PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

Practical research is the building of knowledge 1. Researcher Gathers Information (e.g.

useful to practice. It follows the basic principles of Interviews, Observations):
scientific inquiry, which include clearly defined ● This is the initial stage where the researcher
research questions, valid measures of behavior, collects data through various methods such
systematic collection and analysis of data, and as interviews, observations, or field notes.
appropriate conclusions. 2. Researcher Asks Open-Ended Questions of
Participants or Records Fieldnotes:
The goals of research are description, prediction, ● The researcher engages with participants by
and understanding. asking open-ended questions to elicit
detailed responses or records observations in
● Description refers to defining, classifying, field notes.
and categorizing the phenomenon being 3. Researcher Analyzes Data to Form Themes or
studied. Categories:
● Once the data is collected, the researcher
● Prediction involves stating the possible analyzes it to identify patterns, themes, or
consequences of present events based on categories that emerge from the responses or
existing knowledge. observations.
4. Researcher Looks for Broad Patterns,
● Understanding and explanation involve Generalizations, or Theories from Themes or
analyzing information to determine the Categories:
causes behind phenomena. ● The researcher examines the identified
themes or categories to uncover broader
The sequential steps of the scientific method are: patterns, generalizations, or theories that can
be derived from the data.
1. Question, 5. Generalizations, or Theories to Past
2. Research (gathering of data), Experiences and Literature:
3. Hypothesis, ● The researcher compares the findings to
4. Experiment/intervention, existing literature or past experiences to
5. Analyze data, establish connections or relationships.
6. Conclusion, and
7. Communicate. Deductive Approach Typically Used in
Quantitative Research. It outlines the process of
The correct sequential order of the research process testing or verifying a theory through a series of steps.
is: Where the research process starts with a general
Identification of general problem/question theory and moves towards specific observations or
Literature review measurements.
Specify questions/hypotheses
Determination of design/methodology 1. Researcher Tests or Verifies a Theory:
* Data collection ● This is the overarching goal of the deductive
* Data analysis/presentation approach, where the researcher aims to test
* Interpretation of findings or verify an existing theory.
2. Researcher Tests Hypotheses or Research
Inductive Logic of Research in a Qualitative Questions from the Theory:
Study. It outlines the process of data collection and ● The researcher formulates hypotheses or
analysis in qualitative research. Where specific research questions based on the theory to be
observations lead to broader conclusions. tested. These statements represent specific
predictions or inquiries derived from the
theory.

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

3. Researcher Defined and Operationalized using tables, charts, and graphs for analysis
Variables Derived from the Theory: and visualization.
● The researcher identifies and defines the 6. Use of statistical treatment: Statistical
variables relevant to the theory and methods are applied to analyze and interpret
operationalizes them, which means the numerical data.
specifying how these variables will be 7. Replicable: Quantitative research can be
measured or observed. replicated by other researchers to verify the
4. Researcher Measures or Observes Variables findings.
Using an Instrument to Obtain Scores:
● The researcher collects data by measuring or Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
observing the variables using appropriate Research based on different indicators.
instruments or techniques. This results in
Here's a breakdown of the information presented:
obtaining scores or numerical data for each
variable.

The Quantitative approach tests hypotheses and

makes predictions using numerical measurements. It
describes events using numbers and uses statistical
analysis to interpret the data. This approach
emphasizes the objectivity of the results.

The Qualitative approach aims to describe the

characteristics, kind, and quality of a subject. It
interprets and understands events through narrative
The research design is the plan that a researcher
descriptions from in-depth interviews. The purpose of follows to conduct a study. It ensures that the study
qualitative research is to share the perspective effectively addresses the research problem and guides
obtained from the subjects. the researcher on how to collect data for statistical
analysis.
Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed
and deductive. They have variables and hypotheses Non-Experimental Designs are descriptive in nature
and focus on answering questions about a research
clearly defined before data collection.
problem, such as who, what, when, where, and how.
These designs are used to gather information and
Characteristics of Quantitative Research. understanding about a certain issue or situation.

