CELLUL AR

RESPIRATION
S u m m a r y:
The steps of cellular respiration and the 2 different types.
Compares and contrasts the 2 types of respiration in a
m a r a tINTRODUCTION
hon and 100m sprint.
Cellular respiration is one of the most fundamental metabolic processes in
any cell.
It is the process by which organic molecules (typically glucose), are taken
in is as food, and broken down in the cells to release energy for the cells
activities, (such as movement of the cell, uptake of materials from the
surroundings of production and secretion of new chemical compounds)
and discarding waste products (carbon dioxide and water). This energy
being produced is in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

What is Cellular Respiration?

Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria of every cell in the body to
supply each cell with energy in the form of ATP and heat. Cellular
respiration can release energy from glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and
glycerol. However, the main food material used in cellular respiration is
glucose, causing typical respiration to be summarised as Glucose +
Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide and Water.
However, this breakdown of glucose to form carbon dioxide and water
involves more than twenty separate reactions which occur in a series, one
after the other. At each step, an intermediate compound is formed and is
catalysed by a different enzyme. Insignificant amounts of energy are
released as the reactions proceed, to ensure that the release of energy is
controlled rather than
happening all at once.
However, 60% of the
available energy is released
as heat to keep the body
temperature constant as
heat is continually lost to the
environment.

Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)
The remaining energy is used
to form Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) which is
composed of adenosine
(which is made up of nucleic
acid base adenine and sugar
ribose) and three phosphate
groups. ATP is formed when
an inorganic phosphate
group is joined to a molecule
of adenosine diphosphate. The production of ATP consists of three major
pathways namely glycolysis, Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle and electron
transport phosphorylation or beta oxidation. These are the three main
steps of cellular respiration.

THE THREE MAIN STEPS OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Glycolysis


Glycolysis is
the first
phase in
the

breakdown of glucose in cellular respiration which takes place in the

cytoplasm and does not require oxygen. It means ‘splitting glucose.’
In this stage, a single molecule of glucose (a 6-carbon sugar) is
converted into two molecules of pyruvate (a 3-carbon compound) in
a series of ten steps. During glycolysis, two molecules of ATP are
invested to initiate the process, and four molecules of ATP are
produced, resulting in a net gain of two ATP molecules. Energy
released during the breakdown of glucose and other organic fuel
molecules from carbohydrates, fats and proteins during glycolysis is
captured and stored in ATP. Six enzymes are involved in the process.
The end products of the reaction include 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2
NADH molecules.
The glycolysis pathway occurs in the following 10 main stages:

Stage 1

 A phosphate group is added to glucose in the cell cytoplasm, by the

action of enzyme hexokinase.
 In this, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose
forming glucose,6-phosphate.

Stage 2

Glucose-6-phosphate is
isomerised into
fructose,6-phosphate
by the enzyme
phosphoglucomutase.

Stage 3

The other ATP molecule

transfers a phosphate
group to fructose 6-phosphate and converts it into fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate by the action of the enzyme phosphofructokinase.

Stage 4

The enzyme aldolase converts fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which are
isomers of each other.

Step 5

Triose-phosphate isomerase converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate into

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which is the substrate in the successive step
of glycolysis.

Step 6

This step undergoes two reactions:

  The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase transfers 1
hydrogen molecule from glyceraldehyde phosphate to nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide to form NADH + H+.
 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase adds a phosphate to
the oxidised glyceraldehyde phosphate to form 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate.

Step 7

Phosphate is transferred from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP to form ATP

with the help of phosphoglycerokinase. Thus, two molecules of
phosphoglycerate and ATP are obtained at the end of this reaction.

Step 8

The phosphate of both the phosphoglycerate molecules is relocated from

the third to the second carbon to yield two molecules of 2-
phosphoglycerate by the enzyme phosphoglyceromutase.

Step 9

The enzyme enolase removes a water molecule from 2-phosphoglycerate

to form phosphoenolpyruvate.

Step 10

A phosphate from phosphoenolpyruvate is transferred to ADP to form

pyruvate and ATP by the action of pyruvate kinase. Two molecules of
pyruvate and ATP are obtained as the end products.

Glycolysis can take place without oxygen in a process called fermentation.

