QUANTUM COMPUTING

ANSHUMAN GIRI
Regd. No: 2101289280

Department of Computer Science & Technology

Trident Academy of Technology
Bhubaneswar-751024, Odisha, India.

1
 October 2024

Seminar Report on

QUANTUM COMPUTING
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of The Requirement for the 6th
Sem. Seminar

Bachelor of
Technology In
Computer Science & Technology
Submitted by
ANSHUMAN GIRI
Regd. No: 2101289280

Under the Guidance of

MR. SASHI BHUSAN PARIDA
Asst. Professor, Dept. of CSE

2
Department of Computer Science & Technology
Trident Academy of Technology
Bhubaneswar-751024, Odisha, India.
October 2024

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Seminar Report on the topic

entitled Quantum Computing which is submitted by
Anshuman Giri bearing Registration No.: 2101289280
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the 7th
Semester seminar of the Bachelor of Technology in
Computer Science & Technology of Biju Patnaik

3
 University of Technology, Odisha, is a record of the
candidate's own work carried out by her under my
supervision.

Supervisor Head of the Department

Mr. Sashi Bhusan Parida Mrs. Arpita Nibedita

Asst. Professor, Dept. of CSE Dept. of CST

Trident Academy of Trident Academy of
Technology Technology
Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Bhubaneswar, Odisha

ABSTRACT

Quantum computers are computing devices that can theoretically have

computing power that is many orders of magnitude greater than that of
conventional computers. The basic unit of data in a quantum computer is
the quantum bit, or qubit, that is the quantum state of electrons in an atom.
Qubits can theoretically exist in several superposed states simultaneously,

4
enabling them to carry far more information than id available using
conventional two-state bits. The mathematical basis of the proportionality
of qubit states is similar to that of the input weights of neural networks.
There has been some successful development of quantum computer
technology, but a great deal of research and development remains to be
done before quantum computers become viable as a mainstream
technology, and there are arguments as to why this eventuality can never
be achieved.

Keywords: quantum computing, real-time systems, program processors

Place: Bhubaneswar
Anshuman Giri
Date: 4th Oct, 2024

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

5
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my supervisor Sashi
Bhusan Parida who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
seminar on the topic, “Quantum Computing”, which also helped me in
doing a lot of research and I came to know about so many new things. I
am really thankful to all the faculty members of our department who have
helped us in getting to know Computing knowledge better.

Place: Bhubaneswar

Date: 4th Oct , 2024 Anshuman Giri

CONTENTS

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Certificate i

Abstract ii

Acknowledgements iii

Contents iv

1 Introduction 7

2 Fundamental of quantum computing 10

3 The Architecture of quantum computer 16

3.1 Application Layer 17
3.1.1 Classical Layer 17
3.1.2 Digital Layer 17
3.2 Hardware and Software of quantum computers 18

4 What is quantum Algorithms 19

4.1 Algorithm 20
5 Different categories of quantum computers. 22
6 Advantage of quantum computers. 25
7 Applications of quantum computers 27
8 Importance of quantum computers 30
9 Conclusions 33
References 34

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 Chapter 1

Introduction to Quantum Computing

1. Introduction
1.1 History of computing

Evolution in one region of science and technology

leads to the discovery of a new one. In less than a
century, research and development of functional
computing technologies have renovated science,
technology, and nation massively. The first practical
computer around the 20th century was not capable of
doing mathematical computations, on its own.
Practical devices need a solid physical implementation
of theoretical concepts. Nowadays, computers are
solving problems instantlyand accurately provided
the input is relevant, and a set of instructions given
are favorable. It all started from World War II when
Alan Turing created a real general- purpose computer
with a storable program model and is known as the
‘Universal Turing Machine’. It was redesigned by Von
Neumann and is now the most importantarchitecture
for almost every computer. The computers and their
physical parts kept improving with time in terms of
performance and their strengths. And gradually, the
industry of computers became larger than the military
department which initi- ated it. The advancement in
control and understanding of humans over nature and
physical systems has given us the latest electronic devices
we are utilizing today [1].

2. A new kind of computing

Today’s computers are smaller, cheaper, faster,

greatly efficient, and even more powerful as compared
8
to early computers that used to be huge, costly, and
more power-

9
consuming. It becomes possible due to improvements
in architecture, hard- ware components, and software
running on them. Electronic circuits used in com-
puters are getting smaller and smaller day by day.
Transistors are small semiconductor devices that are
used to amplify and also switch electric or electronic
signals. They were used to be fabricated on a piece of
silicon. The circuit was made by connectingthese
transistors together into a single silicon surface. The
shape of circuits in an IC was printed together in all
layers of silicon at the same time. This process takes
the same amount of time even if the number of
transistors in the circuit was increased.
The cost of production of IC was decided by the size
of silicon and not the number of transistors. This
reduced the price of products due to which
manufacturing and selling of IC increased and thus
benefits and sales also. From the idea of connecting
individual transistors to the collection of these
transistors (Logic Gates) and finally, the collection of
these Logic Gates used to get connected into a single
integrated circuit (IC). Nowadays, a single IC can even
integrate small computers onto it.
Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, in 1965,
discovered that the number of transistors on a silicon
microprocessor chip had made twice as much every
year while the prices were reduced to half since their
invention. This is known as Moore’s Law. Moore’s Law is
considerable because it means that computers and their
com- puting power get smaller and faster over time.
Though this law is putting the brakeson now and
consequently, the improvement in classical computers
is not like before it used to be [2].
This leads to the idea of the smallest computer by
reducing the size of the circuitup to the size of an
atom. But then these circuits will not be able to act as
a switch
as electrons inside an atom can become invisible from
one side of a barrier and appear on another side, i.e.
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they can exist in more than one place at the same
time. This is due to the teleporting phenomena in
quantum mechanics called “Quantum Tunneling”. It
shows that the size of the circuits of the

