeable: "The new

owner will recondition (or renovate) the house." Recondition is a
somewhat stronger word than renovate, implying a more thorough over-
hauling or more extensive alterations. Having a hat cleaned and blocked
results in a renovation. Having an automobile overhauled is a recondi-
tioning process. Renovate has the added meaning of "to revive," "to
impart new vigor to": "The physician claims that a long vacation will
renovate you."
recrimination, accusation. This is a pair of "cause and effect" words.
An accusation is a charge of wrongdoing, the act of asserting that
someone is guilty: "The prosecuting attorney has decided upon an
accusation of murder." A recrimination is a countercharge, an accusa-
tion in return: "If you libel this man, you can expect recrimination."
recur, reoccur. These words are interchangeable in the meaning of "to
occur again": "That was a dreadful experience which I hope will not
recur (or reoccur)." Recur, more widely used than reoccur, implies the
repetition more than once of an event or experience, sometimes accord-
ing to a definite pattern: "The tide ebbs and flows in a recurring
pattern." Reoccur suggests a one-time repetition: "After his appendix
was removed, he knew that an attack of appendicitis could not reoccur."
Corresponding nouns are recurrence and reoccurrence. Recurrence is
so much more widely used that several leading dictionaries no longer list
reoccurrence.
recurring, frequent. Recurring, an adjective formed from recur, refers
to something that happens repeatedly, occurs or shows up or comes up
again and again: "His recurring attacks of asthma are becoming more
and more severe." Frequent means the same thing, with one difference:
it means happening again at short intervals: "He made frequent attacks
on the refrigerator all evening." A growing boy may have recurring
periods of depression, but he is certain to have frequent desires for food.

redound. See REBOUND.

redundant, superfluous, prolix. These words have a common meaning

of "too much," "more than is required or needed," "excessive": "The
speaker's response to the question was redundant (or superfluous or
prolix)." Superfluous, derived from Latin terms meaning "overflow," is
applicable to anything that is excessive, but redundant and prolix are
usually applied to speech and writing. Specifically, redundant refers to
unnecessary repetition in expressing ideas, that is, wordiness: "His
speaking style is slow and boring, largely because it is so redundant."
Prolix, from a Latin word meaning "long," applies to anything, espe-
cially speech and writing, that is not necessarily repetitious but is
extended to great, tedious, and unnecessary length. Words related to
 204
refer, refer back

prolix are protracted, verbose, and prolonged. Approximate synonyms

for redundant are repetitive, tautological, and pleonastic. Instead of
superfluous, occasionally say or write excessive, extra, extravagant,
immoderate, and disproportionate.
refer, refer back. Refer has much the same meaning as ALLUDE. Spe-
cifically it means "to direct one's thoughts or attention" to something
else: "Please refer to Chapter 10 for a further explanation of this topic."
"The prisoner twice referred to his former employer during the hear-
ing." Refer conveys the idea of back (it is derived from Latin words
meaning "back" or "again" and "carry"). Omit back in refer back and
avoid wordiness: "The speaker referred (not referred back) to his earlier
comments." If the meaning is "to send back," then refer back is permis-
sible but still wordy.

referee. See UMPIRE.

reflective, reflexive. These words are occasionally used as synonyms,

but reflective conveys two meanings not contained in reflexive. Reflec-
tive refers to something that casts back light, heat, or sound (a reflective
sheet of glass) and to someone who is thinking, pondering, or meditating
(in a reflective mood). Reflexive is now used entirely in a grammatical
sense, applying to a construction in which a verb has an identical subject
and object (I dress myself). The self words such as myself, himself, and
themselves are reflexive pronouns.

refutable, irrefutable. These words are antonyms. Refutable is an

adjective applied to charges, statements, or beliefs that can be disputed,
argued, and perhaps disproved. Irrefutable means "not refutable,"
"incontrovertible," "undeniable," "incontestable," "not questiona-
ble." Statements that can be challenged or confuted are refutable; those
that cannot be denied, those the truth of which is clearly evident, are
irrefutable.

refute, deny. Like repudiate, refute is a stronger, more powerful word

than deny. To deny is to claim that an opinion, statement, allegation, or
charge is simply not true. To refute is to "prove" that whatever is stated
or believed is false, erroneous, and groundless. "Mrs. Cyrus will deny
that she prepared a tasteless meal." "Here is my bank statement to
refute your charge that I am penniless." "She denies that she left the
dance early and has evidence to refute the rumor that she did." See also
DENY.

regal. See KINGLY.

regard, regards. Both of these words suggest esteem, respect, admira-

tion, and approbation: "I regard that minister highly." "Please accept
my warm regards." The singular form is used in prepositional phrases
 205
rendition, performance

such as "in regard to," "with regard to," and "in regard of," although
each of these expressions is wordy and usually can be replaced by
concerning or about. The phrase "in regards to" is substandard and
should never be used. "As regards" is standard but can usually be
omitted without loss or can be replaced by concerning.
regret. See REPENT.

regretful, regrettable. Regretful means "sorrowful," "filled with sor-

row or regret": "I am regretful that I cannot accept your invitation."
Regrettable means "deserving sorrow or regret" and is applied to
situations or events that elicit a sense of loss, distress, or longing: "Your
failure to write an apology is regrettable." In ordinary usage, a person is
regretful, an event or condition is regrettable: "The culprit should be
regretful for his regrettable act."

relation, relative. Both of these words are sanctioned by leading dic-

tionaries as standard, interchangeable terms for a kinsman, a person who
is related by blood or marriage: "I believe that this relation (or relative)
of mine is a second cousin." Each word is more often used in plural than
singular form, presumably because nearly everyone has numerous kins-
men: "My relatives (or relations) live in several different states." The
idiom "no relation of," not "no relation to," should be used in a
statement such as "Bob Moran is no relation of Hank Moran." How-
ever, to should be u:>ed in such sentences as "Bob Moran is not related
to Hank Moran." Apparently more skilled writers use relative than
relation, but the term to be selected is a matter of taste or local custom.
relatively, comparatively. These words mean about the same thing,
and it makes no difference whether one says "It was a relatively minor
accident" or "It was a comparatively minor accident." What does make
a difference is the use of either term when there is actually nothing to be
related or compared to. Neither word can be justified in a sentence such
as "There was relatively (or comparatively) little discussion of this
brand-new proposal." "Little discussion" relative or comparable to
what? Can any "little discussion" be typical? A "brand-new proposal"
is unique and has not been discussed before, either at length or briefly. In
short, relatively and comparatively are often meaningless words that add
nothing.

remainder. See BALANCE.

rendition, performance. In recent years, rendition has become as pop-

ular as performance in the sense of providing musical, dramatic, or other
forms of entertainment. Both words mean "the accomplishment or
execution of acts, feats, or ceremonies": "The tenor's rendition (or
performance) of classical songs was well received." Rendition is now
something of a "vogue" word, perhaps because it stresses the unusual or
 206
renovate

distinctive qualities of a performance or interpretation given by leading

popular singers and public entertainers. Recommendation: use perform-
ance unless some spectacular or unique quality should be noted and
stressed.
renovate. See RECONDITION.

reoccur. See RECUR.

repair. See MAINTAIN.

repeat again. Again means "another time" or "in return" and always
suggests the idea of "in addition." Therefore, it is superfluous in such
expressions as "repeat again" because the prefix re- has the meaning of
again. Say "Tell your story again" or "Retell your story," not "Retell
your story again"; "Repeat that, please," not "Repeat that again,
please."

repel, repulse. Because each of these words can mean' 'to drive back,"
they are often misused in situations where their meanings should be
distinct. One can repel or repulse someone who attempts to mug him,
but only repel conveys the idea of disgust, aversion, and loathing: "His
rude manner repelled everyone at the party." Repulse is commonly
associated with repulsive, which does mean "disgusting" or "offen-
sive," but repulse means only "to turn away," "to reject," or "to
refuse": "This girl repulsed every boy who wanted to dance with her
because all of them repelled her."

repent, regret. These words are near-synonyms, but they do have

slightly different applications. To repent is to feel sorrow and to engage
in self-reproach, which is precisely the primary meaning of regret. But to
repent is to go a step further: to feel so regretful as to try to make
amends, to do something to atone for the acts or omissions that caused
regret. That is, one may regret many things but repent of only some of
them: "I regret not having written to you." "Because this rich man
repented of his shady dealings, he decided to give away much of his
money."

repertoire, repertory. These terms refer to a list of plays, operas, or

other entertainments which a group or individual is prepared to perform:
"The Old Vic Players have a repertoire (or repertory) of more than thirty
Shakespearean plays." In this meaning, repertoire is the preferred term.
Repertory is the correct word to designate a theatrical company that
performs regularly: "To gain experience, she joined a touring repertory
company."
replica, copy. Copy is a widely used term for a reproduction, imitation,
 207
required, prescribed

or transcript of an original: "Please make a copy of this letter." Replica,

a more learned word derived from a Latin term meaning "to repeat," is
applied only to a copy or reproduction of an original that is produced by
the maker of the original or prepared under his direct supervision. A
copy of a painting, for example, is one reproduction among perhaps
thousands produced by someone other than the artist himself. A dupli-
cating mechanism, such as a Xerox machine (see XEROX), can make
copies but not replicas. Words related to replica and copy axe facsimile,
duplicate, imitation, and carbon.

reply. See REACTION.

reported. See REPUTED.

reportedly. See ALLEGEDLY.

republic, democracy. These words are used interchangeably; the

United States, for example, is referred to as a democracy as often as it is
as a republic. The country was founded as a republic, a term meaning "a
state in which the supreme power rests in citizens entitled to vote, which
power is exercised by chosen representatives." "I pledge allegiance to
the flag of the United States of America and to the republic for which it
stands. . . . " A democracy is "a state in which supreme power rests in
the people and is exercised by them." The distinction lies in "govern-
ment by elected representatives" and "government by the people." In
essence, the United States is both a republic and a democracy, but
careful writers sometimes distinguish between the words. The words
Republican and Democratic have no specific meaning except as the
names of political parties. Depending upon their party, candidates have
been known to say "Vote the Democratic ticket because this country is a
democracy" and "Vote the Republican ticket because this country is a
republicRecommendation: don't vote for either candidate; both are
playing with words.

repudiate. See DENY a n d REFUTE.

repulse. See REPEL.

reputed, reported. Reputed means "held to be such," "supposed,"

"so considered": "He is reputed to be an excellent salesman." "She is
the reputed owner of the stolen property." Reported means "communi-
cated," "made known": "This theft was immediately reported to the
police." "The reputed offender was reported to authorities."
reputedly. See ALLEGEDLY.

required, prescribed. That which is required is demanded, obligatory,

 208
research

necessary, and essential: "It is required that all applicants be citizens of

this country." "A health certificate will be required." That which is
prescribed is recommended, suggested, or designated: "The physician
prescribed bed rest for the patient." "This student's prescribed course
of study contained several required subjects." A requirement is a
demand; a prescription is a direction or recommendation.
research. The preferred pronunciation of this word as both noun and
verb is "rrSUHRCH." Also standard and often heard is
"REE'suhrch." The word means "scholarly or scientific inquiry" and is
used frequently when all that is involved is study, examination, investi-
gation, spot check, breakdown, or canvass.
reside, live, dwell. Live is commonly, and properly, used to indicate
occupying a house, home, or other place of habitation: "He lived there
for ten years." Reside also means to exist permanently or for a time in a
certain place, but the term is somewhat pretentious and should be
reserved for the act of living in an important or historic setting: "The
Governor now resides in a mansion furnished by the state." "When she
is in residence in London, the Queen resides at Buckingham Palace."
Dwell is somewhat old-fashioned (dwell in peace), but in noun formation
(dwelling) is still popular and correct: "His dwelling is a costly coopera-
tive apartment."

resolution, motion. Each of these words means ' 'a formal expression of
opinion," "a proposal," but motion always refers to a proposal requir-
ing a vote or other action. A resolution is not necessarily formed or
phrased in a legislative, judicial, or deliberative gathering; a motion
always is: "Mr. Chairperson, I make a motion that this resolution be
adopted."

respectfully, respectively, respectably. The first of these terms

means "with respect": "He addressed the supervisor respectfully."
Respectively means "each in the order named": "Harry, Ned, and
Steve were known as the Ace, the Banker, and the Nightcrawler respec-
tively," Respectably means "in a manner worthy of esteem": "That
family lived respectably in this community for thirty years."
response. See REACTION.

restaurant, restaurateur. The former term, which derives from a

French word meaning "to restore," is a somewhat more genteel word
than eating house, eatery, beanery, and hash house (all slang) and cafe,
luncheonette, coffee shop, tavern, grill, and lunch counter. It should be
pronounced "RES'tuh-ruhnt" or "RES'tuh-rahnt." A restaurateur
(pronounced "RES'tuh-uh'tur") is the manager or owner of a restau-
rant.
 209
return back

restive, restless. These related words have a common Latin base, a

term meaning "to remain standing." A restive person or animal is unable
to remain at rest (that is, quiet) because he cannot bear restraint or
control and becomes impatient with delay: "When tied to a hitching
post, the horse became restive." Restless is a commonly used word
applied more to unquiet and unease of the mind or emotions than of the
body and usually suggesting the absence of actual restraint: "This rest-
less patient has grown restive under hospital regulations." Restive,
unlike restless, also implies refusing to move, being balky or recalci-
trant. A horse chafing under a bit and refusing to obey its rider's
commands would be termed restive, not restless.
restrain. See CHECK, CURB, RESTRAIN, CONSTRAIN.

resume, continue. Resume means "to go on (or take up again) after an

interruption." Continue has precisely the same meaning except that no
interruption is involved. A group might continue to play bridge, but
would resume playing after a stop for refreshments. "The rain continued
for three hours, stopped for a few minutes, and then resumed." Words
related to continue are persist, last, persevere, endure, and extend.
Phrases synonymous with resume are "begin again" and "start once
more."

resume, synopsis, summary. From a French word meaning "to sum

up," risumi (pronounced with both e's sounding like long a) is only a
fancy word for summary, a brief but comprehensive presentation of facts
or statements: "This summary is a terse statement of the main points
made in your editorial." Both rSsumS and summary are usually applied
to works of nonfiction such as history, biography, and magazine articles.
Synopsis (from Greek words meaning "seeing with one's own eyes")
also refers to a statement providing a brief, general review or condensa-
tion; it is most often used in connection with retelling the plot of a novel,
story, or play. One may write a rksumk or a summary of the Declaration
of Independence and a synopsis of the plot of Huckleberry Finn. Related
words include digest, brief, abstract, and outline.

