Form One Notes

1
ANGHA DESMOND EMBA BIOMEDICAL : option MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCES

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
1.1 Definition
Biology is the study of living things their environment and their interaction with order living things
and nonliving things.
1.2 Origin of the word Biology
The term originated from two Greek words which are: “Bios” which means “’Life and “Logos”
which means Study or knowledge. A person who study Biology is called a Biologist.
1.3 Branches of Biology.
Biology has three main branches, namely
Botany: the study of Plants. A person who studies Botany is called a Botanist.
Zoology: the study of animals. A person who studies Zoology is called a Zoologist.
Ecology: the study of living things and their environment. A person who studies it is called an
Ecologist.
Due to the broad nature of Biology, it has been divided into many other branches. Some of which
include
1. Microbiology. The study of microorganisms.
2. Biochemistry. The study of biochemical reactions in the body of living organisms.
3. Virology. The study of viruses (4) Bacteriology. The study of bacteria.
5 Anatomy. The study of the structure of organisms.
6 Physiology. It studies the functioning of organisms.
7 Parasitology. The study of parasites
8 Ophthalmology. The study of the eye. (9) Dermatology. The study of the skin.
10 Dentistry. The study of teeth
11 Cardiology. The study of the heart.
1.4 Relationship between Biology and other science subjects

No subject is independent on its own, knowledge of other subjects is needed for its full
understanding. That is why two or more subjects are combined to form one, especially at the
university. Examples are;
 Biochemistry. The combination of Biology and Chemistry to study chemical reactions like
proteins in living organisms.
 Biogeography. A combination of Biology and Geography to study the geographical
distribution of organisms.
2
 Biophysics. Biology and physics to study biological phenomena using physics e.g the eye.
 Biostatistics. Application of statistics in biology especially in experiments. Bio economics.
1.5 IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY TO OUR DAILY LIFE.
The study of Biology will help us to;
I. To understand the structure and functioning of living organisms.
II. It helps us to understand how living things interact with the environment.
III. It helps us to become specialists in future e.g medical doctor, nurses, farmer, engineer, etc.
IV. It helps us to solve health problems
V. It helps us to fight environmental problems like global warming.
VI. It helps us to solve agricultural problems, increase crop production, production of bio
pesticides to protect plants, etc.
VII. It helps in food preservation to prevent spoilage
VIII. It helps us to care about living organisms and the environment
IX. It helps in biological research to develop vaccines, drugs, high yielding crops.
1.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Everything that exist must be living or non-living. Living things have the following seven (7)
characteristics
1. Movement. They all move. Some move from place to place e.g animals while some move
only part of their body e.g plants.
2. Reproduction. They reproduce by giving birth to young ones of the same species.
3. Nutrition. They feed to have energy, grow and maintain their body.
4. Growth. They grow to increase in size.
5. Respiration. They respire that is, break down food to release energy.
6. Excretion. The removal of metabolic waste from their body.
7. Irritability or Sensitivity or Response. They respond to changes in their environment
(stimulus).
The above characteristics can be recalled from the Mnemonic MR NIGER, MR GREIN or
MERRING
1.7 Differences between Plants and Animals

SN Plants Animals
1 Cannot move from place to place that is they move Move freely from place to place
3
only when they grow in search of food.
2 Make their own food through the process of Cannot make their own food so
photosynthesis depend on ready-made food.
3 Grow continuously throughout life Grow and stop once they reach
the adult stage
4 Waste products are not removed but stored in the Waste parts which they have
leaves and harmless substances are remove only when made in their body are send out.
plants die off.
5 Responds slowly to external stimuli e.g light, heat and Respond quickly to external
cold. stimuli
1.8 OBSERVATION OF LIVING THINGS.

Observation means to carefully examine an organism paying particular attention to very important
characteristics such as eyes, legs, antenna, wings etc.
Organisms can be observed in their natural environment or in the laboratory either alive or dead.
The main tool in observing living things is the Eye. The other human senses organs like the ear, skin,
tongue and nose work with the eye to give a better judgment about the thing under observation.
Equipment used in Observing Living things.