The process takes place in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle or Tricarboxylic acid cycle)

Pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis then enter the
mitochondria, where they are each converted by oxidation into a
compound known as acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl Coa). This step is
sometimes referred to as Pyruvate Oxidation.
This commences
the start of the
citric acid cycle
which includes
eight major
steps. The Krebs
cycle or TCA
cycle
(tricarboxylic acid
cycle) or Citric
acid cycle is a
series of enzyme
catalysed reactions occurring in the mitochondrial matrix, where acetyl-
CoA is oxidised to form carbon dioxide and coenzymes are reduced, which
generate ATP in the electron transport chain. The cycle cannot operate
efficiently in the absence of oxygen. The cycle uses acetyl CoA to harvest
most of its bond energy in the form of NADH, FADH2 and ATP using a
series or redox reactions. Within the cycle, two carbons enter from acetyl
CoA, causing two molecules of carbon dioxide to be released, 3 molecules
of NADH along with one molecule of FADH2 are generated, and one
molecule of ATP or GTP is produced. The number of ATP molecules
produced in the Kerbs cycle is two. As this stage does not directly
generate ATP but is essential for the overall process as most of the ATP
produced in cellular respiration is generated from oxidative
phosphorylation. Krebs cycle or TCA cycle takes place in the matrix of
mitochondria under aerobic condition. The 8 steps of the Kerb Cycle are:

Step 1: The first step is the condensation of acetyl CoA with 4-carbon
compound oxaloacetate to form 6C citrate, coenzyme A is released. The
reaction is catalysed by citrate synthase.
Step 2: Citrate is converted to its isomer, isocitrate. The
enzyme aconitase catalyses this reaction.

Step 3: Isocitrate undergoes dehydrogenation and decarboxylation to

form 5C 𝝰-ketoglutarate. A molecular form of CO2 is released. Isocitrate
dehydrogenase catalyses the reaction. It is an NAD+ dependent enzyme.
NAD+ is converted to NADH.

Step 4: 𝝰-ketoglutarate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form

succinyl CoA, a 4C compound. The reaction is catalysed by the 𝝰-
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase enzyme complex. One molecule of CO2 is
released and NAD+ is converted to NADH.

Step 5: Succinyl CoA forms succinate. The enzyme succinyl CoA

synthetase catalyses the reaction. This is coupled with substrate-level
phosphorylation of GDP to get GTP. GTP transfers its phosphate to ADP
forming ATP.

Step 6: Succinate is oxidised by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase to

fumarate. In the process, FAD is converted to FADH 2.

Step 7: Fumarate gets converted to malate by the addition of one H 2O.

The enzyme catalysing this reaction is fumarase.

Step 8: Malate is dehydrogenated to form oxaloacetate, which combines

with another molecule of acetyl CoA and starts the new cycle. Hydrogens
removed, get transferred to NAD+ forming NADH. Malate
dehydrogenase catalyses the reaction.

Oxidative phosphorylation
The only stage that
uses oxygen and is the
final stage of cellular
which takes place in the
inner mitochondrial
membrane. Oxidative
phosphorylation is
made up of two parts,
the electron transport
chain and chemiosmosis. The electron transport chain is a series of
proteins and organic molecules found in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria. Electrons are passed from one member of the transport
chain to another in a series of redox reactions. Energy released in these
reactions is captured as a proton gradient, which is then used to make ATP
in a process called chemiosmosis. Together, the electron transport chain
and chemiosmosis make up oxidative phosphorylation.

They key steps in oxidative phosphorylation include:

 Delivery of electrons by NADH and FADH2. Reduced electron
carriers (NADH and FADH2) from other steps of cellular respiration
transfer their electrons to molecules near the beginning of the
transport chain. In the process, they turn back into NAD+ and FAD,
which can be reused in other steps of cellular respiration.
 Electron transfer and
proton pumping. As
electrons are passed down
the chain, they move
from a higher to a lower
energy level, releasing energy.
Some of the energy is used to
pump H+ ions, moving them out
of the matrix and into the
intermembrane space. This pumping establishes an electrochemical
gradient.

 Splitting of oxygen to form water. At the end of the electron

transport chain, electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen,
which splits in half and takes up H+ to form water.

 Gradient-driven synthesis of ATP. As H+ ions flow down their

gradient and back into the matrix, they pass through an enzyme
called ATP synthase, which harnesses the flow of protons to
synthesize ATP.
 Most of the ATP created in cellular respiration comes from oxidative
phosphorylation. Generally, the maximum ATP yield for a molecule of
glucose is around 30-32 ATP and besides 4, the remaining ATP all come
from oxidative phosphorylation.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION DURING