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classical computer after 5–7nanometers has reached their
limit. The representation and processing of these
computers can be illustrated by the law of classical
physics that gives us an only deterministic justification
of the Universe. But it fails to forecast all noticeable
phenomena occurring in nature and this led to the
discovery of quantum mechan- ics, the biggest
changeover in physics. Thus, there is a need for new
computing other than current classical computing to
put its state into some physical informa- tion rather
than a circuit. Since the quantum phenomena are
bringing up more constraints on the design of the
computers. It changes the basic building blocks
of a computer that not only expects new type of
hardware creation but also a new design, software,
and layers of abstraction to facilitate the designers to
create andexploit these systems even if their
complexities scale over time. The design of
thehardware components has to be governed by
quantum properties [3].
Quantum Computing is a new kind of computing based on
Quantum mechan-
ics that deals with the physical world that is
probabilistic and unpredictable in nature. Quantum
mechanics being a more general model of physics than
classical mechanics give rise to a more general model
of computing- quantum computing that has more
potential to solve problems that cannot be solved by
classical ones. To store and manipulate the
information, they use their own quantum bits also
called ‘Qubits’ unlike other classical computers which are
based on classical computing that uses binary bits 0
and 1 individually. The computers using such type of
com- puting are known as ‘Quantum Computers’. In such
small computers, circuits with transistors, logic gates,
and Integrated Circuits are not possible. Hence, it uses
the subatomic particles like atoms, electrons,
photons, and ions as their bits along with their
information of spins and states. They can be
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superposed and can give more combinations.
Therefore, they can run in parallel using memory
efficiently and hence is more powerful. Quantum
computing is the only model that could disobey the
Church-Turing thesis and thus

13
quantum computers can perform exponentially faster
than classical computers.

3. Need for quantum computers

Quantum computers can solve any computational

problem that any classical computer can. According to
the Church- Turing thesis, the converse is also true that
classical computers can solve all the problems of
quantum computers too. It means they provide no
extra benefit over classical computers in terms of
computability but there are some complex and
impossible problems that cannot be solved by today’s
conventional computers in a practical amount of time.
It needs more computational power. Quantum
computers can solve such problems in reasonably and
exponen- tially lower time complexities, also known as
“Quantum Supremacy” [4].
Peter Shor in 1993 showed that Quantum computers
can help to solve these
problems considerably more efficiently like in seconds
without getting overheated. He developed algorithms for
factoring large numbers quickly. Since their calcula-
tions are based on the probability of an atom’s state
before it is actually known.
These are having the potential to process data in an
exponentially huge quantity. It also explains that a
practical quantum computer could break the
cryptographic secret codes. It can risk the security of
encrypted data and communication. It can expose
private and protected secret information. But the
advantages of quantum computers are also kept in
mind that is significantly more than its flaws. Hence,
they are still needed and further research is going
towards a brighter future.

4.Fundamentals of quantum computing

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 While designing the conventional computer, it was
kept in mind that transistors’ performance especially
when getting

15
smaller, will be affected by noise if any type of
quantum phenomenon takes place. They tried to avoid
quantum phenomena com- pletely for their circuits. But
the quantum computer adapts a different technique
instead of using classical bits and even works on the
quantum phenomenon itself. Ituses quantum bits that
are analogous to classical bits and have two quantum
states where it can be either 0 or 1 except it follows
some quantum properties where it can have both
values simultaneously leading to a concept of
superposed bits.

5. Where the concept of bits came from?

Transistors are the fundamental construction blocks
for an IC which are con- nected through wires in a
circuit. They conduct electric signals between devices.
The communication between transistors within an IC
takes place through electric signals. The behavior of
the signals is analog in nature. Therefore, their values
are real numbers that change smoothly between 0 and
1. These electric signals can also interact with the
environment resulting in noise. Therefore, a little
change from 0 to
0.1 due to temperature or vibrations from the
environment can drastically change the system’s
behavior. There are two types of noise present in the
environment. The first type of noise results from energy
instabilities occurring suddenly within the object like
temperature above absolute zero Kelvin. These are
fundamental in nature. Other types of noise are the
consequences of signal interactions. This type of noise
could have corrected or designed. But neither of them
got designed nor corrected or maybe left intentionally
uncorrected at the hardware layer. They are systematic
in nature [5].
To overcome these noises in analog circuits, the IC is
built with transistors in such a way that it could work
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on digital signals (binary bits) instead of analog
signals. These circuits are called ‘Logic Gates’. They
perceive the electric signals con-

17
taining values of real numbers as a binary digit or ‘bit’ of
either 0 (low voltage) or 1 (high voltage). Registers are
another type of Gate which stores a bit or the number of
bits present in an input value to process further. Gates
can remove noise from a signal by limiting the set of
values a signal can hold. Constructing IC using logic
gates rather than transistors simplifies the designing
by creating a powerful circuit that is not sensitive to
design and fabrication issues and facilitates abstraction to
designers so that they can focus only on gate functions
(Boolean functions) rather than circuit issues. Boolean
functions are defined by the rules of Boolean algebra.
They can use an automated design tool for mapping
the required logic gates. A standard library containing
a set of tested logic gates is integrated into the
siliconchip design with the help of their manufacturing
technology. Negligible error rates can be achieved
using digital logic and standard libraries.
This helps in making
the design robust. Also, the data is encoded by adding
some redundant bits in the memory using an error
correction code. This code is checked at regular
intervals to detect the error. It also helps in other
traits of design like testing and debugging.
Quantum Bit or Qubit is the fundamental unit of quantum
information that
represents subatomic particles such as atoms,
electrons, etc. as a computer’s memory while their
control mechanisms work as a computer’s processor. It
can take the value of 0, 1, or both simultaneously. It is
a million times more powerful than today’s stron- gest
supercomputers. Production and management of qubits
are tremendous chal- lenges in the field of engineering.
They acquire both, digital as well as analog nature which
gives the quantum computer their computational
power. Their analog nature indicates that quantum
gates have no noise limit and their digital nature
provides a norm to recover from this serious weakness.
Therefore, the approach of logic gates and abstractions
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created for classical computing is of no use in quantum
computing. Quantum computing may adopt ideas only
from classical computing. But this com- puting needs
its own

