CHAPTER 1 deals extensively with the analysis of political systems, the

theoretical and practical applications to politics, and the

FOUNDATIONS OF POLITICAL examination of political behavior. The Greek thinker,
SCIENCE Aristotle, defined political science as the study of the state.
Many political scientists view themselves as being engaged in
INTRODUCTION fleshing out the connections between political events and
Political science is branch of the social sciences that is mainly conditions, and general principles that posit the way the
practiced in the United States and United Kingdom. It is the world of politics by this understanding they hope to construct
analysis, description, and prediction of political behavior, a system of works. Political science is not a standalone field
political systems and politics. Another way of describing and it intersects many other branches like sociology,
this field is calling it "what politicians study in college." Like economics, history, anthropology, public policy among
the other social sciences, it's considered a "soft" science, others. Political scientists are much sought after these days
meaning it revolves more around subjective interpretations because of the changing landscape of politics across the
than hard data. Due to the complexity of human behavior world and since the society wants to understand how the
when it comes to politics, it will be a long time before it can political world
be anything else. It is the study of governments, public works, they need someone to explain the nuances of the
policies and political processes, systems and political political economy. Any casual perusal of the newspapers
behavior. Political science sub-fields include political theory, and the television channels reveals that political scientists
political philosophy, political ideology, political economy, are at the forefront of debates and discussions for their
policy studies and analysis comparative politics, international knowledge and expertise.
relations, and a host of related fields. Political scientists use
both humanistic and scientific perspectives and tools, in It is difficult to give a precise definition to political
addition to a variety of methodological approaches to science, because of its varying scope in different situations.
examine the process, systems, and political dynamics of all Let us examine some of those definitions.
countries and regions of the world. Political science is an
excellent major for students interested in learning how Paul Janet "Political science is that part of science
groups of people govern themselves, how policies are made, which treats of the foundations of state and the principles
and how we can improve our government policies at the of government".
local, state, national, and international levels. A political
science H.J Laski- "The study of politics concerns itself with
major prepares students for jobs in many fields, from the life of man in relation to organized states".
business to law to research.
Lasswell- "political science is the study of shaping
1.1 CONCEPT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE and sharing of power".

The term 'Political Science' consists of two words, viz, David Easton-"Political science is the study of
political and science. The word 'politics' is derived from the the authoritative allocation of values for a society".
Greek word 'Polis' which means the city-state. In ancient
Greece, the basic unit of political organization was the city- Politics is the process of making decisions that apply
state. It was the Greeks who first embarked upon the study to members of a group, it refers to achieving and exercising
of state as distinct from the church. The foundations of positions of governance organized control over a human
political thinking were laid by the great Greek philosophers, community, particularly a state.
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. "The Republic". Aristotle the
father of political science, firstly used the term 'politics' and
converted the subject into an academic discipline.
1.1.1 Scope of Political Science
Science is the systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the physical and natural world through
observation, evidence and experiment. So political science is The scope of political science is vast and experts have
the branch of knowledge that deals with systematic study of divided the field of political science into some sub-disciplines
the structure and behavior of the state and political that are political theory, public administration, comparative
institutions through scientific analysis. Politics refers to the politics, international relations, and public law.
subject matter of our study, science denotes the
methodology or the way of studying the process of politics. It needs to be noted that these sub-disciplines cover
The first term seeks to answer the question "what is studied" the entire gamut of the modern political economy and
and the second term refers to "how is it studied". Therefore, provide the basis for the study and understanding of how the
the political phenomenon which should be studied in global political economy works. The study of the matters
accordance with a definite plan or system is called political concerning the allocation and distribution as well as the
science. transfer of power is one of the main preoccupations of
political scientists. The success or otherwise of the
Political science is that branch of the social sciences that governance structures is gauged by political scientists who
studies the state, politics, and government. Political Science examine the multifaceted and multilayered factors at work
that contribute to good or bad governance. The scope of the
political scientists has now been broadened to include the population of a nation, state or local region. Some of the
realm of the study of the democratic elections across the major issues political philosophy deals with are the rights
world. In other words, with the explosion in the political of individuals, legal concerns and property rights. Other
systems all over the world. political scientists, and their scope concepts may include suffrage and the overall equality
of study has been considerably enhanced. Now a days, it is of members of the society. While the basic philosophical
very difficult to determine the precise and definite questions relate directly to the concept, these principles
boundaries of political science. It is wide and comprehensive can create social upheaval in the form of revolutions or
subject and there is no uniformity among political scientists rebellions. This can stem from simple ideas addressed in
about its scope. It is the study of organizations and activities works of literature or major events such as terrorist attacks
of the state, both at national and international levels. It also or the martyrdom of freedom fighters.
deals with the distribution of governing power among several
agencies by which the actions of the state are determined, Central to the concept of political philosophy is
expressed, and exercised and with the problems of the standards by which the government is organized. Many
international life. Yet some of the important subjects in the prominent philosophies through history included feudalism,
scope of political science are given below:- monarchies and oligarchies. Modern examples are
 Political Theory democracies, communism and libertarianism. Additional
 Political Philosophy movements within these nations and states are also said to
 Political Institutions represent political philosophies. Examples include feminism
 Political Dynamics and the lesbian-gay-bisexual-transsexual movement.
 Public Administration
 International Relations and International Law One major focal point of political philosophy is the
 Relation between the State and the Individual idea of panarchism. This states that a person has the right
to enter or leave any form of government and jurisdiction
Political Theory in which the person desires. Another major concept is the
issue of progressivism, the tendency of moving a society
Political theory is a set of specified relationships ward using reform to institute change. This is essentially the
encompassing political matters that focus and organize antithesis of those who focus on keeping the status quo
inquiry to describe, explain, and predict political events and intact and occasionally respond to new events in a
behaviors. Political theory is considered as the basis and reactionary manner.
branch of political science which attempts to arrive at
generalizations, inferences, or conclusions to be drawn from An important factor in political philosophy
the data gathered by other specialists, not only in political throughout history has been the position of political media.
science, but throughout the whole range of human Since antiquity, various writers and speakers have worked to
knowledge and experience. From ancient Greece to the drive political discourse. In modern times, this has become
present, the history of political theory has dealt with an industry based on newspapers, magazines, television and
fundamental and perennial ideas of Political Science. Political film designed to help stimulate political discussions.
theory reflects upon political phenomenon, processes and Throughout history, however, this media has also been used
institutions and on actual political behavior by subjecting it to to move the overall philosophy in the direction of its
philosophical or ethical criterion. The most dominant political choosing. It can also be used to make money for the
theories realize all three goals such as describe, explain, and Companies or individuals involved.
predict. The theories are the results of thoughts and research
of many scholars and exponents of political science. Thinkers Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems
on the subject formulate definitions of various political concerning matters such as existence, ,knowledge, values,
concepts and establish theories. knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

