Engineering - Physics UNIT 1

Properties of Matter 2.
2. Properties of Matter
Elasticity – Stress – strain diagram and its uses – Factors
affecting elastic modulus and tensile strength – Torsional
stress and deformations – Twisting couple – Torsion
pendulum theory and experiment - Bending of beams – Stress
due to bending in beams – Bending moment – Cantilever:
theory and experiment – Uniform and non-uniform bending:
theory and experiment – I – shaped girders.
Introduction
Every engineering design requires knowledge of the elastic
behaviour of the materials. Whatever may be the product such
as a bridge, a power plant or an automobile, a good knowledge
of the elastic properties of the materials that are used is very
much essential. This will enable one to predict the behaviour
of the materials under the action of deforming forces.
Basic concepts
Load
The external force acting on a body that produces change
in the dimension of the body is called load.
Deformation
It is the change in dimensions or shape of a body when
it is subjected to external forces.
Deforming force
The force which changes or tends to change the shape or size
of a body without moving it as a whole is called deforming force.
Restoring force
When an external force acts on a body to cause
deformation, forces of reaction comes into play internally
and they to restore the body to its original condition. These
internal forces are called restoring forces.
The magnitude of the restoring force is equal to that of
the external force.
2.2 Engineering Physics
2.1 ELASTICITY
A body can be deformed (i.e., change in shape or size)

by applying a suitable force on it. After removing the force,
if the body regains its original shape and size, then it is
an elastic body.
Definition
The property on account of which, the body opposes the
deforming forces and regains it original shape and size on the
removal of the deforming forces is called elasticity.
Elastic bodies
A body which regains its original shape and size
when the deformation force is removed is called an
elastic body.
 The property of elasticity is different in different materials.
In fact, there is no body in nature which is perfectly elastic.

The nearest approach to a perfectly elastic material is the quartz
fibre. Solid substances like rubber, metal crystals are examples
of elastic bodies.
Plasticity
If the body does not regain its original shape and size,
when the applied force is removed, then it is a plastic body.
The property possessed by a body due to which it

does not regain it’s orginal shape and size and remains
in the deformed state even after removal of the deforming
forces is called plasticity.
Inelastic or Plastic bodies

A body which cannot regain its original shape and
size when the deformation force is removed is called a
plastic body (or inelastic body).
Properties of Matter 2.3
Materials such as chewing gum, lead solder, putty dough

(wet maida) and wax which get permanently deformed under
the action of forces are called as plastic bodies.
Stress
When an external force F is applied to a body, it gets
deformed. Then, the forces of reaction is set within the body to
restore the body to its original condition.
The restoring force acting per unit area inside the

body is defined as stress.
This restoring force is equal and opposite to the applied

force F. Therefore, stress is also defined as
The deforming force per unit cross sectional area of

the body.
Deforming force F
i.e., Stress  
Area A
SI unit for force is newton (N) and that of area is

2 2
metre m 
newton N 2 2
 SI unit of stress  2 2
 N / m or N m .
metre m 
Types of stress
It is found that the deforming forces may change length
or shape or volume of the body. Accordingly, there are three
types of stress namely
(i) Linear or longitudinal stress
(ii) Shearing or tangential stress
(iii) Volume or Bulk stress
Strain
The change in dimension or shape of a body due to
the deforming force results in strain.
The strain is measured by the ratio of change in dimension

to original dimension. i.e.,
Change in dimension
Strain 
Original dimension
The strain has no unit since it is the ratio of same physical

quantities.
Types of strain
According to the changes in length or area (shape) or

volume, there are three types of strains namely,
ii(i) Linear strain (change in length per unit length)

i(ii) Shearing strain (change in area per unit area)
(iii) Volume or bulk strain (change in volume per
unit volume)
Elastic limit
The maximum stress upto which a body exhibits the

property of elasticity is called elastic limit or limit of
elasticity.
Hooke’s Law
Robert Hooke an English Physicist in the year 1679

had given a relation between stress and strain. This
relation is known as Hooke’s law.
Statement
It states that “within the elastic limit, stress in a body
is directly proportional to strain produced on it”.
Stress  Strain
Stress  Constant  Strain

Stress
 E Constant
Strain
In other words, the ratio between stress and strain is a

constant. This constant of proportionality is known as
coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity.
E is different for different materials.
2.2 STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM AND ITS USES

Consider a wire which is rigidly fixed at one end. It is loaded
at the other end. The strains produced for the different loads are
noted until the wire breaks down.
A graph is drawn between strain along X-axis and stress

along Y-axis. This graph is known as stress - strain diagram
or graph (fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1 Stress - Strain diagram for low carbon steel wire
The following useful information regarding the behaviour

of solid materials is studied from the diagram.
1. Hooke’s law
The portion OA of the curve is a straight line. In this
region, stress is directly proportional to strain. This means that
upto OA, the material obeys Hooke’s law. The wire is perfectly
elastic. The point A is called the limit of proportionality.
2. Elastic limit
Stress is further increased till point A . The point A, lying
near to A denotes the elastic limit.
Upto this point A, the wire regains its original length if
the stress is removed. If the wire is loaded beyond the elastic
limit, then it will not restore its original length.
3. Yield point
On further increasing the stress beyond the elastic limit,
the curve bends and a point B is reached.
In this region A  B, a slight increase in stress produces a

larger strain in the material. The point B is called yield point.
The value of the stress at this point is called yield strength of
the material.
4. Permanent set
In the region A  B, if stress is removed, the wire will never
return to its original length. The wire is taken a permanent
set.
5. Plastic range
Beyond B, the strain in the wire increases rapidly without
any increase in the load. This is known as plastic range.
6. Ultimate tensile strength

If the wire is further loaded, a point C is reached after
which the wire begins to neck down. Hence, its cross sectional
area is no longer uniform.
At this point C, the wire begins to thin down at some

point and it finally breaks. At the point C, the stress developed
is maximum and it is called ultimate tensile strength or simply
tensile strength of the given material.
7. Breaking point
The point ‘D’ is known as the breaking point where the

wire breaks down completely. The stress at the point D is called
breaking stress.
Other Elasticity related Material Properties
(i) Ductility
A material is said to be ductile if it can be readily drawn
into wires. In terms of stress-strain curve, the materials show
ductility behaviour when they are extended beyond yield limit.
It is the property related to elongation when the material

becomes plastic. Gold, silver, copper, iron etc. are some examples
of ductile materials.
(ii) Malleability
A material is said to be malleable if it can readily be
beaten into thin sheets. Malleable material should be soft. It
should have large elongation for small stress.
In terms of stress-strain graph, the materials show

malleability when they are compressed beyond, the yield point
for compression. Gold, silver, aluminium are some examples of
malleable materials.
(iii) Brittleness
Most of the materials first pass through elastic region and
then through plastic region before they break.
However, there is a type of material known as brittle

materials which break even before entering the plastic region.
A brittle material fractures and breaks into pieces under

the influence of large forces but it remains elastic till it breaks.
Glass, ceramics and cast iron are good examples of brittle
materials.
Tensile Strength and Safety Factor
Tensile Strength
It is defined as the maximum value of tensile stress

to withstand by the material before fracture under a
steady load.
Maximum tensile load

i.e. Tensile strength 
Original crosssectional area
 Usually the tensile strength of metals and alloys

increases on cooling and decreases on heating.
 Normally the working stress of a body is kept far below
the ultimate tensile stress and it is never allowed to
cross the elastic limit.
 The above fact is practiced by all design engineers to
get higher stability and reliability of the structures.
Safety Factor
The ratio between the ultimate tensile stress and the
working stress is called the safety factor.
Ultimate tensile stress