EXERCISE
Aerobic respiration is a metabolic process that occurs in the presence of
oxygen. It involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, which is then
converted into acetyl-CoA. This process occurs in the mitochondria of cells
and produces ATP, carbon dioxide, and water as byproducts.
The process of aerobic respiration can be divided into four stages:
glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and electron
transport. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into pyruvate, which
is then converted into acetyl-CoA. The citric acid cycle involves the
breakdown of acetyl-CoA, which produces ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which the energy produced
during the citric acid cycle is used to produce ATP. Finally, electron
transport involves the transfer of electrons from
one molecule to another, which produces ATP and
water.
Anaerobic respiration is a type of
cellular respiration that occurs in
the absence of oxygen. It involves the
breakdown of glucose into energy without the
use of oxygen. During anaerobic respiration,
glucose is broken down into pyruvate, which is
then converted into lactate. This
process produces a small
amount of energy in the form of
ATP.
During anaerobic respiration, glucose is broken down into pyruvate
through a process called glycolysis. Pyruvate is then converted into
lactate, which is released into the bloodstream. This process produces a
small amount of energy in the form of ATP.

Differences
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, while anaerobic respiration does not.
During aerobic respiration, glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide
and water, and energy is released in the form of ATP. This process is much
more efficient than anaerobic respiration, as it produces more ATP
molecules per glucose molecule. In contrast, anaerobic respiration only
produces a small amount of ATP and lactic acid or alcohol as byproducts.

Another key difference is the speed at which energy is produced. Aerobic

respiration is a slower process, but it can sustain energy production for
longer periods of time. Anaerobic respiration, on the other hand, produces
energy quickly but can only sustain it for short bursts.

Similarities

Both types of respiration involve the breakdown of glucose to produce

energy. They also both occur in the cytoplasm of cells. Additionally, both
types of respiration can occur in the human body, depending on the
availability of oxygen.

However, it is important to note that during intense exercise, the body

may switch to anaerobic respiration even if oxygen is available. This is
because the body may not be able to supply enough oxygen to the
muscles to sustain aerobic respiration. In this case, the body will rely on
anaerobic respiration to produce energy quickly.

MARATHON VS 100m SPRINT

During exercise part of the energy required by muscles comes from
aerobic respiration and part comes from anaerobic respiration. In a
marathon and 100m sprint, there is different metabolic demands causing
energy required to be from different respiration. The 100-meter sprint is a
brief, explosive event; the marathon is a prolonged, high-intensity,
endurance event. The essence of the 100-meter sprint is speed, with little
oxygen breathed in during its 10-second duration, making the event
almost entirely anaerobic (News Holme, et al., 1994); whereas, although
completed by elite marathon runners at a pace between 80-85% of their
maximal capacity and the anaerobic system being utilized during sprint
efforts in or at the end of the race, the marathon is a primarily aerobic
event completed in 2 to 2.5 hours by elite marathon runners.

MARATHON
Marathon running is a physically demanding sport that requires a lot of
energy. To sustain long-distance running, the body needs to produce
energy through respiration.
Aerobic and anaerobic
respiration are two types of
cellular respiration that are
used to produce energy.
Aerobic respiration is
essential for marathon
runners, as it provides the
energy needed to sustain
prolonged physical activity.
During a marathon, the body
relies primarily on aerobic
respiration to produce ATP.
This process allows the body
to break down glucose and
oxygen efficiently, providing
a steady supply of energy to the muscles. Marathon runners who have a
well-developed aerobic system can sustain elevated levels of physical
activity for longer periods, allowing them to perform better in races.
During a marathon, the body relies on aerobic respiration to produce the
majority of the energy needed to sustain long-distance running, as it is a
long-distance endurance event lasting several hours but there is adequate
oxygen available for most of the race. However, there are times when the
body may need to rely on anaerobic respiration, such as during a sprint or
a steep hill climb.

Anaerobic respiration occurs when the body's demand for energy exceeds
its oxygen supply. During intense physical activities, such as sprinting or
weightlifting, the body's demand for energy is high, and the oxygen
supply is limited. As a result, the body switches to anaerobic respiration to
generate energy.
Marathon runners rely on anaerobic respiration during the final stretch of
their race (or when they start to sprint) their body's oxygen supply is
depleted. During a marathon, the body's demand for energy is high, and
the oxygen supply is limited. As a result, the body switches to anaerobic
respiration to generate energy. However, anaerobic respiration produces
lactic acid, which can build up in the muscles and cause fatigue.
Athletes must be able to train themselves to use certain respiration at
various times. Marathon runners must balance their use of anaerobic
respiration to prevent the buildup of lactic acid and avoid fatigue. They
can do this by pacing themselves throughout the race and conserving
their energy for the final stretch. During a marathon, your body needs to
conserve as much fuel as possible; if you run faster than your aerobic
threshold (the point at which you switch from running primarily using
aerobic respiration to running anaerobically) you will burn through your
fuel stores faster, and you will experience fatigue sooner, and your ability
to maintain pace will take a nosedive. This is as lactate pools in your
muscles, and you will have to slow dramatically to get your body back into
an aerobic state. However, it is
important to note that the
body's ability to perform
aerobic and anaerobic
respiration is affected by a
number of factors, including
age, genetics, and overall
fitness level. Therefore,
marathon runners must
ensure they have a high
aerobic threshold and only
sprint towards the end of the
race, knowing when to use
each specific type of respiration. Training programs that incorporate both
aerobic and anaerobic exercises can help marathon runners build
endurance and improve their overall performance.