Germino described that 'Political theory is the most

appropriate term to employ in designating that intellectual Political philosophy is strongly associated with
tradition which affirms the possibility of transcending the sociology. Scientists research the different ways in which
sphere of immediate practical concerns and viewing man's society changes its dynamics regarding political stances
societal existence from a critical perspective. Political theory and the reasons they do so. Observations can be made
is, quite simply, man's attempts to consciously understand that show different events and structures within a society
and solve the problems of his group life and organization. It is that are directly associated with changing dynamics of
the disciplined investigation of political problems not only to philosophy. Many of these changes then lead to more
show what a political practice is, but also to show what it changes, creating a continual environment of evolution in
means. In showing what a practice means, or what it ought to the political spectrum.
mean, political theory can alter what it is.'
Political Institutions
Political Philosophy
A political philosophy is the concept by which an individual Political Science is also concerned with the study of political
or group of people adopt specific viewpoints regarding the institutions and associations through with the state acts. It
duties of a government and the way it interacts with the covers the study of the constitutions, comparative
government, public administration and local government etc.
It also deals with the nature of different political institutions is a growing area of Political Science.
including government, their structure such as legislature, It covers such important subjects as diplomacy,
executive and judiciary, its working, its merits and demerits international politics, foreign policies and international
etc. Further it studies about some informal groups like social, organizations. In view of world peace, cooperation and even
economic, educational institutions in a society. 'world government,' the need for strong international laws
and sound international relations can hardly be exaggerated.
The field of Political Science is rather vast. It includes
the study of political institutions. This covers a study of
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations
constitutions and comparative government, explains their
between representatives of states.
merits and demerits, their structure and working and arrives
at different conclusions on comparative basis. Besides, the
study of public administration and local government may be
included in this area. These institutions are useful to the Relation between the State and the Individual
nation and hence they are studied along with the State.
The perennial and central problem, with which Political
Political Dynamics Science is concerned, is to establish proper relationship
between the state and individuals. The state guarantees
Political dynamics examines the current forces which exert certain rights and freedoms to individuals and regulates their
influence on the government and politics. Along with the conduct and action through the legal system.
change of habits also are bound to occur of men, social
system also change. This explains why the city states The proper adjustment between the authority and
of ancient times are replaced by the nation states in the power of the state and liberty of the individuals is a knotty
present century. The search for the cause of this kind of problem. Political Science deals with the proper sphere of
changes in the character of the state and government is the state action, the limits of political control and the area of
study of political dynamics. The term refers to the forces individual freedom.
and processes at work in government and politics. They Thus, the scope of Political Science has been
influence and explain political action. They include the study expanding in recent times. The social life of man has a direct
of political parties, pressure groups, interest groups, lobbies, or indirect influence on his political life. Political Science
public opinion, propaganda and political semantics enters any sphere of life which has political implications.
(meaning of words) which influence and manipulate political
behavior and attitudes of individuals and groups. Modern Political Science in the era of
post- behaviouralism deals with both empirical facts and
More recently, there has been a trend to extend the value preferences. It is a combination of both science and
scope of Political Science into new areas of empirical philosophy. Hence it is a dynamic social science and its scope
investigation into political behavior. Drawing upon the is ever expanding.
resources of other social sciences, Political Science has
developed not only new techniques of analysis but new 1.1.2 Importance of the study of Political Science
concepts like political culture, political socialization and
political communication to explain political phenomena. The importance of political science lies in the fact that all of
us live within political systems and we are affected by the
Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments changes in the global political economy. With the advent of
which give order and meaning to a political process and globalization, there has been a concomitant rise in the
which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that interest taken by the people of the world in understanding
govern behavior in the political system. the political systems of other countries. Hence, political
scientists become valued and important as they provide the
lens through which we can understand the global political
economy. The study of Political Science in very useful and
Public Administration valuable. Its knowledge is essential and useful to both the
ruler and the ruled. The significance of the study of Political
Public Administration is a major branch of Political Science Science is discussed below:
and is emerging as an independent discipline in recent times.
It deals with the organization, control and coordination
of administrative machinery, personnel administration,
Imparting Knowledge of the State
financial administration, public relations, management,
administrative law and adjudication etc. It also covers the However, the primary aim of the study of Political Science is
study of local self-governing institutions like corporations, to inculcate knowledge of the State, its origin, nature,
municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions. structure and functions. Knowledge about the State is of
great significance to modern man.
International Relations and International Law

International Law is a body of general principles and specific

rules which regulate the relationship among states and
international institutions. The study of international relations
Imparting Knowledge of government and 1.1.3 Nature of Political Science
administration
Political science is still growing and developing subject. So
The administrators, political leaders and diplomats, who there is no uniformity among political thinkers regarding
conduct the affairs of the State, also require sound the nature of political science, whether it should be treated
knowledge of Political Science in order to perform their as a science or not. Aristotle, the father of political science,
functions with efficiency. An administrator who has no considered it as the master science. Political philosophers
knowledge of political science is bound to be failure. The like Bodin, Hobbes, Bluntschli, Bryce also held the view
principles and norms established in the scholars in political that political science is a science.
science are of immense utility and value to the executives,
legislators and judges. Political science is said to be a science But some other political scientists reject the
of statesmanship and leadership. scientific universally nature of political science. It is said that
in political science there is no uniform principles on laws
Imparting Knowledge about the world which are valid. Human behavior is unpredictable. It,
therefore, does not supply sufficient materials for scientific
study. The essence of the scientific method is that it will not
However, apart from these utilitarian considerations, the accept generalizations unless they are based on facts which
acquisition of knowledge of political science enriches one's can be verified. Political scientists like Buckle and Comte deny
mind and widens one's intellectual horizon. In order to the claim of political science as a science.
know what is happening in the world around us at least
an elementary knowledge of political science is necessary. The reality is that, a social science is different from
In the modern age an individual cannot lead an isolated natural science or a physical science. Science is the
life. Each country has to maintain relations with other systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical
countries of the world. and natural world through observation, evidence
and experiment. It is the body of true knowledge acquired
Creation of democratic values through scientific process. But in social science we cannot
expect so much accuracy and precision as we see in science
The study of Political Science has assumed special importance subjects. Hundred percentage prediction is not possible in
in modern times in all democratic countries. The success of social science because it deals with the behavior of man
democracy depends upon the political consciousness of its and his political institutions. There is only remote chance
people. The study of political science makes people conscious for verification and prediction in this subjects. While in
of their rights and duties. It also makes them vigilant unless the study of political phenomena, we can apply scientific
the citizens of a country are vigilant, alert, intelligent and method and tools.
patriotic; there is no possibility of successful working of
democracy in that country. It is rightly said that "eternal 1.1.4 Faces of political science
vigilance is the price of liberty".
Conflict and co-operation are the two faces of political
Creation of good citizenship science. As a matter of fact, they are two sides of the
same coin. Conflicts are not desirable but unavoidable and
The study of Political Science is valuable for creating good inevitable in human society. Conflicts may arise due to many
citizenship and securing unity of the nation. It makes citizens discord arising within a factors like social, economic, cultural
conscious of national, objectives and goals. Laski said that and psychological. Whatever may be the degree or stage of
good citizenship implies "the contribution of one's instructed conflict, solution has to be found out to solve it.
judgment to public good". It can be developed by the study
of political science. Political Science teaches the lessons and The state is the final authority in society. It finds
virtues of good citizenship. solution in the form of integration. State enacts laws, rules
and procedures for society. The state can also use force
Lesson of co-operation and toleration through police, the army and the prisons. But it should be
used as a last resort. To be precise force should be used as
Political science also teaches the lesson of co-operation, the very, very last resort. Education plays a major role in
adjustment and toleration. Society cannot prosper without the process of integration. The newspapers, the radio, the
cooperation. Man should learn how to co-operate and adjust television and internet are important. Welfare of the people
himself with his fellow-beings. People of all walks of life is the aim of every state. With the advancement of science
should co-operate for the better development of the country. and technology, a new set of conflicts are not ruled out.
Toleration is also necessary in society.
It is the responsibility of the state to solve the
conflicts paving way for the welfare of the people. And of
Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill course, there is no denying the fact that that is
encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to the aim of the state.
"lead" or guide other individuals, teams, or entire
organizations.
 important branch of political science. It was called political
economy.
Conflict refers to some form of friction, or group when the
beliefs or actions of one or more members of the group are
Now the two social sciences namely political science and
either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more members
economics have their individuality and identification.
of another group.
Economics is a social science dealing with the production,
distribution, exchange and consumption of wealth in the
society. All economic activity is carried on within the state on
1.1.5 Relationship of Political science and other conditions and stipulations laid down by the state.
social and human sciences
Political science and economics are concerned with such
Social sciences study how people interact with and matters, as formulation of five year plans, the socialistic
relate to one another. Political science, with its emphasis on pattern of society economic and welfare activities of
political systems and the distribution of power, falls into this government.
larger academic category.
The political conditions of a country are greatly affected by its
These are those sciences, which discuss about the economic conditions. Healthy economy depends on a strong,
things connected with the affairs of individuals living in effective and efficient administration of a country.
society, political science, economics, history, geography are
some of the important social sciences. Political Science and Geography
Political science is immensely benefited from other
Political science is also related to geography. Geo means
social sciences. It is essentially connected and related to
earth and graphy means description and geography is the
other social sciences. As a matter of fact, all social sciences
description of the earth. Geography is the study of the earth's
are interrelated and interdependent.
surface, physical features, natural and political divisions,
climatic conditions, population, etc.
Political Science and History
It helps us to understand the impact and influence of
There is closed and intimate relationship between political geographical conditions of the political institutions of a
science and history. The relationship between political country. Political geography is known as geopolitics, a new
science and history is beautifully explained by John Seeley. branch of study in modern times. Montesquieu stressed the
influence of physical environments on the forms of
'History without political science has no fruit and government and liberty of the people. As territory is an
political science without history has no root. To quote the essential element of a state, geo-political factors influence
same author again, political environment. There is a link between the climatic
conditions and form of government. Warm climates are
'Politics is vulgar when not liberalized by history and conducive to despots, cold climates to barbarism and
history fades into mere literature when it loses sight of its moderate climate to a good polity.
relation to politics'.
Political Science and Sociology
According to Freeman, ‘History is past politics and
politics is present history’. They are complementary to each Sociology studies social life and human interactions, from
other. Montesquieu and Bryce made use of historical how groups form to how large organizations run to how
materials to study political science. people interact with one another. Political scientists make
Lord Bryce claims that, political science stands use of sociological studies and methods when examining,
midway between history and politics, between the past and for example, how small group dynamics affect the decision-
the present. making process, how people acquire and maintain power,
and how political culture shapes our attitudes.
It has drawn its materials from the one; it has to
apply them to the other. History deals with past events, Sociology is the root of all social sciences. Auguste
movements revolutions, national struggles etc. and gives Comte is the father of sociology. Sociology is the study
information about the origin and development of political of Society. Political science and sociology are inter-related
institutions and thought. When various issues, concepts and political scientists and sociologists contribute mutually for
terms, ideologies, are discussed in political science, their the benefit of whole society.
historical development is also taken into consideration.
For example, the institution of marriage and related
Political Science and Economics problems after that, namely divorce are within the domain
of sociology. How to solve these problems in a harmonious
Political science and economics are very closely related. In way for better standard of life is within the competence of
the past, economics has been regarded as a branch of political science.
political science. 'An Enquiry into the Nature and Courses of
Wealth of Nations' also considered economics as an
 What was once a sub-field of sociology has now But when an artist applies the knowledge of colors in painting
takes the form of 'political sociology' which is now a a picture, it is an art for the knowledge of colors has been
legitimate sub-field of political science. applied to produce a painting.