reticent, taciturn. A reticent person is reserved, not inclined to speak

freely or often, disposed to keep quiet. A taciturn person is also inclined
to silence and reluctant to take part in conversation. However, a taciturn
individual is usually considered surly, dour, sullen, and severe. That is, a
reticent person is pleasantly shy, withdrawn, and silent; a taciturn
individual is unpleasantly so. Related words are silent, uncommunica-
tive, reserved, still, and quiescent.
return back. Return implies going or coming back to a former place,
position, or condition. Omit back from this expression: "It is not easy to
return (not return back) to one's childhood home."
 210
revenge

revenge. See AVENGE.

reverend, reverent. Reverend means "deserving of respect, awe, love,

or reverence"; reverent means showing these same feelings and emo-
tions: "The Lincoln Memorial is a reverend symbol of this great Ameri-
can's contribution to his country. When they view it, most people look
with reverent eyes and hearts." Reverend is primarily an adjective.
For suggestions on using reverend as a title applying to the clergy, see
PASTOR.

review, revue. As applied to theatrical entertainments, review and

revue are synonymous, both coming from a French word meaning "to
see again": "The most popular play of the season is a review (or revue)
in which a dozen recent events, popular fads, and silly ideas are parodied
and satirized." Professional theatrical personnel tend to use revue;
others may take their choice.

reward. See AWARD.

rich, wealthy, affluent. These words mean "having an abundance of

possessions," "amply supplied with funds, resources, or means," "of
great value or worth": "This is a rich (or wealthy or affluent) country."
Words related to these three are opulent, moneyed, and well-to-do.
Rich, the most generally used of these terms, is more likely than the
other two to suggest newly acquired possessions (nouveau riche) and is
often used enviously or disparagingly: "That person is rich in worldly
goods but poor in control of his own emotions." Wealthy implies a
permanence or stability not suggested by rich and also is applicable to
characteristics and personality traits: "He comes from an established
family that is wealthy in material possessions and in concern for the
needs of those less fortunate." Affluent, rarely used, applies to someone
with a large income, usually an income spent freely: "She is an obviously
affluent member of the international jet set."

riddle, puzzle, enigma. A riddle is a puzzling question or problem; a

conundrum. The term is most often used in connection with problems
expressed in words, obscure matters that can be clarified only by a
guess: "Plutarch wrote that Homer died of worry and chagrin because he
could not solve a certain riddle." "Oedipus solved the riddle of the
Sphinx by revealing that the person described was man, who 'walked' on
four legs, then two, then three." A puzzle is a toy or other device
designed to amuse by presenting a difficulty that can be solved through
effort or ingenuity: "He works the crossword puzzle every morning that
it appears in his newspaper." An enigma is a baffling problem or
question that contains an air or atmosphere of mystery: "Zach con-
cluded that his former wife would always be an enigma to him." In a
radio broadcast early during World War II, Winston Churchill said: "I
 211
royal

cannot forecast to you the action of Russia. It is a riddle wrapped in a

mystery inside an enigma."
right, rightly. Right can be a noun (you have a right), a verb {right this
wrong), an adjective (my right foot), or an adverb (right after bedtime).
Rightly is an adverb only (rightly dressed). Both right and rightly can be
used as adverbs to modify verbs (Spell it right or rightly), but only
rightly is standard in the meaning of "properly": "The arrested man
rightly refused to talk to the police." Both right and the plural rights
have many additional meanings, but one can avoid overusing such
already-hackneyed expressions as "be in one's right mind," "put things
right," "the right thing at the right time," "right of way," "right
wing," "right about-face," "right away," "out in right field," "let the
left hand know what the right hand is doing," "right to work," "in one's
own right," "in the right," "by rights," and "set to rights." "Right
along," "right soon," "right off," and "right smart" are informal and
not-recommended phrases indicating the use of right as an adverb.
rise. See RAISE; see also GET UP.

robber, thief, burglar. These words all apply to a person who unlaw-
fully takes property from another, but they have distinct meanings. A
robber steals by the use of force or threat. A thief does his work in secret
and by stealth. A burglar breaks and enters. Someone who takes your
wallet while holding a knife in his hand is a robber, not a thief or a
burglar. A person who lifts your wallet from the beach while you are
swimming is a thief. An individual who forces open a window in your
house and takes your wallet from the dresser is a burglar.
Roman Catholic. See CATHOLIC.

round. See ABOUT.

rout, route. Rout has several meanings, one of which indicates "a
way," "a course," or "a road," the specific meanings of route. Rout is
usually pronounced "rowt." This is the pronunciation often given route,
but the preferred pronunciation of route is "root." As a verb, route is
pronounced both "root" and "rowt." "This serious defeat put the entire
division to rout.'''' "We sailed for Europe by the North Atlantic route."
"His job was to route deliveries to the proper departments."
royal. See KINGLY.
 s
Sabbath, Sunday. The word Sabbath is derived from various words in
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, all of them meaning "to rest." Sabbath is the
seventh day of the week (Saturday), named in the Ten Commandments
of the Old Testament as a day of worship and rest and thus observed by
Jews and some Christian sects. Sabbath is also a term for the first day of
the week, Sunday, observed by most Christian churches as a day of rest.
Sunday is derived from an Old English word meaning "day of the sun."

sacred, sacrosanct. Sacred means (1) "dedicated to the worship of a

deity"; (2) "declared holy"; (3) "dedicated to a single purpose, person,
or use"; (4) "worthy of respect": "He took a sacred oath never to bear
arms against anyone." "This is a monument sacred to the memory of a
great person." "Everyone's right to life is sacred." "All great festival
occasions of the church are sacred in their celebration." Sacrosanct
means especially and particularly "sacred," "incorruptible and unassail-
able," "incapable of being violated": "The most sacrosanct part of the
church is its sanctuary." "The constitutional rights of free speech, free
press, and free assembly are considered sacrosanct by all American
citizens."

saga. A saga (pronounced "SAH'guh") refers to any long narrative in

verse or prose dealing with legendary or historic events. Like EPIC, saga
is loosely used in place of such words as story, tale, adventure, exploit,
and event. "The voyage of the British naval ship Bounty in 1789 was a
saga of the sea." "This man's rise from poverty to wealth is a story (not
saga) of real-life adventure."

said, same. As an adjective, said should not be used except in legal

jargon (the said claimant). In general speech, this use of said is wordy
because it is unneeded. If clarity demands some modifier, say specified,
aforementioned, or referred-to. In a similar way, same is often used
outside legal and commercial contexts in wordy, useless ways. Substi-
tute it for same in a statement such as "I have your book and will return
it (not same) tomorrow."

salon, saloon. A salon is a large room or hall for entertaining guests or

exhibiting works of art. A saloon is a place where alcoholic drinks are
sold and drunk. A saloon is a bar or tavern; a salon is a gallery or
exhibition hall. The words should be distinguished, even though drinks
may be consumed in a salon and artwork may be shown in a saloon.
 213
Scotch, Scot, Scotsman

same. See SAID.

sample. See EXAMPLE.

sanguine. See OPTIMISTIC.

sanitarium, sanatorium. Despite differences in spelling and pronuncia-

tion, these words are used interchangeably. Sanitarium is more often
used, possibly because it refers to a general hospital. Sanatorium is
sometimes restricted to the meaning of a health resort or rest home, but
this distinction is not often made. Both words are derived from a Latin
term meaning "health."

sarcasm, satire. See IRONY.

saying. See AXIOM.

scandal. See LIBEL.

scarce. See RARE.

scarce, scarcely. Although scarce can be used as an adverb (scarce

more than a bare living), its greatest use in contemporary speech and
writing is that of an adjective meaning "infrequently found or seen,"
"insufficient," "not plentiful": "Pretty women are scarce in this town."
Scarcely is an adverb meaning "barely," "by a small margin," "just":
"He could scarcely breathe under the heavy covers." Scarcely has a
negative sense and should not be used with another negative; avoid such
expressions as "didn't scarcely," "couldn't scarcely," and "without
scarcely." See also DOUBLE NEGATIVE and HARDLY.
scent. See SMELL.

schmler, schmeer, smear. A currently popular slang expression mean-

ing "everything" is "the Whole schmier (or schmeer or smear)." It is
not clear what spelling is intended or correct. The most common spelling
is smear, a word defined as meaning "an oily substance" and "a
smudge, spot, or stain." Schmier is a variant form adapted from the
German word for smear cheese, or Schmierkiise (cottage cheese).
Schmeer is a slang term for persons and things (possibly the meaning
closest to the aforementioned phrase itself) and a colloquial word mean-
ing "to bribe." However the expression is spelled, it is both slangy and
trite and should be used rarely, if at all.
scholar. See PUPIL.

Scotch, Scot, Scotsman. Scotch is commonly used to refer to (1) the

people of Scotland, but this application is correctly used only with a
 214
script, scrip

preceding the (the Scotch, the Scotch people); (2) whisky distilled in
Scotland from malted barley; (3) any of several English dialects spoken
in Scotland. Scot, Scotsman, and Scotsmen are the terms preferred in
Scotland; Scotchman is considered incorrect and offensive there. Scots
and the Scotch are widely used plural forms. Scot is not an adjective;
Scottish and Scots are preferred adjectives, but Scotch is entrenched in
such terms as "Scotch whisky" and "Scotch broth."

script, scrip. Script means (1) handwriting as distinguished from print-

ing; (2) the text of a play or film; (3) in law, any original document. Scrip
means (1) paper money issued for temporary use; (2) a small scrap of
paper. "The letter I received is written in beautifiil script'.'''' "The
soldiers were forced to take their pay in scrip." "The script on this scrip
is barely legible."

scrupulous. See METICULOUS.

sculp, sculpt. Once considered nonstandard, both words are accepted

as shortened forms of "to sculpture." Both sculp and sculpt are derived
from a Latin verb, sculpere ("to carve"). But doesn't sculpture, a
perfectly good verb, sound better than sculp and sculpt? "The artist
sculptured this model in two months of laborious effort."
seasonable, seasonal. Seasonable means "timely" or "appropriate
to the season": "Seasonable rains resulted in an excellent wheat crop."
"Cold weather is seasonable in February." Seasonal means "associ-
ated or connected with seasons," "what is controlled by, or depends on,
seasons": "This decrease in employment is seasonal."

secondly. See FIRST.

section, cross-section. Section means "a piece," "a portion": "This

section of the farm lies in a valley." Cross-section means "a representa-
tive sample meant to be typical of the whole": "This recommendation is
based on a cross-section of public opinion in this area."
s e e m to. See CAN'T SEEM TO.

segregation. See INTEGRATION.

semi-. This is an element from Latin meaning "half' and is prefixed to

many words in English: semiannual, semiautomatic, semicircle, semi-
colon, semifinal, semiformal, semiprofessional, and so forth. See also
BIANNUAL a n d BIMONTHLY.

sense, feel. As a verb, sense means "to become aware of," "to per-
ceive," and informally means "to understand," "to detect": "I quickly
 215
set, sit

sensed that I was in trouble." "Do you sense some problem coming
up?" Feel has several meanings, two important ones being "to perceive
through the sense of touch" and "to experience an emotion": "This
velvet feels cool to my fingers." "I feel a great loss in his death." Sense
and feel are loosely used for each other, although originally sense was
restricted to matters or objects perceived through one of the five senses
and feel to that which could be experienced through touch alone. See
also BELIEVE.

sensual, sensuous. Several terms refer to satisfaction of the senses,

among them sensual, sensuous, epicurean, luxurious, and voluptuous.
Sensual applies to the physical senses only. Sensuous refers to what is
experienced through all the senses, especially those involved in appreci-
ation of art, music, literature, nature, and the like. One refers to sensual
pleasures, such as eating and drinking, and to the sensuous sounds or
delights of music, sculpture, etc.

sentinel, sentry. Each of these words refers to a guard, especially a

soldier or other military person, posted at some spot to keep order and to
prevent the entry of unauthorized persons: "The sentry (or sentinel)
paced back and forth." Sentry is the more widely used term. Sentinel is
employed frequently in literary or figurative senses: "The statue stood
like a sentinel on the mountaintop."

separate, divide. To separate is "to set apart," "to keep apart," "to
distinguish," "to differentiate between," "to detach": "Please separate
the white shirts from the colored ones." "When did you and your
partner separate?" "The candidate proposed that New York City sepa-
rate from the state of New York." Divide has much the same meaning as
separate but is correctly used to imply (1) splitting or breaking up
according to a plan and (2) rearrangement in hostile or opposing groups:
"The candy was divided equally among the children." "This issue will
divide local and state representatives along party lines."

serve, service. As verbs, these words have similar meanings but are not
always interchangeable. One could say "A good bus line serves the
residents of that area," but services would be out of place in that
sentence. Similarly, service, not serve, is appropriate in a statement
such as "That company will install and service the elevators in your
building." Because of the influence of advertising and the fact that
apparently many people feel that serve suggests menial work, service is
used in many writing situations where serve would "serve" as well. See
also MAINTAIN.

set, sit. Predominantly a transitive verb, set means "to put," "to
place": "Set the box on the floor, please." Sit is predominantly an
intransitive verb with a basic meaning of "to place oneself':' 4 When I sit
 216
settle

down, you come and sit beside me." Set used for sit, and sit for set, in
the meanings indicated, are nonstandard. Do not say "Set yourself
down" or "Sit it here."
Both set and sit have special meanings. The following are standard
usage: "The sun sets behind that mountain every afternoon." "The
house sits in a valley." "Sit the baby in the chair and then set her on her
feet." The following expressions involving set and sit are hackneyed:
"set one's face (or one's mind) against," "set one's heart on," "set by
the ears," "set one's hand to the plow," "set the world on fire," "set
one's teeth on edge," "set about," "set against," "set down," "set
aside," "set forth," "set in," "set off," "set apart," "set upon," "all
set," "get set," "set store by," "sit in on," "sit on," "sit out," "sit
pretty," "sit tight," "sfr-down strike," "sit-in," and "sitting duck."

settle. See LOCATE.

setup. In the sense of "an easy victory" or "an opponent easy to

defeat," setup is slangy and informal: "This game will be a setup for our
team." Setup is also widely used to refer to anything related to organiza-
tion, circumstances, or conditions: "What's the new setup for the sales
conference?" Although the term is a logical combination of set and up, it
has become trite through overuse. Other words that might serve better:
plan, scheme, project, design, pattern, arrangement, and stratagem.