The following equipment can be used during the observation of living things.
1. Human eye: It is used for seeing.
2. Hand Lens: It helps to increase the size of an organism (magnify) so that it can be seen
clearly. It is placed over the organism to be observed and adjusted by moving it up or down
for a fine image to be formed. It is used to observe both live and dead organisms.
3. Binoculars. It is used to observe objects that are far away from us. It brings the objects closer
so that they can be larger and closer. It helps scientists to observe dangerous organisms like
the Lion, Snake, etc from a distance so that they do not harm them.
4. Cameras. They are used by scientists to take and record images. They are also used to
observe dangerous organisms by stationing them either on land or in water.
5. Retri Dish Use to hold organism
4
6. Tongs: It is used to pick up an organism
7. Microscope: This is an instrument that we us to see organisms that cannot be seen with the
naked eye. Such organisms are called microscopic organisms. The microscope magnifies the
image up to 100 times. There are two main types of microscope, the light and electron
microscope.
Functions of the various parts

 Eye piece (Ocular lens). It is the lens an observer looks through to see images. It increases
the image times 10 or 15 (10x or 15x). It gives the primary magnification.
 Diopter adjustment. It adjust the distance between the eye piece and the human eye.
 Body tube. Connects the eye piece to the objective lens.
 Arm or handle. It is used to carry the microscope and also connects the body tube to the
base.
 Coarse adjustment. It moves the objective lens up and down to focus on the image.
 Fine adjustment. It gives a clear, sharp and increases the details of the object under view.
 Rotational piece. It rotates and contains several eye piece. It is used to select the desired eye
piece.
 Objective lens. It is closest to the specimen (object or image) it carries out secondary
magnification. It may have 3, 4 or 5 objective lenses with powers ranging from 10x to 100x.
The longer the objective lens the greater the magnification.
 Stage. It is a flat platform with clips where the slide is placed.
 Stage height adjustment. It moves the stage left to right or up and down.
 Aperture. It is a hole found at the middle of the stage. It allows light from the light source to
reach the image.
 Illuminator. It helps to give light to the microscope. Some use mirrors to reflect light.
 Iris diaphragm. It regulates the amount of light reaching the specimen.
 Condenser. It is found under the stage, it focuses light on the specimen.
 Base. It supports the microscope to stand on a surface.
Magnification.
It is the enlargement of an object leading to an increase in size. It is calculated by multiplying the
magnification of the ocular lens by that of the objective lens.
5
Resolution
The resolution of a microscope is the ability of the microscope to distinguish between two separate
parts.
Care of the microscope
Microscopes are very expensive and should be handled with care as follows;
 Hold microscopes by the arm only.
 Always carry the microscope upright with two hands.
 The lenses should be cleaned only with the lens paper.
 Always turn off the light when the microscope is not in use.
 Always cover the microscope with a dust jacket when not in use.
 It should always be placed gently on a flat surface.
Cleaning the microscope
The microscope should be kept clean and dry by removing water and reagents which may readily
corrode.
Other types of microscope
a) Phase contrast microscope. In this type, different parts of the cell refracts light with a large
variation in brightness.
b) Dark field microscope. Here, the field surrounding the specimen appears black while the
specimen appears bright.
c) Monocular microscope. It has one eye piece with a higher magnification.
d) Binocular microscope. Has two eye piece with a lower magnification. It produces a
stereoscopic (3-dimensional) image.
e) Electron microscope. It is used to obtain detailed structures (ultra structure) of organisms.
1.9 Describing observation

Observation can be descriptive (qualitative) and this is done using the five senses or can be
quantitative which involves measurements of length, height, weight, number, etc.
In describing organisms, it is important to note the appearance (colour, size and shape), their
dimension (height, length) and their structures (shapes of parts). After observation, it is important to
note the date of observation, time of observation and weather condition.
BIOLOGICAL DIAGRAMS AND DRAWINGS

Drawing
6
A drawing is an artistic impression or painting of an object or organisms. It shows a lot of details and
looks exactly like the object.
Diagram
It is a simple but accurate representation of an object or organism.
How to draw biological diagram

1. Draw your diagram slightly to the left so that its labeling can be done on the right.
2. The drawing should occupy about ¾ of the space available.
3. Draw with your free hands and not with a ruler
4. Drawing lines should be sharp, clear and continuous
5. The drawing must be accurate
6. A drawing must be labelled
7. Label lines should be drawn with a ruler
8. Label lines should not cross each other
9. Never use arrows in drawing
10. Label lines should touch the exact part to be labelled.
11. Do not colour your diagram
12. Every drawing should have a title below and the title must be underlined.
THE CELL
A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of living organism. Cells can be seen with a
microscope. The cell was discovered by an English Scientist called Robert Hooke in 1665. Examples
of some cells are RBCs, WBCs, egg cell, sperm cell, plant cell. Organisms made up of one cell are
called unicellular organisms while those made up of two or more cells are called multicellular
organism
Structure:
7
Functions of the Parts of the Cell.