Let us see whether political science can be an art.

Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns
Political Science is a body of systematized knowledge about
of social relationships, social interaction, and culture.
the State. Can this knowledge be applied in practical
situation? When drafting a constitution, knowledge of
political science
1.1.6 Is Political Science an Art or Science? is applied.

Aristotle, who is traditionally referred to as the father of In administering the day-to-day affairs of a State,
Political Science, considered Political Science as the master knowledge of political science is necessary. In formulating
of all sciences or the supreme science. Similarly, Sidgwik foreign policies and in conducting diplomatic relations with
and Bryce consider Political Science as a science. But certain foreign States, knowledge of political science imperative. We
other persons like Maitland deny that Political Science is observe that political science does not merely accumulate
not a science. theoretical knowledge.

Aristotle, who is traditionally referred to as the Knowledge of political science is applied by

father of Political Science, considered Political Science as the statesmen, diplomats and administrators to achieve their
master of all sciences or the supreme science. Similarly, respective ends in their day-to-day functions.
Sidgwik and Bryce consider Political Science as a science. But Hence, political science can also be branded as an art, if by
certain other persons like Maitland deny that Political Science art we mean "practical
is not a science. application of knowledge for the achievement of a particular
end.""
What is a Science?
Both Science and Art
Before one examines the claim of political science to be
called as a science, one ought to know what the meaning of Aristotle was the first thinker who viewed political science as
science is. Science may be defined as "a body of systematized a science. Bodin, Hobbes, Rousseau, Bryce, Bluntschli,
knowledge". So, a knowledge that has been accumulated by Garner, Leacock, etc. all accept this claim. But the majority of
a systematic process is called a science. These may be the writers call it both a science and an art. It is an art in
physical sciences or social sciences. the sense that knows ledge of political science is not of
theoretical significance only. On the other hand, knowledge
Physical sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, of Political Science has practical value. Hence, Political
etc. follow this scientific approach while studying physical Science can be called both as a science and an art.
phenomena. Social sciences like Sociology, Political Science
and Economics also follow this scientific approach while 1.2 APPROACHES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
studying social phenomena.
In simple terms, an approach may be defined as a way of
A political scientist may observe the electoral looking at and then explaining particular phenomena.
behavior in a constituency systematically, with a view to Approaches and methods to the study of politics are many
formulating general principles. Political scientists like and most of them seem to overlap each other in varying
Aristotle and Bryce observed systematically the working of measures. From Plato and Aristotle in the remote past to
the governmental systems in many States. As a result of their Laski and Laswell in the present we have a very large number
studies, certain principles in Political Science were of great thinkers, theorists and analysts who have made an
formulated. attempt to understand and explain political reality in their
own ways, with their own approaches.
Thus, when one examines the principles of political
science, one finds that these principles have been formulated
1.2.1 The Traditional Approach
after a systematic study of political phenomena. Now, if by
science one means a body systematized knowledge, the
political science is, no doubt, a science. Traditional approaches are value based. These approaches
put emphasis on values more that facts. Advocates of this
approaches believe that the study of political science cannot
Is Political Science an Art?
and should not be purely scientific. They stated that in social
science such as facts values are closely related with each
What is an Art? By art it generally means "practical other. In politics, emphasis should not be on the facts but on
application of knowledge for the achievement of a particular the moral quality of political event. There are huge number
end". A scientist may possess thorough knowledge of the of traditional approaches such as philosophical, institutional,
chemical composition of nature and characteristic of colors. legal, and historical approaches.
 The traditional approaches to Political Science were structure of such a state are built upon the concepts like
widely prevalent till the outbreak of the Second World War. 'should', 'ought', 'preference' etc. He said that any state or
These approaches were mainly related to the traditional view society ought to be or should be ideal or good and he has
of politics which emphasized the study of the state and elaborated the criteria of good or ideal in his The Republic.
government. Therefore, traditional approaches are primarily
concerned with the study of the organization and activities of The picture of state that prevailed in Plato's time
the state and principles and the ideas which underlie political was very far from of what ought to be or should be. In most
organizations and activities. This study encompasses the of the city-states in Plato's time there was no place and
need for political scientists to look for empirical evidence recognition of morality, virtue, ideals and ethics. But he
when they are studying or making political decisions. These firmly believed that a state ought to have these eternal
approaches were normative and idealistic. The political values and he also said that in order to be an ideal state all
thinkers advocating these approaches, therefore, raised individuals must be ideal that is they must possess virtues
questions like ,,what should be an ideal state? According to such as morality and various ethical qualities.
them the study of Political Science should be confined to the
formal structures of the government, laws, rules and The normative approach stressed by Plato, Aristotle,
regulations. and Rousseau etc. has assumed the form and color of
Utopia. Utopia means something which has no practical
Traditional approaches include under the following: foundations and it is not supported by reasons. Large
(a) Normative (b) Philosophical (c) Historical, and (d) number of philosophers began to scan the existing systems
Institutional approaches. by Utopian criteria. Again with the help of this standard
existing situations are to be judged.
Normative Approach
Central Idea of Normative Approach
The term normative is derived from the Latin word norma,
meaning precept rule, carpenter's square. The word norm The central idea of the normative approach to the study
means usual, typical or standard thing. Normative relates to of politics is politics or analysis of state or the functions
norm or standard. The central idea of normative approach is- of state are to be viewed in the light of what ought to be
the subject is viewed and analyzed normatively that is there rather that what they are. The normativeness wants to
are certain standards, rules and precepts which must find give preference to should and ought to be. It wants the
their application in political science. realizations of certain universal values, norms or principles
through, the machinery of state. "Instead of asking how
Again, political science means in its operative social policy decisions have come to be made, it asks instead
aspects. When the state starts its operation its primary about how they ought to be made. In such studies the aim
objective would be to achieve the above-noted norms, is to examine a set of political principles, detail their logical
standards and precepts. The success and failure will characteristics and explore their implications for social
determine the nature, credibility, acceptability of the policy, at least in broad institutional terms".
state or government.
It is assumed by some that since normative
Hence norms are several principles which an principles relates to what should be or ought to be these
authority cannot deny. The accountability of the authority is principles can easily be ignored. But the great adherents of
also based on these norms and principles. Norm or the approach declare unambiguously that norms, or
normative-ness is explained in terms of "should" and principles are not to be ignored but they are to be
"ought". It means that the authority should do it or adopt implemented. "Normative theory should be a reflection on
such and such policy or decision. Or it ought to do it. practice, not a means of ignoring it".