i.e. Safety factor 
working stress
Working load or working stress is determined by the

designer on the basis of his experience and knowledge. Thus
the safety factory depends upon the engineering material and
the standard of workmanship.
 The good values of safety factor are always adopted to

keep the structure for long life. For dead loads, live loads
and alternating kind of loads, the safety factors are 4,
6 and 9 respectively.
 For steel structures, the safety factor is about 4 since
the steel is a very good engineering material. But for
brick structures, it is about 10 since it is not a very
good elastic material.
Uses of stress – strain diagram
1. It is used to measure the elastic strength, yield

strength and tensile strength of metals.
2. It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor
of an engineering material.
The lower values of safety factor are adopted to keep
the structure for long life. The safety factor helps the
design engineer in determining the degree of safety, the
economy of design, the dependability of material and
the permanency of design.
3. The area under the curve in the elastic region gives
the energy required to deform it elastically. The area
under the curve upto Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
gives the energy required to deform it plastically.
4. This diagram is also used to identify the ductile and
brittle materials.
Types of Moduli of Elasticity

There are three types of moduli of elasticity corresponding
to three types of strains. They are
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity corresponding to linear
strain.
2. Rigidity modulus or shear modulus of elasticity
corresponding to shearing strain.
3. Bulk modulus or volume modulus of elasticity
corresponding to volume strain.
Young’s modulus of elasticity  Y 

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of linear stress to
linear strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter Y.
Linear stress
Young’s modulus of elasticity  Y  
Linear strain
The linear force F is applied normally to a cross sectional

area ‘a’ of a wire (fig. 2.2)
Fig. 2.2. Young’s modulus of elasticity
Linear force F
Linear stress  
Cross sectional area a
If L is the original length and l is the change in length

due to the applied force, then
Change in length l
Linear strain  
Original length L
Linear stress
 Young’s modulus of elasticity 
Linear strain
F
a FL
Y  
l al
L
FL
Y 
al
2
Unit: SI unit of stress is Nm and strain has no unit.
2
Therefore, SI unit of Young’s modulus of elasticity is Nm .
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the tangential

stress to shearing strain is called rigidity modulus of
elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter n
Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus n 
Shearing strain
Consider a rectangular block fixed at its lower face

EFGH. A force ‘ F ’ is applied tangentially on its upper face
ABCD as shown in fig. 2.3.
Fig. 2.3 Rigidity modulus of elasticity
Tangential force F
Shearing stress  
Area of the face ABCD A
A force of reaction of the same magnitude F acts on the

lower face EFGH in the opposite direction.
These two equal and opposite forces form a couple. Due

to this couple, the body gets deformed and its shape changes
as shown in fig 2.3.
All the four vertical sides are twisted (sheared) through

an angle . This angle ‘’ is known as the shearing strain or
angle of shear.
AA  l
From the fig, tan   
AF L
tan    (...  is very small)
l
 Shearing strain  
L
Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n 
Shearing strain
F
A FL
 
l Al
L
FL
n 
Al
2
Unit: SI unit of rigidity modulus of elasticity is Nm
Bulk Modulus of elasticity  K 
“Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the volume stress

to volume strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity”.
It is denoted by the letter K
Volume stress
Bulk modulus  K  
Volume strain
When a deforming force F acts normally on all the faces

of a solid body, the body undergoes a change in its volume but
not in the shape. The body suffers decrease in volume under
the action of the forces (fig. 2.4).
F
F
F F
Fig. 2.4 Bulk modulus of elasticity
Volume of the body  V
Surface area of each face  A

subjected to the force
Change in volume  v
Normal force F
Volume stress    P
area A
where P is the pressure (Force per unit area)
Change in volume v
Volume strain  
Original volume V
Volume stress P
Bulk modulus K  
Volume strain v
V
PV
K
v
Unit: The unit of bulk modulus of elasticity is

2 2
newton metre Nm 
Relation between the three moduli of elasticity Y, n

and K:
 Young’s modulus of elasticity Y characterizes the
ability of the material to resist the change in length.
 Rigidity modulus of elasticity n determines the
ability of a material to resist a change in shape while
maintaining its volume.
 Bulk modulus K of elasticity characterizes the
ability of a material to resist change in its volume not
accompanied by a change in shape.
These elastic constants of the materials are dependent on
each other. The expression can be derived by showing the
inter-relations between them.
Three moduli of elasticity Y, n and K are related as
9 3 1
 
Y n K
Poisson’s Ratio (  )
When a wire is stretched along its length, it is elongated
along its length and it contracts in its diameter. Thus, the length
of the wire increases in the direction of the force, whereas a
contraction occurs in the perpendicular direction.
The ratio of change in dimension to the original
dimension perpendicular to the direction of applied force
is called lateral strain.
Within elastic limit, the lateral strain is proportional to
the linear strain. i.e., the ratio of the lateral strain and linear
strain is a constant for the given material. This constant is
known as Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by the symbol .
If  and  are lateral and linear strains respectively, then
Poisson’s ratio

 

2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTIC MODULUS AND

TENSILE STRENGTH
Metals are just an assembly of large number of fine crystals

that is, they are in polycrystalline state.
The elastic nature of a material is linked with its grain

size. The metal of smaller grains has better elasticity than
the same metal of larger grains.
The following factors affect the elastic modulus and tensile

strength of the materials. They are
1. Effect of stress
2. Effect of change in temperature
3. Effect of impurities
4. Effect of hammering, rolling and annealing
5. Effect of crystalline nature
1. Effect of stress
With a small load (within the elastic limit) applied on the

body, elongation occurs immediately on loading and goes back
to the original length on removal of the load.
With a higher load, the body continues to stretch, and if

the load is removed, a permanent elongation remains.
Fig. 2.5 Elasticity decreases due to application

of large constant stress
Hence, the application of large constant stress or repeated

number of cycles of stress acting on a body decreases the
elasticity of the body gradually. (Fig.2.5).
2. Effect of change in temperature

A change in temperature affects the elastic properties of
a material. A rise in temperature usually decreases the elasticity
of the material.
This is due to increase of grain size with rise of
temperature. With rise in temperature, the distance between
atoms also increases and so the elastic restoring force
decreases. This in turn decrease the elasticity.
A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal
temperature becomes plastic at high temperature.
Similarly, a decrease in temperature will increase the
elastic property. Lead is not a very good elastic material. But
at low temperature, it becomes a very good elastic material.
However, in some cases like the invar steel, the elasticity
is not affected by any change in temperature.
3. Effect of impurities
The elastic property of a material is either increased or
decreased due to the addition of impurities (Fig.2.6). It depends
upon the elastic or plastic properties of the impurities added.
Fig. 2.6 Addition of impurities
The addition of impurities to metals binds the crystal grains

better. The impurities either increase or decrease the elastic
properties of the concerned metals.
If the impurity has more elasticity than the material to

which it is added, it increases the elasticity. If the impurity is
less elastic than the material, it decreases the elasticity.
If minute quantities of carbon is added with molten iron,

the elastic properties of iron are increased enormously. If more
carbon is added, its elastic properties are decreased.
Similarly the addition of potassium or copper in gold

increases the elastic properties of gold.
4. Effect of hammering, rolling and annealing