Training involving activities for aerobic respiration involves activities that

improve the efficiency of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as
well as the muscles' ability to utilize oxygen for sustained energy
production.

This could include:

1. Cardiovascular Exercise: Engaging in activities that require

sustained effort over
an extended period,
such as long-distance
running or cycling,
helps develop aerobic
capacity.

2. Continuous Exercise:
Athletes often engage
in steady-state
activities like jogging,
swimming, or cycling at a moderate intensity for an extended
duration. This helps improve aerobic capacity and endurance.
 3. Long Slow Distance (LSD) Training: Includes Extended, Moderate-
Intensity Sessions where athletes undertake long slow distance
training sessions, where they sustain a moderate intensity for an
extended period. This type of training helps build endurance and
enhances the aerobic energy system.

4. Strength training/Muscle Endurance Workouts: Incorporating

strength training exercises with higher repetitions and lower weights
can enhance muscle endurance, supporting the aerobic energy
system during prolonged activities.

5. Altitude training: Some athletes incorporate altitude training to

stimulate adaptations that improve oxygen-carrying capacity.
Training at higher altitudes stimulates the production of red blood
cells, enhancing oxygen delivery to the muscles.

6. Recovery and Nutrition: Adequate rest and recovery are essential

for optimizing aerobic performance. This includes proper sleep,
hydration, and nutrition to support the body's energy needs.

7. Monitoring and assessments (regular fitness testing): Athletes often

undergo fitness assessments to monitor progress and adjust training
programs accordingly. This may include measures of aerobic
capacity, such as VO2 max testing.

100m sprint

A 100-meter sprint is a brief but high-intensity burst of activity, typically

lasting less than 10 seconds. This rapid and intense nature of the sprint
dictates a quick and immediate energy supply.

At the onset of the sprint, the body relies on stored ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) and creatine phosphate for the initial energy needs. These
sources provide immediate energy without the need for oxygen.

As the sprint progresses, the

demand for energy surpasses
the immediate availability of
ATP and creatine phosphate.
The glycolytic pathway, a form
of anaerobic respiration,
becomes the primary means of
energy production. During
glycolysis, glucose is rapidly
converted into pyruvate,
yielding a net production of two
molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) per molecule of glucose in the
absence of oxygen.

One notable byproduct of anaerobic glycolysis is the production of lactic

acid. In the absence of sufficient oxygen, pyruvate is converted into lactic
acid as a means of regenerating NAD+ for continued glycolysis. This
accumulation of lactic acid is associated with muscle fatigue and
soreness.

The intense energy demands of the 100-meter sprint often led to an

oxygen debt – the amount of oxygen required to restore normal metabolic
function after the sprint. This oxygen debt reflects the reliance on
anaerobic pathways during the sprint. Athletes often engage in post-
exercise breathing to repay this oxygen debt.

While the 100-meter sprint is primarily anaerobic, the transition to aerobic

respiration occurs during the recovery phase. Oxygen is now available,
and the body gradually shifts towards utilizing oxidative phosphorylation
in the mitochondria for sustained energy production.

In the 100-meter sprint, the vast majority of energy is derived from

anaerobic respiration, with glycolysis playing a central role. This form of
respiration provides a rapid but less efficient means of ATP production
compared to aerobic respiration.

Athletes in sports requiring short bursts of power, such as sprinters,

weightlifters, and certain team sports players, often incorporate specific
training regimens to enhance their anaerobic capacity. Trainings that
would be the most beneficial might involve interval training, resistance
training, and other exercises that stimulate anaerobic energy pathways.

Interval training is a form of cardiovascular exercise that alternates

between short, intense bursts of activity and periods of lower-intensity
recovery or rest. This type of training is particularly effective for improving
anaerobic respiration and enhancing the body's ability to tolerate and
recover from intense efforts.

Resistance training, also known as strength or weight training, involves

lifting weights or using resistance to build strength, power, and muscle
endurance. This type of training is beneficial for athletes wishing to
improve anaerobic respiration, as it enhances the capacity of muscles to
generate force and endure intense efforts.

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