Review

Transition toward Sustainability in the Moroccan Food System:

Drivers, Outcomes, and Challenges
Asmaa Benayad 1 , Samir Bikri 1 , Zakia Hindi 1 , Amina Lafram 1 , Chaimaa Belfakira 1 , Fatima-Zahra Yassif 1 ,
Hamid El Bilali 2, * and Youssef Aboussaleh 1

1 Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University Ibn Tofail, B.P. 133, Kenitra 14000, Morocco;
asmaa.benayad@uit.ac.ma (A.B.); samir.bikri@uit.ac.ma (S.B.); zakiahindi77@gmail.com (Z.H.);
amonaamy99@gmail.com (A.L.); belfakirachaimaa@gmail.com (C.B.); fatima-zahra.yassif@uit.ac.ma (F.-Z.Y.);
youssef.aboussaleh@uit.ac.ma (Y.A.)
2 International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM-Bari), Via Ceglie 9,
70010 Bari, Italy
* Correspondence: elbilali@iamb.it

Abstract: Nowadays, food systems are undergoing major transformations to achieve the 2030 Sustain-
able Development Goals (SDGs). However, there are a lack of comprehensive reviews on this topic in
developing countries. This work highlights food systems’ transition towards sustainability, focusing
on Morocco. It was carried out through searching, selecting, evaluating, and synthesizing existing
relevant scholarly and gray literature. In Morocco, a meaningful transition towards sustainability is
being guided and carried out on several levels, despite numerous challenges, e.g., inability to cope
with the detrimental effects of climate change and escalating water scarcity constitute fundamental
problems. However, there are conflicting views on the outcomes of food system transformation. Some
studies showed that Morocco has increased its agri-food export and reduced poverty to less than 5%
of the population over the past decade; the proportion of wasted and malnourished children has
declined from 25 to 15% and 4 to 3%, respectively, and the 2023 Global Hunger Index (GHI) showed
a score of 9.0. Other studies showed that North Africa has entered a food security crisis; specifically,
food inflation has reached unprecedented levels in Morocco. This paper provides valuable insights
Citation: Benayad, A.; Bikri, S.;
Hindi, Z.; Lafram, A.; Belfakira, C.;
for policymakers and planners to design evidence-based policies and strategies to boost sustainable
Yassif, F.-Z.; El Bilali, H.; Aboussaleh, development in Morocco.
Y. Transition toward Sustainability in
the Moroccan Food System: Drivers, Keywords: food system; transformation; sustainable development goals; food security; sustainability;
Outcomes, and Challenges. World Morocco
2024, 5, 627–644. https://doi.org/
10.3390/world5030032

Academic Editor: Manfred

1. Introduction
Max Bergman
Nowadays, the agri-food sector is experiencing a flurry of activity around food security
Received: 19 April 2024 and the transition to sustainable food systems is a subject of discussion [1]. The initial usage
Revised: 24 July 2024 of the phrase “food security” occurred in 1996 during the FAO Rome International Food
Accepted: 29 July 2024 Summit to describe the situation where “all people, at all times have physical and economic
Published: 6 August 2024
access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life”, and food security is officially acknowledged as a
fundamental human entitlement [2]. However, the current food supply chain contributes to
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
the increasing prevalence of food insecurity in several nations [3]. Not to mention, it wreaks
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
havoc on the ecosystem, and so on [1]. Prior to the start of the COVID-19 outbreak, which
This article is an open access article
caused supply-chain disruptions and diminished incomes, chronic and acute starvation
distributed under the terms and were already increasing as a result of a multitude of factors including climate change, pests,
conditions of the Creative Commons conflicts, socioeconomic conditions, and natural disasters. The ongoing conflict in Ukraine
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// exacerbates the current predicament by introducing uncertainty regarding food prices,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ which are projected to persist at elevated levels indefinitely and force millions of additional
4.0/). individuals to confront severe food insecurity [3]. This situation is jeopardizing humans

World 2024, 5, 627–644. https://doi.org/10.3390/world5030032 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/world

World 2024, 5 628

and the planet, today and tomorrow, especially with the ever-increasing global population
expected to reach 10 billion people in 30 years [4].
The urgency to transform our food systems is now irrefutable [5]. It is time to create
sustainable and resilient food systems. This intervention has the potential not only to
alleviate starvation but also facilitate significant advancements towards all seventeen
SDGs [6]. Specifically, SDG 2, which aims to eradicate famine, enhance nutrition, attain
food security, and advance sustainable agriculture, is interconnected with the other SDGs.
The 169 targets have been formulated to serve as a road map to attain a more sustainable
and favorable future for all nations [7], developed and developing ones alike.
There is a growing interest in evaluating the current food systems’ sustainability
worldwide. Going forward, many food systems are already undergoing major transforma-
tions aiming for sustainability. However, there is a lack of scientific literature reviews on
this topic in developing countries such as Morocco. Indeed, a search carried out on the
Web of Science—using the following query: “food system” AND Morocco AND (transition
or transformation) and (sustainability or sustainable)—returned only one document, namely
El Ghmari et al. [8]. This shows the marginality of the topic in scholarly literature and,
consequently, the impossibility of carrying out a systematic review. For that, this paper com-
bines scholarly literature, retrieved from different sources, and grey literature (e.g., reports,
policy documents). It aims to compile—in one review paper—basic information about
food system transformation towards sustainability in the world, focusing on Morocco;
it addresses the key drivers, interventions and achievements, challenges, opportunities,
and outcomes.

2. Food Systems: Concept, Components, and Sustainability

The notion of food systems has emerged as a key element in food policy, serving as
a guiding framework for strategic deliberation aimed at attaining a wide range of safe
and nutritious food for everyone [9]. Food systems consist of a comprehensive network
of collaborators and their interrelated value-adding endeavors that traverse the entire
lifecycle of food products, starting from farm to plate sourced from forestry, agriculture,
or fisheries. These systems are integral components of the larger economic, social, and
environmental environments in which they operate. The food systems consist of sub-
systems that engage in interactions with other critical systems, such as the energy system
and input supply system [10]. Alternatively stated, the food system comprises various
components, such as food supply chains, individual determinants, food environments,
consumer conduct, and external drivers—determinants that exert pressure or attraction on
the systems through their impact on individuals’ dietary patterns, nutritional status, and
overall health results [11].
Transportation and production are all components of the food supply chain, which
spans from the field to consumption. The individuals comprising food supply chains
include producers, processors, distributors, haulers, and retailers [12]. Each component of
the food supply chain functions as an interconnected system. Alterations to one stage have
an impact on subsequent steps in the chain. Processing and other supply-chain operations
have an impact on the cost-effectiveness and nutritional value of a food product. Scales
and levels of operation vary throughout food supply channels, contingent upon the food
system. Short food supply chains may be prevalent in rural and isolated communities.
Large urban areas often have longer and more intricate food supply chains, with food
production occurring at greater distances and involving a greater number of people in the
stages of processing, packaging, and retailing [13,14]. However, food supply chains are
currently experiencing swift changes, especially in low-income and middle-income nations.
This frequently leads to increased interdependence among actors in these rural and urban
environments [15].
The food environment pertains to the context whereby individuals procure and ingest
food in conjunction with the food system. The food environment includes tangible locations
such as shops or marketplaces. In addition, it encompasses social, economic, and cultural
World 2024, 5 629