Cell membrane: It helps in the exchange of materials between the cell and its surrounding
environment
Cytoplasm: It contains many substance dissolved in it, especially proteins. It contains other
organelles and provide a site for biochemical reactions.
Nucleus: It controls all the activities of the cell. Including the chemicals in which the cell
manufactures. It also contains genetic materials.
Vacuoles: It is filled with a watery fluid of various substance including sugar, minerals, salts
pigments. Etc
Cell Wall: It is found only in plant cell. It give the cell its shape
Chroloplast: It is found in plant cell only and the place where photosynthesis take place.
Mitochondrion. It is called the power house of the cell. It provides energy to the cell.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Both contain cell membrane, cytoplasm, vacuole, nucleus, and mitochondrion
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Plant Animal
1 Cell wall present Cell wall absent
2 Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent
3 Chlorophyll present Chlorophyll absent
4 Nucleus is located at the corner (periphery) Nucleus is located at the center
5 Store food as starch Store food glycogen
6 Has a regular shape Has an irregular shape
7 Usually large Usually small
8 Small cytoplasm Large cytoplasm
9 Has a single, large, permanent vacuole. Has numerous, small, temporal vacuoles
8
THE HABITAT OF LIVING ORGANISMS.

Definition:
Habitat is the natural dwelling place of an organism or it is a natural place where an organism is
found
Types of habitat.
There are two types of habitats which are: Aquatic and Terrestrial Habitats.
1. Aquatic Habitat:
They are those that involves water. An aquatic habitat may either be fresh water habitat (e.g pond,
lake, and stream) or salt water (marine) habitat e.g seas and oceans
2. Terrestrial Habitat:
They are land habitat such grass land, forest, the soil and farm land.
Terrestrial habitat may also be described as subterranean (underground) which include organisms
living in caves, borrows and under the ground eg crickets, rat moles, termites etc. Arboreal habitat
for those living on tree.
EVIRONMENT
Definition
It is the complete range of external condition, physical and biological in which an organism lives.
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS.
Affecting Plants and Animals growth.
Light: It is needed for photosynthesis by plants, help some flowers to open and influence the growth
of plants. It also help some animals to be able to see, allows the skin to make vitamin D and helps in
the production of melanin.
Water: It is needed for photosynthesis by plants and also it serves as an agent of pollination in
Aquatic plants. It serves as a habitat for some plants and animals also important for digestion and
excretion.
Wind: Serves as an agent of pollination. It increases the rate of evaporation of sweat from the body.
It also increases the rate of transpiration. It brings about cooling effect and helps in fruit and seed
dispersal. Strong winds cause soil erosion.
Temperature: High temperature causes increase respiration. It also increase the rate of transpiration
in plants, it helps in fruit ripening
9
EFFECTS OF DAY AND NIGHT ON ORGANISMS
A. Effect of day and night on plants.
 Carry out photosynthesis during the day when sunlight is available.
 Open stomata during the day and closes it at night.
 The leaves of many plants are lowered in the dark and open in the light.
 Some plants closes their flowers in the dark(at night) and open them in light(during the day)
e.g morning glory,
 Some plants open their flower only on the dark (at night) and closes them in light (during the
day) e.g queen of the night.
B. Effect of day and night on animals.
 Some animals are active only during the day e.g man, goat, cow, etc.
 Some animals are active only at night e.g snail, rat mole, antelope, etc
 Most animal hunt at night e.g Leopard
 Most termites swarm at night. In order not to be eaten by day flying birds
EFFECTS OF CHANGING SEASON ON ORGANISMS