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method to overcome the variations of processing and
any type of noise. It also needs its own strategy to
debug errors and handle defects in design.
Qubit has two quantum states similar to the classical
binary states. The qubit can be in either state as well as
in the superposed state of both states simultaneously.
There is a representation of these quantum states also

state label is kept between two symbols | and ⟩.

known as Dirac notation [6]. In this notation, the

Therefore,
states are written as |0⟩ and |1⟩ which are literally
having analog values and both are participating to
give any value between 0 and 1 given that sum of
probability of occurrence of each state must be 1.
Thus any quantum bit wave function can be
expressed as a two-state linear combination each with
its own complex coefficient
i.e. |w⟩ = x |0⟩ + y |1⟩ where x and y are coefficients of
both the states. The probabil- ity of the state is directly
proportional to the square of the magnitude of its coeffi-
cient. |x|2 is the probability of identifying the qubit state 0
and |y|2 is the probability of identifying the qubit state
1. These probabilities when summed up must give a total
of 1 or say 100% mathematically, i.e. |x|2 + |y|2 = 1.

6.Properties of quantum computing

In quantum physics, the quantum object does not

exist in an entirely determined state. It looks like a
particle but behaves like a wave when not being
observed. This dual nature of particles leads to
interesting physical phenomena. The state of any
quantum object is expressed as a sum of possible
participating states or a wave- function. Such states are
coherent due to the interference of all the participating
states either in a constructive or a destructive manner.
Observation of quantum objects when they interact
with some larger physical system results in the
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extraction of information. Such observation of

21
quantum objects is called quantum measure- ment.
Measurement can also result in the loss of information
by disrupting the quan- tum state. These are some of
the properties of quantum objects. Quantum objects
referred here are the qubits in the case of quantum
computing. The progress of any quantum system is
regulated by Schrodinger’s equation that tells us about
the change in the wave-function of the system due to
the energy environment. This environmentis the
system Hamiltonian which is a mathematical
description of energies experi- encing from all forces
felt by all components of the system. To control any
quantum system, there is a need to control this
environment by isolating the system from theforces of
the universe that cannot be controlled easily and by
assigning energy within this isolated area only. A
system cannot be completely isolated. However,
energy and information exchanges can be minimized.
This interaction with the outside environ- ment can
lead to loss of coherence and can result in
“Decoherence” [7].
The properties are the conceptual rules and
mathematical manifestations that describe the
behavior of the particles. Quantum computers use
three fundamental properties of quantum mechanics
to store, represent, and perform operations on data in
such a way so that it can compute exponentially
faster than any classical computer. The three
properties are given as follows [8]:

• Superposition

Superposition in quantum mechanics states that any

two quantum states can be summed up (superposed)
resulting in another valid quantum state. It is a funda-
mental principle of quantum mechanics. Oppositely we
can say that any quantum state is the sum of two or
more than two other unique states.
Superposition in quantum computing refers to the

22
ability of a quantum system where quantum particle
or qubit can exist in two different positions or say, in
multiple states at the same time. It provides high-
speed parallel processing in an

23
unbelievable way and is very different from their
classical equivalents that have binary constraints. The
quantum computer system holds the information that
existsin two states simultaneously. Qubits are brought
into a superposition by influenc- ing them with the help
of lasers so that it can simultaneously store 0 and 1 at
the same time. In classical computing, if there are 2
bits, the total possible values after combining we get are
4, out of which only 1 value is possible at any instant. But
on the other hand, if there are 2 qubits in the quantum
computer. The total possible values after combination
are 4 and all are possible at once. It looks like
unthinkable

because it is not like gravity that can be proved easily just

by looking at the falling of an apple. The laws of classical
physics fail here because superposition only exists in the
territory of quantum particles.
For example, when solving a puzzle-like maze, a
quantum particle can decide totake the various paths
at the same time using superposition. This process
matches the function of the parallel computer. Due to
this property, the qubit is able to navigate the maze in
exponentially less time than a classical bit

• Entanglement

Entanglement in quantum mechanics is a physical

phenomenon where two or more quantum objects are
inherently linked such that measurement of one rules
the possible measurement of another. In other words, a
pair or a group of particles interacts or share spatial
locality such that the quantum state of each particle
cannot be characterized independently of the other
particle’s state in the same group even when they are
separated by a large distance.
Entanglement is one of the important properties of
quantum computing. It refers to the strong correlation
existing between two quantum particles (physical
proper- ties of systems) or qubits. Qubits are linked
24
together in a perfect instantaneous con- nection, even
if they are isolated at any large distances

25
such as located at the oppositeends of the Universe.
They are entangled or defined with reference to each
other. The fact is that the state of one particle
influences the state of the other. It creates strong
communication between qubits. Once they got
entangled, they will stay connected even after
separated at any distance. In classical computers, if
bits are doubled, com- putational power also gets
doubled. But in the case of Entanglement, adding extra
bits to a quantum computer can increase its
computational power exponentially.
Quantum computer uses this property in a sort of
quantum daisy chain.
Some examples of entanglement can be seen in
nature such as electrons separatedfrom each other at
some distance inside an electron cloud are massively
entangled with one another. If one electron is at both
the states of spin-up and spin-down with each state
having a probability of ½, a similar case is with the
other electron.

• Interference

The property of interference in quantum computers

is similar to wave interfer- ence in classical physics.
Wave interference happens when two waves interact
with each other in the same medium. It forms a
resultant wave with either their ampli- tudes added
together when they are aligned in the same direction
known as con- structive interference or a resultant
wave with their amplitudes canceled out when waves
are in opposite direction known as destructive
interference. The net wave can be bigger or smaller
than the original wave depending on the type of
interference. Since all subatomic particles along with
light pose dual nature, i.e. particle and wave nature
both. The quantum particle may experience
interference. If each particle goes through both the
slits (Young’s double-slit experiment) simultaneously
due to superposition, they can cross its own path
26
interfering with the path direction. The idea of
interference allows us to intentionally bias the content
of the qubit towards the needed state. However, it
can also result in a quantum computer to

27
combine its various computations into one making it
more error-prone [9].