aspects. The food environment encompasses the presence and accessibility of food, its
cost-effectiveness, as well as its safety, quality, and comfort. Additionally, advertising
also plays a role in shaping the food environment [13,14,16]. The attributes of the food
environment impact individuals’ dietary choices by shaping their access to food [11].
Personal determinants such as financial status, cognitive processes, ambitions, and
life circumstances influence an individual’s food selection and consumption. Income can
determine affordable dietary options, while environmental consciousness and nutritional
status can influence purchasing habits. Work or domestic environments also impact the time
available for food preparation. The way individuals engage with their food environment
ultimately determines their food choices and consumption [11].
Consumer behaviors consist of individuals’ selections of food items, as well as their
practices regarding food preparation, storage, consumption, and domestic food sharing.
Additionally, individual and environmental factors impact consumer behavior. A substan-
tial amount of rigorous research has been conducted on consumer behavior; however, there
is a lack of internationally and nationally accepted key indicators of consumer behavior [11].
A sustainable food system ensures that the environmental and socioeconomic foun-
dations for providing and preserving of nutritional resilience, food security, and nutrition
for forthcoming generations while ensuring that all individuals have access to nutrition
and food security [12]. In order to be economically viable, provide equitable and balanced
societal benefits (social sustainability), and maintain a positive or neutral environmental
footprint (environmental sustainability), sustainable food systems must yield favorable
outcomes across the three dimensions of sustainability [12].
A holistic approach is taken to the development of a sustainable agricultural system.
Concurrently generating beneficial advantages in the socioeconomic and environmental
spheres is essential for sustainable food system development. When every action conducted
by a participant in the food system or a supplier of assistance is financially or economically
feasible, the food system is deemed sustainable from an economic standpoint. Benefits
to laborers, taxes to governments, profits for businesses, and an enhanced food supply
for consumers are all categories of constituents for whom the activities ought to generate
economic added value. When added economic value is distributed equitably, considering
vulnerable groups classified by gender, age, race, and other factors, a food system is deemed
sustainable on the social dimension [12].
Anthropogenic endeavors within the food system ought to enhance sociocultural
outcomes such as health, nutrition, labor conditions, and animal welfare. By ensuring that
food system activities do not have adverse effects on the natural environment, including
carbon and water emissions, food loss, pollution, animal and plant health, and biodiversity,
environmental sustainability is achieved [12].

3. Food System Transformation

Intentional and substantial modifications to any component of the food system consti-
tute food system transformation [17]. Such changes not only increase the affordability of
nutritious diets but also strengthen the system’s resistance to the causes of food insecurity
and malnutrition [18].

3.1. Drivers
Drivers are considered to be factors that strongly influence the evolution of future
scenarios. They include climate change, globalization, income growth and socio-economic
development, urbanization, population growth, policies, and socio-cultural traditions.
Ongoing economic recovery and increasing incomes, rapid urbanization, consistent popula-
tion growth, intensifying globalization, and digitalization are the primary forces propelling
food system transformation in Africa [19].
In recent times, food systems have been significantly impacted by a range of transfor-
mative developments. These include economic and social transformations (such as the rise
of middle-income earners in developing nations, swift demographic expansion, and urban
World 2024, 5 630

development), technological advancements (such as the increased use of information and

communications technology and robots), climatic fluctuations, and depletion of natural
resources [20]. Although population growth stimulates farming activities and increases
the demand for agricultural products, urbanization necessitates food that is readily trans-
portable and stored. Food processing has therefore emerged as a significant catalyst in the
evolution of food systems. It has also resulted in the consolidation of farmland and the
standardization of agricultural output, which has frequently led to a centering of primary
production. The urbanization process has been accelerated by the migration of numerous
small-scale farmers in search of employment or landless agricultural laborers to cities and
municipalities [21].
Food insecurity is likely to worsen as a consequence of unmitigated climate change.
Climate changes may result in reduced marine populations and crop yields at the produc-
tion level of the food system [17]. Core crops cultivated at elevated CO2 levels may exhibit
less nutrient content, hence impacting the nutritional value of individual diets [14,17,18,22].
In the storage and distribution phase of the food system, climate change leads to more crop
losses due to increased susceptibility to diseases and extreme weather events [22]. Food
costs might increase as a result of agricultural losses and reduced crop production.
As a result of globalization, nations and individuals are becoming more interdependent
and interconnected. It shapes local economies and exerts both beneficial and detrimental
impacts on human well-being and nutrition. While trade has the potential to generate
employment opportunities, it can also intensify competition among domestic producers,
thereby posing a threat to smallholders’ livelihoods and potentially resulting in decreased
prices for local goods [23,24]. Trade can facilitate access to foods that are scarce during a
particular season or difficult to cultivate in one’s region. This practice enhances the variety
of food available and ensures year-round access to seasonal cuisines. Additionally, it pro-
duces commodities at a reduced cost by utilizing efficiency and competition [14]. Enhanced
affordability of imported food and feed can facilitate greater accessibility to animal-derived
foods and promote increased protein consumption, a critical factor in regions afflicted
by severe malnutrition [24]. Furthermore, diets and nutrition may be adversely affected
by globalization and commerce. Commercial practices and pervasive advertising have
contributed to the increased availability and affordability of unhealthy foods on a global
scale [23–25]. An increase in the consumption of particularly industrialized foods that are
high in added carbohydrates, sodium, and harmful lipids, as well as minimally processed
foods, has replaced the traditional emphasis on such foods in people’s diets. Inactivity is
also declining among the populace [26]. Increased prevalence of overweight and obese
people and noncommunicable diseases have resulted from each of these alterations [11].
Nutrient-dense foods (e.g., fruits, animal-based products, and dairy items) become
more readily available as the average income of a nation increases. Additionally, an increase
in income can lead to a surge in the demand for animal-based foods, which can strain food
systems through increased greenhouse gas emissions and demands for land and water
resources [14]. Individuals with a higher income may also purchase more unhealthy foods,
including carbonated beverages and packaged foods that are highly processed [27,28].
Further income inequality could potentially result in unequal access to nutritious foods.
Fresh fruits and vegetables, as well as other unprocessed and packaged foods, tend to be
more costly in high-income nations. Highly processed and animal-based foods are often
linked to affluence in low and middle-income nations, potentially influencing the social
desirability of these foods [14,29].
A country’s food system is shaped by urbanization, which restricts agriculture and pro-
duces extended food chains. Due to the increased demand for processing, packaging, and
refrigeration, as well as the greater amount of food that is lost, urban areas are frequently
hubs for food technology innovation [14]. By increasing the number of supermarkets in
a given region, urbanization regulates the food environment. Access to both healthy and
harmful commodities may be expanded with the addition of more supermarkets [30]. All
foods, including a greater variety of processed foods, are more readily available due to
World 2024, 5 631

urbanization. Whereas supermarkets hinder access to food in low-income and middle-

income nations, street vendors provide it. Urbanization can result in the settlement of
low-income individuals in wetlands and food deserts. Unhealthy fast foods and highly
processed packaged foods are prevalent in these regions, whereas access to fresh and nutri-
tious foods is limited. Income growth, increased demand for convenience foods, and dining
out are additional factors associated with urbanization [14]. The utilization of urban–rural
connections to stimulate rural economies and expand the population’s access to nutritious
nutrition is gaining increasing interest [31].
It is projected that the global population will increase by over 2 billion individuals
between 2017 and 2050. Population growth is anticipated to be the most rapid in countries
located in Asia and Africa [32]. The current agricultural infrastructure will be subjected
to greater strain as the population grows. Population growth in one country can have an
impact on the agricultural systems of other regions as a result of immigration and global
trade. Furthermore, an influx of migrants escaping extreme weather or conflict may find
unprepared nations. It may not be possible for food systems to furnish a nutritious diet for
every individual [13,14].
Food systems are impacted by legislation concerning agriculture, nutrition, and com-
merce. In turn, dietary intake can be influenced by economic policies concerning agricul-
tural trade and subsidies, which impact the accessibility and cost-effectiveness of specific
food items [31]. To promote healthful diets and shape policy, governments may enact
dietary guidelines. One potential application of tax policies is to disincentivize the con-
sumption of detrimental food items, such as beverages and packaged foods that are heavily
processed. To guarantee adequate resources for the establishment of a sustainable agricul-
tural system [14], political determination and financial investment are necessary [14].
Food supply chains are influenced by social and cultural traditions, which determine
the preferences for particular cuisines, the timing and methods of meal preparation, and
the practices that are maintained. In some cultures, a person’s social standing within a
community or family may be reflected in their cuisine. Foods associated with individuals
of greater economic status may be more coveted. Food is a fundamental component of
holidays and traditions in the majority of cultures. Resistance to the adoption of fast food
and a preference for diets high in processed foods can be thwarted by robust cultural
connections to traditional foods and meal practices. Particular food items are abstained
from in numerous cultures due to factors such as gender or life stage. Culture signifi-
cantly influences the dietary choices of individuals, especially those who are pregnant or
lactating [14].