There are two main seasons, the Rainy and Dry seasons.
A. The Rainy Season;
 It usually begins from around mid-march to mid-November.
 The soil is wet and plants grow well and produce more leafy growth.
 Abundance of food for animals.
 Life is more active although the temperature maybe considerably lower during a long period.
 The rain may also come with storms and strong wind with negative impacts in the sense that it
may pull down trees, crops like banana, and homes of animals.
 Too much flooding due to too much rain causes the loss of lives and property.
B. The Dry Season:
 It begins from around mid-November to mid-march. The soil is dry, there are high
temperature, little or no rainfall and there is much sunshine
 There is slowing down of growth in plants and animals
 There is drop in food availability
 Many plants loss water which causes them to wilt and die
 It causes animals to move from place to place in search of food
10
EFFECTS OF CARBONDIOXIDE AND OXYGEN IN LIVING THINGS
- Green plats use carbon dioxide to manufacture their food during photosynthesis
- During photosynthesis, green plants release oxygen into the atmosphere
- Animals breathe in oxygen coming from the photosynthesis of plants and in return send out
carbon dioxide to be used by plants.
-
BIOTIC (LIVING) FACTORS
These factors concern the living organisms in a habitat and how they affect one another. Some
depend on others for food and shelter. We have the following association between living organisms
as follows.
a) Predation: A predator is a carnivorous animal that hunts, captures, kills and eats another
smaller and weaker animal called the prey, e.g snakes and toads.
b) Parasitism: It is a relationship in which two organisms of different species are living
together. One of the organism called the parasite benefits while the other called the host is
harmed. E.g lice and dogs
c) Mutualism: This is a relationship in which two organisms of different species, are living
together and all of them are benefitting from the relationship. E.g nitrogen fixing bacteria
and leguminous plants, cows and cattle egrets.
d) Commensalism: Here, two organisms of different species are living together, one of them
benefits and the other neither benefits nor loses. E.g birds living on a tree
IMPROVING SOIL QUALITY

What is soil: Soil is the thin outer layer of the earth in which plants grow and animals make their
houses.
Importance of soil
I. It is a home for some organisms
II. Plants get their support and nutrients from the soil
III. It serves as reservoir for water and nutrients
IV. It plays an important role in agriculture
QUALITIES OF A GOOD SOIL
- It has the correct proportion of sand and clay particles
- It has adequate humus and mineral salt
- It has a good crumb structure
11
- It is well drained and aerated
- It is neutral or slightly alkaline
- Loam soil is the best soil for agriculture
TYPES OF SOIL
Soil types are divided into gravel, coarse, fine sand, silt and clay.
- Clay soil: It is fine earth soil, heavier, poorly drained, wet and sticky
- Sandy soil: It drains faster, looses nutrients through leaching
- Loam soil: Best soil for agricultural yield
- Stone or gravel: Air spaces between soil particles are larger hence they have low water
retention capacity, poor for agriculture.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT FARMING METHODS

A) ADVANTAGES (Benefit)
1. Agro forestry. It is practiced by some farmers and is friendly to the environment. The
farmers cultivate crops and plant trees at the same time.
2. Organic farming. It involves the use of organic manure, improves soil fertility and reduces
chemical pollution on the soil.
3. The fallow system. It is important to the environment. This is because farms are allowed to
regain their fertility naturally after some years of no cultivation.
B) DISADVANTAGES (Negative impact of agriculture on the environment)

1. Chemicals (fertilizers) that are used to improve agricultural output, end up polluting the air,
land and water if not used correctly.
2. Poor farming particles, such as shifting cultivation, over cropping, monoculture and farming
on hills, slopes, exposes the soil to erosion and destroys the natural environment.
3. In the cause of farming the natural vegetation is cleared and replaced by farmland.
4. During farming, the habitats of some wildlife organisms are destroyed and may never be
replaced.
5. Farming causes the removal of the protective vegetation cover in an environment. This leads
to an increase in surface run offs.
6. Burning of farms and making of “ankaras” destroys the bacteria living in the soil.
SOIL EROSION
12
What is soil erosion: It is the wearing (removal) away of fertile top soil from an area by wind, water
(during a heavy rainfall), at a greater rate than it is formed.
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

1. Overgrazing on land by cattle.
2. Drought consider.
3. Deforestation that is, cutting down of trees.
4. Clearing of farm land by bush burning leaving the soil surface bare of vegetation
5. Over use of fertilizers.
6. Over tillage of the soil.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
There are two types of soil erosion.
A. WIND EROSION
- It occurs when the wind removes and carries away the loose, dry top soil particles.
- It occurs where rainfall is low, the land surface is left bare of vegetation or the vegetation is
scanty, allowing the soil to dry out and become loose.
- It can also cause pollution.
B. WATER EROSION
- This occurs when running water caused by rainfall and melting of snow carries away the top
soil particles.
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