sewage, sewerage. Sewage is the waste matter that passes through

sewers. Sewerage means "a system of sewers," "the apparatus for
removing waste water and refuse": "How much sewage will this sewer-
age system accommodate in an hour?"
sex. See GENDER.

shall, will. Distinctions in the use of shall and will have broken down,
but some careful speakers still observe these principles: (1) Use shall in
the first person and will in the second or third person to express future
time: "I (we) shall leave soon." "You (he, they) will leave soon." (2)
For expressing command or determination, use will in the first person
and shall in the second and third: "I will speak, no matter who tries to
stop me." "You shall speak (meaning 'You must speak')." (3) To
express willingness, promise, or intention, use will (same verb, different
meaning) with all personal pronouns: "I will help you now." "You will
be a success." Even so accomplished a user of language as Winston
Churchill disregarded the basic rules for using shall and will when he
declared: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shallfightin the
hills; we shall never surrender."
In general, use should and would according to recommendations for
shall and will. Both should and would also have specialized meanings,
 217
signature, autograph

should in the sense of obligation and would in the sense of habitual

action: "You should go now." "He would take a walk every day."
share. See PART.

shibboleth. This is a term used to refer to a test or formula. Shibboleth

was a word chosen by the Gileadites to distinguish fleeing Ephraimites
who could not pronounce the sh sound. (The incident is recounted in the
Old Testament, Judges 12.) Shibboleth has been extended in meaning (in
Hebrew it meant "an ear of corn" and "a stream") beyond the concept
of testing to refer to a peculiarity or oddity of speaking, acting, or
dressing that distinguishes a particular class or set of persons: "The
ability to make small talk is a shibboleth of that segment of caf6 soci-
ety."
ship. See BOAT.

shop, store. These words have numerous distinct uses separate from
each other, but they share the meaning of an establishment where
merchandise is sold, usually on a retail basis. Store is a more general
term, shop being reserved for a small store or for a department in a large
store selling a select or special type of goods. One refers to a department
store or grocery store and to a shop that sells hats or gloves or china or
other specialized wares. Again, one might mention a shoe store but
would refer to a shoe repair shop.
short. See BRIEF.

should. See SHALL.

shut. See CLOSE, SHUT.

shy. See MODEST.

sick. See ILL.

sight, spectacle. Both sight and spectacle mean something seen or

able to be seen: "We soon caught sight of land." "Palmetto trees on the
beach were a lovely spectacle." Spectacle is reserved for a sight that is
unusual, such as a curiosity or marvel or some public performance or
display. In this sense, it closely resembles the meaning of sights: "Lights
on the Eiffel Tower are a spectacle, one of the marvelous sights of
Paris." Sight is often used in a derisive or derogatory way (In that coat
you are a sight). Spectacle can also be used in a disparaging sense (make
a spectacle of oneself).
signature, autograph. Both signature and autograph mean the name
 218
simile, metaphor

of a parson as written by himself (herself). Even the X or other mark that

indicates identity may be called a signature; the word comes from a
Latin term meaning "to mark with a sign." Autograph (from Greek
words meaning "written by oneself') is usually applied to the handwrit-
ten name of a person of distinction or notoriety. Those celebrities asked
for an autograph may or may not write their actual names; many have a
professional name different from their real name. If so, they give an
autograph (assumed name) to those who ask but use a signature for
checks or other transactions requiring genuine identification.
simile, metaphor. A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a term or
phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable. This
is done in order to suggest a resemblance: "She is a perfect lamb."
Metaphor and simile are allied in meaning; a simile expresses resem-
blance directly but does so by using as, as i f , like: "She is as sweet as a
flower." Unfortunately, most metaphors and some similes are either
strained or trite. Manyfiguresof speech are often mixed; standard advice
is to sustain one figure and not suddenly shift to another: "We had the
crankcase drained and thus nipped our trouble in the bud."

simple reason. Three good reasons exist for not using this tiresome
expression: (1) The word simple implies a superior attitude toward the
reader or listener (Why didn't you think of this yourself, you numskull?).
(2) The reason may not be simple but quite complex. (3) The expression
is uneconomical. Everything that "for the simple reason that" says can
be expressed by one word, because.

simplistic, simplified. Each of these adjectives means "made less com-

plex and complicated," "made easier or plainer": "This is a simplified
(or simplistic) summary of the situation." Simplistic is currently a
"vogue" word, overused because apparently it seems to many people to
be more sophisticated and learned than simplified. Actually, simplistic
has taken on the meaning of "overly simplified," "characterized by
extreme or excessive simplification": "Your explanation of this serious
problem is inadequate and simplistic."

simulate. See DISSIMULATE.

since, yet. Both of these words are adverbs expressing time but doing so
in different ways and meanings. Since can mean (1) "at some past time,"
"before now" (She has long since forgotten me); (2) "between then and
now" (He has since left town); (3) "from some time in the past up until
now" (She came last week and has been making trouble ever since). The
word until is usually superfluous in a since phrase: "He had not voted
since 1972 until this fall" can better be expressed "He had not voted
from 1972 until this fall." Yet means (1) "at this time" (Don't go yet); (2)
"thus far" (The signal had not yet come); (3) "still" (Something is yet to
be done); (4) "in addition" (yet another time); (5) "nevertheless"
 219
smell, stink, scent

(poorer yet wiser). Because both since and yet cover time up to the
present, an accompanying verb should be in the perfect, not past, tense:
"There has been no agreement on the dispute that has prevented prog-
ress since the meeting began." "Have you written to her yet?" "Did
you eat yet?" is nonstandard. "Have you eaten yet?" is standard. See
also AGO.

sit. See SET.

slack, slake. As verbs, slack means "to shirk," "to leave undone,"
and slake means "to refresh," "to allay thirst": "He slacked his work
for a minute while he slaked his thirst." Because both words can mean
"to make less active and intense," they are often confused through
misspelling or mispronunciation. In this latter meaning, slack is always
followed by up or o f f . "He slacked up in his efforts." "Your indiffer-
ence has slaked their enthusiasm."

slander. See LIBEL.

slogan, motto. Although slogan is derived from a Gaelic word meaning

"army cry" and motto from a Latin word meaning "utterance," they are
closely related in sense. Each suggests a saying or expression used as a
guiding principle or rule of conduct. Slogan specifically means a "catch-
word" or "catch phrase" used by a political party, fraternity, or school
group or in advertising and promotion: "The slogan of this company is
'When better beds are made, we'll make them.'" A motto is usually
briefer than a slogan and more likely to express a moral aim or purpose:
"The motto of the Boy Scouts of America is 'Be Prepared.'" Words
related to slogan and motto, but with shadings of meaning, include
maxim, saying, saw, aphorism, catchword, and watchword.

slow, slowly. Each of these words is an adverb, so that one can say
"Drive slow" or "Drive slowly." Careful speakers use slowly in such an
expression. Slow is preferred in statements such as "This watch runs
slow."
sludge, slush. These words are closely related; each refers to mud,
mire, or ooze. Sludge is often applied to matter that is heavier or bulkier
than that referred to as slush, perhaps because of the sound of the two
words. That is, the thick deposit of sediment in a steam boiler or the
viscous oil waste in a garage is sludge; watery mire and partly melted
snow are slush. Such a distinction, however, is more a matter of taste
and feeling than of actual meaning.
smear. See SCHMIER.

smell, stink, scent. These nouns refer to the qualities and properties of
objects and items that can be detected through the olfactory organs, or
 220
so

what is generally called the sense of smell. Smell, along with odor, is the
most general, most commonly used, and most neutral of these words. A
smell can be pleasant or unpleasant, but usually the word carries no
particular connotation, favorable or unfavorable. Stink and its compan-
ion word stench always refer to disagreeable and unpleasant odors,
especially those resulting from the decomposition of organic matter,
such as the dead bodies of animals. Scent applies to a distinctive odor,
usually delicate and usually connected directly with physical qualities of
the item or object itself. Thus one would refer to the smell of wet grass,
the stink of a dead body, and the scent of roses. As verbs, scent has
principal parts of scent, scented, scented; stink, of stink, stank, stunk;
smell, of smell, smelled (or smelt), smelled (or smelt). Words related to
this trio of terms are aroma, fragrance, stench, perfume, savor, bou-
quet, exhalation, and redolence.

so. So is primarily an adverb meaning "thus" or "in the manner indi-

cated": "He is ill and has long been so." This overworked word can also
be an adjective (What you say is not so), a pronoun (Be quiet and stay
so), a conjunction (Drive slowly so you will not have an accident), and
an interjection (So! I've caught you in the act). Two major objections to
the use of so are (1) its overuse in statements where therefore, thus, and
consequently would serve better and (2) its overuse as an intensive
instead of indeed or extremely: "We couldn't go that day, so we sold our
tickets" (use therefore or consequently). "After her departure, I felt so
sad" (use extremely or some other intensive). So comes to mind "so"
easily that everyone tends to overuse it.

so . . . as. See AS . . . AS.

so-called. Meaning "called by this term" or "so designated," so-called

is usually employed to suggest incorrectness, sarcasm, or some degree of
doubt: "This is a so-called improvement." "Those were his so-called
friends." When so-called follows the noun to which it refers, the phrase
may be written without a hyphen: "Those were our choices, so called."

sociable, social. As nouns, these words have the shared meaning of

"an informal gathering," "an occasion for conversation and pleasure":
"The children are attending a church social (or sociable)." In this use,
social is preferred. As adjectives, social and sociable have related
meanings, but social is preferred for referring to community living and
association in groups: "This is a highly social section of town." Socia-
ble is more often applied to persons than is social in the sense of
"friendly," "pleasant," "affable": "Our senator likes people and is a
companionable, sociable person." "When you attend that social, try to
be more sociable than you usually are."
solid, stolid. Solid has several meanings, stolid only one. A stolid
 221
somewhat

person is impassive, one who has, or at least reveals, little emotion:

"That farmer, immovable in his opinions, is stolid not from dullness but
from feeling that he is right." Solid is correctly used in sentences such as
these: "This is a solid block of ice (not hollowed out)." "That ring is
solid gold (of the same substance throughout)." "There is a solid
(continuous) block of cars." "We ate a solid (complete, substantial)
meal." "You are a solid (upstanding, dependable) citizen." "Give me
some solid (reliable, concrete) facts." A solid (trustworthy) individual
may or may not be stolid (expressionless).
some, somewhat. Some is an adjective of indefinite number (some
money, some fruit). Applied adverbially in the sense of somewhat
("rather," "to some degree"), some is nonstandard. Say "The patient is
somewhat (not some) better today." Some is informal or slangy in the
sense of "remarkable": "He is some swimmer."
somebody, someone. These terms are interchangeable, although
someone is considered more "refined" and "cultured" than somebody.
Both words are standard. Each requires a singular verb: "Somebody (or
someone) is in the house." Proper forms of the possessive are some-
body else's and someone else's, not somebody's else or someone's else.
See also ELSE.
someplace. As is pointed out in the entry ANYPLACE, someplace is not
a standard adverb. Write "I left my coat somewhere (not someplace)."
When some is used as an adjective and place as a noun, no error is
involved: "There must be some place in this town where I can find a
decent meal."
some time, sometime, sometimes. When some is used as an adjective
and time as a noun, the expression is written as two words meaning "an
indefinite time": "She and I met some time (not sometime) that year."
As an adverb, sometime means "at a point in time": "I went to the store
sometime last week." As an adjective meaning "occasional" or "being
such now and then," sometime is informal and not recommended for
serious writing; avoid such a sentence as "She was a sometime leading
opera singer." Sometimes has the sense of a plural, "at times": "She
visits me sometimes." In the sense of "once" or "formerly," some-
times is obsolete.

someway, someways. Someway is an adverb meaning "in some way

or another," "somehow": "She will get the dress someway." The term
can also be correctly split: "In some way she will get the dress."
Someways is considered either informal or dialectal and should not be
used. Most careful writers prefer the adverb somehow to someway.
somewhat. See SOME.
 222

somewheres

somewheres. See ANYWHERES.

soon. See EARLY.

sordid. See MORBID.

sort of, sort of a. When used to mean an approximation, sort of is

informal but not incorrect; sort of a is considered both informal and
wordy: "Dr. Billings is sort of an optimist" (but not a sort of an). In
the sense of "rather" or "somewhat," sort of is dialectal and not
recommended for writing or speaking; avoid a sentence such as "I am
sort of exhausted." Sort of, but not sort of a, may be correctly used to
refer to a species or general subdivision: "What sort of snake is that?"
Despite widespread usage to the contrary, one should neither say nor
write "those sort" or "these sort": "Those sorts of tests are difficult."
See also KIND.

special. See ESPECIAL.

specie, species. Specie means "coined money" or "coins." This word

is a collective noun and has no plural: "The specie of France and that of
Great Britain do not closely resemble each other." "The payment must
be in specie." Species has only one form for singular and plural in the
meaning of a class with common characteristics: "What species of
monkey is this?" One cannot refer to a category of organisms as a
specie: "The Anopheles punctipennis is a species (not specie) of mos-
quito."

spectacle. See SIGHT.

spiritual, spirituous. The first of these words means "not material or

physical," "relating to the spirit or soul": "Our pastor is a spiritual
man." "His pain was more spiritual than physical." Spirituous means
"having the nature of, or containing, alcohol produced by distillation":
"Whiskey is a spirituous beverage."
splutter, sputter. Splutter is a combination of splash and sputter.
Splutter and sputter mean much the same and can be used interchangea-
bly in these senses: "to speak incoherently," "to say something hastily
and confusedly," "to make a spitting sound": "The frightened boy
spluttered (or sputtered) some kind of reply." It is possible that to some
ears splutter sounds more vigorous and picturesque than sputter, but
choice between them is personal, not entirely logical.
spoiled, spoilt. The past tense and past participle of the verb spoil are
spoiled or spoilt. Both forms are correct: "The food was spoiled (or
spoilt)." "The mother spoiled (or spoilt) her children." "This stationery
 223
stationary, stationery

has been spoiled (or spoilt)." Spoiled is more generally used and there-
fore is recommended.
spoonful, spoonfuls. See -FUL. A recipe might read "Add three table-
spoons full of broth and continue cooking." The tablespoons will be
neither cooked nor edible; make the word tablespoonfuls.
sprain, strain. A sprain is a painful wrenching or tearing of the liga-
ments of a joint, such as an ankle or wrist. It may result from a strain, a
more general term that implies misuse, overuse, or overexertion. That is,
a strain is a stretching or forcing beyond proper limits: "Because he
strained ligaments when he landed, he sprained his ankle."
sputter. See SPLUTTER.