3.2. Outcomes
Dietary patterns are health and nutritionally significant and are impacted by each
component of the food system. A nutritious diet begins early in life and consists of
a variety of foods, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). This includes
carbohydrate staples, legumes, fruits and vegetables, and animal products (e.g., dairy
and meat). With a healthful diet, energy expenditure and intake are in balance, and
sodium, fat, added sugar, highly processed foods, and sugar-sweetened beverages are
restricted [33]. People continue to lack sufficient calories and a diversity of nutritious,
nutrient-dense foods on a global scale. This dearth of access results in micronutrient
deficiencies and malnutrition. The availability and accessibility of nutrient-dense foods,
including fruits, vegetables, and seafood, have been enhanced by rising incomes. However,
rising incomes and globalization have also contributed to an increase in the consumption
of harmful foods [13,34], including highly processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages.
In addition, consumers, policymakers, and researchers are placing a greater emphasis on
the environmental sustainability of nutrition [35]. Diets and food systems have a substantial
impact on greenhouse gas emissions and the utilization and depletion of water and land
resources [11].
World 2024, 5 632

For proper nutrition and health, healthy diets are essential. Worldwide, inadequate
dietary habits constitute a significant hazard of death [36]. Poor nutrition, which is linked
to impaired cognitive development and increased vulnerability to infections, is a signif-
icant contributor to disease and a primary risk factor. Micronutrient deficiencies can be
induced by diets deficient in vital nutrients. In addition to noncommunicable diseases like
cardiovascular disease and diabetes, diets that surpass the recommended energy intake,
especially those comprised of unhealthful dietary patterns, may contribute to weight gain
and obesity. A significantly elevated mortality risk is associated with diets that are rich in
sodium and deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, whole cereals, seeds, fruits, and vegetables [36].
Additionally, the health of consumers and food system employees is impacted by pesticide
use, food safety, and antimicrobial resistance [12].
Global and local environments are impacted by food systems. Worldwide food pro-
duction contributes to approximately 19% to 29% of total greenhouse gas emissions, which
exacerbates climate change [17]. Environmental impacts are distinct for various food pro-
duction methods. Particularly detrimental to the environment is the production of ruminant
flesh and dairy products, which is contingent upon the production method employed in
various contexts. Large quantities of water and land may be required for production, which
may also generate substantial greenhouse gas emissions. More pesticides and fertilizers
are required for intensive agriculture. In addition, monoculture and the production of
commercial crops can contribute to the loss of biodiversity. This can degrade the soil and
reduce the resilience of the agricultural system to drought and other extreme weather
events [14,37].
The agricultural system is one of the most significant employment sectors on a global
scale. The agricultural sector serves as the primary economic driver for low-income and
middle-income nations. Problem modifications and alterations in food systems can exert
substantial economic influence on retailers, consumers, and producers [14]. Increases
in imported food products, for instance, could result in decreased production of local
staples and increased competition among smallholder farmers. However, assistance to
export-oriented sectors could potentially result in a surge in cash crop generation among
domestic producers. Additionally, trade can spur increased investment in the technology
and agricultural industries, thus creating new jobs [23,24].
Food systems are vital to the well-being of a community; they contribute to the
assurance that every member is in the best possible health. Food systems can contribute
to this objective by ensuring that every member of society has an equal opportunity to
consume a nutritious diet. They can also ensure that employees of the food system are
employed in safe, well-paid environments. Equitable food systems contribute to the
advancement of animal rights, labor rights, gender equality, and societal health [14,38].
Advancements in food systems have generated numerous favorable outcomes, pre-
dominantly in developing nations. The development of food industries has resulted in the
expansion of off-farm employment opportunities and a broader selection of foods beyond
regional staples, thereby catering to consumers’ inclinations regarding flavor, appearance,
and excellence. Nevertheless, the swift structural changes that have ensued as a result have
given rise to mounting and substantial obstacles, which may have far-reaching implications
for the condition of nutrition and food security. The issues at hand encompass a variety
of concerns. These include the widespread availability and consumption of food items
that are highly processed, high in calories, and lack nutritional value; the restricted market
access for small-scale producers and agricultural enterprises; the significant quantities of
food wastage; the increase in food safety incidents, and animal and human health issues;
and the intensified energy consumption and environmental consequences that arise from
the industrialization and growth of food supply chains [39].
World 2024, 5 633

4. Food System Transformation in Morocco

4.1. Interventions Made for Transformation and Main Achievements
Below are the different types of interventions (institutional, political, programmatic)
that have been undertaken to transform the food systems in Morocco towards sustainability.
Some achievements are also shown.

4.1.1. Institutional Innovations

Numerous organizations strive to reform the agricultural systems of Morocco. The
commitment to supervising the formulation and execution of national directives concerning
rural and agricultural advancement primarily rests with the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries. However, this task is executed in collaboration with the Agricultural Develop-
ment Agency (ADA) and the Regional Offices of Agricultural Development (ORMVAs).
Furthermore, Morocco has institutions aimed at stimulating private sector investments, fa-
cilitating farmers’ financial accessibility, augmenting extension service provision, enhancing
food safety, and generating employment opportunities within the agri-food industry.
Several institutions provide decentralized and targeted services to transform food
systems in Morocco:
• Founded in 1966, the ORMVA has a major influence in transforming food systems
through its regional agricultural development initiatives, especially by modernizing
the irrigation system; this includes the development of efficient irrigation techniques
such as drip and micro-sprinkler systems, which help optimize water use and improve
crop yields. The ORMVA has implemented projects to improve water-use efficiency in
agriculture; this includes rehabilitation and maintenance of existing irrigation infras-
tructure to minimize water wastage and improve the reliability of water delivery [40].
In addition, this office integrates climate-smart agriculture practices into its devel-
opment projects; this involves promoting resilient crop varieties, soil conservation
techniques, and agroforestry to improve agricultural productivity in the face of climate
change. Furthermore, the ORMVA has helped increase agricultural productivity and
improve the income of smallholder farmers; this is achieved through better access to
inputs, improved market linkages, and capacity-building programs [41].
• Founded in 2009, the ADA plays an important role in the modernization of agricultural
infrastructure in Morocco. This includes improving irrigation systems, improving
water management practices, and promoting sustainable agriculture techniques [41].
This agency implements programs to support smallholder farmers by providing access
to credit, technical assistance, and training in modern agricultural practices. This helps
improve productivity and income levels in rural communities. It also assists investors
interested in entering the agriculture industry by furnishing them with information,
counsel, and direction on project selection [42]. Additionally, the ADA facilitates
the integration of smallholder farmers into market value chains by fostering market
linkages, improving post-harvest handling practices, and supporting agribusiness
development [40].
• Established in 2013, the National Office for Agricultural Advice (Office National du
Conseil Agricole, ONCA) plays a crucial role in advising and supporting agricultural
development, contributing to the transformation of the country’s food systems. ONCA
provides extensive advisory services and technical support to farmers throughout
Morocco; this includes training programs, workshops, and demonstrations aimed
at promoting modern agricultural practices, improving productivity, and adopting
sustainable farming methods. The office has embraced digital technologies to enhance
agricultural extension services; this includes using mobile applications and online plat-
forms to provide agricultural information, weather forecasts, market prices, and best
agricultural practices to farmers [40]. In addition, the ONCA promotes climate-smart
agriculture practices among farmers, focusing on resilience to climate change, water
management, soil conservation, and the use of drought-resistant crop varieties [41].
World 2024, 5 634