We know that a metal with smaller grains has better
elasticity than the same metal of larger grains.
Fig. 2.7(a) Hammering
While being hammered or rolled, crystal grains break into

smaller grains resulting in increase of their elastic properties
(Fig. 2.7(a)&(b)).
Fig. 2.7(b) Rolling
Effect of annealing
While annealing (that is, heating and then cooling gradually)
the constituent crystals are uniformly oriented and form larger
crystal grains. This results in decrease of their elastic properties.
Fig. 2.8 Annealing
5. Effect of crystalline nature

For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is more when
it is in single crystal form and in polycrystalline state, its
modulus of elasticity is comparatively small.
Moment, Couple and Torque
(i) Moment of a force

The moment of a force about a point is defined as
the product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the point to the line of
action of force.
Let ‘F’ be the force acting on a body, at A as shown in
fig 2.9.
Fig : 2.9 Moment of a force
Then, the moment of force ‘F’ about ‘O’ is M  F  d
where ‘d’ is the perpendicular distance from the point ‘O’

to the line of action of force F.
(ii) Couple
A couple constitutes a pair of two equal and opposite
forces acting on a body, in such a way that the lines of
action of the two forces are not in the same straight line.
Let ‘P’ and ‘Q’ be the two equal and opposite forces acting
on the body AB as shown in fig 2.10.
Fig 2.10 Couple
These two forces form a couple and the moment of the

couple about A is MA and about B is MB, then we can write.
Couple  MA  MB  P  d  Q  d
Torque:  of a force with respect to a fixed point

is defined as the product of the force (F) and the
perpendicular distance (d) of the fixed point from the line
of action of the force. It has a tendency to rotate the body
about the axis passing through the fixed point.
Torque   F  d
Application of elasticity to torsion of wires or

cylinders or shafts
The concepts of elasticity can be applied to the torsion of
wires or cylinders and torsion pendulum.
2.4 TWISTING COUPLE ON A WIRE
Expression for couple per unit twist

Consider a cylindrical wire of length l and radius r fixed
at one end. (fig.2.11a). It is twisted through an angle  by
applying couple to its lower end. Now, the wire is said to be
under torsion.
Fig. 2.11 Twisting Couple on a Wire
Due to elastic property of the wire, an internal restoring

couple is set up inside the wire. It is equal and opposite to the
external twisting couple (applied).
The cylinder is imagined to consist of a large number of

thin hollow coaxial cylinders.
Consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness dx

(fig.2.11b)
AB is a line parallel to PQ on the surface of this cylinder.

As the cylinder is twisted, the line AB is shifted to AC through
an angle BAC  
Shearing strain or Angle of shear  
Angle of twist at the free end  
From the figure (2.11 (b))
BC  x  l
x
or  
l
Shearing stress
Rigidity modulus n 
Shearing strain
 Shearing stress  n  Shearing strain  n
nx ... (1)


l
Shearing force
But, Shearing stress 
Area over which the force acts
Shearing force  Shearing stress  area over which the force acts
2 2
Area over which the force acts   x  dx  x
2 2 2
  x  2xdx  dx   x
2 2 2
 x  2xdx  dx  x
2
(dx term is neglected since it is very small)
 2xdx
nx
Hence, shearing force F  2 x dx
l
2n 2 ... (2)

 x dx
l
 Moment of this force about the axis PQ of the cylinder.
 Force  r distance
2n 2
 x dx  x
l
2n 3 ...(3)
 x dx
l
The moment of the force acting on the entire cylinder of

radius r is obtained by integrating the expression (3) between
the limits x  0 and x  r.
r
2n 3
Hence, twisting couple C   l
x dx
0
r r
4
2n 3 2nx 
l  x dx 
l
 
 4 0
0
Applying the limits, we have
4 4
2n  r  2nr
  0 
l  4  4l
4 ... (4)
nr
C 
2l
In the above expression if   1 radian, then we get.

Twisting couple per unit twist
4
 nr ... (5)
C
2l
This twisting couple required to produce a twist of unit

radian in the cylinder is called torsional rigidity for material
of the cylinder.
Hollow cylinder
For a hollow cylinder of the same length l and of inner
radius r1 and outer radius r2
r
2
 2 n   3
Twisting couple of the cylinder C    l  x dx
r  
1
n 4 4
 r2  r1
2l
Twisting couple per unit twist of the cylinder
n 4 4 . .
C  r2  r1 [ .   1 radian]
2l
Shaft
Shaft is one of the components of the machine. It is mainly
used to transfer the power from the source to a load.
Shaft actually transmits the couple applied at its one end
to its other end without any appreciable twist in it.
It can be rotated on bearings about its own axis with an
arrangement for the application of a couple at one end and with
an arrangement to a load at the other end.
Hence, any rotating member which is transmitting
torque is called shaft.
Example:
1. In the flour and oil mill, the power transmission shaft
transmits the power (torque) developed in the prime
mover (motor) to the load (machine) through a belt.
(Fig. 2.12)
2. In automobiles such as buses, lorries and vans the
driving shaft (axle) transmits the power (torque) to the
wheel.
Fig. 2.12 Shaft
2.5 TORSIONAL STRESS AND DEFORMATIONS
 The shear stress set up in the shaft when equal

and opposite torques (twisting moments) are
applied to the ends of a shaft about its axis, is
called torsional stress.
 is the shear strain, also tan   , thus:
FF R
From fig 2.13  
L L
Fig. 2.13
Note that shear strain does not only change with the
amount of twist, but also it varies along the radial direction
such that it is zero at the center and increases linearly towards
the outer periphery.
2.6 TORSION PENDULUM - THEORY AND EXPERIMENT

A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire
that executes torsional oscillation is called torsional
pendulum.
 It executes torsional oscillations, whereas a simple

pendulum executes linear oscillations.
Description
A torsional pendulum consists of a metal wire suspended
vertically with the upper end fixed. The lower end of the wire
is connected to the centre of a heavy circular disc (fig.2.14).
Fig. 2.14 Torsional Pendulum
Expression for the period of Oscillation of a

Torsion Pendulum
When the disc is rotated by applying a twist, the wire is
twisted through an angle . Then, the restoring couple set up
in the wire
 C ...(1)
where C  couple per unit twist.
If the disc is released, it oscillates with angular velocity

d
in the horizontal plane about the axis of the wire. These
dt
oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.
2
d 
If 2
is the angular acceleration produced in the disc
dt
and I its moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the
wire then,
2
d  ...(2)
Applied couple  I 2
dt
At equilibrium, applied couple  restoring couple
2
d 
I 2
 C
dt
2
d  C ...(3)
  
dt
2 I
This equation represents simple harmonic motion which

 d 2 
shows that angular acceleration  2  is proportional to angular
 dt 
displacement  and is always directed towards the mean
position.
Hence, the motion of the disc being simple harmonic

motion, the time period of the oscillation is given by


Displacement
T  2
Acceleration



 2
C
 
I
...(4)


I
T2
C
Uses of Torsional Pendulum

Torsional pendulum is used to determine
1. Rigidity modulus of the wire
2. Moment of inertia of the disc
3. Moment of inertia of an irregular body.