square. This is slang for "a rigidly conventional person": "Get with it;
don't be a square." Trite phrases and words to be wary of: "square peg
in a round hole," "on the square," "square shooter," "square o f f '
("assume a fighting position"), "square up" ("to settle," "to pay"),
"square the circle" ("to attempt the impossible"), "square with one's
conscience," "square meal," and "square deal."

stalactite, stalagmite. Only geologists are likely to use these terms

often, but others have difficulty in remembering which hangs down from
the roof of a cave and which rises up from the floor. Both stalactite and
stalagmite refer to deposits of calcium carbonate formed by the dripping
of water. A stalactite is a column that hangs down; one that builds up
from the floor is a stalagmite. Suggestion for remembering: associate
stalactite with icicle. If that doesn't help, think of mite and mire.

stamp. See STOMP.

standpoint. See POINT OF VIEW.

stanza. See VERSE.

stash. See CACHE.

stationary, stationery. Stationary is an adjective meaning "having a

fixed or unmoving position," "not moving": "This huge rock is station-
ary." "For a week, the stock market has been almost stationary."
Stationery, a noun, means "writing paper and envelopes." The word has
been extended to include office supplies and retail shops that sell station-
ery and related supplies: "This stationer's supply of stationery is almost
exhausted." How to remember which is which? Stationary means
"standing" (note the a's). Stationery is used for writing letters (note the
e's).
 224
statue, stature, statute

statue, stature, statute. A statue (STACHoo) is "an image," stature

(STACH'uhr) means "height" or "status," and a statute (STACH oot)
is a "law": "This is a statue of Senator Smith, who helped frame many
statutes and who achieved great stature as an orator."

stay, stop. As a verb, stay has*several synonyms: remain, linger, tarry,

sojourn, abide, wait, etc. As a verb, stop is related to arrest, check, halt,
and terminate. As these parallel words suggest, stay and stop do differ
in meaning. For example, one stays rather than stops at a motel because
stay means "to remain," "to abide," and stop means "to terminate."
However logical this distinction, Americans pay little attention to it: one
stops or stays at a hotel or motel as he pleases. Stop is a more popular
word than stay, as note such phrases as "stop over," "stop by," 4'stop
off," and "stop in," to which has been added the noun stopover.

stevedore. See LONGSHOREMAN.

still, still and all. Still is a proper adjective, conjunction, and adverb
with numerous correct uses. Unfortunately, it is often dropped into a
sentence as a filler with little or no meaning. Even more useless is still
and all. Still has a legitimate function in speech or writing, but there is no
excuse for still and all.

stimulant, stimulus. Stimulant refers to anything that temporarily

arouses or speeds up mental or physical activity: "Alcohol, thought to be
a stimulant, is actually a depressant." A stimulus is something that rouses
to action, that incites activity, that produces a response: "Additional pay
is a stimulus to harder work." The effect of a stimulant is short-lived;
that of a stimulus does not necessarily involve time restrictions. The
plural of stimulant is stimulants; that of stimulus is stimuli.
stink. See SMELL.

stolid. See SOLID.

stomach. See ABDOMEN.

stomp, stamp. Stomp means "to tread on," "to trample," "to step
violently on or upon." As a verb, stamp has several meanings, including
that of stomp: One can stamp (or stomp) a snake to death. One is more
likely to refer to stomping horses or herds than to stamping horses or
herds, but both adjectives are correct. In the senses of eliminating,
getting rid of, and striking the ground with the human foot, stamp is
preferred: "This action will stamp out slums." "In her anger, she
stamped her foot on the floor."
stop. See STAY.
 225
stress, strain

store. See SHOP.

stout. See FAT.

straight, strait. Straight, as an adjective, means' 'uncurved,''' 'direct,''

"unswerving": "The road is straight." "When you tell that story, try to
keep a straight face." As an adverb, straight means "directly" and
"honestly": "Please go straight home." "Don't lie, speak straight."
Strait means (1) "a narrow passage of water"; (2) "restricted," "con-
fined"; (3) "a position of difficulty or distress" (usually in the plural):
"This strait is just wide enough to accommodate the large ship." "Strait
is the gate, and narrow is the way." "You must be in desperate straits
for companionship."

strain. See SPRAIN a n d STRESS.

strange. See FUNNY.

strangely enough. See ENOUGH.

strategy, tactics. Essentially, strategy has to do with the planning of

schemes or operations, tactics with putting these plans into effect.
Military strategy is the art or science of command as applied to the
overall conduct of large-scale operations. Strategy in nonmilitary appli-
cation refers to the skill of employing stratagems in business, politics,
domestic life, and so forth: "He has a definite strategy for investing
money." "What is his strategy in dealing with his wife?" Tactics is the
technique or science of obtaining or securing what strategy has planned.
Although plural in form, tactics is used with a singular verb when it
refers to the art, science, or general mode of procedure used in gaining
success or advantage. When tactics refers to the maneuvers themselves,
the verb is plural. Tactic, singular in form, is always used with a singular
verb. "His tactic is to upset his opponents." "The tactics of military
strategy is a complicated study." "The generals' tactics in that battle
were masterly."

stratum, strata. A stratum is a horizontal layer of any material; in

geology, the term refers to a layer of rock having the same composition
throughout. Strata is the plural of stratum. "This is a stratum of
volcanic rock." "This novel contains many strata of meaning." It is
correct to say "One stratum is" and "All strata are." Neither stratums
nor stratas is generally acceptable as a plural, although both occasion-
ally appear in print.
stress, strain. Stress means "pressure," "the force exerted upon one
object by another." For discussion of strain, see SPRAIN. Examples of
use: "Under heavy stress, the cable broke." "It is a strain to work
 226
student

sixteen hours a day." The German expression Sturm undDrang literally

means "storm and stress" but can equally well mean "strain and
stress."
student. See PUPIL.

subconscious. See UNCONSCIOUS.

subsequent, consequent. These words are easily confused. Subse-

quent means "succeeding," "following in order or time": "Subsequent
to his release from prison, he got back his old job." Each of the following
constructions indicates "later": "subsequent events," "a talk held sub-
sequent to the party," "a talk held subsequently." Consequent means
"following as a natural result, effect, or conclusion": "Reckless driving
was the charge, and consequent investigation caused him to lose his
license." A consequent occurrence is always a subsequent happening,
but a subsequent event is not necessarily consequent.

subsist. See EXIST.

substantially. See ESSENTIALLY.

successive. See CONSECUTIVE; see also CONTINUAL.

succinct, concise. These adjectives apply to the stating of much in few

words. Succinct, from Latin words meaning "girded," "tucked up,"
emphasizes compactness and the omission of all elaboration: "This story
is succinct because it contains no editorializing and very little descrip-
tion of setting." Concise, from a Latin term meaning "to cut," implies
solidity and density achieved through the elimination of all unnecessary
words: "Many of Hemingway's stories are concise because they contain
few adjectives and adverbs and little direct characterization." Related
words are laconic, terse, epigrammatic, pithy, brief, curt, and con-
densed.

succubus. See INCUBUS.

such. As a pronoun, such is informal, if not substandard, when used to

mean "that" or "the same." Avoid saying "I could not bear such"
when you mean "I could not bear that (or the same):'' (See SAID.) Such
should not be used to mean "the like," either. Avoid saying "At the
circus we ate peanuts, popcorn, and such." Such is colloquial and to be
avoided as an intensive: "She is such a nice girl" could be better
expressed by substituting very or exceptionally or unusually for such a.
An overworked phrase meaning "undetermined" is "such and such" (at
such and such a place).
 227

supernatural, unnatural

sufficient. See ENOUGH.

suit, suite. These words have a common origin but are used in different
ways. One speaks of "a suit of clothes," "a suit at law," "a suit of
cards." Suite means "a company of followers," "a connected series of
rooms," "a musical composition." Suit is pronounced "syoot"; suite is
pronounced "sweet." In standard usage, only suite can be applied to
"matched furniture pieces," but in this usage suite is often pronounced
incorrectly like suit. Why not avoid difficulty and say "set of furniture"?
summary. See RESUME.

summit, peak, top. Each of these words refers to the highest point of
something, with top being the term in widest use (the top of the hill, the
top of the house). Peak means a pointed extremity, the pointed top of a
hill or mountain (peak of a roof, peak of a cap, peak of Mount Monad-
nock). Summit is close in meaning to peak, "the highest point of an
elevation of any kind": "The summit of the hill was covered with wild
flowers." Related words which also suggest the figurative meanings of
summit, peak, and top include apex, pinnacle, zenith, elevation, height,
climax, and acme. Thus one refers to a student at the top of his class as
one who has reached the summit of his goals. When traffic is heaviest, it
is at its peak. Diplomats conduct talks at the summit.
Sunday. See SABBATH.

sunlight, sunshine. Both sunlight and sunshine mean "the light of the
sun," but sunshine additionally means (1) "happiness" or "cheerful-
ness," (2) the "source of happiness or cheerfulness," and (3) the "shin-
ing of the sun." "Sunlight lasted only a few hours today." "He basked
in the sunshine of his friend's affection." "Your smile is all the sunshine
I need." "She lies in the sunshine for an hour every sunny day."

superfluous. See REDUNDANT.

superior than, superior to. Only superior to is idiomatically accepta-

ble: "She is superior to (not than) everyone else in the shop." See also
DIFFERENT FROM AND INFERIOR THAN.

supernatural, unnatural. Supernatural means "above or beyond what

is natural," "miraculous," "abnormal," "not explainable by natural
laws," "attributed to the exercise of divine power": "Ancient Greeks
and Romans believed in supernatural beings whom they called gods."
"The existence of this enormous crater must be traced to supernatural
forces." "The guided missile seemed to accelerate at supernatural
speed." Unnatural means "contrived," "artificial," "inhuman," "vio-
 228
supine

lating natural feelings," "inconsistent with prevailing customs": "This

child's treatment of his parents is unnatural." "It is unnatural for a
physician to be a sadist." That which is supernatural is unnatural, but
much that is unnatural is not supernatural. Related but relatively
uncommon words are supranatural, a synonym of supernatural, and
preternatural, meaning "exceptional," "unusual," and "abnormal."
supine. See PROSTRATE.

supplementary, complementary. Supplementary, an adjective, refers

to something added in order to complete something else, to make up a
deficiency, to extend or strengthen an object, item, or idea: "A food
allowance was supplementary to his weekly pay." "He took vitamins as
a supplementary part of his diet." Complementary is closely related to
supplementary in meaning but emphasizes not so much addition as it
does completion or an essential addition: "In winning basketball, offense
and defense are complementary"In everyone's life, food and sleep
are complementary." "As a scholar, Professor Auray insists that read-
ing plays a complementary role in his life."

suppose. See IMAGINE.

supposedly, presumably. Supposedly means "in a way-assumed to be

true or presumed as real or genuine." That is, what is supposedly a
certain situation may not be a correct or accurate assumption: "He is
supposedly in love with Helen, but this attachment seems to be only a
rumor." Presumably means "probably," "reasonably," "capable of
being taken for granted": "Since he is an expert, presumably he knows
what he's talking about." What is presumably a truth is a probable or
likely truth; what is supposedly a truth is a doubtful, questionable,
suspicious, or undecided truth.

sure, surely. Correct usage calls for a strict division between sure (an
adjective) and surely (an adverb). One says "That was a sure sign of his
interest" and "That was surely a sign of his interest." In the first
sentence, sure qualifies the noun sign; in the second, surely modifies the
verb was. Sure can be employed informally as an adverb (sure enough),
but this colloquial use is not recommended for careful writing. See also
CERTAIN.

surprise. See AMAZE.

suspected. See ALLEGED.

sympathy. See EMPATHY.

synopsis. See RESUME.

 229
systemize, systematize

syntax. See GRAMMAR.

synthesis. See ANALYSIS.

systemize, systematize. Each of these words, both correct, means ' 'to
formulate," "to reduce to a system," "to arrange in a certain order":
"Please systemize (or systematize) the filing cabinets in this office."
"You can work more efficiently if you will systematize (or systemize)
the contents of your kitchen." Systematize is the more commonly used
term. Approximate synonyms are organize, dispose, articulate, and
order.
 T
tablespoonful. See -FUL a n d SPOONFUL.

taciturn. See RETICENT.

tactics. See STRATEGY.

tactile, tactual, textile. These "look-alikes" are often confused and

with good reason, too, because tactile and tactual are close in meaning
and use. Tactile and tactual refer to the sense of touch, with tactual
being the somewhat more general and more generally used word. Tactile
means "endowed with the sense of touch"; tactual means "arising from,
or due to, touch," "communicating the sensation of contact": "The
paws of a dog are extremely tactile." "A kiss is usually an enjoyable
tactual experience." Textile means cloth or fabric that is woven or
knitted of fiber and yarn. As an adjective, textile applies to the manufac-
ture of textiles. "Cotton is a popular textile." "All these persons are
employees of the local textile mill."

take. See BRING. Take occurs in numerous informal or incorrect expres-

sions appearing in everyday conversation. ' 'Take and" (I took and hit
him on the nose) is an illiteracy. In the expression "take, for example,"
take is unnecessary and should be omitted. "Take in" is informal when
used to mean "to attend" (We took in a show). "Take on" is informal in
the sense of showing emotion (Don't take on so over the loss). "Take
sick" is informal for "to become ill" (He took sick and nearly died).
"Take it easy" and "Take care" are cliches. In fact, "Take it easy" and
"Don't take any wooden nickels" are among the most tiresome of all
hackneyed expressions.

take place. See HAPPEN.

talent- See GENIUS.