• Founded in 2009, the National Office of Food Safety (Office National de Sécurité
Sanitaire des produits Alimentaires, ONSSA) monitors and protects the animal and
plant heritage of the country at the national level and the borders. The office ensures
food safety from primary products to the final consumer, including fish products
and animal feed. It provides registration and inspection of agricultural inputs and
registration of veterinary drugs. ONSSA applies phytosanitary and veterinary policies,
laws and measures and provides risk assessment [43].
The financing and functioning of Morocco’s food systems are ensured by many insti-
tutions/tools:
• Founded in 1986, the Agricultural Development Fund (Fonds de Développement
Agricole, FDA) endeavors to stimulate privately funded investment in agriculture. To
achieve this, it offers targeted motivators, including financial support, that encourage
the adoption of irrigation and enhance the yield of vegetables and fruits. Additionally,
it develops downstream activities and improves breeding practices to bolster the
performance of the cattle sector [44]. Thus, the FDA functions as an instrument for
executing governmental policies in the agricultural industry and as a mechanism to
stimulate ventures [45]. In the year 2019, the budgeted encouragement totaled MAD
8.6 billion, and farmers owning less than 10 ha accounted for 58% of the recipients.
FDA expenditures increased to MAD 9.7 billion within 2020 and are anticipated to
surpass MAD 10 billion in 2021 [46].
• Founded in 1949, the Credit Guarantee Corporation (Caisse Centrale de Garantie,
CCG) of Morocco is considered a state instrument. It contributes to boost private
initiatives by encouraging the creation, development, and modernization of companies.
Additionally, the CCG supports social development through guaranteeing loans for
housing [47].
• Founded in 2010, Tamwil El Fellah (TEF) was originally established as the Banque de
Développement Agricole (BDA), which was formerly known as the Credit Agricole
Group of Morocco (Groupe Credit Agricole du Maroc, GCAM). Small producers are
eligible for collateral-free financial services through a partnership between the GCAM
and the Moroccan government. About 25% of the farmer’s income, was established
as the loan limit. Inputs and working capital may account for no more than 20%
of the total, while other investments may account for no more than 80%. TEF, on
the other hand, offers a partial guarantee program under which the government
insures 60% of the risk. To accommodate the lengthier and more seasonal nature
of agricultural finance, adjustments have been made to the loan term. GCAM has
expanded its client base and improved risk management by prolonging the periods
in which loans are deemed pre-doubtful, doubtful, and compromised [48]. TEF also
promotes productivity and enhances low-risk investments, such as in mechanization
and irrigation, through facilitating credit for these investments. The financial services
are complemented by technical assistance [49]. By 2015, the operations of TEF had
reached break-even point. By 2016, more than 67,000 smallholders had benefited from
loans, and the loan repayment rate at the end of the term was 98%. About 70% of the
loans had been granted to finance investments in dairy production, irrigation, agricul-
tural equipment, and tree planting [50]. Particularly popular reasons for borrowing
included the conversion of crops towards higher value-added production like olives,
almonds and figs, diversification towards off-farm and processing activities, and in-
tensification. Interestingly, as of October 2015, more than 1800 irrigation projects using
solar water pumping systems have also been funded. The model was so successful
that it has also been extended to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) [48].
• Founded in 1963, the Mutual Moroccan Agricultural Insurance Company (Mutuelle
Agricole Marocaine d’Assurances, MAMDA) is a significant agricultural insurance
company in Morocco. MAMDA and the Moroccan government have formed a public–
private partnership to manage Morocco’s agricultural insurance program, which
covers a wide range of climatic and agricultural risks. MAMDA offers multi-risk
World 2024, 5 635

climate insurance coverage for large crops in three agricultural zones and 10 regions
of Morocco, with five levels of insured capital, and also manages, on behalf of the
State, a multi-risk guarantee fund for fruit trees. For the first insurance product, a
range of insurance amounts and subsidies are offered for the 15 possible zone/level
combinations. Eligibility for payment of claims is officially declared when the yield of
insured crops falls below 60% of the average yield of the previous 10 years in a rural
municipality. Designing and operating this insurance system is very complex. Only
17% of farmers are insured in Morocco (with the reduction in cereal areas in recent
years, this rate has increased to 40%). Insurance mainly covers large farms: while 40%
of large farms (>50 ha) are insured, this is the case for only 24% of medium farms
(10 to 50 ha) and less than 3% of small farms (<10 ha) [51].
• By leveraging educational and training institutions, a network of 52 institutions has
been created in Morocco with 24 different curricula across the country to improve
the uptake and efficiency of agribusiness. Furthermore, eight secondary schools
prepare young people to obtain a baccalaureate degree in agricultural sciences in
addition to 30 middle schools in rural areas dedicated to training young people
in agricultural technology. All agricultural vocational training institutions provide
vocational training to improve employment opportunities for rural youth who are
not in school, but have basic literacy skills. Every year, 10,000 young people receive
retraining in 20 professions [33].
Many institutions work for employment and skills development in the agrifood sector:
• Founded in 2000, the National Agency for the Promotion of Employment and Skills
(Agence Nationale de Promotion de l’Emploi et des Compétences, ANAPEC) facilitates
access to job opportunities by matching individual skills with labor market require-
ments. The agency provides intensive training programs to enhance job seekers’ skills,
making them more prepared for the requirements of modern jobs. ANAPEC pro-
vides career counseling to help individuals identify the best career paths and develop
their professional plans. Many testimonials from individuals who have benefited
from the agency’s services show important changes in their career paths, highlight-
ing the agency’s effective role in improving individuals’ lives and providing real job
opportunities [52].
• Founded in 1999, the Social Development Agency (Agence de Développement Social,
ADS) was set up as a public agency with legal status and financial autonomy, and
with a mandate to initiate and support programs aimed at sustainably improving
the living conditions of the most vulnerable populations, including smallholders. It
finances income-generating activities and employment opportunities, such as food
processing and local restaurants, and provides financing that covers all stages from
production to consumption. ADS, for example, has funded the program «TATMINE»,
which promotes local production chains for small farmers, including women [53].