- There is reduction in soil fertility.
- Inadequate food production leading to starvation and even famine.
- Soil carried by water or wind may be deposited at the bottom of a slope leading to over fertile
cultivated land thereby ruining them.
- Sediments that accumulate down slope of the erosion can obstruct the flow of water in springs
and drainage channels, leading to flooding.
- It causes water pollution since it carries away fertilizer from the top soil (eutrophication).
PREVENTION OF SOIL EROSION
- Minimum or no tillage of soil.
- Avoid over grazing by cattle.
- Avoid bush burning.
13
- Avoid over use of artificial fertilizers.
- Avoid deforestation.
- Use of good agricultural practices.
- Planting of cover crops.
- Construction of drainages.
Note: Soil conservation is the act of keeping the soil in place and healthy
HUNTING, FISHING, HARVESTING AND GARDENING

A. Edible Species.
An edible species is one that is fit to be eaten. They are either cultivated or they are reared or grown
in the forest.
B. Endangered Species.
They are species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction.
Edible Species Endangered Species
Fruits Chimpanzee
Vegetable Gorilla
Animals Monkey
Food crops Loin
Pangolin
HUNTING
Definition:
Hunting is the practice of finding and killing or trapping any animal or pursuing it with the intention
of killing it. Species that are hunted are referred to as GAME
REASONS WHY PEOPLE PRACTICE HUNTING
- To kill the animals for food.
- As an occupation.
- Hunting is also a means of pest control.
- To kill animals that are threat to human life.
- Hunting for pleasure or for sport.
- To kill the animal in order to obtain a body part to be sold e.g animal skin and elephant tusk.
Methods of hunting include using traps, using spears and locally made guns, using dogs, using fire,
14
FISHING
Definition:
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fishing can be done in the sea, river, Lake, stream, etc.
REASONS WHY PEOPLE CARRY OUT FISHIHG

- Fishing for survival that is, fish is caught mainly for the feeding of the family.
- Fishing for money.
- As a profession.
- For scientific research.
- For fun or for sport.
Methods of fishing
- Fishing with hooks (angling), - nets, - spears, - traps, - chemicals, explosives.
HARVESTING
Definition:
In relation to crops plants, harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops from the garden or
farm.
- In relation to wildlife harvesting means hunting, trapping or fishing.
- In relation to plants/trees, harvesting means gathering or felling/cutting.
Reasons for harvesting
I. For food (ii) for studies (iii) for sales (iv) to avoid spoilage (v) to control pests
GARDENING
Definition:
It is the cultivation or growing of vegetables, fruits and flowers. The place where vegetables, fruits
and flowers are cultivated is called garden.
Types of gardens include: botanical garden, flower garden, vegetable garden, wildlife garden,
hanging gardens, hydroponic garden, etc.
IMPORTANCE OF GARDENING
- Job creation and income generation from the sales of vegetables, species etc
- Practicing gardening as a relaxing activity.
- It provides a ready supply of fresh vegetables and spices like tomatoes, lettuce.
- Flower garden around the house help to beautify the environment.
15
- Medicinal plants can be cultivated in a garden.
- Gardening helps to keep our surrounding environment clear.
MARKET GARDENING
Market gardening is the cultivation or growing of vegetables, fruits and flowers to be sold in the
market. It is mostly carried out in urban areas like towns in cities.
TECHNIQUES OR METHODS OF MARKET GARDENING