tall, lofty, high. Each of these terms means "having greater than ordi-
nary height," "extending upward." Which of them to use depends upon
what is being mentioned: one refers to a tall or lofty tree, a high or lofty
mountain, a high wall, a tall woman, and a lofty elevation. Tall and
high, the most general of these words, are most frequently used. Tall is
 231
Tatar

used to refer to something that rises to a considerable extent and also

applies particularly to people: "a tall building," "a tall boy." High
applies to that which rises well above a base: "a high hill," "a shelf high
on the wall." Lofty describes what is imposingly or majestically ele-
vated: "This huge room has a lofty ceiling." Each of the terms is also
used figuratively: "a man of high purpose"; "a tall tale"; "a lofty
ambition"; "high ideals," "lofty pretensions," "tall talk."
tantalize, harass. Tantalize means4 4to torment,'' 44 to tease by arousing
expectations," "to disappoint repeatedly." Harass implies persecution
through demands, threats, or annoyances; it also suggests disturbing and
troubling with repeated attacks. A girl tantalizes a boy when she seems
to be responsive but refuses to go out with him. A telephone operator is
harassed by the stream of silly requests that she receives. Related words
are pester, badger, hound, plague, bait, torment, disappoint, harry, vex,
rack, and distress.
target, objective. Literally, a target is something to be shot at, but its
meaning has been extended to include any desired object and also
anything that is to be acted upon with a view to altering it. An objective
is something worked toward as a goal. Target has become a "fad" word
in recent years and is often misused for objective. One can have a target
or an objective in life, such as becoming a millionaire, but although one
can raise or lower his target, it seems silly to speak of "achieving a
target." If one wishes to stop overusing target and desires to reduce his
use of objective, he can try purpose, goal, intent, intention, end, aim,
and object.
Tartar, Tatar. Standard dictionaries differ in their recommendations for
the preferred use of this term. Both Tatar and Tartar refer to a member
of one of the Mongolian tribes under Genghis Khan and his descendants
which overran much of Asia and Eastern Europe in the thirteenth
century. The term (either spelling) is also applied to descendants of such
peoples who now live in Central Asia. By extension, both Tatar and
Tartar mean "an unruly, intractable, or savage person." The expression
"to catch a tartar" means "to deal with someone who is troublesome or
powerful." Recommendation: use either Tartar or Tatar in ordinary
writing; use Tatar if you are dealing with ethnic or cultural matters.

tasteful, tasty. Tasteful is standard in the sense of 4 'having or display-

ing good taste." Tasty means only "having a pleasing flavor,"
44
savory." One should usually refer to a tasteful affair or ceremony and
to a tasty meal (which might also be served in a tasteful manner): "The
diplomatic reception was a tasteful affair, and the food served at it was
tasty."
Tatar. See TARTAR.
 232

teach

teach. See LEARN.

teaspoonful. See -FUL.

teeth. For no particularly good reason, one has a toothache, not a

teethache, even if more than one tooth is hurting. One also refers to a
toothbrush and to tooth marks, although the brush works on more than
one tooth and marks result from the bite of teeth. Teeth, the plural of
tooth, outscores the singular form in the number of hackneyed expres-
sions in which both appear: "long in the tooth" ("old," "elderly"),
"tooth and nail" ("fiercely," "as hard as possible"), "a toothsome
invitation," "by the skin of one's teeth," "a kick in the teeth," "put
teeth in (or into)," "show one's teeth," "put (or set) one's teeth on
edge," "to the teeth" ("entirely," "fully"), "to throw into someone's
teeth" ("to reproach"), and "cut one's teeth on" (referring to action
during one's youth).

tell, inform. Tell is the commonly used word meaning "to narrate," "to
communicate," "to recount," "to express with words": "Tell me a
story." "Tell us what you did today." Mark Twain once wrote, "When
in doubt, tell the truth." Inform conveys much the same meaning as tell,
but it is a more formal word for disclosing or imparting information, often
important or incriminating information: "Please inform the police of
your accident." "Were you informed about the search warrant for your
house?" See also DIVULGE.

temporal, temporary. These words refer to time, but in different ways.

Temporal means "limited by time," "concerned with affairs of this
world," "worldly, not spiritual": "As a state official, he is occupied with
temporal affairs that come up every day." "Many priests have little
concern for temporal matters." Temporary means "impermanent,"
"transient," "for the time being": "These are temporary arrangements
only." "She took a temporary job until she could find a permanent one."
temporize, extemporize. Temporize means "to compromise," "to act
evasively so as to gain time or advantage," "to postpone action or a
decision": "We need relief; don't temporize any longer." "Many a
public official has found that he must temporize if he wishes to hold his
office." Extemporize means to "speak with little preparation," "to say
something without advance notice of having to speak": "A glib speaker,
Senator Goff extemporized for nearly an hour." Temporize applies
principally to actions, extemporize to words.

tend to. See ATTEND TO.

terminal, terminus. These words have a common origin in the Latin

word terminus, meaning "boundary" or "limit." Terminal means (1)
 233
that, which, who

"either end of a transportation line" and (2) "concluding," "final":

"Grand Central Station is a terminal for a major railroad serving the
New England states." "Just before his discharge from service, the
soldier was granted terminal leave." "In most instances, cancer is a
terminal illness." Terminus also means "the end of something" and is
used to refer to an objective or goal: "The campsite was the terminus of
our hike that day." "The terminus of his ambition was election as
governor of the state." The plural of terminus is terminuses or termini.

testimony. See EVIDENCE.

test out. This is a common expression, but a wordy one. Out is unneces-
sary: one tests (not tests out) a, device or machine. Out is also not
needed in phrases such as "prove out," "project out," and "process
out."

textile. See TACTILE.

than, then. These words are often confused in writing and sometimes in
pronunciation. Than is a conjunction in clauses of comparison: "He
worked better today than he did yesterday." Then is an adverb of time:
"We then went to a restaurant." Think of than only as a conjunction; it
will then be easy to remember that a following pronoun should have the
same case as its antecedent. Say "Everyone knows more about the
situation than he." Say "The supervisors counted on no one more than
him." "Someone then remarked: 'It is better to remain silent and have
some people think me stupid than to say something and remove all
possible doubt.'"

thanks. A standard but not especially polite word meaning "thank

you," thanks is a weary cliche by itself and in such expressions as
"thanks be to God," "thanks a million," "thanks a bunch," and numer-
ous other phrases. "Thanking you in advance" is a hackneyed term in
inferior business letters.

that, which, who. Of these relative pronouns, that is used to refer to

persons, animals, or things; which to animals and things, not persons;
and who (whom) to persons only. That is used in restrictive clauses
(those that define and limit what precedes by providing information
necessary to full understanding): "A man that pays his bills promptly is
liked by everyone." Which, who, and whom are used largely in intro-
ducing nonrestrictive (not-defining, not-limiting) clauses: "This man,
who pays his bills promptly, is liked by everyone." That is often used in
illiterate or wordy expressions. For example, "that there" is both wordy
and illiterate (that there child). "That is to say" is a wordy way to
express "I mean" or "namely."
 234
theater, theatre

That and which (especially which) are often used in such a way as to
create doubt about an antecedent. Avoid saying, for example, "They are
coming if their daughter is well enough, which I doubt," because which
has no definite antecedent. Say, instead, " . . . is well enough. However,
I doubt that she will be." See also THIS.

theater, theatre. These are variant spellings of a word derived from a

Greek term meaning "to watch," "to look at." Theater is much the
more common spelling, although some writers and some persons in
theatrical professions seem to feel that theatre has more appeal and
dignity: "Let's go to the theater (theatre)." "Medical students spend
much time in the operating theater (theatre)." "The theater (theatre) of
war stretched across the entire eastern half of the country."

their, theirs. Their is the possessive form of the pronoun they. Theirs is
a possessive pronoun, the absolute form of their. Their is used to qualify
a noun that follows: "their dog," "their car." Theirs is used in other
constructions: "a dog of theirs," "all theirs." Their means "belonging
to them" and should be kept distinct from there and they're. Their is
never written with an apostrophe (theirs, not their's). See also THEY.

their, there, they're, there's. These simple words cause considerable

confusion but are not really hard to keep straight. Their is a possessive
pronoun: "That is their daughter." There means "in or at that place":
"I was there when she arrived." They're is a contraction of "they are":
"We are disappointed because they're not going with us." There's is a
shortened form of "there is": "There's money in the bank."

theism. See DEISM.

then. See THAN.

thence, hence. Thence is a somewhat old-fashioned and rarely used

adverb meaning "from there," "from that place," "from that time,"
"therefrom": "She went first to the store and thence to the beauty
parlor." "He declared bankruptcy and thence was rarely seen in town."
"Our best salesman fell ill; thence came our decline in business." Hence
means "from this time" and "for this reason": "The students will leave
a week hence." "The dress was well made and hence expensive."

there. See THEIR.

therefore, therefor. Therefore is an adverb meaning "consequently,"

"as a result": "I've had enough rest, and therefore I'll go back to
work." "The French philosopher Descartes once wrote 'I think, there-
fore I am.'" Therefor is an almost archaic adverb meaning "in exchange
for"; "I am returning this suit and wish a refund therefor."
 235
this, that

therein, wherein. These infrequently used adverbs mean, respectively,

"in that circumstance or place" and "in what, "in what way": "I missed
making a payment and therein lay my error." "This is the house wherein
Thoreau once lived."
there's. See THEIR.

thesaurus. See DICTIONARY.

these kind, those kind, these sort, those sort. Sort and kind are
singular nouns; these and those are plural modifiers. Say and write "this
kind," "that kind," "these kinds," "this sort," "these sorts," and
"those sorts." See also KIND.
they. This word, as well as their, theirs, and them, should have a
definite antecedent (something to which it refers) or should not be used.
"They have good weather in Hawaii" is a vague statement because no
one can tell what or who is meant by they. "Hawaii has good weather"
makes sense. "In my job, they have good training in office techniques"
is much clearer if it is revised: "In my job, good training is provided in
office techniques."
they're. See THEIR.

thief. See ROBBER.

thing. This is an all-purpose word used so loosely that it often has no real
meaning. For instance, instead of "One thing I like about him . . . " why
not say "one characteristic," "one trait," or "one distinctive feature"?
Because thing means "whatever can be thought or believed to have an
existence," a good rule to follow is this: one should never say thing
unless he has some specific entity (object) in mind and then mentions the
entity itself. This is a thing (rule, prescription, item of advice) none of us
will ever achieve or do, but it's a thing (endeavor, activity, counsel of
perfection) we should try to follow.
this, that. These constantly used words function as both pronouns and
adjectives. Brief comments about them are as follows: (1) The plural of
this is these; the plural of that is those: "This man," "these men,"
"that woman," "those women." (2) This and that can be used to mean
"how much" and "how many": "I know this much." "I know that
much." "I saw that many." "I knew this many." (3) This, that, and
their plural forms (these, those) are demonstrative pronouns, which
means that they refer to something that can be pointed out: "This is my
hat." "That is yours." "These are my gloves." "Those are your
books." "Is this you?" "Is that you in the dark?" (4) This and its plural
can represent or sum up words that follow: "Let me tell you this.
"The steps you should take are these. . . . " (5) This should be used to
 236
thither

indicate a person, idea, event, or statement which is considered present,

near, just mentioned, or supposed to be understood: "This situation now
confronting us. . . ." "This idea you have expressed. . . ." "Give us
this day our daily bread." That should be used to indicate a person, idea,
event, or statement which has not been mentioned before or is not
immediately present: "That is a lovely sight." "Where were you that
day?"
thither. See HITHER.

thoroughbred, purebred. As noun and adjective, these words mean

"of unmixed stock, race, or breed." It is correct to refer to a thorough-
bred (or purebred) horse and to an animal as thoroughbred or purebred.
Only thoroughbred is applied to people. When this is done, the implica-
tion is that the person referred to is "of good breeding," a phrase
interpreted to mean "polite," "courteous," "refined," and "well
trained." Although purebred may be applied to any domestic animal, the
word pedigreed is being increasingly used to indicate not only that the
animal is of unmixed stock but that a valid written statement exists to
attest this fact.
those kind, those sort. See THESE KIND; see also KIND.

though. See ALTHOUGH.

thrash, thresh. These words have a shared meaning of flailing, espe-

cially of beating grains and cereals in order to remove the seeds or grain
from their straw. That is, a farmer can thrash or thresh wheat. Com-
monly, thrash is used to mean "to whip," "to flog": "The headmaster
thrashed the student soundly." Thresh is also used to mean "to discuss
thoroughly," "to examine carefully": "We spent hours trying to thresh
out the problem."

tidbit, titbit. A tidbit is a choice morsel of some sort, whether of food,

scandal, gossip, or news: "We enjoyed delicious tidbits during the social
hour that followed." "She whispered to me a delicious tidbit about the
new couple in town." Titbit is also a correct spelling, one more often
used in Great Britain than in the United States.

'til, till, until. Each of these words means "up until the time of," "near or
at a specified time": "We shall wait for you 'til (or till or until)
sundown." "He did not arrive until (or 'til or till) yesterday." 'Til is a
shortened, variant form of until. 'Til seems needless, is obsolescent even
in poetic diction, and should be used rarely, if at all. Till and until are
interchangeable; each normally means "before," "up to," or "when."
Until is usually preferred over till at the beginning of a statement
because of its sound and to prevent confusion. 'Till is nonstandard.
 237
tortuous, torturous

timber, timbre. These' 'look-alikes'' have different origins and meanings.

Timber, from Old English, means wood as a building material (lumber)
and wooded land: "We collected enough timber to build a small shed."
"That is a thriving stand of timber." Timbre, from a Greek word
meaning "drum," refers to the quality of a sound that distinguishes it
from other sounds of identical pitch and volume: "This singer's voice
has unusual range and timbre."
tirade. See HARANGUE.