7. The topography of quantum technology

The quantum phenomena are not limited to just

quantum computing but they apply to other
technologies also including quantum information
science, quantum
communication, and quantum metrology. The
progresses of all these technologies are mutually
dependent on each other and can control as well as
transform the entire quantum system. They share the
same theory of physics, common hardwareand related
methods [10].
Quantum Information Science seeks the methods of
encoding the information in a quantum system. It
includes statistics of quantum mechanics along with
their
limitations. It provides a core for all other applications
such as quantum computing, communications,
networking, sensing and metrology.
Quantum Communication and networking concentrates on
the conversation or exchange of information by
encoding it into a quantum system to facilitate com-
munication between quantum computers. Quantum
cryptography is the subset of quantum
communication in which quantum properties help to
design the securecommunication system.
Quantum sensing and metrology is the study and
development of quantum systems. The drastic
sensitivity of such a system to environmental
nuisances can be utilized in order to measure
important physical properties (e.g. electric and
magnetic fields, temperature, etc.) more accurately
than classical systems. Quantum sensors are based on
qubits and are carried out using the experimental
quantum systems.

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 Quantum computing is the central focus of this research
which exploits the quantum mechanical properties of
superposition, entanglement and interference to enact

29
computations. In common, a quantum computer is a
physical system that comprises a collection of qubits
that must be isolated from the environment for
their quantum state to stay coherent until it performs
the computation. These qubits are organized and
manipulated in order to enforce an algorithm and to
achieve a result with high probability from the
measurement of its final state.
Difference between classical computers and quantum
computers [11].

Comparison Classical computer Quantum computer

key
Basis of Large scale integrated High speed parallel
computi multipurpose computer based
ng onquantum mechanics
computer based on
classical physics
Informati Bit based information Quantum bit (qubit)
on storage using based
storage voltage/ information storage
charge using
electron spin
Bit values Bits having a value of Qubits having a value of
either 0 or 1 and can 0,1 or sometimes
have a single value at negative and can have
any instant both values at the
same time
Number of The number of possible The number of possible
possible states is 2 whichis either 0 states is infinite since it
states or 1 can hold combinations of
0 or 1 along with some
complex
information
Output Deterministic- (repetition Probabilistic- (repetition
of computation on the of computation on
same input gives thesame superposed states gives
output) probabilistic
answers)
Gates used for Logic gates process the Quantum logic gates
processing information sequentially, process the
i.e. AND, OR, NOT, etc. information parallel
Scope of Defined and limited probabilistic and
possible answers due to multiple answers
solutions thealgorithm’s design areconsidered due to
superposition and

30
 entanglement properties
Operations Operations use Boolean Operations use linear
Algebra algebra and
are
represented with
unitary
matrices.

31
 Circuit Circuits implemented in Circuits implemented in
implementati macroscopic technologies microscopic
on (e.g. CMOS) that are technologies (e.g.
fastand scalable nuclear magnetic
resonance) that are
slow
and delicate

8. The architecture of quantum computer

Architecture can be seen as a blueprint. The
architecture of the quantum com- puter is a
combination of classical and quantum parts and can be
divided into 5 layerswhere each layer is represented as
the functional part of the computer (Figure 1).

• Application Layer- It is not a part of a quantum

computer. It is used for representing a user
interface, the operating system for a quantum
computer, coding environment, etc. that are
needed for formulating suitable quantum
algorithms. It is hardware-independent.

• Classical Layer- It optimizes and compiles the quantum

algorithm into micro- instructions. It also processes
quantum-state measurement returned back from
hardware in the below layers and gives it to a classical
algorithm to produce results.

32
Figure 1.
The architecture of a practical quantum computer. It can be divided into five
layers, each performing differenttypes of processing [12].

• Digital Layer- Itinterprets microinstructions into

signals (pulses) needed by qubit which act as
quantum logic gates. It is the digital description of
the
required analog pulses in the below layers. It also
gives quantum measurementas feedback to the
above classical
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 layer for merging the quantum outcomes to the final
result.

• Analog Layer- It creates

voltage signals which are
having a phase and amplitude modulations like in
wave, for sending it to the below layer so that
qubit operations can be executed.

• Quantum Layer- It is integrated with the digital and

the analog processing layer onto the same chip. It is
used for holding qubits and is kept at room
temperature (absolute). Error correction is handled
here. This layer determineshow well the computer
performs.

Quantum Processing Unit (QPU) is made up of three

layers including the digital processing layer, analog
processing layer, and quantum processing layer. QPU
and classical layer together constitute the Quantum
Computer. Digital and Analog layers operate at room
temperature.

9. Hardware and software of quantum computers

There should be an interface between the quantum

computer and conventional computers for tasks
related to data, networks, and users. In order to
function use- fully, the quantum qubit system needs
organized control that can be managed by a
conventional computer. The necessary hardware
components for analog quantum computers are
designed in 4 conceptual layers. First is the “quantum
data plane” where qubit is present. Second is the
“control and measurement plane” which is liable for
performing operations and measurement on qubits as
needed. The third is the “control processor plane”
which defines the sequence of those operations
andmeasurement outcomes to inform successive
quantum operations required by the algorithm. And

34
the last one is “host processor” which is a classical
computer run- ning a conventional operating system
that handles user interfaces, network access, and big
storage data structures. The

35
processor is controlled using a high
bandwidthconnection that it provides [13].
A functional Quantum computer also requires
software components in addi- tion to the hardware. It
is comparable to classical computers. Various new
tools including programming languages are needed
to substantiate quantum operations so that
programmers can formulate algorithms, compilers
that can map them to the hardware used by quantum
computers and some other supports which can
evaluate, optimize, debug and test programs. The
programming language must be designed for any
targeting quantum architecture. Some preparatory
tools have
been developed to support quantum computers and
are accessible on the web [14]. These tools must be
designed in an abstract way so that software
developers can think more algorithmically without
much concern for details of quantum mechan- ics. This
software must be flexible enough to adapt to the
changes in hardware and algorithms. This is one of the
biggest challenges in quantum computing to develop
complete software architecture. Other than
programming languages, there must be simulation
tools for modeling quantum operations and tracking
quantum states and optimization tools for evaluating
needed qubit resources so that it can perform different
quantum algorithms in an efficient manner. The main
goal is to minimize the number of qubits and the
operations required for the hardware [15].