4.1.2. Policy Innovations

Constructing sustainable, thriving, and nourishing food systems is impeded by a
multitude of plans, strategies, and policies:
• The Plan Maroc Vert, or Green Morocco Plan (PMV), which is one of Morocco’s delin-
eating national strategies for the years 2008–2020, makes a substantial contribution to
the development of sustainable agricultural systems. For the period 2008–2020, Pillar I
of the PMV sought to develop modern agriculture through the establishment of key
value chains and high-value-added investments; Pillar II sought to assist vulnerable
actors in reducing rural poverty through the enhancement of their incomes, and it
aimed to halve rural poverty by 2020 [54]. The PMV implemented a regional strategy,
which aimed to maximize the capabilities of individual regions. In pursuit of this
objective, regional agricultural plans were developed in collaboration with local and
regional stakeholders. Once endorsed by the relevant Ministry, these plans would
serve as the primary policy documents [55]. It fostered food self-sufficiency in Morocco
World 2024, 5 636

to the extent that all vegetables, livestock, and milk are produced domestically, in
addition to approximately 70% of the local cereal market. Agricultural value was
added, and agricultural exports increased twofold between 2007 and 2018. The PMV
facilitated the creation of over 250,000 agricultural sector jobs. The implementation
of interventions, including agricultural insurance, irrigation, and water management,
benefited over 2.7 million individuals. Each USD 1 of publicly funded incentives
generated USD 2.3 of private investment [56].
• The Green Generation Strategy (GG), which is aligned with the 2030 Agenda, spans
the years 2020 to 2030. Building upon the achievements of the PMV, the GG provides
a contemporary instrument for agricultural development, a fresh perspective on the
sector, and a framework for recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic and bolstering
the resilience of rural regions. Human capital development and sustainable agricul-
tural development comprise its two pillars, respectively [57]. Pillar I promotes the
formation of a new generation of youthful entrepreneurs and an agricultural middle
class comprised of 10,000 families. By bolstering the performance of the agricultural
value chain, doubling agricultural exports and gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030,
and modernizing wholesale markets to ensure more efficient merchandise dispersal,
the second Pillar will guarantee the long-term viability of agricultural progress and
seeks to stimulate the annual revenue of production chains and ecotourism, replant
13,000 ha of forest, and generate an additional 2750 direct employment jobs. A mul-
titude of facets of food security are influenced by the two pillars when joined. By
establishing forest nurseries, an educational and research institution, a water and
forest agency, and a nature conservation agency, the GG intends to inspire and engage
local communities in forest management activities. Profiting from the comparative
advantages of each region, it is implemented using a regional strategy [58].
• Halieutis Plan (Plan Halieutis), which was introduced in 2009 as a supplement to the
PMV’s emphasis on agricultural and cattle farming, seeks to improve the sector’s
competitiveness in the global economy, preserve of marine biomes and the fishing
sector, as well as increase quality and productivity. It aimed to increase the sector’s con-
tribution to gross domestic product and exports, as well as enhance food and nutrition
security, all while ensuring the water resources’ long-term viability. Three processing
zones were established in Tangier (northern Morocco), Agadir (central Morocco), and
Laayoune-Dakhla (southern Morocco) to increase annual domestic fish consumption
from 11 kg to 16 kg per capita. The productivity of marine fisheries increased by 7.2%
in value by 2017, a 2.3% annual average increase. Presently, 108,000 positions are
aboard vessels and 97,000 are on shore in the marine fisheries industry. By elevating
fish consumption per capita in Morocco from 11 kg in 2009 to 14 kg in 2017, the
associated increased production enhanced the country’s food security and nutrition.
Additionally, private investment in the sector amounted to USD 295 million. Fish pro-
cessing industry investment peaked at 13% [59]. However, a strategy operating under
the territorialization approach has been formulated for the period of 2020–2030 [43].
• Initiative Nationale pour le Développement Humain (INDH) translates to the National
Human Development Initiative and is a territorial approach to administering agricul-
tural systems, which has been adopted by Morocco to facilitate a more inclusive politi-
cal process and bring the decision-making process closer to the populace. Initiated in
2005 by the King of Morocco to tackle the underlying factors that contribute to poverty
and socioeconomic exclusion, the INDH embodies this novel framework. The INDH
endeavors to alleviate poverty through the promotion of collective entrepreneurial
thought and networking, as well as the establishment of income-generating activities.
Under the INDH, a multi-level governance structure including a strategic committee
has been adopted. Under the INDH, agricultural and rural development are top prior-
ities [60]. From 2005 to 2014, over 80% of financed endeavors were concentrated in the
farming sector. Youth and women residing in rural regions comprised the majority of
 Initiated
entrepreneurial in 2005thoughtby the King and of Morocco toastackle
networking, well as the theunderlying
establishment factors that contrib-
of income-gen-
World 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
ute to poverty
erating activities. andUnder
socioeconomic
the INDH,exclusion, a multi-level the INDH governance embodies this novel
structure includingframe-a
work.
strategic Thecommittee
INDH endeavors has beentoadopted. alleviateUnder poverty thethrough
INDH,the promotionand
agricultural of collective
rural de-
entrepreneurial
velopment are top thought
prioritiesand [60].
networking,
From 2005 as well as the
to 2014, over establishment
80% of financed of income-gen-
endeavors
Initiated
erating in 2005 byUnder
activities.
were concentrated the
in the King
the of
farming Morocco
INDH, sector. to tackle
a multi-level
Youth andthe underlying
governance
women factors
structure
residing that
in rural contrib-
including
regions a
World 2024, 5 ute to poverty and socioeconomic exclusion, the INDH embodies this novel frame-637
strategic committee has been adopted. Under
comprised the majority of the beneficiaries [61]. In addition, efforts were made to the INDH, agricultural and rural de-
work.
velopment
strengthen The INDH are
the top endeavors
actors priorities
engaged toin
[60].alleviate
From
the poverty
2005
implementation through
to 2014, over
of the the
80% promotion
INDHof financed
and developofendeavors
collective
their
entrepreneurial
were concentrated
capabilities [55].thoughtin theand networking,
farming sector. Youth as welland as thewomen establishment
residing in ofrural
income-gen-
regions
• the beneficiaries
erating
comprised activities.
A collaboration [61].
the majorityUnder
among In addition,
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of
nine INDH, efforts
beneficiaries
ministries were[61].
a multi-level
resulted made inIn toaddition,
the strengthen
governance
conception the
structure
effortsand actors
were engaged
including
made to
execution ofa
in
thethe
strategic
strengthenimplementation
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the actorshas
Nutrition of the INDH
been
engaged
Strategy theand
adopted.
in(SNN) develop
Under
implementation
for the
the period their
INDH, capabilities
of theagricultural
2011–2019 INDH [55].
[62].and Byand
develop ruraltheir
ensuring de-
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• A collaboration
velopment
capabilities
safety are
[55].
and integrity topamong
priorities
of foodnine [60].
ministries
goods, From resulted
2005
it seeks in the
to 2014,
enhance over conception
80% of financed
nutrition, and execution
food endeavors
accessibility, of
• the
were
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and National
concentrated
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affordability.among in Strategy
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To capitalize sector.
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resulted period
and
of in 2011–2019
women
the conception
regional [62].
residing
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in ensuring
rural
andproducts, the
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executionthis of
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comprised
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National
strategy integrity
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involved Nutritiontheofimplementation
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forimproved
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[61].
period nutrition,
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[62]. By
mechanisms, accessibility,
were
ensuringmade to
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ing price the actors
andsupport
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in
goods, the
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itimplementationtoof
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develop
accessibility,
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strategy
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hough involved
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strategy To implementation
capitalize
approach was theofbenefits
onfundamentally improved cost-control
of central
regional and mechanisms,
agricultural
lacked including
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regional this
or local
• price
A
strategysupport
collaboration
dimensions, involved for food,
among
it didthe and nineincreased
notimplementation ministries
presume a regional efficiency
resulted
of improved of small-scale
in
orientation the producers.
conception
cost-control
[55]. and Although
execution
mechanisms, includ- the
of
• strategy
the
ing National
The price approach
National Nutrition
support was fundamentally
Strategy
for food,
Integrated Youth and (SNN)
increased
Policy central
for the and
period
(SNIJ),efficiency lacked
which spans regional
2011–2019
of small-scale or
[62].
the years 2015 local
By dimensions,
ensuring
producers.
to 2030,Alt- the
en-
it did not
safety
hough
deavors and