'tis, 'twas. These contractions of "it is" and "it was" are poetic and
archaic. They should not be used in speech and writing unless some
specific effect is intended.
titbit. See TIDBIT.

to. In addition to its primary meaning of "in the direction of," to is used
before a verb to indicate an infinitive (to walk, to eat). In this usage, it
may appear in place of the infinitive: "You may eat now if you want to
(eat)." To is unnecessarily added to many verbs that mean "to assert":
"admit to," "certify to," "swear to." The addition of to in such
instances results in weakening of the verb as well as in wordiness. To is
nonstandard in the sense of "at": Say "Jack was at (not to) home." To
should be omitted after where. Say "Where are you going?" not "Where
are you going to?" To-do is slang for "a stir," "bustle," "a fuss."
Among overworked expressions involving to are "to that end," "come
to" ("return to consciousness"), "to the best of my knowledge," "turn
to with a will," "to and fro," and "to a T" (here T stands for tittle, a
small quantity, jot, particle; the expression means "down to the last
small detail"). See also IN, INTO.
token. A tiresomely used phrase is''by the same token,'' in which token
has a meaning of "sign," "mark," or "symbol." Either moreover or
furthermore will express in one word what this trite phrase does in four.
"In token o f ' is also hackneyed, as is "token of esteem." Possible
substitutes for token: sign, emblem, index, symbol, mark, stamp, image,
evidence, proof, memento, augury, and indication.
top. See SUMMIT.

tornado. See CYCLONE.

tortuous, torturous. Tortuous means "winding," "crooked." Tortur-

ous means "full of, or causing, torture (pain)." "The path of the stream
is tortuous." "The surgeon began a torturous examination of the
patient's neck." Noting that torturous has two r's will help one to
associate it with torture.
 238

toward, towards

toward, towards. These words for "in the direction of," "approach-
ing," and "with regard to" are interchangeable. Take your pick. How-
ever, toward is one letter shorter and somewhat easier to pronounce.
Always lean toward the shorter, simpler word.
town. See CITY.

trace, vestige. These words refer to something that has existed or gone
before. Trace, the more widely used, is derived from Latin tractus,
meaning "a dragging." It applies to any evidence, such as a footprint, a
fragment, or a lingering odor that suggests the prior existence or pres-
ence of something: "There was a trace of perfume in the room." "There
was no trace of their having spent the night here." Vestige, a more
limited word, refers to some slight but actual indication (remains) of
something that no longer exists: "In his weakened condition, he is a
mere vestige of his former self." "Not a vestige of her once-great beauty
remains." Related words include track, trail, spoor, record, indication,
and sign.

trade up. In recent years, this phrase has been widely overused to mean
"to substitute for something that one has something else that is more
elaborate and expensive." People in trade (business, commerce, indus-
try) may need this phrase. Everyone else can do without it.
tragedy. See DISASTER.

transitory, transient. These words mean "short-lived," "occurring or

existing only briefly," "passing," "fleeting." Transitory is usually
applied to events and situations; transient is applicable to people: "We
are transient guests at this hotel, not permanent ones." "Going to
parties is only a transitory pleasure." Transient, unlike transitory, can
also be used as a noun. "A temporary guest is a transient." Related
adjectives include ephemeral,, fugitive, fleeting, momentary, evanes-
cent, provisional, and temporary.

transparent. See OPAQUE.

transpire. See HAPPEN.

treachery, treason. Both treachery and treason imply a willful, delib-

erate betrayal of trust or confidence. Treachery could be applied to the
act of being disloyal to a friend or to making unkind statements about
someone behind his back. Treason, however, applies solely to betrayal
of one's country, to disloyalty to one's citizenship, to violation of
allegiance to one's chosen land: "Benedict Arnold committed an act of
treason." All treasonable acts are treacherous, but not all treachery is
treason.
 239
turgid, turbid

treble. See TRIPLE.

trigger. As a verb, trigger was originally applied to the pressing of the

trigger of a gun but now is widely used to mean initiating or setting off
something, such as a fight, a celebration, or an argument. Trigger is a
respectable word as both verb and noun, but it is widely and tiresomely
overused. Why not occasionally use start, cause, produce, or signal?
triple, treble. Although triple and treble share the meaning of "three-
fold," "consisting of three parts," "thrice multiplied," treble is rarely
used except for its special sense in music: "having the highest range or
part" (young choir boys with treble voices). One might say "You can
triple your income this year," although treble could be correctly substi-
tuted for triple. As a verb, adjective, and noun, triple is used in sen-
tences such as these: "He tripled his planting of vegetables that spring."
"This play has triple implications." "In the third inning, the player hit a
triple." "A rare occurrence in baseball is a triple play." Words or
phrases of which triple forms a part include "triple time," "triple
threat," "Triple Alliance," "triple measure," "Triple Entente," "triple
rhyme," and "triple-decker."
triumphal, triumphant. These words are related, but triumphal is
usually connected with a planned celebration (a triumphal reception).
Triumphant means "exultant," "victorious" (the triumphant basketball
team). Triumphal is not usually applied to persons but rather to events
and activities: "The triumphant general led his troops in a triumphal
victory march."
trivial. See PETTY.

trousers. See PANTS.

try and. See COME AND. Although try and is common in speech for try
to, it should never be used except in highly informal conversation. Avoid
such everyday expressions as "Try and make me," "Try and stop me,"
and "Try and come."
tubercular, tuberculous. Usage has established these adjectives as
interchangeable in their meaning of "relating to, or having, tuberculo-
sis." A person afflicted with this disease can be referred to as tubercular
or tuberculous. Although tubercular is more often used than tubercu-
lous, the latter is regularly used by medical personnel (tuberculous
growth in the lungs, tuberculous cells).

tune. See HARMONY.

turgid, turbid. These "look-alikes" are frequently confused but have

 240
'twas

nothing in common except looks. Turgid means "swollen," "over-

blown," "inflated," "distended," and "pompous": "The candidate
then delivered a long, turgid speech." "The stream is turgid because of
spring floods." Turbid means "clouded," "not clear," "opaque,"
"muddy": "The turgid river is turbid (The swollen river is muddy)."
"The solution in this test tube is turbid, but it will clear when sediment
sinks to the bottom."
'twas. See 'TIS.

type. When accompanied by of, type is standard usage in expressions

such as "that type of dress." When of is omitted, the expression is
nonstandard: "that type dress." Type is a less general word than kind
and sort (see KIND) and is preferably used when a clearly defined
category is involved. In all other instances, prefer kind or sort: "He is
the kind (or sort, not type) of man we can believe." Especially avoid
such expressions as "high-type person" and 1'law-type store." "Type of
a" is wordy; omit a.

typescript. See MANUSCRIPT.

typical. Overused by nearly everyone, typical should be restricted to

the meanings of "distinctive," "characteristic," "representative," and
"emblematic." "Typical o f ' is not a synonym for like. "Dr. Flack is like
most pediatricians," not "Dr. Flack is typical of most pediatricians."
tyro. See AMATEUR.
 u
uh-huh, huh-uh. The sound uh-huh (hardly a word) is an attempt
through spelling to indicate a grunted yes. Huh-uh (or hunh-uh) some-
what resembles the sound of a grunted no. "Uh-huh, I think you're
right." "Huh-uh, I don't want to go."

umpire, referee. Each of these terms is applied to a person to whom

anything is referred for a decision or settlement (referee in bankruptcy).
In sports, referees and umpires are officials charged with the regulation
of a contest, ruling on plays, etc. Although the terms have the same
general meaning, referee and umpire have different meanings in different
sports; for example, we have a referee in boxing and basketball, an
umpire in baseball, and both a referee and an umpire in football. If you
are an athlete or a sports writer, you know the difference. If you are
neither, consult a sports authority; a dictionary will be of little help
except as indicated here.

unable. See INCAPABLE.

unabridged, abridged, expurgated. Unabridged means "not reduced

in compass or scope by condensing, omitting, etc."; that is, it means
"full-length" or "not cut." Abridged, conversely, implies reduction.
Thus we speak of an unabridged dictionary when we refer to one that is
large and definitive, including virtually everything that it could reasona-
bly be expected to contain. An abridged dictionary is one which is
considerably shorter but which still retains all, or nearly all, information
considered essential. An expurgated book is one from which passages
thought obscene or otherwise objectionable have been removed. Expur-
gated has a sense of purging, of cleansing. Abridged and unabridged
imply "shortened" and "full-length," without any connotation of moral,
social, or ethical values.

unapt. See INAPT.

unaware, unawares. Unaware is an adjective meaning "not aware

of," "unconscious o f ' : "He was unaware of the danger that lay ahead."
"Unaware as I was, I made a serious mistake." Unawares is an adverb
meaning "unexpectedly," "by surprise": "They came upon the scene of
the accident unawares." "A sudden heavy snowstorm caught the camp-
ers unawares."
 242

uncomparable

uncomparable. See INCOMPARABLE.

unconscious, subconscious. Unconscious means "without aware-

ness," "without conscious control," "involuntary." A conscious per-
son has some control of his faculties; an unconscious person may be in a
coma, suffering from shock, or asleep. As a noun, the unconscious is a
term in psychoanalysis meaning that part of the mind containing the
psychic material of which a conscious person is unaware. Unconscious
has an additional meaning of "not intended,'4 "not planned": "My
failing to recognize you was an unconscious slight." Much less used,
subconscious has many of the meanings listed here for unconscious but
is specifically applied to unreportable mental activities, to one's mental
processes of which he is not aware: "The subconscious thoughts and
impulses of thousands of characters have been portrayed and plundered
in modern novels and plays."

underlay, underlie. See OVERLAY.

undoubtedly, indubitably, doubtlessly. Each of these words means

"certainly," "assuredly," "beyond question." They stem from a Latin
word meaning "to waver" and hence convey the idea of steadiness, of
something not subject to question: "She is undoubtedly (or indubitably
or doubtlessly) the kindest person on this block." These words are
interchangeable, although indubitably is less often used because it
sounds somewhat more formal and pretentious than the others. The
adjective forms of these adverbs (undoubted, indubitable, doubtless) are
more often used and are also interchangeable.

uneatable, inedible. These words are synonyms, each meaning "unfit

to be eaten," "not eatable": "The dinner was inedible (or uneatable)."
Inedible is more often used and does not carry the label of "informal"
which uneatable does. Inedible applies to something that could be eaten
if it were properly prepared, cooked, or ripened, whereas uneatable is
rfiore likely to be applied to items never intended to be eaten, at least not
by normal people or animals: wood, coal, iron, chalk, cloth, and the like.
unequivocal. See AMBIGUOUS.

unexceptional, unexceptionable. See EXCEPTIONABLE, EXCEP-

TIONAL, to which the meanings of unexceptionable and unexceptional
are directly opposite. "Tom is an adequate worker but only that; his
record is fair but unexceptional." "Will has always worked hard; he has
an unexceptionable record of accomplishment."
unfrequent, infrequent. These adjectives mean "not constant," "not
regular," "not habitual," "occurring not often": "His visits to his
parents were infrequent (or unfrequent)." Infrequent is much more
 243
unless, unless and until

often used and is preferred. In another adjectival form, however, unfre-

quented (meaning "not regularly visited," "usually empty") is correct,
and infrequented is not: "This lovely campsite is far off the trail and
therefore unfrequented." "The park became littered with refuse and was
unfrequented until it was cleaned up."
unhuman. See INHUMAN.

unilateral, bilateral. Unilateral means "involving, affecting, obligat-

ing, or recognizing one side only" of two or more parties, persons, or
nations. Bilateral applies to two sides rather than one. For example, a
bilateral agreement is binding on both parties, a unilateral agreement on
only one. When two nations reach a bilateral decision, responsibility for
it is shared. When a country acts independently, it does so in a unilateral
way.
uninterested. See DISINTERESTED.

unique. This word means "having no like or equal" and expresses

absoluteness, as do words such as round and square. Logically, there-
fore, the word unique cannot be compared; something cannot be "more
unique,'''' "less unique," "more round," "less round." If a qualifying
word such as nearly is used, the illogicality is removed. "This is the
most Unique painting in the museum" is not standard, but "This is the
most nearly unique painting in the museum" is. Unique is not only
loosely used but overused; for it, certain words can be substituted on
occasion such as novel, exceptional, remarkable, rare, inimitable, peer-
less, incomparable, uncommon, and unusual. See also INCOMPARABLE.
university, college. A university is an institution of higher learning that
embraces two or more colleges. In the United States, a representative
university would have teaching and research facilities comprising a
graduate school and a number of other colleges (or so-called schools)
devoted to arts and sciences and to professional training for law, medi-
cine, and other pursuits. Normally, a college awards degrees for under-
graduate work only; a university is equipped to offer master's and
doctoral degrees: "Harvard College is a part of Harvard University "
"After she was graduated from Dartmouth College, she studied law at
the University of Virginia." In proper idiom, one goes to college and to
the university.
unlawful. See ILLEGAL.

unless, unless and until. Unless means "except on the condition

that." Its use as a synonym for without is nonstandard. Say "I will not
go unless you go with me," not "I will not go without you go with me."
Unless and until is a nonstandard phrase; the terms overlap. Do not say
 244

unmoral

"I will not write unless and until you write me." Either word will convey
the full meaning intended. See also IF AND WHEN.
unmoral. See AMORAL.

unnatural. See SUPERNATURAL.

unorganized, disorganized. Unorganized means "lacking system,

order, or unity" and, in labor union circles, means "not unionized":
"The files in this office are unorganized." "These workers were urged to
give up their unorganized status and form a union." Disorganized also
suggests the absence of order and arrangement, but it implies having an
existing system upset and overturned. That is, an office which has never
been properly organized is unorganized; one whose pattern and arrange-
ment have been disrupted or destroyed is disorganized.
unpractical. See IMPRACTICAL.

unqualified, disqualified. Unqualified means (1) "not having proper or

required qualifications" (such as achievements, records, background)
and (2) "not restricted, modified, or limited": "Until he passes the bar
examination, he is unqualified to practice law in this state. When he does
so, he will have my legal business and my unqualified confidence."
Disqualified means "deprived of rights and privileges," "rendered unfit
or declared ineligible": "After his conviction, he was disqualified from
holding a public position."

unquote. See QUOTE.

unreadable. See ILLEGIBLE; see also READABLE.

unsanitary, insanitary. Each of these words, based on a Latin word for

"health," means "unhealthy," "likely to cause disease." Although
unsanitary is heard more often than insanitary, the latter is the preferred
listing in five leading dictionaries. If conditions are so unclean, filthy, or
contaminated as to be a threat to health, they may be called unsanitary
or insanitary, as one chooses.
unsatisfied, dissatisfied. An unsatisfied person is one who is not
content, who feels that something or someone has not met his expecta-
tions, who is not pleased with some condition or situation: "Your
explanation leaves me unsatisfied." "Although growing teen-agers eat a
great deal, their hunger is often unsatisfied." Dissatisfied means "dis-
pleased," "offended," "upset": "I am dissatisfied with the salary I am
paid." "He had a sulky, dissatisfied expression on his face."
unsophisticated, artless. Unsophisticated is an adjective that applies
 245
use, used, used to

to a person who is thought to lack worldly wisdom, who is not urbane,

who is not experienced in, or knowledgeable about, prevailing customs
and manners of living and thinking. Artless implies something of the
meaning of unsophisticated but suggests a lack of guile or artificiality
that results from unconcern about the reactions of other people. That is,
an unsophisticated person lacks wisdom and experience in certain areas;
an artless person has the same lacks but doesn't care because he is free
from any desire to impress others. See also INGENIOUS.
unthinkable. See INCONCEIVABLE.

until. See 'TIL, TILL, UNTIL. Although the phrase "up until the time o f '
is used in explaining the meanings of these three words, it is doubtful that
up is needed nearly so often as it is used. From a sentence such as "I'll
wait for you up until noon" the up can be deleted without harm. See also
UNLESS.