These are the different ways that market gardening is carried out.
1. Famers clear an area using cutlasses.
2. After this, the area is tilled, that is they dig the soil and seeds or seedlings are planted.
3. In places where rainfall is low, irrigation is carried out.
4. Weeding is done.
5. Famers also used fertilizers and manure so as to make the soil fertile or good for the crops.
6. Crop rotation is carried out.
7. Chemicals are used (sprayed) on the crops to prevent diseases from attacking them.
8. In some cases, the crops may be grown in glass houses instead of in an open area of land.
9. When the crops are mature, they are then harvested and carried to the Market.
MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Medicinal plants are plants that provide people with medicines to prevent diseases, maintain health or
cure diseases.
These are some of the medicinal plants and their function.
1. Garlic: to treat cough, sore throat, diabetes, common cold, reduce blood pressure, lowers
cholesterol level, treats abscesses and boils
2. Onion: to treat cough, sore throat, fungi infections, control blood sugar, fights bacterial
infections, boost digestion, prevents cancer, improve bone health, lowers cholesterol, enhance
skin glow, controls hypertension, etc.
16
3. Ginger: to treat cough, to avoid vomiting by pregnant women, to treat wounds, cold, nausea,
weight loss, lowers blood sugar, treats chronic indigestion, reduce menstrual pain, prevents
infections. etc
4. Aloe-vera: to treat gastritis, prevents bacterial infections, accelerates wound healing, reduce
dental plaque, treats cancer sore, reduce constipation, improve skin and prevents wrinkles,
lowers blood sugar level, etc
5. Bitter leaf: to reduce high sugar level, it also relieves fever, enhance fertility,
6. Okongobong (fluted pumpkin): to treat typhoid fever, Malaria, reduce kidney diseases,
regulates glucose level in diabetic patients, etc.
7. King Grass (Ageratum conyzoides): use to stop bleeding nose and wounds, treats frontal
headache
8. Masopo: to treat high fever and convulsion in children, fight fungal and bacterial infections,
fights diabetes, stomach disorder, improve heart function, helps in digestion, lowers blood
sugar, treats diarrhea, heal wounds
9. Fever Grass: it reduce high fever and also to treat malaria. Increase libido in males, treats
infertility, cures ulcers, treats poisonous bites, facilitates delivery, etc.
10. Pumpkin fruit: to treat tape worm.
11. Carrot: useful for diarrhea, constipation, reduce risk of cancer, lowers blood cholesterol,
improve vision
12. Guava leaf: to treat cough, lowers blood sugar, relief menstrual pains, treats diarrhea, lowers
blood pressure
13. Pawpaw: the liquid to clean dirty wounds, anticancer properties, improve digestion, malaria,
14. Mango leaf: treat diarrhea, sore throat, fever and cough, malaria,
15. Black jack: used for the prevention and treatment of malaria.
16. Moringa oleifera: rich in protein, vitamins and minerals, for diabetes, for HIV/AIDS
HEALTH EDUCATION
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
PUBERTY
Definition:
It is the stage when sex organs matured (penis in male and vagina females) and secondary sexual
characteristics develop.
THE PRIMARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
17
These are the features that are present at birth and differentiate a male from a female. They include;
the penis, the scrotal sac, and testes in boys, the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries in girls.
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERESTICS
A. Secondary sexual characteristics in girls are:
- Hair grows in armpits and more sweat may be produced.
- Hairs grows around the area of the genitals.
- Breast develop and enlarge.
- Menstruations begins.
- Widening or broadening of hips.
B. Secondary sexual characteristics in boys are:
- Hair grows around the area of the genitals, armpit, chest and face.
- Voice become deeper.
- Body becomes muscular.
- Chest and shoulder become broader.
- Production of sperms begins.
- Enlargement of testis, penis and scrotum.
FERTILIZATION
Definition:
This is the combining of the sperm nucleus of male and the egg nucleus of female (gametes) to form
zygote.
PREGNANCY
Definition:
It is the condition or period of being pregnant while pregnant is having a child or young developing
in the womb.
EARLY PREGNANCY
It is the pregnancy that occurs in females below the age of 20.
CONSEQUENCES OF EARLY PRENANCY
- There can be medical complications due to the fact that their organs are not well matured.
- Many girls have to drop out of school due to pregnancy.
18
- It can also lead to abortion there by increasing the rate of abortion.
- It can also lead to miscarriage.
- May contract HIV/AIDS, STDs and STIs.
- It disturbs future plans.
- It causes you to lost respect among your age group.
PREVENTION OF EARLY PREGNANCY
- Offering abstinence education programs to encourage teenagers not to have sex until
marriage.
- Reducing marriage before the age of 18.
- The use of contraceptives e.g condom.
- Girls should avoid excessive alcohol since it can lead to drunkenness and sexual urge and risk
of being raped by boys.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

There are diseases that can be passed from one person to another during sexual intercourse.
TYPES OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