10. What is quantum algorithm?

An algorithm is a sequence of instructions or a set

of rules to be followed to perform any task or
calculation. It is a step- by-step process for solving a
problem, especially by a computer. Any algorithm that
can be executed on a quantum com- puter is called
36
the Quantum algorithm. Generally, it is possible to
execute all clas- sical algorithms on quantum
computers. However, the algorithms should contain
at least

37
one unique quantum step due to the property of
either superposition or entanglement to be called a
Quantum algorithm.
Quantum algorithms are characterized by a
quantum circuit. A quantum circuit is a prototype for
quantum computation that includes each step of the
quantum algorithm as a quantum gate. A quantum
gate is an operation that can be performed on any
number of qubits. It changes the quantum state of the
qubit. It can be divided into a single-qubit or multi-
qubit gate, depending on the number of qubits on
which it is applied at the same time. A quantum circuit
is determined with qubit measurement [16].
An algorithm executing on a simulator rather than
hardware is very profitable in terms of execution time
by replacing the measurement overhead at the end of
the algorithm. It is also known as simulation
optimization. A quantum algorithm is always reversible
when compared to the classical algorithm. It implies
that if the
measurement is not considered, a quantum circuit can be
traversed back which can undo all the operations done by
a forward traversing of the circuit. According to the
undecidability problem, all problems that are unsolvable
by a classical algorithm cannot be solved by quantum
algorithms too. But these algorithms can solve prob-
lems significantly faster than classical algorithms. Some
examples of the quantum algorithm are Shor’s algorithm
and Grover’s algorithm. The Shor’s algorithm can
do factorization of very large numbers in exponentially
faster than best-known classical algorithms [17],
whereas, Grover’s algorithm is used for searching large
unordered list or unstructured databases that is four
times faster than the classic algorithm [18].
There are various quantum algorithms available so far
are as follows [19]:

• Fourier transform-based quantum algorithms

38
 • Amplitude amplification-based quantum algorithms

• Quantum walks based algorithm

• BQP-complete problems

• Hybrid quantum/classical algorithms

11. Design limitations of quantum computer

The exponential computing power of quantum

computers can be accomplished by assessing and
rectifying any kind of design limitation which helps to
avoid their quality degradation. There are four major
design limitations. The first limitation is that the
number of coefficients in Dirac notation that defines
the state of a quantumcomputer rise exponentially with
the rise in the number of qubits, only when all
the qubits get entangled with each other. To obtain the full potential of quantum
computing, qubits must follow the property of entanglement where the state of
any qubit must be linked with states of other qubits. It cannot be achieved
directly since it is hard to generate a direct relation
between qubits. But it can
be decomposed into a number of simple fundamental
operations directly aided by the hardware. One can
also perform indirect coupling which is known to be an
overhead in machines in classical computing and is
crucial at the early stages of development especially
when qubits and gate operations are confined.
The second limitation is that it is impossible to copy
an entire quantum system because of a principle
called a no- cloning principle [20]. There is a risk of
deletion of arbitrary information from the original
qubits since the state of qubits or set of qubits are
moved to another set of qubits rather than being
copied. The generation and storage of copies of
intermediate states or partial outcomes in memory is
a necessary aspect of classical computing. But
quantum computers need a different strategy. There
are quantum algorithms that help to access classical
39
bits from the storage so that it can be known which
bits are loaded and being

40
queried into the memory of the quantum system to
perform its task successfully.
The third limitation is due to the absence of noise
protection of qubit opera- tions. The small deformities
in gate operations or input signals are collected over
time disturbing the state of the system because
they are not discarded by the fundamental gate
operations. This can highly affect the calculation
preciseness, measurements and coherence of the
quantum systems and lessen the qubit opera- tions
integrity [21].
The final limitation is the incapability of the
quantum machine to identify its full state even after it
has finished its operation. Assume quantum computer
has introduced an initial set of qubits with the
superposition of all states combination. After applying
a function to this state, the new quantum state will
have informa- tion about the function value for each
possible input and measuring this quantum system
will not give this information. Therefore, a successful
quantum algorithm can be achieved by manipulating
the system in such a way so that states after finish- ing
the operations have a higher probability of getting
measured than any other probable result.

12. Approaches to quantum computing

If we can design each gate slightly different from

others, then the generated electric signals on
communicating with each other produce periodic
noise in each other. Thus, the noise immunity of gates
used will be adequate to cancel the impact of various
noise origins. Therefore, the concluding system will
produce the same outcome as the logical gate model,
even with millions of gates operating in parallel. The goal
of the design is to minimize the noise in qubit that can
prevent the qubitstate to pass through noisy channels.
The qubit state can be changed by changing

41
itsphysical energy environment.
Thus, it leads to 2 approaches to quantum computing. In

42
the first approach, the energy environment
representing Hamiltonian is frequently changed
smoothly
as qubits operations are analog in nature and smoothly
changes from 0 to 1 which cannot be completely
corrected. It initializes the quantum state and then uses
Hamiltonian directly to develop the quantum state. This is
known as ‘Analog Quantum Computing’. It includes quantum
annealing, quantum simulation and adiabatic quantum
computers.
The second approach is similar to the classical
computer approach where the problem is decomposed
into a sequence of fundamental operations or gates.
Thesegates have adequately defined digital outcomes
for some input states. The set of fundamental
operations of quantum computing is different from that
of classical computing. This approach is referred to as
‘Gate- based quantum computing’.

13. Different categories of quantum computer

13.1 Analog quantum computer

This type of system performs its operation by

manipulating the analog values in the Hamiltonian
representation. It does not use quantum gates. It
includes quantum annealing, quantum simulation and
adiabatic quantum computing. The quantum annealing is
done using some initial set of qubits that gradually
changes the energy encountered by the system until
the problem parameters are defined by Hamiltonian.
This is done in order to get the highest probability
final state of the qubits that corresponds to the
solution of that problem. The adiabatic quantum
computer performs computation using some initial set
of qubits in the Hamiltonianground state and then
Hamiltonian is changed slowly enough such that it stays
in its ground state or lowest possible energy while the

43
process takes place. It has process- ing power similar
to a gate-based computer but still cannot perform full
error correction.