1. Numerical in nature: Quantitative research The survey design is used to provide a numerical
primarily deals with numerical data. description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
2. Objective, accurate, valid, and predictive: population through sampled respondents.
It aims to be objective, accurate, valid, and The correlational studies are those that determine if
capable of making predictions. a relationship exists between or among variables. In
3. Bigger sample size: Quantitative research this case, the cause and effect relationship between
often involves larger sample sizes compared the variables is not considered. It is focused on
to qualitative research. answering whether one variable is associated with
4. Use of well-structured research another.
instruments: It utilizes well-designed
The comparative design is focused on the
research instruments, such as surveys or comparison between two or more similar individuals,
questionnaires, to collect data. groups, or situations in a particular period. This
5. Use of table, chart, and graph: design is used to quantify similarities and differences
Quantitative data is frequently presented among the sampled groups.

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

The evaluative design is employed to get feedback R O1 O2

from randomly selected respondents about an issue, ● Control group 1: Receives a pretest (R01)
process, guidelines, program, or outcomes of a and a posttest (O2) but no treatment.
project.
R X O2
The ex-post facto research design is focused on ● Experimental group 2: Receives a
causal relationships to examine if a pre-existing treatment (X) and a posttest (O2).
characteristic or condition has caused differences
among sampled groups. R O2
● Control group 2: Receives only a posttest
The methodological design deals with the analysis (O2).
of the implementation of different approaches so that
a variety of methods can be integrated into different This design helps to control for the effects of the
fields of interest. pretest and the passage of time, making it a more
robust experimental design compared to the
Experimental designs allow researchers to limit the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design.
coverage of the study by controlling the setting and
variables to observe possible change, improvement, The quasi-experimental design provides better
or cause and effect relationships. It provides evidence internal validity than true experimental designs
and explanations about what causes something to (Dooly, 1999). In this design, two groups are
happen. observed: the control group and the experimental
group. Only the experimental group is treated with a
The true experimental design controls time and certain intervention. Data results are compared to
sampled observations. Random assignments of determine if a significant difference or relationship
subjects or respondents are placed and observed in exists between the two groups. This design is
different set-ups or conditions over some time. commonly used in education research to test the
effectiveness of a teaching strategy.
The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design is a
type of experimental design that involves two groups: The pre-experimental design includes one or more
an experimental group and a control group. than one experimental groups to be observed against
certain treatments. It is the simplest form of research
R O1 x O2 (EXPERIMENTAL GROUP) design that follows the basic steps in experiments.
The pre-experimental design does not have a
R O1 O2 (CONTROL GROUP) comparison group.
The Quantitative Research Designs is divided into
● Experimental group: This group receives a two main categories:
treatment or intervention (represented by the
"X" in the diagram). Experimental and Non-Experimental.

● Control group: This group does not receive Experimental Designs include:
the treatment or intervention.
True Experimental:
Both groups are given a pretest (R01) before the ● Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
treatment and a posttest (O2) after the treatment. This ● Posttest-Only Control Group Design
design allows researchers to compare the effects of
the treatment on the experimental group to the control Quasi-Experimental:
group, helping to determine if the treatment caused ● Non-equivalent Control Group Design
any changes. ● Time Series Design

The Solomon Four-Group Design is a type of Pre-Experimental:

experimental design that involves four groups: ● One-Shot Case Study
● One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
R O1 X O2
● Experimental group 1: Receives a pretest Non-Experimental Designs include:
(R01), treatment (X), and a posttest (O2).
● Survey

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

● Correlational Study
● Comparative Study
● Evaluative Design
● Methodological Design
● Ex-Post Facto Studies

Individual Research Plan outline. It includes the

following components:

1. Research Topic: The main subject or area

of interest that the research will focus on.
2. Proposed Research Title: A concise and
informative title that accurately reflects the
research topic.
3. Main Purpose of the Research: A clear
statement of the overall goal or objective of
the study. THE NATURE OF VARIABLES
4. Research Questions: A set of specific
questions that the research aims to answer Examples:
(limited to three).
5. Rationale: The justification for conducting 1. Number of passengers in a jeepney: This
the research, including its significance and is a Ratio variable as it can take on any
contribution to the field. numerical value, including zero, and has a
6. Research Design: The plan or approach that true zero point (absence of passengers).
will be used to conduct the research, such as 2. Grade level: This is an Ordinal variable as
the methodology and data collection it represents ordered categories (e.g., 1st
techniques. grade, 2nd grade) but does not have equal
intervals between them.
3. Variety of disinfectants: This is a Nominal
Definitions of research by John W. Creswell, along variable as it represents categories without
with their citations: any inherent order (e.g., alcohol, bleach,
hydrogen peroxide).
1. A systematic inquiry into the unknown: 4. Types of clothing: This is a Nominal
● "Research is a systematic inquiry into the variable as it represents categories without
unknown." (Creswell, 2014, p. 1) any inherent order (e.g., shirt, pants, dress).
2. A process of steps to collect and analyze 5. Birthplace: This is a Nominal variable as it
information: represents categories without any inherent
● "Research is a process of steps used to order (e.g., Manila, Cebu, Davao).
collect and analyze information to increase
our understanding of a topic or issue." A variable as "characteristics that have two or more
(Creswell, 2014, p. 1) mutually exclusive values or properties" (Sevilla and
3. A systematic investigation of a problem or Others, 1998).
question:
● "Research is a systematic investigation of a Discrete Variable as a categorical variable with a
problem or question." (Creswell, 2018, p. 1) limited number of distinct values that cannot be
4. A disciplined inquiry that involves a systematic divided into fractions. Examples of discrete variables
process of inquiry: include sex, blood group, and number of children in a
● "Research is a disciplined inquiry that family. This categories are:
involves a systematic process of inquiry."
(Creswell, 2023, p. 1) A) A nominal variable as a variable that
represents categories that cannot be ordered
in any particular way. It has no quantitative
value and has two or more categories but
does not imply ordering of cases.

B) An ordinal variable as a variable that

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

represents categories that can be ordered 6. IV: Provision for alternative learning
from greatest to smallest. This variable has modalities
two or more categories that can be ranked.
Other examples of ordinal variables include Independent variables as those that probably cause,
education level, income brackets, etc. An influence, or affect outcomes. They are also called
illustration of this is, if you asked people if treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or predictor
they liked listening to music while studying variables.
and they could answer either "NOT VERY
MUCH", "MUCH", or "VERY MUCH", then Ex.
you have an ordinal variable. In a study on the relationship between study habits
and academic performance of SPNHS senior high
Continuous variable as a variable that can take an school students:
infinite number of values within the population. Its
values can be divided into fractions. Examples of this ● Independent variable: Study habits.
type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Study habits is considered the independent
A continuous variable can be further categorized as: variable because it is believed to influence
the outcome or the performance of the
A. Interval variable: It has values that lie students.
along an evenly dispersed range of numbers.
It is a measurement where the difference Dependent variables as those that depend on the
between the two values has meaning. independent variables. They are the outcomes or
Examples of interval data include results of the influence of the independent variable.
temperature, a person's net worth, etc. In That is why they are also called the outcome
temperature, the difference between 60 variable.
degrees and 50 degrees is the same as the
difference between 30 degrees and 20 ● Dependent variable: Academic
degrees. The interval between values makes performance.
sense and can be interpreted. Academic performance is the dependent
variable because it is depending on the study
B. Ratio variable as a variable that has values habits of the students; if the students change
that lie along an evenly dispersed range of their study habits, the academic performance
numbers when there is absolute zero. It also changes.
possesses the properties of the interval
variable and has a clear definition of zero,
indicating that there is none of that variable. Research titles. It discusses the importance of a good
Examples of ratio variables include height, title in capturing the reader's attention and drawing
weight, and distance. Most scores stemming their attention to the research problem being
from responses to survey items are investigated.
ratio-level values because they typically
cannot go below zero. However, temperature A working title is typically developed early in the
measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit research process and can help anchor the focus of the
is not a ratio variable because 0 under these study.
temperature scales does not mean no
temperature at all. The final title is usually created after the research is
complete and should accurately capture what was
Identify the independent (IV) and dependent (DV) done
variables in the following phenomena:
The Final title should:
1. IV: Presence or absence of discipline ● Indicate accurately the subject and scope of
2. DV: Increasing number of COVID-19 the study.
patients: ● Avoid using abbreviations.
3. IV: Establishment of quarantine facilities. ● Identify key variables, both dependent and
4. IV: Diminishing emergency funds from the independent.
government ● May reveal how the paper will be organized.
5. IV: Level of cooperation among members of ● Suggest a relationship between variables
the community. which supports the major hypothesis.