1. SYPHILIS: It is caused by a bacterium called Treponema palladium.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
- Painless sore appears on the sex organs 3 to 6 weeks after contact with an infected partner. In
men the sore is on the penis and in women it may be on the cervix and may not be seen.
- The sore heals in weeks or months later, the body is covered by a rash. This is the second
stage. If not treated then in 10 to 20 years after the contact the third stage develops. The germs
would have seriously damage the heart, the brain and the joints.
PREVENTION
- Avoid having unprotected sex.
- Use condoms when having sex.
- Infected persons should be treated completely with strong antibiotics.
2. GONORRHOEA
- It is caused by the bacterium Gonococcus. (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
19
- A man may suffer pain when passing out urine and later a yellow discharge of pus occurs
from the penis.
- A woman may not noticed any change.
- After some time the bacteria will reproduce, spread through the body and reach the sex
organs. These will damage a man or woman and cause them to become sterile.
- If a woman has a child while she is infected the baby may be harmed. It could be born blind.
3. CHLAMYDIA
- It is caused by a bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis
- The germ could also passed from an infected mother to the baby during birth.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
- Burning or itching sensation during urination, abnormal discharges from the penis or vagina,
pain in the lower abdomen, painful sexual intercourse in women and pain in testicles in men.
- People who have oral sex with infected person may get the infection in their throat. This can
lead to painful swallowing, cough and fever, oral sex is when you stimulate your partner’s
genitals with your mouth, lips or tongue. This could involve sucking or licking their penis or
vagina.
- In women, if not treated may lead to permanent damaged to the reproductive system leading
sterility (barrenness).
4. HEPATITIS
- It is caused by a germ called hepatitis b virus.
- It can also be spread by using needles, blades, syringes and toothbrushes that have come in
contact with infected blood.
- During child birth, the virus may pass from an infected mother to the baby.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

- Feeling very tired, mild fever, headache, loss of appetite, stomach pain, diarrhea, or
constipation, muscle ache, joint pain, shin rash and yellowish eyes and skin.
- Most adult who gets infected recover from the disease within a short period of time. This is
called acute hepatitis. Most people do not experienced any symptoms during the cute hepatitis
phase, while others do.
20
- Sometimes the virus causes a long term infection called chronic hepatitis B causing liver
cancer (liver damage) and death.
5. AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

- It is the most STD
- AIDS is caused by a micro-organism called a virus, HIV virus (human immunodeficiency
virus)
- In our blood there is a “big army” called the immune system, made up of small soldiers called
white blood cells.
- The AIDS virus is a very powerful germ, more powerful than the body’s army.
- When the AIDS virus enters the blood it kills the soldiers that make up the body’s army.
- With the body’s army now dead, there is no one to protect or defend the body from germs that
make us sick.
- HIV is transmitted through the following methods:
1. Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.
2. Sharing needles, blades, syringes etc with an infected person.
3. Receiving blood transfusion from a person infected with HIV.
4. During child birth, the virus may pass from an infected mother through the placenta to the
foetus.
5. Breast feeding after birth, the virus may past from an infected mother to the baby through
breast milk.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
- Loss of weight. – sore throat and painful mouth sores
- Persistent fever. – muscle ache and joint pain
- Prolonged dry cough and Diarrhea. – rashes on the body
PREVENTION OF STIs
- Abstinence from sexual intercourse.
- Males and females should use condoms during sexual intercourse.
- Health education of the population on the method of spread, effects on the body, and
prevention.
- Treating patients in order to stop them from spreading the diseases to others in the
community.
- Blood should be checked before transfusion to make sure that it is not infected.
21
- Never sharing blades, needles, syringes, nail cutter and toothbrush.
- All pregnant women should be tested for STIs.
- Vaccination e.g against hepatitis B virus.
CARE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