44
 There are three basic types of analog quantum
computing. These are divided on the basis of the
required amount of processing power (number of
qubits) and time to become practically and
commercially available.

• Quantum Annealing

A basic rule of physics is that everything inclines

towards a minimum energystate of a problem. This
behavior is also true in the world of quantum
physics.
Quantum annealing is naturally used for real low-energy
solutions such as optimi- zation problems [22]. It is useful
where the best solution is needed out of all
possiblesolutions available. However, it is least powerful
among all the types available. An example of this
demonstrates an experiment to optimize traffic flows in a
crowded city. Such an algorithm could successfully
decrease traffic by choosing a convenient path.
Volkswagen performs this with Google and D-wave system
partnership. Such an experiment can be applied on a
universal scale for all to get the cost-productive travel.
This method can be applied to a collection of industry
problems. For exam- ple, optimization of the flight
route, petroleum price, weather and temperature
information and passenger details, developing
commercial aircraft.
Quantum annealing is also used for digital modeling,
sampling problems and other science fields. This will
take only a couple of hours to model all the
individualatoms of air flowing over an airplane’s wing at
every tilts and speeds to formulate an optimized wing
design. Using a sampling problem from energy-based
distribu- tion, the shape of energy can be characterized
and is useful in machine learning problems. The
samples improve the model using information about
the state of the model for the given parameters.

• Quantum Simulation
45
 Quantum simulations examine certain problems in
quantum mechanics that are beyond classical
physics.

46
Simulating quantum phenomena that are complex in
nature is one of the most important applications of
quantum computing such as quantum chemistry. It
includes modeling of chemical reactions on a large
number of quantum subatomic particles. Quantum
simulators can be used to simulate the misfolded protein
structure [23]. Diseases like Alzheimer’s are caused by
misfolded
proteins. Using random computer simulation,
researchers test new treatment drugsand learn
reactions. To achieve correctly folded protein
structure and study all drug-induced effects,
sequential sampling is done which could take more
than a million years. Quantum computers can help
evaluate it for making more effective treatments and
medicines and it would be a significant healthcare
improvement. In the
future, quantum simulations will facilitate quick drug
designing and testing by evaluating every possible
drug combinations of protein.

• Adiabatic Quantum Computing

Adiabatic quantum computing is the most

dominant, commonly applicable and hardest to
create. A truly adiabatic quantum computer will use
over a million of qubits. The maximum qubits we can
access is less than 128 today. The basic ideabehind
this is that the machine can be directed at any
complex calculation and obtain an immediate
solution. This comprises analyzing the annealing
equations, quantum phenomena simulation, etc. [24].
At least fifty unique algorithms other than Shor’s and
Grover’s algorithm have been formulated to run on
this quantum computer.
There is a possibility that quantum computers could
revolutionize the area of artificial intelligence and
machine learning. Some work has been done on algo-
rithms that would operate as building blocks of machine

47
learning but the hardware and software for quantum AI
are still not practically accessible.

13.2 NISQ gate-based computer

48
 NISQ stands for Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum. It is
also known as the Digital NISQ computer. These type of
systems are gate-based and operates on a col- lection of
qubits without full error correction and cannot restrict all
the errors. The computations must be designed in a way
so that they remain practical on a quantum system with
little noise and can be finished in fewer and sufficient
steps so that Decoherence and gate errors do not hide
the outcomes [25].

13.3 Gate-based quantum computer with full error correction

Such computers also perform gate-based

operations on a set of qubits with the
implementation of the Quantum Error Correction
algorithm. It reduces or corrects the noise in the
system occurring during the computation period.
Errors may include inadequate signals, device
forgery or undesired bonding of qubits tothe
environment or with each other. The error is reduced
to such a limit that the
system seems valid and precise for all computations.
Such quantum computers can have various
realizations and they must fulfill some conditions such
as there must be an availability of a well-defined two-
level system that can be used as qubits, a potential
to initialize those qubits, a sufficiently extended
amount of Decoherence time which can perform error
correction and computation, quantum gates (a set of
quantum operations) common for every quantum
computation and a capabil- ity of measuring each
quantum bit individually without bothering others
[26].
The analog quantum computers and digital NISQ
computers are in progress whilethe gate-based
computers with full error corrections are much more
difficult and demanding.

14. Advantages of quantum computing

49
1. According to researchers, quantum computers will
be able to solve those com- plex mathematical problems
that traditional computers find impossible to solvein
a practical

50
 timeframe.

2. It provides that computing power which can sufficiently

process excessively large amounts of data (2.5
Exabyte daily i.e. equal to 5 million laptops) created
all around the world to extract meaning from it.

3. Due to the teleportation phenomenon known as

‘quantum tunneling,’ it can work in parallel and use
less amount of electricity, hence, reducing the power
consumption up to 100 to 1000 times.

4. A general quantum computer is “thousands of

times” faster than any classical computer. For
example, Google has made a quantum computer [27]
that is 100 million times faster than any classical
computer present in its lab.

5. It can solve complex problems without being overheated

since for its stability it kept cold up to 0.2 Kelvin
inside the quantum system.

6. It can easily solve optimization problems such as finding

the best route and scheduling trains and flights. It
would also be able to compute 1 trillion moves in chess
per second. Quantum computers will be able to crack
the highest security unbreakable encryption
techniques. However, it would also build hack-proof
alternates.

7. It can bring up revolution from drugs to petroleum

industries. The invention of new drugs will become
possible. The marketable algorithms of financial orga-
nizations can be improved. The field of artificial
intelligence can be improved soon.

15. Disadvantages of quantum computing

1. Due to advancements in quantum computers, the security

of the existing Inter- net of Things (IoT) would fall down.
51
 Cryptographic techniques, Databases of
government and private large organizations, banks,
and defense systems can be hacked. Considering
these facts, quantum computers can be terrible for
ourfuture.