Therefore, normative-ness talks about preference. Thus we can say that values, principles or eternal
The word preference is not different from should and ought. ideas relating to politics or function of state constituted the
To sum up, the objectives and functions of state are judged central idea of normative approach to the study of politics. In
in the background of preference, should and ought. other words, this approach says that norms or principles are
to be followed in practice and the aim of such norms is to
make the political organization acceptable to all or majority
Preferences refer to certain characteristics any consumer
people.
wants to have in a good or service to make it preferable to
him.
Majority is the greater part, or more than
half, of the total. It is a subset of a set consisting of more than
half of the set's
Origin of the Approach elements.

Normative approach to the study of politics owes its origin

to the political philosophy of Greek philosopher Plato. The
thought of a good society or an ideal state and the entire
Components of the Normative Approach the wind. They have importance and a large number of
political scientists and statesmen still believe that the norms
In the normative approach there is an emphasis on what have immense importance.
is good and what is not good. It says that when a policy-
maker proceeds to formulate policy or adopt a decision he The normative approach criticizes the functions,
must see that to what extent the policy or decision will principles and policies of the existing states as did Plato in his
produce desired results. The concept of goodness is linked The Republic. Even today the same approach is followed. The
with expectation. criticism by the supporters of the normative approach has
not always succeeded in changing the prevailing course of
The members of political organization want to fulfill action of the state or the un-normative principles of the
their manifold desires and they expect that the authority authority.
shall act accordingly. It may be that the expectations do not
always tally the real results. But that does not matter. The But it has been able to aware the public about the
expectations fall in the category of "ought to be". Good also state of activities of political organization. This approach
relates to the attainment of welfare objectives of the state. suggests that what is going on should be changed for the
The term good starts to scan the policy, decision and function better. It is still believed that the normative approach can be
of authority. helpful for the day to day activities of state.

The normative approach establishes the concept of It is alleged that normative approach to the study of
responsibility. If certain norms and principles are put forward politics is a smack of norms, ideals, values and principles
and if they are made binding on the authority, people can which have not full relevance to the reality of social and
judge the success or failure of the authority. In other words, political situation. But this criticism is not tenable. As every
norms are easy of locating the responsibility. individual should decide certain principles which he wants, to
follow, a state should also decide or set up certain ideals,
Normative approach stipulates that norms or norms and principles which it should apply while deciding
principles are of immense value and importance so far as the policies and taking decisions.
determination of policy and decision and their
implementation are concerned. 'Is' or 'what' is happening, All these are declared in various forms such as
are important no doubt but every authority must follow constitution, laws and general policy decisions. After deciding
these norms and ideals. the principles or general objectives the state proceeds to
implement them. This can be illustrated by the Constitution
Normative approach envisages of striking a balance of India. The Preamble to our Constitution contains several
or equilibrium between what is or what happens and ought lofty ideals and many of them are yet to be achieved. But this
to be or should be. Any biasness will invariably plague the non-implementation does not invalidate the ideals.
proper functioning of state as well as decision making
process. The rise of welfare state and its increasing popularity
have added new feathers to this approach. The concept of
An authority aiming at the attainment of general welfare state declares that the function of the state does not
welfare objectives cannot take the risk of neglecting either exhaust in maintaining law and order alone, it must perform
ought to be or what is. The balancing process is not a stable many other functions which will bring about general welfare
one. It is always in an unstable condition. It moves from one to the society. The welfare objectives on the one hand and
stage to another. ideals, norms, principles on the other hand are always at par.
The welfare objectives pay more importance upon ought to
Normative approach never thinks of anything be or should be.
settled. Though it is generally argued that norms, values,
principles are of eternal in nature but scholars are of opinion The function of the state is not a static one. In a
that the word 'eternal' need not be taken seriously. dynamic society it should also be dynamic. It means that the
state should make continuous efforts for the improvement of
Values, norms etc. are always subject to change and its functions and this again means that there should be
a responsible authority must take this change into account certain ideals, principles and norms before it. Otherwise it
and also will act accordingly. That is normative approach will have to sail in an uncharted sea. But a pragmatic theory
though pays heavy emphasis on norms it proceeds with the of state does not suggest that the state should sail in an
change. In every age certain norms, values and principles are uncharted sea. The fact is that the state should decide certain
given more importance and they are given priority. ideals and then it will begin its journey.

Importance of Normative Approach It is apprehended that there may arise conflict

between practice and ideals or between "is" and "ought to
It is now evident that in normative approach there is be" and this conflict may dwarf the activities of the state.
lot of importance of norms, values, ideals, ideas. It further There is also a possibility that the norms could not be
believes that they have got relevance in the study of politics. fulfilled. But the non-fulfilment does not call for its rejection.
It is a fact that all these cannot be translated into reality. But Norms are always norms and they always act as guiding stars.
on this ground the norms, values, etc. cannot be thrown into
 Plato's ideal state, philosopher king, Aristotle's which this approach establishes or finds out may be of
polity, Marx's classless state or society, his communism, various kinds-normative, descriptive or prescriptive. But the
Rousseau's moral state etc. still haunt us. We all know that all philosophical approach is indifferent to the nature or
these can never be achieved but we still hope that we must category of truth.
try to achieve them because they are our ideals.
It also tries to establish standards of good, right and
It is not surprising that in the writings and thought just. It has been observed by a critic that the objective of
systems of every philosopher there is an important place of this approach is to determine what is in the interest of
ideals and principles and this place is very much important. the public and he identifies interest more with ends that
Take the case of utilitarianism. Its great pro pounders with means.
proposed that the state authority must follow the principle of
pleasure and pain or in general the policy of utility while Philosophical approach helps us to understand the
making policy or taking decisions. The utilitarianism has not contemporary history and the nature of politics suggested
been strictly followed or it is ignored, but it still holds by philosophers. To put it in other words, the philosophical
good as a policy of liberalism. approach helps us to the acquainted with the political
ideologies of past centuries. In this sense, the philosophical
The supporters of the normative approach say that approach is highly important.
this hints at the efficiency of the state. Once the norms and
ideals are declared the authority of the state should make Criticism of the Philosophical Approach
arrangement for their implementation any discrepancy
between promises and performance will call for a valuation In spite of the immense importance of the philosophical
of the activities. If the discrepancy stands at a minimum level approach to the study of politics critics have raised several
that will be an indication of the efficiency of the state. questions about its worthiness. One of the central ideas
of political philosophy is idealism and it is prominent in
Some political scientists claim that an adequate and Plato's The Republic Critics say that idealism itself is quite
comprehensive political theory must duly take into account good but when its practical application arises it appears
of the normative approach to the study of politics. Legal to be a myth.
approach and empirical approach have importance no doubt.
But normative approach has importance. Idealism was a favorite's theory of Plato, but it had
not practical importance and be fully realized that idealism
Philosophical Approach would never be translated into reality. It is a subject of sheer
imagination. Machiavelli and Hobbes wrote with the sole
Philosophical approach is another traditional or classical purpose of supporting the status quo. We cannot forgive
approach of studying politics. There are many definitions of Hobbes for his authoritarian view and anti-individualist
philosophy and one such definition is, philosophy "is the stand.
study or science of truths or principles underlying all
knowledge and being." It means that philosophy or The philosophical thinkers of the earlier epochs were
philosophical approach attempts to find the truth of political impractical thinkers. They had no intention to propagate
incidents or events. It explores the objective of political ideas which can change society. They were indifferent to
writings or the purpose of political writer. people s liking and disliking, their love for liberty, their
sorrows and sufferings and they failed to provide
The purpose of philosophical approach is to analyses prophylactic devices. As an academic discipline philosophical
the consequences of incidents in a logical and scientific approach is all right, but as, practical guide for action it has
manner. According to Van Dyke "philosophy denotes thought hardly any importance.
about thought. Somewhat more broadly it denotes general
conceptions of ends and means, purposes and methods." The
purpose of philosophical approach is to clarify the words and Discipline is action or inaction that is regulated to be in
terms used by the political philosophers. The enquiry started accordance (or to achieve accord) with a system of
by the philosophical approach removes confusion about the governance.
assumptions.