Determination of Rigidity Modulus of the Wire
The rigidity modulus of the wire is determined by the

following equation


I
T  2 ... (1)
C
Experiment
A circular disc is suspended by a thin wire, whose rigidity

modulus is to be determined. The top end of the wire is fixed
firmly in a vertical support.
The disc is then rotated about its centre through a small

angle and set free. It executes torsional oscillations.
The time taken for 20 complete oscillations is noted. The

experiment is repeated and the mean time period T of
oscillation is determined.
The length l of the wire is measured. This length is then

changed by about 10 cm and the experiment is repeated. The
readings for five or six different lengths of wire are measured.
The disc is removed and its mass and diameter are

measured.
The time period of oscillation is
C

I
T  2 ... (2)
Squaring on both sides, we have
2
 


2 2 2 I 
T  2   ... (3)
 C 
2
2 4 I
T  ... (4)
C
4
nr
Substituting couple per unit twist C  in eqn (4),
2l
2 2
2 4 I 2l 4 I
We have T  4
 4
...(5)
nr nr
2l
rearranging the equation (5),
The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire
8I l 
n  4  2 
r T 
2
MR
I  moment of inertia of circular disc 
2
where M  Mass of the circular disc
R  Radius of the disc
Problem 2.1
A wire of length 1 metre and diameter 1 mm is fixed
at one end and a couple is applied at the other end so
that the wire twists by   2 radians. Calculate the
moment of the couple required if rigidity modulus of
10 2
the material  2.8  10 N/m . (A.U. May 2014)
Given data
10 2
Rigidity modulus of the material n  2.8  10 N/m

Angle twisted by wire   radians
2
Length of the wire l  1 metre
3
Diameter of the wire d  1 mm  1  10 metre
3
d 1  10 3
Radius of the wire r    0.5  10 metre
2 2
4
nr
Solution: Required couple  
2l
Substituting the given values, we have
10 3 4
3.14  2.8  10   0.5  3.14  0.5  10 
 
21
3
  4.3  10 Nm
Rigidity modulus by Torsion pendulum

(Dynamic torsion method)
To determine the moment of inertia of a disc and
rigidity modulus of a thin wire
The torsion pendulum consists of a steel or brass wire with
one end fixed in an adjustable chuck and the other end to the
centre of a circular disc as shown in figure (2.15)
Fig. 2.15 Torsion Pendulum
The experiment consists of three parts. First the disc is

set into torsional oscillations without any cylindrical masses on
the disc. The mean period of oscillation ‘To’ is found out.


Io
Now, To  2
C
where Io  moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the wire.
2 2 Io ... (1)
To  4 
C
Two equal cylindrical masses (each mass m equal to 200

gm) are placed symmetrically along a diameter of the disc at
equal distance d1 on the two sides of the centre of the disc.
(fig.2.14.(b)) (very nearer to the axis of wire)
The mean period of oscillation T1 is found out.


I1
Then, T1  2 
C
2
2 4  I1 ... (2)
or T1 
C
Here, I1  Moment of inertia of the whole system (disc and

symmetrical masses at closest positions) about the
axis of the wire.
C  Couple per unit twist.
i  Moment of inertia of each mass about an axis
passing through its centre.
Then, by the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia

of the whole system is given by
2
I1  Io  2i  2m d1 ... (3)
Substituting the value of I1 in eqn. (2)
2
2 4 2 ... (4)
T1  Io  2i  2m d1
C
Now, two cylindrical masses are placed symmetrically at

equal distances d2 from the axis of the wire as shown in
fig.2.14(c) (at the edges of the disc)
The mean period of oscillation ‘T2’ is found out in this case

also.


I2
 T2  2 
C
2
2 4  I2
T2 
C
2 2
4  [Io  2i  2m d2] ... (5)
2
T2 
C
. . 2
[ . I2  Io  2i  2m d2]
2 2 2 2
Now, I2  I1  Io  2i  2md2  Io  2i  2md1  2m d2  d1
Subtracting (4) from (5)
We have
2 2
2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2
T2  T1  [Io  2i  2md2  Io  2i  2md1]  2m d2  d1
C C
2
2 2 4
T2  T1  I2  I1 ... (6)
C
Dividing eqn. (1) by eqn. (6)

2
T0 I0
 ... (7)
2 2 I2  I1
T2  T1
Substituting the value of I2  I1 in this equation (7), we

have
2
T0 I0
2 2
 2 2
T2  T1 2m d2  d1
2 2 2
2m d2  d1  T0
I0  2 2
T2  T1
Thus, the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of

rotation is calculated substituting the values of T0, T1, T2, d1 and
d2 in the above formula.
Calculation of rigidity modulus of the wire
We know that restoring couple per unit twist
4
nr ... (8)
C 
2l
Substituting the value of C in expression (6) we have
2
2 2 4 2 2
T2  T1  4
2m d2  d1
 nr
2l
2
4 2l 2 2
 4
2m d2  d1 
nr
2 2
2 2 16  lm d2  d1
T2  T1  4
nr
2 2
16  l m d2  d1  2 ... (9)
or n  2 2 4
Nm
T2  T1  r
Using the above relation, the rigidity modulus of wire is

determined.
Application of Elasticity to Bending of Beams

A beam is a rod of uniform cross section which is used to
support heavy loads. Depending on the shape of the cross
section, beams are called rectangular, circular, I-beams etc.
Based on the type of support on the ends, beams are

classified as the cantilever type, simply supported type, fixed
ends type etc., Figure 2.16 (a) and (b) show simply supported
beam and cantilever beam respectively.
Fig 2.16
When beams are loaded, they bend and consequently,

bending moments and bending stresses are set up in them.
Using the concepts of elasticity, bending moments and deflection
of beams can be correlated.
2.7 BENDING OF BEAM
Consider a beam which is bent into an arc by the

application of a load. This beam is made up of a large number
of thin plane layers one above the other.
Taking a longitudinal section ABCD of the bent beam, the

layers in the upper half are elongated while those in the lower
half are compressed. (Fig. 2.17)
Fig. 2.17 Bending of a beam
In the middle, of the beam there is a layer MN which is

neither elongated nor compressed due to bending of the beam. This
layer is called ‘neutral surface’ and the line MN at which the
neutral layer intersects the plane of bending is called ‘neutral axis’.
 Neutral surface of the beam:

It is defined as the surface in the bent beam at
which there is no elongation or no compression due
to tensile or compressive stress respectively. It is at
the centre of the bent beam.
 The plane in which bending takes place is known as
plane of bending and obviously it is the vertical plane
when the beam is placed horizontally.
 Neutral axis: The line obtained by the intersection
of neutral surface and plane of bending is called
neutral axis.
It is found that the length of the layers increases or
decreases in proportion to its distance away from the neutral
axis MN.
The layers below MN are compressed and those above

MN are elongated. There are a pair of layers one above MN
and one below MN experiencing same forces of elongation and
compression due to bending. Each pair of layers forms a couple.
This couple is known as internal couple.
The resultant of the moments of all these internal

couples are called ‘internal bending moment’.
In equilibrium condition, internal bending moment is equal

to external bending moment.
2.8 BENDING MOMENT OF A BEAM

Consider a portion ABCD of a bent beam as shown in
fig. 2.18.
Fig. 2.18 Bending moment of a beam
P and Q are two points on the neutral axis MN. R is the

radius of curvature of the neutral axis and  is the angle
subtended by the bent beam at its centre of curvature O.
i.e., OQ  
P
Consider two corresponding points P1 and Q1 on a parallel

layer at a distance x from the neutral axis.
From the figure, 2.16

PQ  R  ...(1)
Corresponding length on the parallel layer

P1 Q1  R  x 
Increase in length of P1 Q1
 P1 Q1  PQ
 R  x   R
 R  x  R  x ...(2)
Increase in length
Linear strain produced 
Original length
x x
  ... (3)
R R
If Y is Young’s modulus of the material, then

Linear stress
Y 
Linear strain
or Linear stress  Y  Linear strain
Yx ...(4)

R
If A is the area of cross-section of the layer, then
Force acting on the area A  stress  area
.. Force 
 . stress  Area 
 
YxA

R
Moment of this force about the neutral axis MN
 Force  r distance
YxA
  x
R
The sum of moments of forces acting on all the layers

2
YA x

R
2
Y  A . x

R
YI

R
2
 A . x  I is called geometrical moment of inertia of the
cross-section of the beam.
The sum of moments of forces acting on all the
layers is the internal bending moment and which comes
into play due to elasticity.
YI
Thus, internal bending moment of the beam 
R
Note:
For a rectangular beam of breadth b and thickness d, the
geometrical moment of inertia is given by
3
bd
I 
12
Similarly, for a beam of circular cross section,

4
r
I 
4
where r is the radius of the rod.