thetopresume
integrity
strategy
rectify aapproach
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was it seeks
offundamentally
disparate [55].to enhance
central
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and lacked
approaches food accessibility,
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through theor local
imple-
• The
and National
dimensions,
mentation ofitaIntegrated
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youthTo Youth
notcapitalize
presume
policy thatonaPolicy (SNIJ),
the benefits
regional
transcends which
of
orientation
sectors.regional spans
It [55].
ensures the
agriculturalyears
that 2015for
products,
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2030,
this
• endeavors
strategy
The National to
involved rectify the
Integrated the inefficacy
implementation
Youth of
Policy disparate
of improved
(SNIJ), sectoral
which approaches
cost-control
spans the through
mechanisms,
years 2015 to the imple-
includ-
2030, en-
in all domains are coordinated by involving sectors including agriculture, environ-
mentation
ing price
deavors of a
support youth for
to rectify employment,policy
food, that
and
the inefficacy health, transcends
increased
of disparate sectors.
efficiency It ensures
of
sectoral approaches that
small-scale actions for
producers. youth in
Alt-
ment, education, and culture. Particularly through the imple-
for disadvantaged
all domains
hough
mentation are
the strategy
ofgroups, coordinated
a youth policy by
approach was
that involving
fundamentally
transcends sectors including
sectors.central and
Itisensures agriculture,
lacked environment,
regional
that actions foror local
youth
adolescent economic and social inclusion emphasized. Young people
education,
dimensions, employment, health, and culture. Particularly for disadvantaged adolescent
in
should reachithigh-quality
all domains did
are not presume
coordinated a regional
by
educational involving orientation
resources, sectors [55].
including
permanent agriculture, opportu-
employment environ-
• groups,
The economic
National and social
Integrated Youthinclusion
Policy is(SNIJ),
emphasized.
which Youngthe
spans people should reach high-
ment,
nities, education,
and adequate employment,
health health,
facilities; they and culture.
should also be able years
Particularly for2015
to actively to 2030,
disadvantaged
participate en-
quality
deavors educational
to rectify resources,
the inefficacy permanent
of disparate employment
sectoral opportunities,
approaches through and adequate
the imple-
adolescent groups, economic and social inclusion
in the sociopolitical and cultural sphere, and their basic rights should be respected. is emphasized. Young people
health
mentation facilities; they should
of ahigh-quality
youth policy alsotranscends
that be able to actively sectors. participate
It ensuresemployment in the
that actionssociopolitical
for youth
should
The SNIJ reachwas designed to educational
ensure greater resources,
youth permanent
participation in the formulation opportu- of
and cultural sphere, and their basic rights should be respected. The SNIJ was designed
in all
nities, domains
public and policiesadequateare coordinated by involving sectors including
[63]. health facilities; they should also be able to actively participate agriculture, environ-
to ensure greater youth participation in the formulation of public policies [63].
ment, education, employment,
in the sociopolitical and culturalhealth, sphere,and andculture.
their basic Particularly
rights should for disadvantaged
be respected.
4.1.3.adolescent
The SNIJ
Programmatic wasgroups,
4.1.3. Programmatic Approaches designed economic
Approaches to ensure and social
greater inclusion
youth is
participationemphasized. in the Young
formulation people of
should
public
To attain reach
policies
attain the high-quality
[63]. educational resources, permanent employment opportu-
To the objectives
objectivesofofits itsvarious
variouspolicies, policies, plans,
plans, and andinitiatives,
initiatives, Morocco
Morocco has has
im-
nities, several
plemented and adequate novel health facilities; they should also be able to actively participate
programs.
implemented several novel programs.
4.1.3.in the stages
sociopolitical
Programmatic
Three and
Approaches
comprise thecultural
INDH’ssphere, and their basic rights should be respected.
implementation:
Three stages comprise the INDH’s implementation:
The SNIJ
To attain was designed
the objectives to ensure greater youth participation in the formulation of
➢ Stage
Stage 11policies
(2005–2010)
(2005–2010) wasof
was
its various
organized
organized around
policies,
around four
four
plans,
programs
programs
and initiatives,
that focused
that focused Morocco
on combating
on
has im-
combating
public
plemented several novel [63].
rural poverty, urban urbanprograms.
social exclusion, and volatility,
social volatility, and and an an intervention
intervention that that spans
spans
Three stages comprise the INDH’s implementation:
human development.
4.1.3. Programmatic Approaches
➢ Stage
Stage 12 (2005–2010)
(2011–2015)was
(2011–2015) gaveorganized
gave aastrong
strongimpetusaround
impetusto four
tothe programs
theINDH
INDHinsofar that focused
insofar asasthethe on combating
financial
financial enve-
en-
To
rural
lope attain
poverty,
allocated the objectives
urban
to it was of itsexclusion,
social
increased.various Aiming policies,
and for plans,
volatility,
one and
million and initiatives,
an intervention
receivers inMorocco
3300 that
rural has im-
spans
com-
velope allocated to it was increased. Aiming for one million receivers in 3300 rural
plemented
human
munities several
development. novel programs.
encompassing 22 22isolated mountainous areas,
communities encompassing isolated mountainous areas,this thisphase
phaseof of the
the initiative
Three
Stage 2stages
➢ focused (2011–2015)comprise gave thea INDH’s
strong implementation:
impetus to the INDH insofar as the financial enve-
neighborhoods.
on rural communes and urban neighborhoods.
➢ Stage
Stage 13 (2005–2010)
lope allocated (2019–2023)
(2019–2023) to it waswas organized
increased.
solidified around
theAiming for
accomplishments
accomplishments four
one programs
million that focused
receivers
documented in
in3300 on combating
the
the rural
preceding
preceding com-
rural
munities
phases.
phases. poverty, urban upon
It encompassing
is founded
is founded social
upon exclusion,
22four
isolated
four programs
programs andthat
mountainous volatility,
that prioritize
prioritize and
areas, the
the an
this intervention
phase of
provision
provision ofof the that spans
initiative
fundamen-
fundamental
human
focused
services
tal services development.
on
andrural
and communesinand
infrastructure
infrastructure urban neighborhoods.
underdeveloped
in underdeveloped regions,
regions, assistance
assistance to those
to those in precar-
in pre-
➢ iousStage
carious circumstances, enhancement of youth income and economic integration,enve-
23 (2011–2015)
(2019–2023)
circumstances, gave a
solidified
enhancement strong the impetus to
accomplishments
of youth the
income INDH and insofar
documented
economic as the
in financial
the
integration, preceding and
and
lope allocated
phases. It is in
investment to
founded it was
humanupon increased.
capital four Aiming
to programs
foster human for one million
that development receivers
prioritize the provision in
for the benefit3300 rural
of fundamen- com-
of future
future
munities
generations
tal services encompassing
[64].infrastructure
and 22 isolated mountainous regions,
in underdeveloped areas, this phase of
assistance to the
those initiative
in pre-
focused
carious
By 2014, the on rural
circumstances,
the INDH communes
INDHhad hadfacilitatedand
enhancement urban
facilitatedthe of neighborhoods.
youth
theimplementation income
implementation and
of of economic
over over 7400 7400integration,
initiatives
initiatives inandin
the
➢
the Stage
investment
agricultural
agricultural 3 (2019–2023)
sector. in human
sector.
This This solidified
capital
includes includes to the
foster
3063 3063 accomplishments
human development
livestock-related
livestock-related documented
projects for
projects the in the
benefit
with 45,945
with 45,945 preceding
of future
benefi-
beneficiaries,
phases.
generations
ciaries,
300 local 300 It is product
local
product founded
[64].
promotion upon
promotion four programs
projects projects
with 7407 that
with prioritize
7407 the
288provision
beneficiaries,
beneficiaries, of fundamen-
288 fishery-related
fishery-related projects
tal
projects
By services
2014, the andINDH infrastructure
had in
facilitated underdeveloped
with 4320 beneficiaries, and over 723 small farmer-focused activities with a total oftotal
with 4320 beneficiaries, and over 723
the small regions,
farmer-focused
implementation of assistance
over activities
7400 to those
with
initiatives a ininpre-
of
the
10,845
10,845carious circumstances,
beneficiaries
agricultural
beneficiariessector. [55]. enhancement of youth income
[55]. This includes 3063 livestock-related projects with 45,945 beneficiaries, and economic integration, and
investment
The
300 local PMV
product wasinpromotion
human
executed capital
usingtoinventive
projects foster
with 7407 human development
interventions
beneficiaries, 288for
that the benefit
enabled ofprojects
the fulfillment
fishery-related future
of thegenerations
aims of the [64].
strategy. To establish the agricultural
with 4320 beneficiaries, and over 723 small farmer-focused activities with a total of 10,845 value chain, program contracts
and aggregation
By 2014,[55].
beneficiaries theinitiatives
INDH hadwere utilized
facilitated the toimplementation
implement Pillar ofI.overGovernment
7400 initiatives institutions,
in the
including
agricultural the Agriculture
sector. This includesand Fisheries Ministry, and projects
3063 livestock-related interprofessionalwith 45,945 establishments
beneficiaries,
associated
300 local productwith agricultural
promotion projects supply chains with 7407 jointly affixed their
beneficiaries, 288 signatures
fishery-related to program
projects
contracts.
with 4320 The contracts delineate
beneficiaries, and over the 723obligations
small farmer-focused of each participating
activities with entityato enhance
total of 10,845the
structure, output,
beneficiaries [55]. and efficiency of a specified value chain, encompassing both agricultural
and processing activities, within a timeframe of seven to ten years. The government
incentivizes private sector investment in business through the contract program, contingent
upon the value chain and activities involved. Project aggregation revolves around the
World 2024, 5 638