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

● Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words. scale, making it interval.

● Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or
similar constructions. Example 3: Identifying the Relationship Between
Variables
SMART The research aims to investigate the relationship
Specific: Clearly defined and focused. between students' attitudes towards speaking in
Measurable: Can be quantified or observed. English and their profile variables, such as academic
Attainable: Realistic and achievable. track strand and sex. The hypothesis is that the
Relevant: Aligned with the research goals. attitude of students towards speaking in English
Time-bounded: Has a specific timeframe significantly differs according to these profile
. variables.
Working title
● Titles are usually in the form of a phrase; but ● Stating the Problem
can also be in the form of a question. The study specifically seeks to examine whether the
● Use correct grammar and capitalization with attitude of students towards speaking in English
all first words and last words capitalized, significantly differs according to these profile
including the first word of a subtitle. All variables.
nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs that appear between the first and ● Formulating Hypotheses
last words of the title are also capitalized. The hypotheses are as follows:
● In academic papers, rarely is a title followed
by an exclamation mark. However, a title or Null Hypothesis (H₀): There is no significant
subtitle can be in the form of a question. difference in attitude towards speaking in English
between HUMSS and ABM students.
The components of a research title, which include:
Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): There is a significant
● The purpose of the research: What the difference in attitude towards speaking in English
research aims to achieve. between HUMSS and ABM students.
● The scope of the research: The breadth and
depth of the research. Null Hypothesis (H₀): There is no significant
● The narrative tone of the paper: The difference in attitude towards speaking in English
overall style and approach of the research. between male and female students.
● The methods used to study the problem:
The research methodology and data Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): There is a significant
collection techniques. difference in attitude towards speaking in English
between male and female students.

EXAMPLES: Null Hypothesis vs. Alternative Hypothesis

Analyzing the Research Title and Variables Null hypothesis (H₀) is a statement of "no effect" or
"no difference." It is the default assumption that there
Example 1: Identifying the Key Variables is no significant relationship between variables.
The research title is "Attitude of Grade 12 SHS
Academic Tracks Students Towards Speaking in Alternative hypothesis (H₁) is the opposite of the
English." In this study, the independent variable is null hypothesis. It suggests that there is a significant
attitude (specifically, the attitude of students towards difference or relationship between variables.
speaking in English), while the dependent variable is
Speaking in English. Example 4: Indicating the Subject and Scope
The research title is "Attitude of Grade 12 Senior
Example 2: Determining the Level of High School (SHS) Academic Tracks Students
Measurement Towards Speaking in English."
The independent variable, attitude, is measured using ● Subject: Grade 12 SHS Academic Track
a Likert scale, which is a type of ordinal scale. Students
However, since it consists of multiple items, it can be ● Scope: Attitude, Grade 12 SHS Academic
considered interval in nature. The dependent variable, Track Students, Speaking in English,
Speaking in English, is also measured using a Likert SJDMNHS, S.Y. 2021-2022 (This can be

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

added to the title to clarify the specific Decision:

context of the study.) ❖ If the computed value falls in the rejection
region (i.e., if the p-value is less than α), we
reject the null hypothesis.
❖ If the computed value falls in the
non-rejection region (i.e., if the p-value is
greater than or equal to α), we fail to reject
the null hypothesis.