upward, upwards. As an adverb or adjective, upward means "toward a

higher amount, degree, place, level, or position": "The stock market
moved upward." "Today, the market is having an upward turn."
Upwards should not be used in either of these sentences. The phrases
"upward o f ' and "upwards o f ' are standard, but only in their proper
meaning of "more than," "in excess of a given quantity." Neither
phrase should be used to mean "less than," "about," "almost," or
"approximately." The statement "His accident cost him upwards of
$500" means that it cost him more than that amount.
urban, urbane. Each of these words is derived from a Latin term
referring to a city, but they have distinct meanings and pronunciations.
Urban (UHR'bun) means "pertaining to a city," "characteristic of city
life." Urbane (uhrBAYN) has a meaning of "reflecting elegance or
sophistication," "polished," "suave." "He came from the country and
never adjusted to urban life." "This woman appears well dressed,
poised, and urbane."
us. See WE, us.
usage. See GRAMMAR.

use, used, used to. As a verb, use means "to put into service," "to
make use o f ' : "He will use my car today." The principal parts of use
are use, used, used: "He used my car yesterday." "He has used my car
for a week." When did is added to the verb phrase, however, the word
should be use: "He did not use to borrow my car." When used is
combined with any form of the verb be, it is followed by a verb form
ending in -ing: "He was used to borrowing my car." When one wishes
to express habitual action or everyday occurrence, used may correctly
 246
usual, customary, habitual

appear in a statement such as "He used to borrow only gasoline." Such

expressions as "used to could" and "used to would" are dialectal and
illiterate.

usual, customary, habitual. Usual applies to that which is considered

normal, common, and expected: "He arrived at the usual hour." "You
can expect the usual results from this medicine." Customary refers to
whatever accords with the practices of an individual or group: "It was
customary for us to have two coffee breaks every morning." "At that
school it was customary for each girl to take her turn waiting on tables."
Habitual suggests a fixed practice as the result of habit: "It is habitual
for me to ignore my alarm clock." "He was a surly person with a
habitual scowl on his face."
 V
vacant. See EMPTY.

vacillate. See FLUCTUATE.

vainness. See VANITY.

valuable, valued. That which is valuable is of great merit or is worth

money: "This is a valuable collection of paintings." "Time is valuable
to him because he charges an hourly rate." What is valuable may also be
valued, but the latter term has the additional meanings of "highly
regarded," "esteemed," "appraised": "His services are highly val-
ued. " "The estate was valued at more than $1 million." A childhood toy
may be valued, but it is hardly valuable. Words related to valuable are
costly, expensive, dear, rare, and invaluable. Related to valued are
highly thought of, cherished, esteemed, and respected.

vanity, vainness. Vanity means "excessive pride," "lofty opinion of

one's abilities, appearance, dress, and achievements": "His loss in the
election was a blow to his vanity." Vanity also has a meaning of
"worthlessness," "something lacking in value": "He indulged in the
vanity of a self-centered life." Related words include ostentation, pride,
egotism, vainglory, complacency, conceit, self-esteem, and self-admira-
tion. Vainness, as well as the adjectival form vain, is an uncommonly
used synonym for vanity, particularly in the meanings of "valueless,"
"worthless," "baseness": "This pageantry is a show of pomp and
vainness." Words related to vainness and vain in their basic meaning
are trifling, trivial, futile, nugatory, profitless, and useless.

vapid, Insipid. These words mean "lacking flavor, life, or sharpness,"

"dull and tedious": "This cold drink is vapid (or insipid)." "The
conversation we had was insipid (or vapid)." What distinction there is
between the words is that vapid suggests stupidity or dullness and
insipid implies tastelessness, flatness: "vapid talk at a cocktail party,"
"the insipid taste of the hors d'oeuvres served."

varied, various. Varied means "altered," "changed," "made differ-

ent." Various means "distinct," "diverse," "of different kinds." "She
traveled in various (not varied) parts of Europe." "He has a varied (not
various) background."
 248

venal, venial

venal, venial. These words look alike and sound somewhat alike, but
venal (VEE'nuhl, VEE*n'l) has a connotation of corruption. Venial
(VEE-ni'uhl), a term of mild reproach, means "excusable," "pardona-
ble." It may help to keep them straight by remembering that venal
comes from a Latin term meaning "for sale" (venalis) and venial from
Latin venia ("forgiveness"). Associate venal with penal and venial with
genial. "This corrupt administration has entered into many venal agree-
ments." "Not sending them a wedding present was my venial offense
against good manners."

veranda. See PORCH.

verbal. See ORAL.

vernacular, dialect. Each of these terms has several meanings, but both
specifically refer to the word usage and patterns of language characteris-
tic of a community, state, or country. Vernacular means (1) "native as
opposed to literary" (the vernacular language of uneducated persons);
(2) "using a native language" (a vernacular poet); (3) "plain," "ordi-
nary," "everyday" (a vernacular man of the people); (4) "the native
speech of a place" (Say that in vernacular, not literary, language). (See
POPULAR.) Dialect has two primary meanings: (1) "a special variety of
written or spoken language" (the dialect of mountain people in Appala-
chia) and (2) "a language considered as one of a group" (English is one of
the Indo-European dialects).

verse, stanza. Verse is a term of several meanings, only one of which is

fully accurate: "one line of a poem." The word verse comes from a Latin
term meaning " a turning" and is correctly applied to the way in which
one line of a poem "turns" into a new line. Verse is often confused with
stanza, which is a succession of lines (verses) bound together by some
scheme (usually a pattern of rhyme) and forming one of a series of similar
groups that make up a poem. "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day"
is the first verse of the first stanza of Gray's famous Elegy Written in a
Country Churchyard. The poem contains 128 verses (lines) arranged in
32 stanzas.

very. Because very is primarily an adjective it should not be used to

qualify a verb. Write "She was very much loved by her children," not
"She WPS very loved. . . ." However, when very is followed by a
participle that has the effect of an adjective, informal use would allow
Very to appear without a qualifying word such as much or greatly: "She
was very concerned." The only real objection to very is that it is uttered
over and over in almost every conceivable instance calling for an inten-
sive. One language expert once told his students never to say or write
very unless they meant damn or damned, and then to delete the profan-
ity. The message: use very "very" little or not at all.
 249
vital

vestige. See TRACE.

via. This overused Latin word meaning "by way o f ' should be pro-
nounced "VAI-uh" or "VEE-uh." Via should not be used in the sense
of "by means of," as in this faulty statement: "Aid was rendered the
stricken country via food, clothing, and medicines."

viable, workable. These words refer to the ease with which, or likeli-
hood that, something can be done. Viable means "capable of living,"
"physically fitted to live," but by extension has come to mean "able or
likely to produce continued success or effectiveness" and is often used
in a comparative sense: "Your plan is more viable than the one we have
been using." Workable is applied to plans, suggestions, or ideas that will
be successful if properly managed: "The foreman presented us with a
workable production schedule." Words closely related to these near-
synonyms are feasible, practical, and possible.
victim. See MARTYR.

video. Usage has made video (VTDeeoh) a standard term. Video refers
to the visual portion of a televised broadcast, as distinguished from the
sound part, audio (AW-dee-oh). In general usage, video means "televi-
sion": "She is a prominent performer on stage, screen, and video."
viewpoint. See POINT OF VIEW.

village. See CITY.

virtual. See ACTUAL.

virtually. See PRACTICALLY.

virus. See GERM.

visit, visit with. To visit means "to pay a call upon," "to go to see":
"He left me to visit another friend." Some linguists consider "visit
with" a wordy expression, but actually the phrase means "to stay with
for a time" and also "to communicate without physical presence": "She
intended to pay a brief call on her grandmother but had such a pleasant
time that she decided to visit with her the entire afternoon." "When you
have some time, telephone me so tha,t we can visit with each other in a
long session." See also MEET.
vital. This word means "necessary for existence," "essential," "indis-
pensable." Vital is both overused and misused because in few applica-
tions is it used to mean what it really means. It is absurd to say "Helen's
presence at the dance is vital" unless it is undeniable that Helen's
 250
vocabulary

absence will cause the dance to be an unqualified failure. Generally

related words with less exaggerated meanings than vital include needed,
wanted, beneficial, helpful, advantageous, desirable, useful, salutary,
and serviceable, and in the sense of "important," effective, substantial,
weighty, momentous, consequential, considerable, eminent, prominent,
conspicuous, and significant.

vocabulary. See DICTION.

vocation. See AVOCATION.

voluntary. See INVOLUNTARY.

vulgar. See POPULAR.

 w
wager. See GAMBLE.

wait on, wait for. In the sense of "to serve," wait on is an acceptable
expression: "Please wait on this customer." "If you have not been
helped to make a selection, I'll be glad to serve (wait on) you." In the
sense of "await," wait on is colloquial and dialectal: "You are late, and I
don't want to wait for (not wait on) you."
wake, awake, awaken, waken. Our language has several verbs to
express waking from sleep and waking someone from sleep. Awake-
awaked and awake-awoke are correct, of course, but somewhat formal:
"I awoke him." Awaken-awakened-awakened is even more formal
than awake: "I awakened him." More commonly used than either is
wake-waked or woke: "I woke him." Waken-wakened-wakened is less
used than wake-waked-waked: "I waked him." Most commonly used
of all are wake up-waked up or woke up: "I waked up (or woke up) at
dawn." "She waked up (or woke up) her sister at dawn." Each of the
verbs mentioned may be used transitively or intransitively, but awake is
largely used intransitively (When did you awake?) and waken transi-
tively (She wakened me early). Wake is the only one of these terms
regularly used with up: "Wake up, you sleepyhead." The most com-
monly used past participle of wake is waked (not woken or woke); the
preferred past participle of awake is awaked (not awoke): "After I had
waked him, I discovered my error." "I must have awaked several times
that night."
wane. See WAX.

want. See LACK.

want, wish. These words share a meaning of "to long for," " to crave,''
"to desire": "Don't you want (wish) to go to the game?" "She wishes
(wants) to sleep now." Want also expresses the idea of a lack or need:
"He wants (desires) a job, but he wants (lacks) experience." Wish is the
word to use when expressing an impulse or hope: "I wish you were my
friend." Want (in the sense of need) rather than wish (in the sense of
desire) should be used in a polite query such as "Do you want some
more food?" "Want for" is a correct expression only when the idea to be
 252
warp, woof

expressed is "to have need": "We did not want for money on our trip."
Want should not be accompanied by for when wish or desire is
involved; "I want (not want for) you to stay." The constructions "want
out" and "want in" are often heard but are informal. It is preferable to
say "The dog wants to get out (or wants to get in)" rather than the
elliptical "wants out" or "wants in."

warp, woof. These words are much less commonly used than once they
were, but the phrase "warp and woof is often heard in the meaning of
''the underlying structure upon which something is built," "the founda-
tion or base": "The Constitution is the warp and woof of our system of
government." Literally, warp refers to the threads that run lengthwise in
fabric, crossed at right angles by the woof, the threads that run cross-
wise: "The warp and woof of this piece of cloth provide a clear impres-
sion of its texture."

warranty. This is chiefly a legal term meaning (1) "a covenant in which
the seller vouches for the security of the title to what is being sold," (2)
"a guarantee that the goods sold are as represented," (3) "a guaranty
that the facts as stated are correct." See also GUARANTEE.
was, were. Do you say "I wish I was there" or "I wish I were there"?
Do you say "If I was you" or "If I were you"? Whether you say was or
were in such constructions, you have company. Actually, you should
say were in both quoted sentences, even though was and were are alike
in that they form the past tense of the verb be. It's a question of mood,
the state of mind or the manner in which a statement is made: a fact
(indicative mood), a request or command (imperative mood), a condition
or probability (subjunctive mood).
The subjunctive mood (here the form were) is generally used to express
(1) a condition contrary to fact, (2) a supposition, (3) an improbable
condition, (4) uncertainty or doubt, (5) necessity, (6) parliamentary
motions, and (7) a desire. In "I wish I were there" the subjunctive were
is standard because " I " is not there (a condition contrary to fact) and
also because the speaker is expressing a desire. One of the same condi-
tions applies to the second quoted sentence. Use were (the subjunctive),
not was (the indicative), in such sentences as these: "Suppose he were
to arrive now" (supposition). "He drank ale as if it were going to be
prohibited forever" (an improbable condition). "Roberta wishes that she
were going to be invited" (desire). Now that these distinctions have been
made, you can relax in the sure knowledge that was is heard at least as
often as were in statements such as those cited.

wax, wane. Perhaps because these once-popular words are now used
infrequently, they are often misunderstood or confused. Wax means "to
grow gradually larger," "to increase in strength or size." Wane means
 253

we, us

the exact opposite: "to decrease," "to decline." Both terms are most
often used to refer to the comparative fullness of the moon, but they can
and do appear in statements such as these: "His anger waxed strong and
then subsided." "My enthusiasm for your plan is beginning to wane."
Words related to wax are grow, extend, enlarge, dilate, and lengthen.
Near-synonyms of wane include fail, diminish, and sink.

way, ways, weigh. Way is colloquial when used to mean "away": "The
mine is away (not way) across the mountain. Equally colloquial and to
be avoided in formal writing are "in a bad way," "to come my way"
("to achieve success"), and "act the way he does." In an expression
such as "a long ways to town," ways is a dialectal, substandard substi-
tute for way. In nautical terms, the expression should be "under way,"
not' 'under weigh.'' That is, a vessel must weigh (lift) its anchor before it
can get "under way." "Ways, the plural of the noun way, is correct in
sentences like this: "Many ways were open to him." "The newly
christened ship slid down the ways into welcoming water." Except as
the name of a committee, "ways and means" is a wordy phrase: ways
and means are interchangeable in meaning. The overused expression "in
any way, shape, or form" is redundant because these terms are synony-
mous: reduce six words to three.

we (editorial). The plural pronoun we is occasionally used by writers

(especially newspaper writers) as a substitute for a repetitive I. It is a
device, not a gesture toward modesty, so that when a columnist writes
"We think," he means "/ think." The first-person personal pronoun can
be overused and often is, but many writers and readers consider this
conventional use of we both artificial and pretentious.
we, us. These are first-person plural personal pronouns. We is in the
nominative (or subjective) case; us is in the objective (accusative) case.
Choice between them depends upon the function each fulfills in a state-
ment: "We taxpayers are entitled to a referendum." "For us taxpayers
the outlook is dubious." After as or than in a comparison in which the
first term is in the objective case, use us: "The waiter gave them more
food than us." Conversely, write "Those men are taller than we"
because we is understood as the subject of the omitted verb are, exactly
as us in the immediately preceding sentence is the object of the omitted
verb gave. In addition to us and we, there are five other regularly used
personal pronouns with nominative and objective cases: I and me, he
and him, she and her, they and them, who and whom. These pronouns
should always be used in their nominative (subjective) forms except
when they are (1) the object of a verb, (2) the object of a preposition, or
(3) an indirect object: "/ love her." "She loves me." "He hates him."
"They have come." "I saw them." "Who is that?" "Whom did you
see?" "I talked to her." "I gave him a hug."
 254
wealthy

wealthy. See RICH.