2. The Quantum Computer will work as a different device

and cannot replace classical computers entirely. Since,
classical computers are better at some chores than
quantum computers like email, excel, etc.

3. It has not been invented completely yet as only parts are

being implemented and people are still imagining
how it would look.

4. It is very delicate and error-prone. Any kind of

vibrations affects subatomic particles like atoms
and electrons. Due to which noise, faults, and
even failures are possible. It leads to
“Decoherence” which is a loss of coherence
inquantum.

5. Quantum processors are very unstable and are

very hard to test even. For the stability of the
quantum computer, it is kept at 0.2 Kelvin
(absolute Kelvin) which is nearly below the universe
temperature [28]. It is very hard to maintain and
regulate such temperature. The main problem is to
really develop it as a personal computer with the
price range in the budget of consumers. They will
be firstly accessible to large scale industry then
come to retail markets.

52
16. Applications of quantum computing

Many quantum algorithms have been evolved for

quantum computers that deliver speedup which is a
result of some fundamental mathematical methods
like Fourier transform, Hamiltonian simulation, etc.
Most algorithms require a large number of qubits of
the best quality and some error correction to provide
use-
ful functionalities. These algorithms are formed in
blocks rather than as a whole combined application
since it is not practical. Therefore, it is a great
challenge to create quantum applications that are
really practically useful along with providing speedup
with no error. The potential utility or say useful
application of a quantum computer is an area of
ongoing research. It is predicted that those
applications require fewer qubits and can be carried
out with a lesser amount of codes. It is pos- sible to
build algorithms that can run faster on quantum
computers because of the distinct features of the
qubit. Below are some of the primary applications that
we will see soon in the upcoming era:

• Cryptography

Many important elements of IT security and online

security such as e-commerce and electronic secrecy
depend on encryption and mathematical algorithms
which are difficult to break such as factoring very huge
numbers into primes (RSA tech- nique). It is done by
traversing through every possible factor using
conventional computers which takes a significant
amount of time. Also, some modern algorithms other than
RSA like AES, ECDSA, etc. cannot be cracked using even
high com- puting power. It makes it costly and cracking
them even less practical. Quantum computers can do all
these kinds of stuff in exponentially less amount of time.
New quantum algorithms (e.g. Shor’s algorithm) are
able to do it and more unique algorithms will develop
[29]. But before that, new encryption techniques are
being made to resist the quantum ones. Since the
53
already running techniques and digital applications
security are at greater risks.

• Optimization Problems

Optimizing a problem implies finding the best solution to

that

54
problem out of all the possible solutions. It can be done
by minimizing the error and even minimizing the steps
available. Quantum computers are best in solving
optimization problems. There are a lot of quantum
algorithms out of which quantum optimization algo-
rithms might improve the already existing optimization
problems which are solved using conventional
computers currently. Some of them are quantum semi-
definite programming, quantum data fitting, and
quantum combinatorial optimization.
Some of the examples include simulating the molecular
model like protein behavior for medical research which
can lead to the new discovery of drugs for serious dis-
eases like cancer, lung disease, etc. Another example is
the Simulation of the cellular structure of batteries for
improving battery power and life in electric vehicles. It
could also solve travel-related problems in real traffic just
like traveling salesman problems to find the shortest
path between many cities, going to each city once and
returning back, modeling the entire finance market, and
many more. Traveling optimization is the major work
under Volkswagen recently [30].

• Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence counts on processing large and

complex datasets. It is responsible for learning, inferring,
and understanding. It learns until it stops

mistaking and making errors in its task. It takes a

significant amount of time in learning too. But quantum
computing can make it easy and more
accurate. Since conventional computers are
only training the learning model from a specific size of
the dataset to restrict the computation time. Quantum
computers can train these models over a huge
dataset without sticking into the exponential time. The
more data it uses to train, the more accurate it will be.
Generative models generate output such as image,
audio, etc. that can be fed to quantum computers to
improve its quality and accuracy. Natural Language
processing is another example that can understand
complete sentences. Quantum computers can make it

55
understand all the phrases and speech in real-time with
improved quality, which is computationally costly with
today’s computer.

• Quantum Simulation

56
 It is an important utility in the field of quantum
chemistry and material science[31]. This problem
needs solving ground state energies of electrons and
their wave functions, with or without the presence of
some external electric or magnetic field. From the
structure of atoms and electrons in chemistry to the
rate at which chemi- cal reactions are taking place,
everything can be simulated very well. The classical
computer when applied to this problem often fails to
reach the level of precision needed to predict the rate
of the chemical reaction.
It could also have commercial applications in areas such
as medical and health- care fields, chemical catalysts,
storage of energy, pharmaceutical advancement and
device displays.

17. Major challenges in quantum computing

The good news is that at any instant of time, the

quantum state with the same number of quantum bits
can stretch over all possible states as compared to
classical computers and thus works in an exponentially
massive space. However, to be able to use this space
requires all qubits to remain interconnected. Even after
such progress, improvements are still needed. The bad
news is that making new and high-quality qubits does
not guarantee the creation and efficient use of fault-
tolerant quantum computers and is still having challenges
in its path [32].
Qubits cannot naturally ignore the noise. Hence, the
quantum system is more error-prone. It suffers from
Decoherence. The biggest challenge is how it can handle any
undesirable deviations or noise in quantum computers.
Classical comput-
ers can produce clean noise-free outcomes by simply
putting its state as off or ‘0’, which is not possible for
quantum computers where errors occur in physical
circuits. Qubits will gradually lose its information as well
as interconnection (entanglement) between each
other. The error rate is seen as a design parameter for
such systems which should be improved in large qubit
57
systems also. However,
to make the qubits stable and error-free, they are being
insulated from the outside environment in super-
refrigerated fridges or vacuum chambers and accurately
handled [33].
Qubits are neither completely binary nor digital. It is
having analog propertiesalso. Gate can reject noise by
dealing with the