Fig. 2.19
2.9 STRESS DUE TO BENDING IN BEAMS

Figure 2.18 shows a beam under the action of a bending
moment M. In a particular segment of the beam, bending occurs
with the center of curvature at O, radius of curvature R,
included angle  and neutral surface MN.
If the longitudinal stress at a filament AB at distance x

from the neutral surface MN is , then the strain in AB is
given as
Change in length P1 Q1  PQ
Strain   
Original length PQ
R  x   R 
 
R
R  x  R x x
  
R R R
 Stress
But   
Y Young’s modulus
 x
Thus 
Y R
or
 x 
or  Y
R
Here x/R is constant for a particular cross section of the
beam. Thus, the bending stress () at a particular cross section
is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis (x).
For filaments above neutral axis (i.e. negative values of x),

bending stress is compressive (i.e.,  is negative). For filaments
below neutral axis (for positive values of x), bending stress is
tensile (i.e.,  is positive)
2.10 CANTILEVER - THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
Definition
It is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded

at the other end.
Expression for depression produced in the cantilever:

Consider a cantilever of length l fixed at the end A and
loaded at the free end B by a weight W. The end B is depressed
to B (Fig. 2.20). AB is the neutral axis.
BB represents the vertical depression at the free end.
Fig. 2.20 Depression at the free end of the cantilever.

Consider the section of the cantilever P at a distance x
from the fixed end A. It is at a distance l  x from the loaded
end B.
Considering the equilibrium of the portion PB, there is a

force of reaction W at P.
External bending moment  W  PB  W l  x
YI
Internal bending moment 
R
where
Y  Young’s modulus of the cantilever.
I Geometrical moment of inertia of its cross-section.
R  Radius of the curvature of the neutral axis at P.
In the equilibrium position,

External bending moment = Internal bending moment
YI ...(1)
W l  x 
R
Q is another point at a distance dx from P
ie., PQ  dx
‘O’ is the centre of curvature of the arc PQ
PO  R and POQ  d
Then, dx  R d ...(2)
The tangents are drawn at P and Q meeting the line

BB  at C and D.
Vertical depression CD  dy  l  x d ...(3)
From the eqns (2) and (3), we have
dx R d R
 
dy l  x d l  x
l  x dx ...(4)
R 
dy
Substituting for R in eqn. (1), we have

YI
W l  x 
l  x dx
dy
YI dy ...(5)
W l  x 
l  x dx
Rearranging eqn (5), we have
W
dy  l  x l  x dx
YI
W 2 ...(6)
dy  l  x dx
YI
Total depression y   BB at the free end is

l
 dy   W
YI
2
l  x dx ...(7)
0
y 
W
YI  l  x dx 2
y 
W
YI  l 2 2
 x  2 l x dx
0
l
3 2
W  2 x 2lx 
or y  l x  
YI  3 2 
0
3 3
W  3 l 3 W l
y  l   l   
YI  3  YI 3
3
Wl ...(8)
y 
3YI
Determination of Young’s modulus of the cantilever

Young’s modulus of the cantilever is determined using the
depression produced in the cantilever.
Depression at the free end of the cantilever

3
Wl
y 
3YI
Young’s modulus of the cantilever

3 ...(9)
Wl
Y 
3Iy
For a beam of rectangular cross-section,

3
bd
I where b is breadth and d thickness of the beam.
12
The weight W  Mg where M is the mass suspended at the

free end and g is acceleration due to gravity.
Substituting for W and I in eqn (9), we have

3
Mg l
Y  3
bd y
3
12
3
Mg l
 3
bd y
4
3
4 Mg l
Young’s modulus Y  3
bd y
From the above expression, Y is determined.
Experimental determination of Young’s modulus of a

cantilever
The given bar is fixed rigidly at one end and a weight

hanger is suspended at the other end (Fig. 2.21)
A pin is fixed vertically (using wax) at the free end of the

beam. A travelling microscope (T) is focussed on the pin.
The microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross-wire
coincides with the tip of the pin. The initial reading in the
microscope on the vertical scale is noted.
A suitable mass M is placed on the hanger. The reading

in the microscope is again noted. The difference between two
readings of the microscope gives the depression y corresponding
to load M
Fig. 2.21 Cantilever with pin and microscope
The experiment is repeated by increasing the values of

M in steps of 50 gm. Then, the experiment is also repeated by
decreasing the weights.
The observations are tabulated as follows:
Microscope readings for

depression (y) Mean depression ‘y’
Load
for a load of M kg.
Load Load
Mean
increasing decreasing
gm cm cm cm cm
W  50
W  100
W  150
W  200
W  250
Mean y
From these observations, mean depression y corresponding

to each value of M is obtained.
The length l of the beam, its breadth b (by vernier calipers)

and thickness d (by screw gauge) are measured.
Young’s modulus of the beam is determined by using the

relation.
3
4 Mg l 2
Y  3
Nm
bd y
Problem 2.2
A cantilever of rectangular cross-section has a length of

50 cm. Its breadth is 3 cm and thickness 0.6 cm. A weight
of 1 kg is attached at the free end. The depression
produced is 4.2 cm. Calculate Young’s modulus of the
2
material of the bar. Given g  9.8 m/sec
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
2
Length of the cantilever l  50 cm  50  10 m
2
Breadth of the cantilever b  3 cm  3  10 m
2
Thickness of the cantilever d  0.6 cm  0.6  10 m
2
Depression produced y  4.2 cm  4.2  10 m
Mass attached M  1 kg
2
Acceleration due to gravity g  9.8 ms
Solution
Young’s modulus of the beam
3
4Mgl
Y  3
bd y
substituting the given values, we have

2 3
4  1  9.8  50  10 
Y  2 2 3 2
3  10  0.6  10   4.2  10
10 2
Y  1.8  10 Nm
2.11 UNIFORM BENDING (THEORY AND EXPERIMENT)

Definition:
If the beam is loaded with equal weights on its both
ends, bending of the beam forms an arc of a circle. The
elevation is produced in the beam. This type of bending
is known as uniform bending.
Theory of uniform bending

Expression for Young’s modulus of the beam
Consider a beam AB arranged horizontally on two knife-
edges C and D symmetrically so that AC  BD  a (Fig. 2.22)
Fig. 2.22 Uniform bending
The beam is loaded with equal weights W at each ends

A and B. The reactions on the knife edges at C and D are equal
to W and they are acting vertically upward.
External bending moment on the part AF of the beam
about the F is
 W  AF  W  CF  W AF  CF
 W  AC  W  a  W a ... (1)
Note: Here, the clockwise moment is taken as negative and

the anticlockwise moment is taken as positive.
YI ...(2)
Internal bending moment 
R
Y  Young’s modulus of the beam