principal participants within agricultural supply chains. For instance, industrial-private

agri-contracts subsidize the produce of small producers before purchasing it [65].
The support extended to producers includes financial investments, input provision,
technical guidance, and financing to enhance agricultural product processing. A premium is
paid per production unit in addition to 10% of the aggregation project cost being financed by
the government. A project was established in 2013 in the Doukkala-Abda region of central
Morocco, centered on the Nestlé Morocco facility. This initiative involved the aggregation
of 10,766 dairy farmers, who accounted for 24% of the region’s producers. Organized
into 130 milk collection cooperatives, the breeders possessed a total of 17,700 cows. The
company aims to increase its annual milk production from the initial target of 40 million
liters in 2013 to a total of 74 million liters as a result of this endeavor [66].
Government funding was utilized in the second pillar of the PMV as the primary
mechanism to enable small-scale farmers to allocate funds towards activities such as intensi-
fication, conversion to commodities with greater value-added, and diversification through
increasing the value of local products to generate supplementary revenues [65]. The FDA,
for example, has implemented numerous government-sponsored incentives to encourage
the purchase of agricultural equipment. Depending on the type of equipment, between
30% and 70% of the cost of agricultural machinery was subsidized [67]. ONCA additionally
furnished agricultural guidance and instruction to producers as part of intensification pro-
grams. As of 2011, the ADA had approved over 325 initiatives, representing a cumulative
public investment of USD 1.13 billion. The remaining two-thirds of the initiatives [65] were
fruits and vegetables. Annually, around 12 million trees were transplanted onto an area of
1 million ha of land unsuitable for cereal crops [19].
In addition, Morocco prioritized the development of irrigation to create a more resilient
and productive agricultural system and to reduce the susceptibility of small producers to
climate disturbances. Initiated in 2008, the irrigation expansion program aims to cover
160,000 ha by 2020 with the modernization of 1.5 billion m3 of water through hydro-
agricultural developments [68]. Simultaneously, the Moroccan government executed the
National Program for the Conservation of Irrigation Water (PNEEI), Scientific Program
National-al d’Economie d’Eau en Irrigation, to increase water-use efficacy in irrigation
for sustainable purposes, from 2008 to 2020. The objective of the PNEEI is to modernize
and enhance conventional and group irrigation systems to increase the adoption of drip
irrigation. To support this program, the FDA provided financial assistance to producers
for the purchase of equipment. Furthermore, by participating in the collection systems
and cultivating high-value crops, the farmers were able to increase their return on water
investment with the assistance of counsel and direction. During the period from 2008 to
2014, the land area irrigated with drip systems increased to 450,000 ha [69] due to these
efforts. Offering private investors long-term land leases in exchange for their participa-
tion in the development of new irrigation projects [68] reflected a significant emphasis
on public–private partnerships (PPPs). PPPs in irrigation reduce the financial burden
associated with public-sector investment subsidies. A 30-year contract was entered into by
the Ministry and a private firm in 2015 for the construction, operation, and co-financing of
de-salination and irrigation infrastructure spanning an area of 13,600 ha in the Chtouka
plain [70]. For example, precipitation was 50% below average during the 2015/2016 agricul-
tural season; nevertheless, agricultural GDP fell by only 7%, providing concrete evidence
that the irrigation scheme has bolstered farmers’ perseverance and protected them from
weather fluctuations. GDP contraction could have reached 40% before the expansion of
irrigation [71].
Furthermore, to promote employment, the Moroccan government has enacted nu-
merous initiatives, several of which are focused on the agricultural sector. To promote
employment in rural areas, the Ministry of Labor and Professional Integration (Ministère
du Travail et de l’Insertion Professionnelle, MTIB), ANAPEC, and the German Interna-
tional Cooperation Agency (GIZ) have developed an integrated strategy. This strategy
incorporates activities such as identifying local employment sector requirements, local
World 2024, 5 639

deliberations, and the extension of an employment instruction and direction center network
to assist youth in their job-seeking. Youth participate in brief training programs tailored to
rural environments [72]. To increase the sustainability of the paradigm, the initiative assists
important actors engaged in national and regional employment promotion. More than
2500 young men and women aged 15 to 35 benefited from the initiative during the first
phase, which ran from 2015 to 2017. Of the supported youth, 47% obtained employment or
saw an increase in income. The secondary stage of the initiative dedicates the years 2018 to
2021 to implementing the intervention in alternative provinces to expand its reach to an
additional 3000 young individuals [73].

4.2. Challenges of Sustainable Food Systems

At present, Morocco is confronted with the consequences of prolonged unsustainable
resource utilization and the adverse environmental impacts of climate change, including
but not limited to disturbed precipitation patterns, prolonged droughts, soil degradation,
desertification, and pollution [74–76]. Governmental programs are compelled to simultane-
ously consider multiple production systems while attempting to preserve the sustainability
of the system [77,78]. As a result, addressing sustainability challenges has become more
difficult. Infrastructure and human capital are still insufficient for organic cultivation to
achieve success [79]. Furthermore, the substantial surge in greenhouse gas emissions that
Morocco has experienced in recent decades can be attributed to its economic expansion, of
which agriculture is responsible for 21% [80]. With an annual cereal intake of 200 kg/capita,
the Moroccan diet accounts for 60% of the country’s dietary energy supply [81], and is an
additional pressure point on the agri-food system. Cereal production is extremely depen-
dent on precipitation, which makes self-sufficiency difficult to achieve. Morocco is therefore
compelled to import cereals, amounting to 40% of its domestic requirements [82]. Global
grain supply chains have been disrupted by the Russia–Ukraine war, raising the threat
of food insecurity in Africa. Countries that import agricultural inputs such as fertilizers
have to prepare for possible supply-chain disruptions, and food prices could rise if the war
disrupts the production of staples such as wheat [83]. On the other hand, there is not a clear
strategy for food losses and waste management, not to mention the lack of studies with
precise statistics on the extent of the phenomenon. Landfills suffer from rapid filling and
municipalities refuse to install new ones in their territories. Besides, the high recovery cost
poses a sorting problem, given that certain municipalities lack financial resources. A major
problem exists also in the control and follow-up of delegated management contracts [84].
In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic influenced agri-food systems worldwide [85].