The important plus point of philosophical approach

is it enters into the depth of every aspect of political Evaluation
phenomena and scans them without any partiality Its
interpretation of political activities evokes interest in the
Plato and Hegel were impractical philosophers no doubt.
minds of students of politics Words and phrases used by
Their philosophy may impress us but does not guide us.
philosophers throw light on the subject. Philosophical
There are other philosophers who do not fall in this category.
approach, it is claimed, enhances linguistic clarity. That is why
For example philosophies of Marx, Engels, and Lenin guide us
it is said that this approach aims at thought about thought.
and in the purpose was to change the society. These
philosophers took a realistic view of society. They interpreted
The method applied by philosophical approach is
history from materialistic point of view. The idealism and
logical analysis. It uses reason to find out the truth. The truth
philosophy of Marx, Engels and some others had a relation to
material world.
It is to be noted here that the events must have
The idealist philosophers of earlier periods had political baring or they must be politically significant. These
strongly advocated certain moral, ethical and ideal values. It events provide the best materials upon which theory and
is true that these values will never be realized in reality. But principles of political science are built. History tells us how
ideal is ideal, it guides us. The eternal value of Plato's government, political parties and many other institutions
idealistic philosophy in politics is not divorced from morality worked, their successes and failures and from these we
and idealism. receive lessons which guide us in determining the future
course of action. Let us take an example.
The philosophical ideas of particular philosophers
are to be judged in the background of contemporary social, The American President enjoys enormous powers.
economic and political situations. Machiavelli supported But all his powers are not derived from the Constitution. In
royal absolutism for the unification of Italy. Hobbes wanted order to find out a distinction between what powers he
to save England from disorder and anarchy which engulfed enjoyed past and powers now he is exercising, historical
the British Society of his time. analysis is essential. Naturally, history helps us a lot in this
regard. Without history we cannot collect any past incidents.
All of them were great patriots. Ruosseau could not The sources of British constitution are historical facts or
tolerate the alienation of man from society and the loss of incidents.
liberty with the progress of civilization, arts and literature. To
him the state was a public moral person whose chief duty A very small part of British constitution is written.
was to ensure liberty and morality as well as to reform the Powers and functions of Prime Minister, Monarchy and
people. The philosophical approach to the study of politics different organs of government are derived from history. To
throws light on these aspects of politics. support or refute an argument or a conclusion one can cite
facts recorded in the pages of history. The principles or
Degradation of moral values and rampant conclusions of politics in many cases are based on historical
corruption are the distinguishing features of the society incidents. Briefly stated the historical approach means to
which is at the threshold of the 21st century. If we want to study politics with the help of facts derived from history.
free politics from these, we must try to revive moral values
and idealism about which Plato spoke long ago. We are not History is not simply the record of past events and
thinking about a philosopher- king, but we must think about achievements but the interpretations, comments and
an honest, able, moral and ideal ruler who may be a prime explanations made by the historians. They also arrange the
minister or president. events chronologically. All these are regarded as suitable
materials for political scientists. We can say the historians
Plato's main concern was justice and ideal state. have made the task of the political scientists partially easy.
Marx spoke of emancipation of the toiling mass. All these The comparisons and conclusions of historians very often
constitute the elements of idealism and we cannot treat throw ample light on principles of politics.
them insignificant.
Two great personalities of political philosophy
The purpose of the welfare state is to ensure depended upon history in a remarkable way. They are Marx
emancipation. Locke's liberalism appears and reappears. His and Hegel. In fact, Marx's theory of class struggle and
constitutionalism has an important place in British and Indian increasing impoverishment of the working class are
systems. In our analysis of the philosophical approach to the buttressed by historical data. Hegel drew inspiration in
study of politics we must remember these points. formulating a philosophical theory of civilization and its
manifestation in national state from the study of history.
Historical Approach Dyke says that Marx has reified and personified history.

The historical approach to the study of politics is one of the Michael Oakshott unequivocally lays emphasis on
traditional approaches. History means the records of past the historical approach of the study of politics. He offers us
incidents and facts. These took place at different periods. It the following observation: "Politics as the activity of
also means what people have thought or imagined. "History attending to the general arrangements of a collection of
as a record consists of documentary and other primary people who compose a single community." Here his main
evidences" which occurred in the past. So far as historical emphasis is on the tradition and practice of political
approach is concerned we shall concentrate our attention on community.
historical events recorded in documentary evidences.
He also distrusts rationalism. In his judgment,
The characteristic feature of historical approach is inhabitants of a state are "hereditary cooperative groups."
that history as a written or recorded subject focuses on the Oakshott's final observation demands our special attention.
past events. From history we come to know how man was in He says "what we are learning to understand is a political
the past and what he is now. History is the store-house of tradition, a concrete manner of behavior. And for this reason
events. From the biographies, autobiographies, descriptions it is proper that at the academic level the study of politics
by authors and journalists we come to know what event took should be an historical study."
place in the past.
 Not only Oakshott but many other modern political England. Their method is historical, but they have interpreted
scientist have supported the historical approach to the study the documents liberally. The writings of these authors are
of political science. encouraging and have created precedents. Many other
thinkers have depended upon historical facts for the analysis
Evaluation of Historical Approach of politics. Many of them have been successful, but not all.

The historical approach to the study of politics has faced a Institutional Approach
few challenges from several quarters. One of the main
fulcrums of the challenges is history has two faces- one is There is a strong belief that philosophy, history and law have
documentation of facts which is quite naive and the other is bestowed to the study of politics and it is in the field of
interpretation of facts and phenomena. Again, the institutional approaches. Institutional approaches are ancient
accumulation of evidences is to be judged from a proper and important approach to the study of Political Science.
perspective. These approaches mainly deals with the formal aspects of
government and politics. Institutional approach is concerned
The implication is adequate care should be taken with the study of the formal political structures like
while evaluating evidence and facts and it is not surprising legislature, executive, and judiciary. It focused on the rules of
that such a caution is not always strictly followed and, as a the political system, the powers of the various institutions,
result the historical facts do not serve the proper purpose of the legislative bodies, and how the constitution worked. Main
those who use it. This is the main objection against the drawback of this approach was its narrow focus on formal
historical approach to the study of politics. We can in this structures and arrangements. In far-reaching terms, an
connection remember the opinion of a critic. institution can be described as 'any persistent system of
activities in any pattern of group behavior. More concretely,
He says: "History in the light of the best modern an institution has been regarded as 'offices and agencies
practice is to be sharply distinguished from the arranged in a hierarchy, each agency having certain functions
antiquarianism or the collection of facts for their own sake and powers.
and should be defined rather as the study of problems or
causes, the interpretation of phenomena". The study of institutions has been dominant not only
to the arena of comparative politics, but to the political
Of course, how much caution the historian will take science field as a whole. Many writers have argued that
cannot be said before- hand. It depends upon the person and institutions have shaped political behavior and social change.
the facts. Caution is, however, essential. The adoption of These authors have taken an "institutionalist" approach
caution is mandatory because history records fabricated which treat institutions as independent variables. In the last
data. Facts and incidents are not always correctly recorded. twenty-five years, the field of comparative politics has
This is not an imaginary allegation. experienced the advent of the "new institutionalism," which
developed in reaction to the behavioral perspectives that
Alan Ball has drawn our attention to another dark exercise a significant influence on the field during the 1960s
side of the historical approach. He says "past evidence does and 1970s.
leave alarming gaps, and political history is often simply a
record of great men and great events, rather than a The new institutionalism body can be divided into
comprehensive account of total political activity." Very few three analytical approaches:
historians interpret historical events and evidences broadly  Historical institutionalism
and liberally.  Rational choice institutionalism
 Sociological institutionalism
Narrowness in outlook prevails upon them leading These three theoretical approaches developed
to the biased interpretation of facts. This cannot provide a autonomously from each other.
better and reliable basis for political science. The historian
must be sincere in collecting facts and impartial in The institutional approach to political analysis
interpreting them. Such an approach only can be helpful for emphasizes on the formal structures and agencies of
the study of politics. government. It originally concentrated on the development
and operation of legislatures, executives and judiciaries. As
For example, Sir Ivor Jenning's is a great authority on the approach developed however, the list is extended to
British constitution and his analysis about various aspects of include political parties, constitutions, bureaucracies, interest
British Constitution is still regarded as authentic. His groups and other institutions which are more or less
treatment of history is really unique. The depth of analysis, enduringly engaged in politics.
broadness of outlook and impartiality of treatment has
elevated his research and students of politics still remember In the descriptive-institutional approach, the stress
him. From the records of history Jennings has formulated a is on facts rather than values. In other words, the approach
comprehensive account of the British Prime Minister, provide factual and historical answers to such questions as;
Parliament and other departments of Government.
 What are the historical sources of parliamentary
Robert Mackenzie studied the party system and supremacy over the kingdom?
Mackintosh investigated the working of cabinet system of  What are the procedures followed when a bill
 becomes law? environment into which is included international politics
 By what electoral arrangement are values or multinational corporations, non- governmental organizations
representatives chosen? or trans-national bodies.
 What are the relative merits and demerits of rigid
and flexible constitutions? The decision-making process of the nation state is
influenced by international events and the political activity of
Though, descriptive-institutional approach is slightly other nation states. When the traditionalists were
old, political experts still concentrate chiefly on scrutinizing writing the nature of politics, the interdependence of
the major political institutions of the state such as the national and international politics was not unknown to them
executive, legislature, the civil service, the judiciary and local and it is their failure not to recognize if. Viewed in this light
government, and from these examinations, valuable insights we can say that traditional approach is biased and
as to their organization can be drawn, proposals for reform incomplete. It has not the ability to meet the needs which are
conversed and general conclusions obtainable. The approach rising in the present age.
has been critiqued for the disregard of the informed aspects
of politics, norms, beliefs, values, attitudes, personality and Attention is to be paid to another shortcoming. The
the processes. Institutional approach is also criticized for traditional approach as a method of analyzing politics is
being too narrow. It ignores the role of individuals who deficient for the analysis of political institutions of the Third
constitute and operate the formal as well as informal World countries, particularly the countries which do not
structures and substructures of a political system. Another follow the Western political system in to. In these countries,
problem is that the meaning and the range of an institutional if we try to find out Western system or institutions that will
system vary with the view of the scholars. Researchers of this be an utter failure.
approach ignored the international politics.
It is, therefore, alleged that traditional analysis is
unsuitable for all types of political systems-both Western and
Attitude is a psychological construct, a mental and emotional
non-Western. To compensate this deficiency the political
entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person. They are
scientists of the post-Second World War period have devised
complex and an acquired state through experiences.
a general system approach which is quite comprehensive.