I  Geometrical moment of inertia of the cross
section of beam.
R  Radius of curvature of the beam at F
In the equilibrium position,
External bending moment  Internal bending moment
YI ...(3)
Wa 
R
Since for a given value of W, the values of a, Y and I are

constant. R is constant so that the beam bends uniformly into
an arc of a circle of radius R as shown in the fig. 2.23.
CD  l and y is the elevation of the midpoint E of the

beam so that y  EF
Fig. 2.23 Intersecting chord theorem of a circle
Then, from the property of a circle (fig. 2.23).
EF  EG  CE  ED ...(4)
2
EF 2R  EF  CE
... CE  ED and EG  2R  EF 
2
 l  .. l 
y 2R  y     . EF  y and CE  2 
2  
2 2
2 l l
2yRy  
2
2 4
2
l . .
y2R  ( . y 2 is negligible).
4
2
l
y 
8R
8y 1

l
2 R
1 8y ... (5)
or  2
R l
Substituting eqn (5) in (3), we get,
8y
Wa  2
YI
l
2
W al
y 
8IY
2
W al
Y 
8Iy
Intersecting cord theorem of a circle
Note: When two chords intersect each other inside a circle,

the products of their segments are equal.
3
bd
If the beam is of rectangular cross-section, then I  ,
12
where b is breadth and d is thickness of beam.
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W  Mg,

2
Mgal
then, Y  3
bd
8 y
12
2
3 M gal
Y 
2 b d3 y
from which Young’s modulus of the beam is determined.
Experiment to determine Young’s modulus of a beam

- pin and microscope method
A rectangular beam AB of uniform-section is supported
horizontally on two knife-edges A and B (fig. 2.24)
Two weight hangers of equal masses are suspended from

the ends of the beam. A pin is fixed vertically at the mid-point
of the beam. A microscope is focussed on the tip of the pin.
Fig. 2.24 Young’s modulus - Uniform bending
Initial reading in the microscope on the vertical scale is

noted. Equal weights are added to both hangers simultaneously
and the reading in the microscope on the vertical scale is noted.
The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of the

equal masses.
The observations are tabulated and mean elevation y at

the mid point of the bar is determined.
The length of the bar between the knife edges ‘l’ is

measured. The distance of one of the weight hangers from the
nearest knife edge ‘a’ is measured.
The breadth b and thickness d of the bar are measured
by using vernier calipers and screw gauge.
Microscope reading for elevation Mean

elevation y
Load
Load Load for a load
Mean
increasing decreasing of M kg.
gm cm cm cm cm
W  50
W  100
W  150
W  200
W  250
Mean y
Young’s modulus of the beam is determined by the relation
2
3 Mg a l 2
Y  Nm
2 b d3 y
Problem 2.3
Uniform rectangular bar 1 m long, 2 cm broad and 0.5

cm thick is supported on its flat face symmetrically on
two knife edges 70 cm apart. If loads of 200 g are hung
from the two ends the elevation of the centre of the bar
is 48 mm. Find Young’s modulus of the bar.
(A.U. Jan 2010)
Given data
The distance between nearer knife edge and point of

2
suspension of load a  15  10 m
3
Mass attached M  200 g  200  10 kg
2
Thickness of the beam d  0.5 cm  0.5  10 m
2
Distance between knife edge l  70 cm  70  10 m
2
Breadth of the beam b  2 cm  2  10 m
3
Elevation of the centre y  48 mm  48  10 m
Solution
Young’s modulus of the bar
2
3 Mg al
Y 
2 bd 3 y
3 2 2 2
3  200  10  9.8  15  10  70  10 
 2 2 3 3
2  2  10  0.5  10   48  10
10 2
Y  1.8  10 Nm
2.12 NON - UNIFORM BENDING

Definition
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression
produced does not form an arc of a circle. This type of bending
is called non-uniform bending.
Theory of Non-Uniform Bending:
Beam supported at its ends and loaded in the middle
Consider a uniform cross sectional beam (rod or bar) AB
of length l arranged horizontally on two knife edges K1 and K2
near the ends A and B (fig.2.25)
Fig. 2.25 Non-uniform bending

A weight W is applied at the midpoint ‘O’ of the beam.
W
The reaction force at each knife edge is equal to in the
2
upward direction. y is the depression at the midpoint O.
The bent beam is considered to be equivalent to two
inverted cantilevers, fixed at O each of length  l  2  and each
loaded at K1 and K2 with a weight W  2.
In the case of a cantilever of length l and load W, the

3
Wl
depression 
3 Iy
Hence, for cantilever of length  l  2  and load  W  2 ,

depression is
3 3
W l  W l 3
Wl
 2 2 3
   2 2 2  8
y   
3I Y 3I Y 3IY
3
Wl
or y
48 IY
3
Wl
Y 
48Iy
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W is

W  Mg
3
bd
If the beam is rectangular, I  , where b is the breadth
12
and d is the thickness of the beam.
3
M gl
Hence, Y  3
bd
48 y
12
3
M gl  12
Y 3
48 bd y
3
Mgl 2
or Y  3
Nm
4 bd y
The value of Y can be determined by the above equation.
Experiment to determine Young’s modulus of a beam -

(pin-microscope method)
The given beam AB of rectangular cross section is arranged
horizontally on two knife edges K1 and K2 near the ends
A and B (fig.2.26).
Fig. 2.26 Non-uniform bending
A weight hanger is suspended and a pin is fixed vertically

at mid-point O. A microscope is focussed on the tip of the pin.
The initial reading on the vertical scale of the microscope

is taken. A suitable mass M is added to the hanger. The beam
is depressed. The cross wire is adjusted to coincide with the tip
of the pin. The reading of the microscope is noted.
The depression corresponding to the mass M is found.
The experiment is repeated by increasing and decreasing

the mass step by step. The corresponding readings are tabulated.
The average value of depression y is found from the observation.
Microscope reading for depression y Mean

depression
Load in kg Load Load y for a
Mean
increasing decreasing load of M
cm
cm cm cm
W
W  50 gm
W  100 gm
W  150 gm
W  200 gm
W  250 gm
Mean (y)
The breadth b, thickness d and length l of the beam are

measured. The value of Young’s modulus of the beam is found
by the relation.
3
M gl
Y 3
4 bd y
2.13 I - SHAPE GIRDER
Definition
The girders with upper and lower section broadened and
the middle section tapered, so that it can withstand heavy loads
over it is called as I shape girders. Since the cross section of
girder looks like letter I, it is named as I shape girder.
A girder is a metallic beam supported at its two ends by

pillars or on opposite walls. It should be so designed that it should
not bend too much or break under its own weight. (Fig. 2.27)
Fig. 2.27 I - shape girder
The depression y at the centre of a beam of length l

breadth b and thickness d under a given load Mg at its
mid-point is given as
3
M gl
y  3
4bd Y
Hence to reduce the bending for a given load, Y of the

beam should be large, b and d of the beam must also be large.
The length l should be as small as possible.
3
Since the depression y is inversely proportional to d , the
depression can be reduced more effectively by increasing the
thickness d rather than increasing the breadth b of the beam
(Fig. 2.27 (b))
But on increasing the thickness, unless the load is at the

centre, the beam may bend as shown in fig. 2.27 (c). This is
called buckling of the beam. To prevent buckling, a large
load-bearing surface is required.
Hence, the beam is designed to have a large thickness to

minimise bending and a large load bearing surface to prevent
buckling. Therefore, the cross-sectional view of the beam as
shown in fig. 2.27 (d) is preferred.
It is known as I section beam or girder. The cross sectional

view is in the shape of I as shown in fig. 2.28.
Fig. 2.28 I shape girder
Advantages
1. As the layers of the beam at top and bottom are
subjected to maximum stress more material must be
needed only at these layers to withstand the strain.
As the stress around the neutral layer is small,
material in these regions can be removed without loss
of efficiency. This would save economy (cost of material
of the girder).
2. This type of cross-section provides a high bending
moment.
3. I form of girders are made of steel as it has high