wedding. See MARRIAGE.

weigh. See WAY.

well. See GOOD.

were. See WAS.

what all. In a question such as "What all does he expect of me?" what
all is considered narrowly dialectal or illiterate. All is apparently added
for intensifying effect, but its addition is not recommended in either what
all or who all (Who all's there?).
whatever. As an adjective, whatever means "any . . . that." It should
not be followed by that in a sentence such as "I won't pay any attention
to whatever objection that you may have." Whatever is a pronoun in
"Whatever did you mean?" What is a pronoun, and ever is an adverb in
"What did you ever mean?" In formal usage, whatever should not be
divided.
what for. This phrase appears in two nonstandard uses. When it means
"punishment" or "reproof' (The boss gave George what for because he
was late), it constitutes an illiteracy. When what for is substituted for
why (What did you do that for?), the expression may be considered
illiterate or wordy.

when, as, and if. This expression appears often in conversation, espe-
cially business talk: "I'll buy your product when, as, and if you increase
the discount." Either when or Z/will convey the idea. See also IF AND
WHEN.

when, where. See is WHEN. The objection to is when and is where may
or may not be based on grammatical grounds, but unquestionably both
phrases are childish, immature, and overused. A further objection is that
when and where are often used in situations where their meanings are
not applicable. For example, when has a meaning of time and is illogical
in a sentence such as "This plan is when they refuse to let anyone under
sixteen enter the theater."

whence, whither. These somewhat old-fashioned words contain the

idea of "from" or "to." Whence means "from which place" or "from
which position." Whither means "to what place, condition, or posi-
tion." Few occasions arise for the use of either whence or whither, but
when one or the'other is needed, omit from or to: "Whence have you
come?" "Whither are you going?" See also FROM WHENCE.
 255
who, whom

where. See WHEN and is WHEN. Where is nonstandard as a conjunction

equivalent to that. Use that instead of where in such statements as "I
see where the Senate is going to recess" and "Jim read where his
favorite team had lost two straight games." Where at (Where at is the
house?) is a wordy, illiterate phrase. Omit at.

whereabouts. This word can be an adverb (Whereabouts did you go?)

and a noun. As a noun, it is formed from an adverb (where) and a
preposition (about) with an s tied to the end. As a noun, whereabouts is
singular and requires a singular verb unless it is made clear that more
than one whereabouts is involved: "The neighbors are away, but I do
not know what their whereabouts is." "The parents went one direction
and the children another; I don't know what their various whereabouts
are.
wherein. See THEREIN.

whether. See IF.

whether or not. In most sentences, the or not in this phrase is unneces-

sary. Or not is a mere filler in a sentence such as " Whether the remark
was accurate or not is not certain." However, in certain constructions
equal force or stress should be given to alternatives: or not is required in
a statement such as "We shall go whether it rains or not." To decide
whether or not is needed, substitute if for whether. If the if results in a
different meaning, then or not is needed. The sentence quoted would
make quite different sense if it read "We shall go if it rains. . . ."

which. See THAT.

whiskey, whisky. These are variant spellings of a word derived from

usquebaugh, a Gaelic name for a strong alcoholic liquor distilled from
the fermented mash of such grains as barley, rye, corn, and wheat. The
preferred spelling in the United States and Ireland is whiskey; in Great
Britain and Canada, whisky. See also LIQUEUR.

whither. See WHENCE.

who, whom. No situation in English speech and writing causes more

difficulty for more persons than choosing between who and whom (and
whoever, whomever when they are used). Current usage studies indicate
that the distinction between these forms is breaking down, partly
because keeping them straight is difficult and partly because many
speakers begin a sentence or clause with who, not knowing how they are
going to end the statement. Because most people consider whom less
_ natural than who, they sometimes disregard grammatical requirements
and use who even when whom is clearly indicated.
 256
who all

The grammatical rule is simple: use who (or whoever) as the subject of
a verb or as a predicate pronoun. Use whom (whomever) as the object of
a verb or preposition. Here are some correct illustrations.
1. The question of who can go is unimportant. (Here, who is the subject
of can go. The entire clause, who can go, is the object of the preposition
of.)
2. This is the fireman whom we saw on top of the building. (Here,
whom is the object of saw.)
3. He asked me who I thought would be elected. (The case of a pronoun
depends upon its use and should not be influenced by words that come
between it and its antecedent. Check this sentence by omitting I thought.
Who is then seen to be the subject of would be elected.)
4.1 danced with the girl whom everyone suspected the committee had
chosen Beauty Queen. (Here, check by omitting everyone suspected.)
When doubtful, substitute he or him for who or whom to arrive at a
decision:
1. Who/whom are you voting for? (For who/whom are you voting?) He I
him are you voting for? (For he/him are you voting?)
2. This is the kind of public servant who/whom we need. ( . . . we need
who/whom; . . . we need helhim.)
One final word: unless you are reasonably certain that whom is
required, use who. You'll be right much more than half of the time. See
also THAT.
w h o all. See WHAT ALL.

whoever, whomever. Whoever is an interrogative pronoun in the nomi-

native case; whomever is the objective form of the same pronoun. They
follow precisely the same rules as those for who and whom (see WHO).
who's, whose. Who's is a shortened form of "who is": "Who's ahead
in the office pool?" Whose is the possessive case of the pronoun who:
"Whose shoes are these?" Some grammarians formerly insisted that
whose should be applied only to persons: "The car the body Of which
needed paint" rather than "The car whose body needed paint." Both
common sense and the fact that which has no possessive form of its own
have succeeded in discarding this "rule." Therefore, continue to sing
about the flag "Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the peril-
ous fight,/ O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming."

wide. See BROAD.

widow, widower. The primary meaning of widow is that of a woman

whose husband has died and who has not remarried. Widower is the male
counterpart of widow. A "grass widow " is separated or divorced or lives
apart from her husband. (The expression comes from the meaning of "at
grass," that is, "roaming loose.") A "golf widow" ("tennis widow,"
 257
work

"fishing widow") is a woman whose husband leaves her while he goes to

play his favorite game. "Widow woman" is an illiteracy.
will. See SHALL.

wire. Once considered informal when used to mean "a telegram" or "to
telegraph," wire is now standard usage in these senses. These are
hackneyed expressions involving wire: "under the wire" ("within lim-
its," "by a deadline"), "pull wires" ("to use connections or associa-
tions to advantage"), "on the wire" ("on the telephone"), and "lay
wires for" ("to make preparations").
-wise. The practice of attaching this suffix to nouns with the meaning of
"with reference to" and "concerning" is widespread and indiscriminate.
No one objects to such a sensible word as clockwise, but how about
jobwise, attendance-wise, flavorwise, saleswise, economy-wise, politics-
wise and a dozen other terms that you can readily recall (or manufac-
ture)? Surely some clearer, less jargonish means can be found to say
what is conveyed by "Taxwise, your plan is sensible."
Among informal, trite, or slangy words and expressions to avoid are
"wise up," "a wise move," "get wise," wisecrack, "wise guy," wisen-
heimer ("an offensive, arrogant person"), wiseacre ("an overly self-
confident person"), and "put someone wise."
wish. See WANT, WISH.

wit. See HUMOR.

without. This adverb and preposition is nonstandard when used as a

conjunction meaning "unless." It is correct to say "We can't live
without money" (without is a preposition here), but it is incorrect to say
"We can't live without we have money." Hackneyed expressions using
without include "without let or hindrance," "without a doubt," "with-
out rhyme or reason," "make do without," "without the law," and
"without a prayer." See also UNLESS.
woman. See GENTLEMAN.

wont, won't. Wont is an adjective and noun meaning "accustomed,"

"used to" and "habit" or "practice": "He was wont to take a daily
walk." "It was her wont to take a cold bath every morning." Won't is a
contraction of "will not": "She won't do what I want her to." "No, I
won't."
woof. See WARP.

work. See FUNCTION.

 258
workable

workable. See VIABLE.

worse, worst. Worse is the comparative of bad; worst is the superla-

tive. The phrase "if worst comes to worst" is illogical, but that's the way
it should be said, provided one wishes to use such a hackneyed expres-
sion at all. Informal, slangy, or trite expressions to avoid include "worse
and worse," "in the worst way," "get the worst of it," and "at the
worst." In the sense of "more," worse is not fully accepted; nor is worst
in the sense of "most." Avoid such statements as "I dislike insects
worse than I do snakes." "Worst kind" and "in the worst way" are
slang for "much" and "very much." "She would like to aid you in the
worst way" is ambiguous. If you revise the statement to "She would like
the worst way to aid you," you may have added suspicion of immorality
to plain confusion.

worthless. See NO GOOD.

would. See SHALL.

would of. Because of careless or hurried pronunciation, would have

often sounds like would of or would've. A verb (have) is needed with
would, not a preposition (of): "Yes, I would have (would've) noticed
that."

would rather. See HAD BETTER.

write-up. This fabricated word has become a standard noun and verb,
but the same usage that has elevated it to respectability has reduced it to
triteness. Possible substitutes: report, account, notice, article, review,
description, analysis. "This is an excellent report of the meeting."
wrong, wrongly. Wrong is both an adjective and an adverb. It is correct
to say "That's the wrong attitude to take" and "Everything went wrong
that day." Wrongly, an adverb only, should be used before a verb: "The
word was wrongly pronounced." Wrong in its adverbial function is
preferred over wrongly in a statement such as "I was quoted wrong,"
but wrongly is not incorrect in such constructions. Wrong appears in
numerous everyday expressions that have become trite: "wrong tack,"
"get in wrong," "wrong side of the tracks," "in the wrong," and "go
wrong." Possible substitutes for overworked wrong include wicked,
sinful, unjust, reprehensible, evil, bad, crooked, iniquitous, and im-
moral.
 A.
Xerox. This term is a trademark for a process that copies printed,
written, or graphic material by xerography. (Xerography, like Xerox
based on a Greek word meaning "dry," involves transferring an image,
the original material, by the action of light to an electrically charged
surface to which the. image attracts dry ink particles. These particles are
then fused on the copy paper, thus reproducing the original.) The corpo-
ration that makes and sells Xerox machines insists that one cannot
"Xerox" something but rather "makes a Xerox copy." In common
usage, xerox is often employed as a verb to mean making a copy of
something by xerography or by any other copying process.
Xmas. This is an informal abbreviation of Christmas. In this word, X
represents the figure of Jesus Christ and also the cross upon which He
was crucified; X also suggests the Greek letter X, transliterated as Kh
(the Greek chi, the letter with which Christos, the Greek word for
Christ, begins). Xmas has been used for centuries in writing and is
pronounced "exmas" in speech, but the term is considered inappro-
priate in formal writing, if not disrespectful and sacrilegious.

X ray, x-ray. This term, also correctly spelled x ray and X-ray, was so
named because its exact nature was unknown. X ray (in any of its
various spellings) is now standard in its roles as noun (X ray, X rays), as
verb (to X ray a fracture), and as adjective (an X ray machine).
 Y
yet. See SINCE. Both yet and ALREADY are adverbs expressing time.
They are not interchangeable and should not be used together. "He's a
rich man already yet" is a nonstandard construction.
you. When speaking directly to a person or group of persons, say you. If
you wish to refer to a number of people in general and to no one in
particular, use pronouns like one or anyone and general nouns such as
people, persons, and citizens. It may not be rude, but it certainly is
informal to say to no one specifically " You can see the importance of
good health" and "When you become a Girl Scout, you learn much
useful information." (This indefinite use of you occurs more often in
writing than in speaking because one's readers, unlike one's hearers, are
rarely present.) Also, try to use less frequently those tired conversation
fillers " You see what I mean?" and " You know what?"

you all. This is an informal expression sometimes meaning only one

person, sometimes meaning "all of you." In the latter sense you all is
unobjectionable, but since the phrase is not fully standard in every
meaning, perhaps all of you should forget it.
you know. In recent years, you know has become an even more ubiqui-
tous phrase than "You see what I mean?" and "You know what?"
When followed by an object (You know that . . .), the phrase is stan-
dard, but it usually appears in conversation with no more meaning or
purpose than uh or any other pause that is merely a time-waster.

young, youthful. As adjectives, both young and youthful refer to being

in an early period of life or growth (a young person, a youthful person).
In this sense, young more often than youthful is applied to nonhuman
objects: "a young tree" rather than "a, youthful tree." Somewhat more
effectively than young, youthful suggests favorable aspects of youth
such as vigor, strength, liveliness, and hopefulness: "She has a healthy,
youthful attitude toward life." "She is not young in years, but somehow
she has kept her youthful figure." A wise person has said that although
no one can remain young always, everyone wishes to stay youthful.
youngster. See KID.

your, yours. Your is grammatically defined as a possessive pronominal

 261
youthful

adjective; it means "belonging to," "done by you": "That is your

opinion." "You must have lost your mind." Your should not be con-
fused with the contraction you're, meaning "you are": "This is your
decision and you're going to have to live with it." The form yours is used
in any construction where your will not fit: "This is a letter of yours."
"The complimentary close of the letter was 'Yours truly.'" "This is
yours and your sister's affair." Yours is never written with an apos-
trophe: if there were such a term as your's, which there isn't, it would
have to mean "your is," an obvious illiteracy.
yourself, yourselves. These are reflexive or intensive pronouns (give
yourself a chance). They are not always interchangeable with you. Don't
say "My wife plans to write to Mary and yourself'; substitute you for
yourself. In "I'm hoping that the Smiths and yourselves will vote
today," substitute you for yourselves. Say "You (not yourself) and your
friends are welcome."

youthful. See YOUNG.

 z
zealous. See JEALOUS.

zero hour. This word meaning'4 the time set for an attack'' has become a
clich6 meaning "any critical moment": "The zero hour for my physical
exam is set for tomorrow." In this age of rockets and missiles, H-hour is
likely to replace zero hour and itself become trite.
zoom. As a term in aeronautics, zoom applies only to upward move-
ment. Through usage, it now refers also to movement over a level course
(The motorcycle zoomed along the highway), but it is nonstandard when
applied to downward movement. Use swooped in a sentence such as
"The kingfisher zoomed down on its prey."

zzz. No entry can follow this one alphabetically, except one with more
z's. ZZZ represents the sound of someone snoring. If when one writes,
he solves the problems dealing with words and expressions, his readers
will stay awake and pay attention. And when he speaks, his listeners will
not go zzz.