Before drawing a curtain upon this part of analysis

we like to quote liberally the observation of Stephen Wasby.
Criticisms of the Traditional Approach He says, "Just as a dissatisfaction with an over-concentration
on the philosophical approach to the study of politics had
The traditional approach to the study of politics has been brought a shift towards the study of institutions and formal
under attack from several corners and the main points of structures, with an accompanying move from normative to
attack are noted below: empirical outlooks, so there was increasing realization that
institutional approach did not encompass all the world of
The traditional approaches have dismally failed to politics.
recognize the role of the individuals who play very important
roles in molding and remolding the shape and nature of Scholars began to recognize problems in the use of
politics. In fact, individuals are important actors of both the "State" concept. Other basic emphases were also
national and international politics. The focus is directed questioned. Because not all rules and structures have been
to the institutions. reduced to law, the legal approach to politics and the
institutional approach had never completely coalesced.
It is surprising that behind all the institutions there Political scientists of an institutional bent, freed from the
are individuals who control the structure, functions and European location of political science within faculties of
other aspects. Singling out institutions and neglecting law, recognized that there is much material within political
individuals cannot be pronounced as proper methods of science not subject to legal examinations."
studying politics. The definition politics as the study of
institution' is nothing but an exaggeration or it may be called Students and researchers of politics began to extend
a travesty of truth. their outlook and interest to the other areas and these
required new approaches. The scholars also devoted their
Traditional approach is mainly descriptive. Politics energy to the comparative analysis of various political
does not rule out description, but it is also analytical. Mere systems.We shall now turn our attention to other approaches
description of facts does not necessarily constitute the such as comparative approach, power approach and interest
subject matter of political science. Its purpose is to go to the group approach.
depth of every incident. Researchers want to know not only
what is happening, but also why a particular incident occurs
at a particular time.
Political system is a system of politics and government. It is
The view-point of the traditionalists is, limited within usually compared to the legal system, economic system,
the institutions. Political scientists of today's world are not cultural system, and other social systems
inclined to limit their analysis of politics within the four walls
of institutions. They have investigated the role of
1.2.2 Modern approach of Political Science of the individuals involved in that phenomena. As such, it
focuses on the role
The political philosophers later on realized the need to of the behavior of the individual at various levels and the
study politics from a new viewpoint. Thus, to overcome scientific analysis.
the paucities of the traditional approaches, various new Behaviouralism is the development of method against
approaches have been promoted by the new political traditional political science
intellectuals. These new approaches are considered as the which did not take into account if human behavior as an
"modern approaches" to the study of Political Science, actor in politics.
Many theorists regard these approaches as a reaction against
the traditional approaches. These approaches are mainly Behaviouralism is quite different from behaviorism.
concerned with scientific study of politics. Behaviorism is narrow
in its application. It refers to the response of an organism as
After studying politics with the help of traditional aroused by some
approaches, the political thinkers of the later stage felt the stimulus. It does not consider role of the feelings, ideas,
necessity to study politics from a new perspective. Thus, prejudices that determine
to minimize the deficiencies of the traditional approaches, the response of that individual. Behaviouralism does take
various new approaches have been advocated by the new into account the
political thinkers. These new approaches are regarded as role of the feelings, ideas and prejudices. David Easton
the "modern approaches" to the study of Political Science. differentiates between
Modern approaches are fact based approaches. They lay behaviorism and behaviouralism through an example. The
emphasis on factual study of political events and try to arrive paradigm adopted by
at scientific and definite conclusion. The aim of modern behaviorists, according to him is S- R (Stimulus-Response).
approaches is to replace normativism with empiricism. But the behavioral
Therefore modern approaches are marked by empirical lists have improved it by making it as S-O-R (Stimulus-
investigation of relevant data. Organism-Response).
David Easton regards behavioral revolution is an intellectual
The modern approaches to the study of politics tendency on the part
developed as a reaction to the traditional approaches. The of the political scientists to study empirically the political
modern approaches include behavioral approach, post- behavior of persons.
behavioral approach, and Marxian approach.
Striking Features of Behaviouralism
Characteristics of Modern Approaches
David Easton has described certain key features of
There are some characteristics of modern approaches, such behaviouralism which are regarded as its intellectual
as: foundations. These are:
 These approaches try to draw conclusion from
empirical data.  Regularities: This approach believes that there are
 These approaches go beyond the study of political certain consistencies in political behavior which
structures and its historical analysis. can be expressed in generalizations or theories in
 Modern Approaches believe in inter-disciplinary study. order to elucidate and predict political phenomena.
 They emphasize scientific methods of study and attempt In a particular situation, the Political behavior of
to draw scientific conclusions in Political Science. individuals may be more or less similar. Such
regularities of behavior may help the researcher to
Behavioral Approach analyses a political situation as well as to predict
the future political phenomena. Study of such
regularities makes Political Science more scientific
Behaviouralism is considered as contemporary approach to with some predictive value.
the study of political
science. But this approach was emerged during 20th century.  Verification: The behaviouralists do not want to
An important accept everything as established. Therefore, they
consideration of Behaviouralism has been the study of stress testing and verifying everything. According
political behavior, as an to them, if phenomenon is not verified then it will
area of study within Political Science. It concentrates is on not be scientific.
the individual as
voter, leader, revolutionary, party member and the  Techniques: The behaviouralists stress on the use of
influences of the group or those research tools and methods which generate
the political system on the individual's political behavior. valid, reliable and comparative data. A researcher
must make use of refined tools like sample surveys,
Behviouralism stresses scientific, objective and mathematical models, simulation.
value-free study of the
political occurrences as conditioned by the environment,  Quantification: After collecting data, the researcher
firmly the behavior should measure and quantify those data.
Values: The behaviouralists have emphasized on Post-Behavioral Approach
separation of facts from values. They believe that
to do objective research, one has to be value free. The progress of behavioral movement in Political Science is
It means that the researcher should not have any one of the important breakthroughs in the history of Political
pre-conceived idea or a prejudiced view. Science. The growth of behaviouralism clearly presented a
scientific dynamism in the study of political phenomena.
 Systematization: According to the behaviouralists, Nevertheless, after sometime, it began to be realized that
research in Political Science must be systematic. unlike natural sciences, generalizations could not be made in
Theory and research should go together. the field of social sciences, as the study of man in the societal
 Pure Science: Another feature of behaviouralism framework was a far more complex pursuit than the study
has been its aim to make Political Science a "pure of objects in the natural sciences. Therefore, a new thinking
science". It believes that the study of Political emerged among the behaviouralists for transforming
Science should be verified by evidence. behaviouralism.
 Integration: behaviouralists stated that political Behaviouralism also disappointed people as it is
Science should not be detached from various unsuccessful in providing solutions to many social and
other social sciences such as history, sociology political problems. Such dissatisfaction has led to the
and economics. This approach denotes that political events emergence of post- behaviouralism. This new approach
are formed by various other factors in the society and believed that mere use of refined techniques and research
therefore, it would be incorrect to separate Political Science tools would not solve the social and political problems of the
from other disciplines. world. Therefore, post-behaviouralists criticized the idea of
behaviouralists to make Political Science a value-free science
like other natural sciences. Post-behaviouralists attempted to
Behavior is defined as any act that is both observable and make Political Science pertinent to the society. However, it
measurable. Observable means on can see and describe must be recalled that post-behaviouralism cannot be
the behavior as it occurs. Measurable means one can count separated from behviouralism as it has arose from
or measure the intensity and duration of the behavior. behaviouralism. Through, using different techniques and
methods, post-behaviouralists try to overcome the
disadvantages of behaviouralism and make the study of
Advantages of behavioral approach Political Science more applicable to the society.