Additional Notes:
● The "Z-" and "t-" might refer to different test
statistics (z-test or t-test), depending on the
specific assumptions about the data.
● The "F-" might indicate an F-test, often used
for comparing variances or in ANOVA.

Hypotheses:
❖ H₀ (Null Hypothesis): "There is no"
(significant difference or effect). This is the
default assumption.

❖ H₁ (Alternative Hypothesis): "There is" (a

significant difference or effect). This is the
claim being tested.

Distribution:
❖ The bell-shaped curve is likely a
t-distribution, commonly used for
hypothesis testing when the sample size is
small or the population standard deviation is BACKGROUND OF INFORMATION
unknown.
❖ Critical Values and Computed Value: This section should provide a general overview of the
❖ The "Critical Value" is a threshold research topic, including its relevance and
determined based on the chosen significance significance. It should move from broad to specific
level (α). It separates the rejection region and highlight the current state of the research
(shaded area) from the non-rejection region. problem.
❖ The "Computed Value" is calculated from
the sample data. It represents the test Guidelines for Writing the Background:
statistic (e.g., t-statistic).
● Move from broad to specific: Start with a
Significance Level (α): general overview of the research topic and
α is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis gradually narrow down to the specific focus
when it's actually true (Type I error). Common values of the study.
are 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001.
● State the current condition of the research
P-Value: problem: Provide an overview of the
The p-value is the probability of obtaining a test existing knowledge and research related to
statistic as extreme or more extreme than the the topic, highlighting any gaps or
computed value, assuming the null hypothesis is true. unanswered questions.

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

● Clearly state the reason for conducting

the study: Explain why this research is Process:
important and what it aims to contribute to This is the transformation stage where inputs are
the field. processed or transformed to create outputs.
The process involves the application of rules,
MRAD METHOD algorithms, or procedures to convert inputs into
outputs.
The MRAD format is a common structure for
academic research papers. It provides a clear and Examples of processes might include:
organized way to present the research process and ● Manufacturing (e.g., assembling a product)
findings. ● Data analysis (e.g., analyzing customer data)
● Decision-making (e.g., evaluating options
Method: This section details the research design, and making a choice)
data collection methods, and data analysis techniques ● Documentation (e.g., creating reports or
used in the study. manuals)

Results: This section presents the findings of the Output:

research, often supported by tables, figures, or other These are the results or products that are produced by
visual aids. the system as a result of the process.
Outputs can be considered as the "finished goods" of
Analysis: This section interprets the results and the system.
explains their significance within the context of the
study. Examples of outputs might include:
● Products (e.g., manufactured goods)
Discussion: This section summarizes the key ● Information (e.g., reports, analyses)
findings, discusses their implications, and addresses ● Services (e.g., customer support)
any limitations or future research directions.
CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK 1. General Information About the Topic:
The text suggests that the introduction
A contextual framework is a conceptual structure that should provide broad definitions and
helps to understand and analyze a particular discussions of the topic. It also emphasizes
phenomenon or issue within its specific context. It the importance of incorporating the views of
provides a lens through which to view and interpret others into the discussion. This can be done
data, information, and relationships. In Quantitative to support, refute, or demonstrate one's own
we used IPO. position on the topic.

The IPO model represents a system in three stages: 2. Context of the Topic
input, process and output. Inputs are modeled as ● The context of the topic should
consumables and efforts that are introduced to a include a brief history of the area,
system at the beginning stage of the lifecycle. current research advancements, and
Outputs are modeled as the result produced by the the researcher's perspective for
system. innovative development.