4.3. Opportunities
By enhancing the agri-food sector’s efficiency, inclusivity, and environmental sus-
tainability, digital technologies may provide a remedy for food system improvement in
Morocco [86]. As a result, producers, consumers, and society as a whole can experience
greater benefits [80]. Increased on-farm productivity, enhanced resource utilization ef-
ficiency, and climate resilience can be facilitated by these technologies [87]. Moreover,
they can contribute to a substantial reduction in food losses and waste, as well as notable
improvements in the core areas of manufacturing, logistics, and supply-chain management.
Particularly in the agri-food industry, COVID-19 has increased awareness of the necessity
and utility of adopting digital technologies [88]. Additionally, the opportunity to ensure
food security is presented by Morocco’s climate, biogeographical, and cultural diversity,
which results in a wide range of cultivars, animal strains, and indigenous production
knowledge. In addition, Moroccan producers have demonstrated in the past a strong
capacity to manage local agriculture both individually and collectively. Morocco possesses
substantial expertise in irrigation water management and is currently progressing towards
the adoption of localized irrigation systems. By enhancing the efficacy of irrigation systems
and the sustainability of irrigation schemes, public–private partnerships in irrigation are
an effective instrument for enhancing the performance of agricultural irrigation in terms
 food security is presented by Morocco’s climate, biogeographical, and cultural diversity
which results in a wide range of cultivars, animal strains, and indigenous productio
knowledge. In addition, Moroccan producers have demonstrated in the past a strong ca
pacity to manage local agriculture both individually and collectively. Morocco possesse
substantial expertise in irrigation water management and is currently progressing to
World 2024, 5 wards the adoption of localized irrigation systems. By enhancing the efficacy640
of irrigatio
systems and the sustainability of irrigation schemes, public–private partnerships in irr
gation are an effective instrument for enhancing the performance of agricultural irrigatio
in terms of water resources development. A substantial portion of agricultural productio
of water resources development. A substantial portion of agricultural production is also
is also guided by scientific and agronomic research with a focus on sustainability [61].
guided by scientific and agronomic research with a focus on sustainability [61].
4.4. Outcomes
4.4. Outcomes
Morocco has achieved notable success in its export production growth and povert
Morocco has achieved notable success in its export production growth and poverty
reduction to below 5% of the population through its agricultural planning efforts over th
reduction to below 5% of the population through its agricultural planning efforts over the
last two decades [89], particularly the latter decade. In Morocco, the proportion of waste
last two decades [89], particularly the latter decade. In Morocco, the proportion of wasted
and malnourished children declined from 25 to 15% and from 4 to 3%, respectively, an
and malnourished children declined
the country’s from 25Index
Global Hunger to 15% anddecreased
score from 4 toby 3%, respectively,
43% between 2000 andand
the 2020 [90
country’s Global Hunger Index score decreased by 43% between 2000 and 2020 [90],
with a score of 9.0 in the 2023 GHI (Figure 1) according to recent statistics, and with a a rank o
score of 9.0 in the 2023 GHI (Figure 1) according to recent statistics, and a rank of 47th
47th out of 125 countries [91]. Morocco has demonstrated notable progress in the reduc out of
125 countries [91].
tion Morocco
of povertyhasanddemonstrated
famine [92]. Ifnotable progress
we include in thegroups
significant reduction
thatof poverty
lack access to funda
and famine [92]. mental social services and adequate shelter, however, food insecurity social
If we include significant groups that lack access to fundamental affects million
services and adequate shelter, however,
more individuals. food
It has been insecuritythat
determined affects
Northmillions
Africamore individuals.
has entered a food securit
It has been determined
crisis [90].that North Africa
Specifically, foodhas entered
inflation hasareached
food security crisis [90].levels
unprecedented Specifically,
in Morocco, Tun
food inflation has
sia, reached
and Algeriaunprecedented
since the Arablevels in Morocco,
Spring Tunisia,
civil unrest and ago.
a decade Algeria since the Morocc
Furthermore,
Arab Spring civilhasunrest a decade
experienced ago. Furthermore,
a three-year average of Morocco has experienced
28% moderate-to-severe food a three-year
insecurity rate from
average of 28%2018 moderate-to-severe
to 2020. food insecurity rate from 2018 to 2020.

Figure 1. Morocco’s GHI

Figure 2023 indicated
1. Morocco’s on GHI
GHI 2023 severity
indicated on scale. (Source:scale.
GHI severity GHI,(Source:
2023). GHI, 2023).

5. Conclusions5. Conclusions
If food systems fail, dire
If food consequences
systems are expected,
fail, dire consequences arejeopardizing humans and
expected, jeopardizing the and th
humans
planet. Therefore,
planet. Therefore, food security and the transition to sustainable food systemsof
food security and the transition to sustainable food systems are subjects are subjec
discussion today. However, today.
of discussion to our However,
knowledge, to there is a lack ofthere
our knowledge, scientific literature
is a lack reviews
of scientific literature re
about the transformation
views about of theMorocco’s
transformationfood of systems towards
Morocco’s food sustainability.
systems towards This work
sustainability. Th
aims to compile—in one to
work aims review paper—information
compile—in about food system
one review paper—information transformation
about food system transfo
towards sustainability in the sustainability
mation towards world, focusing in theonworld,
Morocco’s
focusing keyondrivers,
Morocco’s interventions,
key drivers, interven
achievements,tions,
challenges, opportunities,
achievements, and opportunities,
challenges, outcomes. Globally, many food
and outcomes. systems
Globally, are food sy
many
tems are
already undergoing already
major undergoing major
transformations aimingtransformations aiming
for sustainability. Ourfor paper
sustainability.
showedOur pape
that Morocco’sshowed
driversthat Morocco’s
(climate change,drivers (climate change,
globalization, incomeglobalization, income growth and socio
growth and socio-economic
economic development, urbanization, population growth,
development, urbanization, population growth, policies, and socio-cultural traditions) policies, and socio-cultural
for tra
ditions) for food system transformation are not different
food system transformation are not different from those of the world. Morocco, in turn, is from those of the world. Mo
rocco, inefforts
furnishing remarkable turn, isinfurnishing
this regard, remarkable
despite the efforts in this
existing regard, despite
challenges; the existing
the inability to cha
lenges; the inability to effectively address the detrimental
effectively address the detrimental effects of climate change and escalating water scarcity effects of climate change an
was identified as the fundamental cause of this vulnerability. Additionally, COVID-19
has added pressure on African food systems. A meaningful sustainability transition is
guided and carried out at the institutional, policy, and programmatic levels, resulting
in many achievements. However, there are conflicting views on the outcomes of food
system transformation. Some studies showed that Morocco has achieved notable successes
in increasing export production and reducing poverty to less than 5% of the population,
particularly over the past decade; the proportion of wasted and malnourished children has
declined from 25 to 15% and 4 to 3%, respectively, in this country. The 2023 GHIs showed
a score of 9.0, which suggests that Hunger is low in Morocco. Other studies showed that
North Africa has entered a food security crisis. Specifically, food inflation has reached
unprecedented levels in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria since the Arab Spring civil unrest
a decade ago. It was argued that, despite the positive results achieved by food system
developments over the last three decades, the associated rapid structural transformations
have increased challenges with potentially wide-reaching consequences regarding the
World 2024, 5 641

condition of nutrition and food security. So, it is time to redouble efforts to overcome
the challenges of developing food systems towards sustainability, both in Morocco and
globally. This paper provides precious insights, enabling policy makers and planners to
design evidence-based policies and strategies and contribute to the advancement of current
knowledge in this field, not only eliminating hunger and malnutrition, but also stimulating
sustainable development in Morocco.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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