According to post-behaviouralism, the use of

Advantages of behavioral approach are as follows:
scientific tools is valuable if it can solve the various problems
of the society. Behaviouralists gave too much emphasis on
 This approach attempts to make Political Science as a
methods and techniques and believed that it was better
scientific method and brings it closer to the day to day
to be wrong than ambiguous. On the contrary, Post-
life of the individuals.
behaviouralists believe that it is better to be vague than non-
relevantly precise. The post-behaviouralists disapproved
 Behaviouralism has bought human behavior into the
behaviouralism on the basis that the latter had lost touch
arena of Political Science and thereby makes the study
with the realities of the society because of over emphasis
more relevant to the society.
on techniques. Thus, post-behaviouralists may be regarded
as the reform movement within behaviouralism. This new
 This approach helps in predicting future political events.
approach stresses identifying and solving the major issues
of political and social life. According to post-behaviouralism,
The behavioral approach has been supported by different
the political scientists should find out different alternatives
political philosophers. However, the Behavioral approach also
and means to solve the social problems. Consequently,
gripped under various criticisms for its scientism also. The
the main drive of post-behaviouralism has been to make
main criticisms of this approach are mentioned below:
Political Science significant to the society. However, it is
noted that it is only a perpetuation of behaviouralism.
 This approach has been criticized for its dependence on
It does not overall reject the ideas of behaviouralism. It
techniques and methods and ignoring the subject
recognizes the achievement of behaviouralism and escalates
matter.
its effort to do objective research in Political Science. It
only attempts to bring research in Political Science closer
 The supporters of this approach were mistaken when
to reality to make the subject more relevant to the society.
they thought that human beings behave in similar ways
Accordingly, the post-behaviouralists opposed the efforts
in similar circumstances.
of the behaviouralists to make Political Science a value-free
science. It was debated by the post-behaviouralists that
 Moreover, it is a difficult task to study human behavior
Political Science must consider basic issues of society such as
and to get a certain result.
justice, liberty, equality, democracy to make research
relevant to the society. The post-behaviouralists have
 Most of the political phenomena are immeasurable.
described behaviouralism as a 'mad craze for scienticism'.
Therefore, it is always difficult to use scientific method
Thus, the post-behaviouralism is an improvement of
in the study of Political Science.
behaviouralism as it changes its focus strictly from empirical  Substance must have precedence over technique.
research to resolving problems confronting the society.
 Emphasis should be on social change and not social
preservation:
Society is a group of people involved in persistent social
interaction, or a large social group sharing the same
 Political science should not lose touch with brute
geographical or social territory, typically subject to the
realities of politic:
same political authority and expectations.

 Political science should not be value-free science.

Features of Post-Behaviouralism
 Political scientists must protect human values of
The characteristics or features of post-behaviouralism which civilization.
are given below:
 Post- Behaviouralists emphasis action in place of
(a) Opposition to value -free social science contemplative science.
The post-behaviouralists are deadly opposed to the attempts
of the behaviouralists in making political science as a value -  Urgent need to politicize the profession.
free science. Post-Behaviouralist give due consideration for
values unlike the Behaviouralists who think of a value free Marxian approach
science. Values should not be sacrificed for scientism. David
Easton observes: "Research about and constructive
Marxian approach to study of political science is basically
development of values were inextinguishable part of the
different from the traditional and modern approaches.
study of politics. Hence, to understanding the limits of our
Marxian approach provides us a theory of social change
knowledge we need to be aware of the value premises on
and scientific philosophy which help to understand the
which it stands and alternatives for which knowledge could
laws of social development. Its main ideas are found in
be used".
the 'Communist Manifesto' and 'Das Capital, the two
monumental work of Karl Marx.
(b) A Movement of Protest
The post-behaviouralists assert that the political science must
In order to understand the Marxian approach to
be relevant to society and it must deliberate over such basic
political science we must to know the liberal views on politics
issues of society as justice, liberty, equality, democracy etc.
first, since these two systems poles apart. According to the
Easton asserted that the role of the intellectuals has been
liberal theorists, the state is an instrument of public good,
must be to protect human values of civilization.
that the sovereignty is rested in the people and above all that
democracy is the best form of government. The liberals also
(c) Intellectual Movement
believe that the authority of state is based on the general
The post-behaviouralism is not confined to a particular
will and that the aim of the state is to ensure the welfare
section of society. It is a sort of Intellectual Movement and its
of the people.
followers can be found amongst all sections of society.
"Studies should be relevant and meaningful for urgent social
problems. Marx views on Individual

(d) Post-Behaviouralists look to the future well-being of the Marx stated that the individual is individual-in-society.
society Individual has no identity without the society. Marx
Though the post behaviouralists prefer the behavioral described that "society does not consist of individuals,
approach to the traditional approach because it is empirical. but expresses the sum of inter-relations, the relations
The strong demands of the post behaviouralists are within which these individuals stand." As such, Marx is
'relevance' and 'action'. Knowledge should be put into different from the liberal view which conceives individual
practice, change should be the aim of political analysis and as atomized, insular and self-contained.
for future well-being of the society.
Views of Marx on Society
Characteristics of post-behaviouralism as given by David
Easton Marxists specified that all societies in history have been
class societies. The contending classes from 'freeman and
Thus post behaviouralists introduce a new orientation in slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-master and
political science which will encourage political scientist to journeyman to bourgeoisie and proletariat in the period of
improve political life according to human criteria. Eaton says capitalism have stood in constant opposition to one another.
"to know is to bear the responsibility for acting and to act is All class societies are characterized by supremacy and conflict
to engage in reshaping society". which are based specific, concrete features of their mode of
production. Class domination has been a historical process
suggesting a constant attempt on the part of the dominant
classes to maintain and extend their power on the society.
Marx on Politics 1.2.3 Other Approaches of political science