58
input signal value of 0.8 and treating it as 1. But in the
analog signal, every value between 0 and 1 is permitted
since they have their meanings. Signals cannot be
checked for any kind of noise or corruption. Since 0.8
can be 1 with some error or 0.8 without error.
Presuming the error as 0 like Gates do or taking some
noise value even if it was not present there can affect
the adherence of the resulting quantum computation.
Hence, there is a need for
algorithms like quantum error correction similar to the
logical error correction inclassical computers. These
algorithms can be run on a noisy gate-based quantum
computer to eliminate the errors and noises present
in them [34].
It is possible to employ a Quantum Error Correction
algorithm on a quantum system. But quantum error
correction requires dealing with the overhead such as a
large number of qubits and their fundamental
operations and generally needs more resources. Also,
problems with large data inputs require a large amount
of time to create the input quantum state that would
monopolize the computation time lessen- ing the
quantum benefits.
Quantum algorithm development is another challenge since
achieving quantum speedup expects entirely new types
of algorithm design as the speed of computer- tion
depends on the design of the algorithm. The design of
the algorithm should be corresponding to the number of
qubits used.
Further development of software tools in addition to
hardware, is required to cre- ate and debug quantum
systems to help explain unknown issues and push
towardsdesigns.
Debugging quantum hardware and software is of
utmost importance which depends on memory and
intermediate machine states in classical computers.
But in the case of quantum computing, states cannot
be copied directly for later evaluation, and directly
measuring intermediate state can bring it to halt. Hence, new
strategies for debugging are essential for their
development.

59
18. Importance of quantum computing

It is clearly possible to build a quantum computer that

could

60
perform computa- tions that would run a lifetime on a
classical computer. Practical applications of quantum
computing need controlling the quantum phenomena
and thus the quan- tum world to an exceptional level.
This job requires substantial engineering and research
to build, manage and employ a noiseless quantum
system. The experiment with quantum supremacy is an
important test of the theory of quantum mechanics that
will help to improve the support of quantum theory and
leads to unexpected discoveries. The development of
aspects and components of quantum information
technology and computing has already started to
influence the area of physics. The quantum error
correction theory to attain the fault-tolerant quantum
system has proven important. The quantum information
theory is practically useful to study physics and
dynamics of multibody systems like a massive number
of quantum subatomic particles and even in blackhole
and related concepts. Advancement in this area is
important for an accurate understanding of various
physical structures. It has contributed to many other
engineering fields like physics, mathematics, chemistry,
computer science, material science, etc. It has also
advanced classical computing. Strategies to develop a
quantum computing algorithm have helped
in improving the classical computing algorithm also.
Research in the quantum algorithm has answered many
questions in the computer science area. It can help to
evaluate the safety of cryptographic systems, clarifying
the limitations of physical computational and advancing
computational methods. It will help to advance the
human’s understanding of the universe. The qubits that
are recently being used inquantum computing is also
used for building sensors, precision clocks, and other
applications. Quantum communication is used for
communicating two quantum systems at distance.
There is an increased risk of asymmetric cryptography
as well as the entire security system. Hence, the
actions are being taken towards new quan- tum
cryptography. The development of quantum
information, science, technology and computing is a
global area now.

61
19. Future scope of quantum computing
A significant amount of struggle is remaining before a
practical quantum computer can be launched. There are
some

62
future advancements that are needed. Some of the
future needs are enabling a Quantum Error Correction
algorithm that requires low overhead and decreases the
error rates in qubits, developing more algorithms with
lesser qubits for solving problems, reducing circuit
thickness so that NISQ computers can be operated, the
advancement of methods which can verify, debug, and
simulate the quantum computers, scaling the number
of qubits per processor in such a way so that error rate
is maintained or can be improved if possible,
interleaving of operations in a qubit, recognizing more
algorithms that can reduce the computation time and
creating input–output for the quantum processor.
Such ‘Quantum games’ are predicted in the future that will
give unexpected situations and results that a player can
experience because quantum computers will take all
the possible operations and throws them into the game
randomly due to its quantum properties like
superpositioning and entanglement of qubits. It will be
anever-ending experience.
‘Quantum computing in Cloud’ has the potential to overtake
business initiatives like in other emerging technologies
such as cryptography and artificial Intelligence. Since the
classical simulation of fifty qubits is equal to the memory of
one Petabyte that doubles with every single qubit added
[35], the memory required should also be large enough to
provide an environment for application development and
testing for multiple developers to simulate quantum
computers using suitable shared resources.
AI and machine learning problems could be solved in
a practical amount of time that can be reduced from
hundreds of thousands of years to seconds. Several
quan- tum algorithms have been developed such as
Grover’s algorithm for searching and Shor’s algorithm for
factoring large numbers. More quantum algorithms are
coming soon. Google has also declared that it would
produce a workable quantum computerin the following
5 years with a 50-qubit quantum computer and will
achieve quan- tum supremacy. IBM is also offering
commercial quantum computers soon.

The progress of development in the field of quantum

63
computers depends on many factors. Interest and
financial support from the private sector can help
devel- oping commercial applications for NISQ computers.
It depends on the progress of quantum algorithm
development, availability of

64
enough investment in the quantum technology field
from government and the exchange of ideas within
researchers, scientists and engineers [36]. To illuminate
the limitations of quantum technology, a defensive result
is also beneficial. It can help in overcoming those
negative results which can lead to a new discovery.

65
Conclusion
The field of quantum computing is growing rapidly
as many of today's leading computing groups,
universities, colleges, and all the leading IT vendors
are researching the topic. This pace is expected to
increase as more research is turned into practical
applications. Although practical machines lie years
in the future, this formerly fanciful idea is gaining
plausibility.

The current challenge is not to build a full quantum

computer right away; instead to move away from
the experiments in which we merely observe
quantum phenomena to experiments in which we
can control these phenomena. Systems in which
information obeys the laws of quantum mechanics
could far exceed the performance of any
conventional computer. Therein lies the opportunity
and the reward. No one can predict when we will
build the first quantum computer; it could be this
year, perhaps in the next
10 years, or centuries from now. Obviously, this
mind- boggling level of computing power has
enormous commercial, industrial, and scientific
applications, but there are some significant
technological and conceptual issue to resolve first.
66
But quantum computers will come.

67
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