Young’s modulus.
Applications
 Iron girders used in buildings are made of I-section.
 It is also used in I-section of railway tracks.
Conclusion
 The study of elastic nature of materials is very important
not only for big and heavy structures but also for micro
structures such as integrated circuits.
 Elastic mismatch of the materials used for fabrication of
ICs may result in micro cracks and cause failure of ICs.
Hence, good understanding of this subject is essential for
all branches of engineering.
Problem 2.4
3 2
A bar of length 1 m and cross-section 5  10 m is
supported at its two ends and loaded in the middle. The
3
depression observed in the middle is 1.96  10 m when
a load of 0.1 kg is placed. Calculate the Young’s modulus
of the material. (A.U May 2015)
Given data
Length of the bar l  1 m

3 2
Cross section  5  10 m
3
Depression y  1.96  10 m
Mass M  0.1 kg
Solution
We know that for non-uniform bending
3
Mgl
Y  3
4bd y

3
0.1  9.8  1
 3 3 3 3
4  5  10  5  10  1.96  10 
10 2
Y  4  10 Nm
Problem 2.5
A circular and a square cantilever are made of same

material and have equal area of cross-section and
length. Find the ratio of their depression for a given
load. (A.U. Dec 2008)
Given data
Geometric moment of inertia for circular section
4
r
IC 
4
Geometric moment of inertia for square section

3
bd
IS 
12
4
a

12
(b  d  a for a square section)
Solution
3
Mg l
Depression for a given load y 
3Y I
Depression in circular cantilever for a given load

3
Mg l ... (1)
yC 
3Y IC
Depression in square cantilever for a given load
3
Mg l ... (2)
yS 
3Y IS
Dividing (1) by (2)
4
a
yC IS 4
12 a
  
yS IC r
4
3r
4
Since cross sectional areas of circular and square

cantilevers are equal, we have
2 2
r  a
2
a
or 2
 
r
2
4 2 2
yC 1 a  1 a   
   4    2   
yS 3  r  3  r  3 3
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

PART - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A
1. What is elasticity? (A.U. Jan 2010)
The property of the body to regain its original shape and

size, after the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.
2. What are elastic bodies? (A.U. Dec 2011)
Bodies which regain its original shape and size after the
removal of deforming force are called elastic bodies.
3. Define stress and its unit. (A.U. Nov 2008)
The restoring force acting per unit area of the body is

called the stress.
This restoring force is equal and opposite to the applied

force F. Therefore, stress is also defined as the applied deforming
force per unit area of the body.
Deforming force F
i.e., Stress  
Area A
newton N 2 2
SI unit of stress  2 2
 N/m or Nm
metre m 
4. What are the types of stress? (A.U Nov 2008)
It is found that a deforming force may change length or

shape or volume of the body. Accordingly, there are three types
of stress namely (i) Linear stress (ii) Shearing stress
(iii) Volume stress.
5. Define strain and its unit. [A.U. Jan 2012]
The change in dimension or shape of a body due to the

deforming force results in strain.
It is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the

original dimension. i.e.,
Change in dimension
Strain 
Original dimension
Strain has no unit.
6. What are the types of strain? (A.U Jan 2012)
According to the changes that occur in length, area (shape)

and volume, there are three types of strain namely,
(a) Linear strain (change in length per unit length)
(b) Shearing strain (change in area per unit area)
(c) Volume strain (change in volume per unit volume)

7. State Hooke’s law. [A.U. May 2010]
It states that “within elastic limit, the stress developed in

the body is directly proportional to the strain produced in it”.
Stress  Strain
Stress  Constant  Strain
Stress
 E constant
Strain
In other words, the ratio between stress and strain is a

constant.
8. What are the types of Moduli of elasticity?

(A.U. Dec 2011)
(i) Young’s modulus corresponding to linear strain.
(ii) Rigidity modulus corresponding to shearing strain.
(iii) Bulk modulus corresponding to volume strain.
9. Define Young’s modulus of elasticity and mention its
unit. (A.U. Dec 2013)
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of linear stress to linear

strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter Y.
Linear stress
Young’s modulus of elasticity Y 
Linear strain
2
Unit: SI unit of stress is Nm and strain has no unit.
2
Therefore, SI unit of Young’s modulus is Nm .
10. Define rigidity modulus and mention its unit.

(A.U. Dec 2012)
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the tangential stress

to shearing strain is called rigidity modulus.
It is denoted by the letter n,

Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus n 
Shearing strain
2
Unit: SI unit of rigidity modulus is Nm
11. Define Bulk modulus and mention its unit.

(A.U. April 2012)
Within the elastic limit of a body, the ratio of volume stress

to volume strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter K
Volume stress
Bulk modulus K 
Volume strain
2
Unit: SI unit of bulk modulus is Nm
12. What is stress-strain diagram? [A.U. Jan 2011]
A graph plotted between strain along the X-axis and stress

along the Y-axis is known as stress-strain diagram.
Stress - Strain diagram for low carbon steel wire
13. What is the use of stress-strain diagram?

[A.U. Jan 2012]
The elastic behaviour of solid materials is studied by using

this stress-strain diagram.
14. What are effects of change in temperature in elastic

bodies? [A.U Dec. 2009]
A change in the temperature affects the elastic properties of

a material. A rise in temperature usually decreases the elasticity
of the material. A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal
temperature becomes plastic at high temperature.
Similarly, decrease in temperature increases the elastic

property. Lead is not a very good elastic material. But at low
temperature, it becomes an elastic material.
However, in some cases like the invar steel, the elasticity

is not affected by any change in temperature.
15. Define bending moment of a beam. [A.U. May 2011]
The moment of the couple due to the static reactions

(restoring couple) which balances the external couple due to the
applied load is called bending moment.
16. What is uniform bending? [A.U. Jan 2011]
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent

beam forms an arc of a circle. The radius of curvature of the
bent beam is constant for given load. This type of bending is
called uniform bending.
17. What is non-uniform bending? (A.U. April 2010)
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, depression is

produced and does not form an arc of a circle ie., bending is
not uniform. This type of bending is called non-uniform bending.
18. What is I Shape Girder? [A.U. Dec 2009]

A girder is a metallic beam supported at its two ends by
pillars or on opposite walls. It should be so designed that it
should not bend too much or break under its own weight. The
cross section of beam is in the form of letter I.
19. What are advantages of I shape girder? [A.U, Dec. 2016]
(i) As the layers of the beam at the upper and bottom

are subjected to maximum stress more material must
be needed there to withstand the strain.
As the stress around the neutral layer is small,
material in these regions can be removed without loss
of efficiency. This would save economy (cost of material
of the girder).
(ii) This type of cross-section provides a high bending
moment and a lot of material is saved.
(iii) I form of girders are made of steel as they have high
young modulus.
ADDITIONAL PART - ‘A’ Q & A
1. What is a beam?
A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross-section (circular or
rectangular) whose length is very much greater than its thickness.
2.. Define neutral surface and neutral axis.