Input: ● Key terms of the study should be

These are the resources, data, or information that are identified.
introduced to the system at the beginning stage.
Inputs can be considered as the "raw materials" that 3. Rationale
the system processes. ● The rationale explains the reason
for selecting and conducting the
Examples of inputs might include: study.
● Data (e.g., customer information, product ● It requires identifying a research
specifications) gap or problem that previous
● Materials (e.g., raw materials for research has not yet answered.
manufacturing) ● This research gap will be the basis
● Labor (e.g., employees) for formulating the research goal or
● Energy (e.g., electricity) objective.

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

● Justification with literature is bioplastic material?

necessary to support the identified
research gap. ● Is there a significant difference on tensile
● The research gap can often be strength between taro made bioplastic and
found in the recommendations of traditional plastics?
previous studies. ● Is there a significant difference on
compressiveness between taro made
Questions for Identifying the Research Gap bioplastic and traditional plastics?
● What is the exact amount taro to develop a
1. What is the status of your research problem bioplastic material with standard tensile
on a holistic, national, or world perspective? strength?
2. What is the condition that is directly related ● What is the exact amount taro to develop a
to the focus of your study? bioplastic material with standard flexibility?
3. What are the factors contributing to the
focus of your study? General format of SOP
4. What is the current status of your research The purpose of this_________ study/research design)
problem in your research locale? is to_____________
5. Why did you choose to study the research (type of (exploratory and non-directional verb)
problem? the_______________(central phenomenon of the
study) of ___________ (subjects/respondents) from
Statement of the Problem (SOP) as a single ____________ (locale) for
sentence that identifies the variables being studied, the_______________________ (when)
the research objectives, and the type of study. It also to___________________________ (purpose),
mentions that all other parts of the proposal grow out (Creswell and Clark, 2014)
of the SOP.
General Objective:
Research aims, which outline the general direction The goal of this study is to develop a bioplastic
of the research and what it aims to achieve. It material made from taro.
suggests starting with phrases like "this research aims
to..." or "this research seeks to...".

Research objectives, which are more practical and

actionable versions of the research aims. It explains
that research objectives showcase the steps the
researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

research objectives should be more specific and

actionable than research aims. The slide recommends
using the "SMART" criteria for crafting research
objectives:

● Specific: Clearly defined and focused.

● Measurable: Quantifiable and trackable.
● Achievable: Feasible and attainable.
● Relevant: Aligned with the research
question and aims.
● Time-bound: Have a clear deadline or
timeframe.

STEM example.
two questions about taro and its potential use as an
alternative bioplastic material:

● Can taro be used as an alternative bioplastic

material?
● How can taro be used as an alternative

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 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 LESSONS

diagrams or models that illustrate the theoretical

framework.

Definitions of Research Terms

1. Statement of the Problem

A clear and concise declaration of the issue or
problem that the research aims to address. It should
be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and
time-bound (SMART).

2. Research Objective
* The specific goals that the researcher aims to
achieve through the study. They should be aligned
with the statement of the problem and outline the
desired outcomes of the research.

3. Purpose of the Study

The overall reason for conducting the research. It
provides a general overview of the study's
significance and contribution to the field.

4. Research Questions
Specific questions that the research seeks to answer.
They should be directly related to the statement of the
problem and objectives.

5. Research Hypothesis
A testable statement that predicts the relationship
between variables. It is often used in quantitative
research to guide the investigation.

6. Scope and Delimitation

The boundaries of the research. Scope defines what
the study will cover, while delimitation outlines what
it will not.

7. Conceptual Definition
A theoretical or abstract definition of a term. It is
often based on existing literature or theories.

8. Operational Definition
A concrete definition of a term that specifies how it
will be measured or observed in the study. It is
essential for ensuring that the research is empirical
and replicable.

9. Theoretical Framework
A set of interrelated concepts, principles, and theories
that provide a foundation for the research. It helps to
explain the phenomena being studied and guides the
research design.

10. Conceptual Framework

A visual representation of the relationships between
concepts and variables in the study. It often includes

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