Marxist opined that politics can be understood only with There are some other approaches of political science, such
reference to the nature of prevailing societal conflict and as:
domination. Politics, as such, conceived in of the specific
articulation of class struggles.' In general, in Marxian view Economic Approach
politics has a derivative and epiphenomenal character. The
political life processes are considered as part of Economics and politics are two important disciplines of social
'superstructure' standing on the economic structure of science and in several respects they are intimately related. In
society. The subsidiary and derivative character of politics can the curriculum of universities of constituted a single subject
be well inferred from the following quotation from the which implies the close relationship between the USA and
'Preface' to a contribution to the criticism of Political many other countries a few decades ago economics and
Economy: political science two. This denotes that in the study of politics
the help of economics is essential
"In the social production of their existence, men
enter into definite, necessary relations, which are The policy formulations -of economic nature and
independent of their will, namely, relations of production determination of the principles of planning which has
corresponding to a determinate stage of development of recently become a part of the governmental activity are done
their material forces of production. The totality of these by the government. In most of the countries of the world
relations of production constitutes the economic structure of public issues are economic issues and here the main, and
society, the real foundation on which arises a legal and sometimes the only actors are the personnel of the
political superstructure and to which there correspond government such as the prime minister, president and
definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of other ministers. This obvious relationship between the two
production of social consciousness. The mode of production subjects has placed the economic approach in a convenient
of material life conditions the social, political and intellectual position.
life-process in general."
Fiscal policies of all types, industrial policy,
According to Marx, Politics, economics, culture and agricultural policy, labor policy are all economic issues, but
ideology are all inseparably interweaved. The 'forces of the chief actors are the members of the government. The
production' at a particular stage of historical development, executive branch takes the final decision. There are many
are harmonized by definite 'relations of production' that specialists and advisers. Since the question of
characterize the society. The relations of production taken implementation is to be looked up by the government, the
together constitute the economic foundation of the society. final say comes from the government side.
The legal and political institutions stand on this "real
foundation" of economic structure. Policy regarding production and distribution, though
within the jurisdiction of economics, is always taken up by
From the Marxist perspective, the real nature of the government. It is to be pointed out here that the impact
politics, has to be assumed from "the hidden basis of the of success and failure of the economic policies fall upon
entire social structure." Ralph Miliband stated that the government. So we cannot discuss politics without
politics is 'a very determined and conditioned activity indeed discussing economics.
so determined' and 'conditioned' in fact, as to give politics a
mostly derivative, subsidiary, and 'epiphenomenal' The greatest attribution of the economic approach
character.” to the study of politics comes from the pen of Marx and
Engels. The doctrine of class struggle, increasing
It is well recognized that Marx put more emphasis impoverishment and capitalism's exploitation are based on
on the materialistic or economic interpretation of history. He economic factors. Marx and Engels have emphasized the
stated that the capitalists by controlling the means of heterogeneity of interests between the classes. Classes are
production and distribution also controlled not only the formed on the basis of economic interests. Capitalist's profit
political but social and economic structure of the society as making motive leads to exploitation of workers. To
well. He stressed economic aspect of life. According to him, emancipate from exploitation the workers are forced to take
every other activity in the society revolved round economics. the path of struggle.
All social and political activities are based on economic
activity. The idea of emancipation is associated with
economic terms. According to Marx, politics is controlled by
Domination is the locus of influential continental analyses of the persons who own sources of production and
unfreedom, inequality and power. manage the process of distribution. Outside economic
influence, politics has no independent authority.

Marx's theory of base and superstructure is a matter

of relationship between economics and politics. Perhaps
Marx is the only philosopher who has forcefully argued (of
course with reason and data collected from history) the
relationship between the two important subjects of social
science. The researchers of politics study the behavior of
various groups and how they discharge their functions in
The interest group approach to the study of politics similar and different environment. Political scientists are
is popular in some liberal democratic countries and this concerned only with the impact of the behavior and function
conception is associated with economic approach. Interest upon politics.
groups or pressure groups create pressure to achieve
economic objectives. Hence, interest group politics and On the other hand, sociologists analyses them in a
economic approach are mutually dependent. broader perspective. The sociologist investigates the
relationship between behavior pattern and social conditions.
Sociological Approach The studies of sociologists and political scientists are
interdependent.
Political science and sociology both are social sciences and in
several places they overlap. The areas of sociological studies A recent analyst has observed:
are human behavior including the political behavior, group
behavior and attitude of group, culture, society. Needless to "Political behavior, political relationships and
say that all these fall within the study area of political political institutions are within
science. institutions. Political science thus overlaps with sociology just
"Culture refers to the totality of what is learned by as it overlaps with
individuals as members of society, it is a way of life a mode of the realm of sociology along with other kinds of behavior,
thinking, acting and feeling." Culture in various ways relationships and
influences the political behavior of individuals which is again history and economics. Those who take a sociological
studied by political scientists. approach to the study of
politics give attention to the kinds of questions and the kinds
Readers of politics are quite well-known with of data political
political culture which is composed of the attitudes beliefs movements of all sorts can be studied on the basis of a
emotions and values of society that relate to the political sociological approach
system and its political issues. We, therefore, find that so far to politics".
as culture is concerned, it is the subject matter of both
sociology and political science. Policy formulations and legislations to a large extent
depend upon the
Society is another important topic of sociology and sociological studies. Studies by sociologists on crime, divorce,
the sociologists devote a considerable part of their analysis to juvenile delinquency,
the exploration of various aspects of society Students of conditions of slum and urbanization guide the government
politics also treat society with considerable emphasis. Society and legislators.
is composed of human beings who form intimate relationship Modern states are no doubt welfare states and the
among themselves. authorities of such states
can neglect the sociological studies on the above issues only
The relationship is characterized by both conflict and on their own peril.
cooperation and these in turn give rise to politics Individuals
form institutions which are also parts of society. These Psychological Approach
institutions play important role in molding the character,
attitudes and behavior of individuals. Thus, both sociology Politics and psychology have close relation. Psychologists
and politics deal with society in its broadest perspective. Any normally study the
sociological analysis of society without its political orientation political behavior of individuals and factors leading to such
is bound to be incomplete. behavior. They also
study why certain individuals behave in a certain way.
Human beings form not only society but also group Recently, a new subject
based on a network of social relationships. There are has gained popularity-it is psychology.
numerous sociological studies about these social
relationships. Politics also studies these relationships. Politics, This studies the behavior, attitude etc. of the voter
of course, studies only the political aspects. There are various and the researchers after studying various aspects draw
associations or groups within every society and they are conclusions which very often serve the purpose of political
normally formed on the basis of profession. leaders. It is not an exaggeration to hold that the foundation
of behaviouralism is psychology of the individuals. Political
For example, teachers of political science have scientists of today's world are extremely curious to know
formed political sciences association. Similarly, there are how motives and emotions work in the field of political
doctors' club, trade unions, student's organizations, women's activity. Sometimes the psychologists focus their attention
forums. Not all these associations and groups are directly upon the group behavior.
related to the political authority, but they are not outside the
jurisdiction of state and an interaction between groups or We can collect dozens of instances from the pages
associations and state is never a rare occasion. of the history of political thought as to how psychology and
politics are related. According to Aristotle, man is by nature a SUMMARY
social animal and his sociability is the prime reason of the
emergence of political organization which is called state.  Political science is a branch of the social sciences that is
Psychology of man is that man wants to live with others. mainly practiced in the United States and United
Kingdom.It is the analysis, description, and prediction of
Hobbes has said that every individuals wants political behavior, political systems and politics.
security and for that he desires to accumulate power.
Because he thinks that power only can provide security.  Politics refers to the subject matter of our study, science
Hobbes' political philosophy is based, to a considerable denotes the methodology or the way of studying the
extent, upon psychological factors. He has depicted the process of politics. The first term seeks to answer the
nature of men who lived in the state of nature. Men of the question "what is studied" and the second term refers
state of nature were power hungry, quarrelsome and envied to "how is it studied".
each other.
 Political theory is a set of specified relationships
Only death could draw a curtain upon this ceaseless encompassing political matters that focus and organize
struggle. Locke's people strongly desired to have freedom inquiry to describe, explain, and predict political events
and right and to that end they build up a civil society. and behaviors.
Utilitarian philosopher Bentham studied well the psychology
of the middle class people who sought to maximize their  A political philosophy is the concept by which an
happiness. Bentham projected their psychology through the individual or group of people adopt specific viewpoints
tendency of avoiding pain and welcoming pleasure. Marx's regarding the duties of a government it interacts with
theory of class struggle is also based on psychology. the population of a nation, state or local and the way
region.
The proletarians desire to end the exploitation let
loose by the capitalists. Individuals in any society pursue  Political Science is also concerned with the study of
conflicting desires and this is the path-finder of politics. There political institutions and associations through with the
are motives, likes and dislikes behind ever type of political state acts. It covers the study of the constitutions,
activity. So politics cannot be alienated from psychology. comparative government, public administration and
local government etc.
Even in international politics the influence of
psychology is discernible. The big or super-powers are  Public Administration is a major branch of Political
involved in power politics to establish their domination Science and is emerging as an independent discipline in
and enhance their image in international society. This is recent times.
absolutely a psychological issue.
 Political science and economics are very closely related.
The idea to launch a war emanates from the mind In the past, economics has been regarded as a branch of
and for that reason it has been suggested that attempts are political science.
to be made to remove that pernicious idea from the mind.
Statesmen of international repute are of opinion that for  Approaches and methods to the study of politics are
peace and security it is essential that all sorts of fear are to many and most of them seem to overlap each other in
be removed from the mind. varying measures.

 Traditional approaches are value based. These

approaches put emphasis on values more that facts.
Advocates of this approaches believe that the study of
political science cannot and should not be purely
scientific.

 The political philosophers later on realized the need to

study politics from a new viewpoint. Thus, to overcome
the paucities of the traditional approaches, various new
approaches have been promoted by the new political
intellectuals.
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