In the middle of the beam along the thickness, there is a
layer which is neither elongated nor compressed due to bending
of the beam. This layer is called the ‘neutral surface’ and the
line at which the neutral layer intersects the plane of bending
is called the ‘neutral axis’.
3. What is cantilever?
A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and
loaded at the other end.
4. Define torsional stress.

The shear stress set up in the shaft when equal and
opposite torques (twisting moments) are applied to the ends of
a shaft about its axis, is called torsional stress.
5. What is a torsional pendulum?

A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that
executes torsional oscillation is called torsional pendulum.
6. What are the uses of torsional pendulum?

It is used to determine
1. Rigidity modulus of the wire
2. Moment of inertia of the disc and
3. Moment of inertia of an irregular body.
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART - B

‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Deduce an expression for the couple to produce a unit twist

in a long cylindrical wire fixed at one end. How is it used
in the determination of modulus of rigidity of a wire.
2. Describe how the rigidity modulus of the material in the
form of a wire may be determined by symmetrical mass
and a torsional pendulum.
3. Describe with relevant theory, how the moment of inertia of
the disc of the torsional pendulum is experimentally
determined, using two equal symmetrical masses. Also indicate
how the rigidity modulus of the suspension wire is found.
4. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment of a
beam in terms of radius of curvature. (A.U. Jan 2013)
5. What is cantilever? Obtain an expression for the depression

at the loaded end of a cantilever whose other end is fixed
assuming that its own weight is not effective in bending.
(A.U. Jan 2012)
6. Describe with relevant theory how a cantilever may be used

to determine the Young’s modulus of the material of bar.
(A.U. May 2012)
7. Derive an expression for depression at the free end of a

cantilever due to load.
Describe an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus

of the cantilever material using this expression.
(A.U. April 2011, Jan 2014, June 2014)
8. Derive an expression for the elevation at the centre of a

beam which is loaded at both ends. Describe an experiment
to determine Young’s modulus of a beam by uniform
bending. (A.U. Jan 2011)
9. Describe with necessary theory, the method of determining

the Young’s modulus of the material of the beam of
rectangular cross-section by bending it non-uniformly.
(A.U. Jan 2010)
10. Give an account of I-shape girders. (A.U Jan 2009, Jan 2014)
ADDITIONAL ‘PART - B’ ‘16’ Marks Questions
1. Write a note on stress strain diagram.
2. Explain the factors affecting the elasticity.
3. How will you classify three types of elastic moduli? Explain.
4. What is meant by bending of beams? Derive the expression

for bending moment for rectangular and circular cross
sections.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. A copper wire of 3 metre length and 1 mm diameter is

subjected to a tension of 5 kg weight. Calculate the
elongation produced in the wire if the Young’s modulus of
elasticity of copper is 120 GPa. (Ans. 1.56 mm)
2. A circular cantilever of radius 1.2 cm and length 1.5 m is

fixed at one end. In the other end, a load of 2 kg is applied.
10 2
The Young’s modulus of the cantilever is 19.5  10 Nm .
Find the depression produced.
(Ans. 6.946  10 3 m)
3. A bar, one metre long with square cross section (side of

square being 5 mm) is supported horizontally at its ends
and is loaded at the middle point. It is depressed by 1.96
mm by a load of 100 gm. Calculate the Young’s Modulus
of the material of the bar. [Hint: It is non uniform bending,
3
mgl
Y  3
where b  d ]
4bd y (Ans. 200 GPa)
4. In an experiment a bar of length 1.5 m is clamped

horizontally at one end and a load of 0.1 kg attached at
its free end. Calculate the depression at the loaded end if
10 2
Y  9.78  10 Nm and the bar is of breadth 0.024 m and
thickness 0.005 m. (Ans. 0.0451 m)
5. Determine Young’s modulus of the material of a rod, if it

is bent uniformly over two knives separated by a distance
of 0.6 m and loads of 2.5 kg are hung at 0.18 m away
from the knife edges. The breadth and thickness of the rod
is 0.025 m and 0.005 m respectively. The elevation at the
middle of the rod is 0.007 m (Ans. Y  1.088  1011 Nm 2)
6. A uniform rectangular bar of 1 m long, 0.02 m broad and

0.003 m thick is supported on two knife edges 0.7 m apart.
When the loads of 0.2 kg are hung from the ends, the
elevation of the bar above its normal position is found to
be 0.0022 m. Find the Young’s modulus of the material of
the bar. (Ans. 1.819  1011 Nm 2)
3Mg a l 2
Hint: Y 
2b d 3 y
3  0.2  9.8  0.15  0.72
 3
 1.89  1011 N/m2
2  0.02  0.003  0.0022
7. A brass bar of 1 square cm in cross section is supported

on two knife edges 100 cm apart. A load of 1 kg at the
center of the bar depression point by 2.51 mm. What is
the Young’s modulus of the brass? (Ans: 9.76  102 N/m2
8. On two knife edges separated by a distance of 0.6 m, a

cylindrical beam of length 1 m is placed horizontally and
symmetrically. When a load of 7.3 kg is suspended from
3
each end, the elevation of the centre is 4.75  10 m. Find
the Young’s modulus of the beam. The radius of the beam
3
is 7  10 m. (Ans: 7.23  1010 N/m2)

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Properties of Matter 2.

A body can be deformed (i.e., change in shape or size)

 The property of elasticity is different in different materials.

In fact, there is no body in nature which is perfectly elastic.

The property possessed by a body due to which it

Inelastic or Plastic bodies

Materials such as chewing gum, lead solder, putty dough

The restoring force acting per unit area inside the

This restoring force is equal and opposite to the applied

The deforming force per unit cross sectional area of

SI unit for force is newton (N) and that of area is

The strain is measured by the ratio of change in dimension

The strain has no unit since it is the ratio of same physical

According to the changes in length or area (shape) or

ii(i) Linear strain (change in length per unit length)

The maximum stress upto which a body exhibits the

Robert Hooke an English Physicist in the year 1679

Stress  Constant  Strain

In other words, the ratio between stress and strain is a

E is different for different materials.

2.2 STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM AND ITS USES

A graph is drawn between strain along X-axis and stress

The following useful information regarding the behaviour

In this region A  B, a slight increase in stress produces a

6. Ultimate tensile strength

At this point C, the wire begins to thin down at some

The point ‘D’ is known as the breaking point where the

Other Elasticity related Material Properties

It is the property related to elongation when the material

In terms of stress-strain graph, the materials show

However, there is a type of material known as brittle

A brittle material fractures and breaks into pieces under

Tensile Strength and Safety Factor

It is defined as the maximum value of tensile stress

Maximum tensile load

 Usually the tensile strength of metals and alloys

Ultimate tensile stress

Working load or working stress is determined by the

 The good values of safety factor are always adopted to

Uses of stress – strain diagram

1. It is used to measure the elastic strength, yield

Types of Moduli of Elasticity

Young’s modulus of elasticity  Y 

The linear force F is applied normally to a cross sectional

Fig. 2.2. Young’s modulus of elasticity

If L is the original length and l is the change in length

Rigidity modulus of elasticity n

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the tangential

It is denoted by the letter n

Consider a rectangular block fixed at its lower face

Fig. 2.3 Rigidity modulus of elasticity

A force of reaction of the same magnitude F acts on the

These two equal and opposite forces form a couple. Due

All the four vertical sides are twisted (sheared) through

tan    (...  is very small)

Bulk Modulus of elasticity  K 

“Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the volume stress

It is denoted by the letter K

When a deforming force F acts normally on all the faces