A. HYGIENE OF THE GENITALS IN MEN AAND WOMEN
 Avoid putting on tight under wears as this will cause the genital to sweat creating a fertile
ground for the growing of fungi.
 After urinating make sure you wipe the penis or make sure no urine is left on the penis.
 Avoid sharing under wears, towels and bathing soaps to prevent the spread of diseases.
 Under wears should be changed daily and replaced with a clean and neat one.
 Pubic hair should be regularly shaved in order to prevent parasites from adhering to the hairs.
 Wear a disposable sanitary pad to collect or absorb menses during menstruation in women
 Sanitary pads should be changed at intervals and the genitals washed properly to avoid odour.
 Avoid using soup when washing the genitals.
NUTRITIONAL HEALTH
DEFINATION OF SOME TERMS
A) NUTRITION: It is the study of food and the nutrients the food contains and its relationship
with living organisms.
B) NUTRIENTS: Nutrients are chemicals substances found in the food.
C) BALANCED DIET: It is a diet that contains all the 7 classes of food in all their amounts.
There are 7 classes of food which are the carbohydrate, proteins, fats and oils, minerals, vitamins,
water and roughage.
TYPES AND SOURCES OF FOOD
TYPES OF CLASSES SOURCES
CARBOHYDRATE Potatoes, plantain, rice maize cocoyam, cassava.
PROTEIN Meat, soya beans, eggs, milk, pear, cheese, fish, groundnut,
FATS AND OILS Milk, fish, butter, pork, plum, olive oil, egusi, palm nut, pear,
VITAMINS Green vegetables, fruits, carrots
WATER Drinking natural water and, water in food, fruits, vegetables and
beverages
22
MINERALS Table salts, calcium, iron, iodine, green vegetables, liver, yeast,
eggs
ROUGHAGE Vegetables, grains, fruits.
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES DUE TO DEFICIENCY

1) KWASHIORKOR: It is caused by lack of protein in children.
2) MARARMUS: It is caused by lack of energy food that is carbohydrates and protein.
3) MALNUTITION: It is caused by insufficient or unbalanced diet.
4) OBESITY: It is caused by too much consumption of fatty food which can lead to high blood
pressure.
5) ANAEMIA: It is caused by lack of mineral iron.
6) RICKETS: It is caused by lack of vitamin D
7) GOITRE: It is caused by lack of Iodine in diet
8) NIGHT BLINDNESS: It is caused by lack of vitamin K
9) BLEEDING(hemorrhage): It is caused by lack of vitamin K
10) SCURVY (bleeding gum, slow healing of wound): It is caused by lack of vitamin C.
HEALTHY EATING HABITS

Eating habits refers to the way a person or group eats, the type of food, and what quantities and when.
GOOD EATING HABITS
- Always eat a balanced diet.
- Eat slowly particularly when you are at the table with others.
- Avoid eating late at night.
- Drink much water after meals to facilitate digestion.
- Avoid talking while eating as this may cause choking.
FOOD HYGIENE
This is the conditions and measures necessary to ensure safety of food from production to
consumption.
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD HYGIENE

- Prevent contaminating food with pathogens
- Separate raw and cooked food to prevent contaminating the cooked food.
- Cook food for appropriate length of time and appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.
23
- Store food at a proper temperature.
- Cooked food should be covered properly to prevent contamination
- Use save water and raw materials to cook food.
PREPARATION OF FOOD.
WHY DO WE COOK FOOD?
- To kill bacteria
- To soften the food thereby easing chewing and digestion
- To increase the taste and flavor. – It helps to preserve food
- To make it attractive - It causes some foods to become less poisonous e.g cassava
METHODS OF FOOD PREPARATION
- Boiling - Steaming - Stewing - By rousting - By frying - By grilling - By baking
PRESERVATION OF FOOD
It is any method of treating and storing food for future use by avoiding contamination and spoilage
while maintaining its nutritive value.
WHY DO WE PRESERVE FOOD?
- To prevent decay or spoilage - To store excesses - To ease transportation
- To have a ready supply - To keep seeds for the next planting season.
- To improve taste - To generate income by selling when it is scarce
- To reduce bulk - To maintain the nutritional value of food
METHOD OF FOOD PRESERVATION
- By salting - By freezing (cold treatment) - By drying or dehydration
- By pasteurization (treatment of perishable food)
- By canning - By bottling - By Pickling
SOCIAL HEALTH
(Smoking, Alcoholism, Exercise and Rest)
1) SMOKING: cigarette smoke is very harmful to a person’s lungs. Cigarettes contains 3 main
type of ingredient which are tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide
EFFECTS OF SMOKING
- Nicotine found in cigarette affects the brain.
- Nicotine in smoke increase heart beat and blood pressure.
24
- CO in smoke reduces the amount of CO 2 blood can carry and thus its affect all tissues,
particularly the heart and the brain.
- Tar in cigarette causes cancer of the lips, throat and lungs.
- Smokes have bad offensive smell on their breath and clothes.
- Cigarettes stain the teeth and gives bad mouth odour.
- Smoking can lead to poverty.
- Cigarette smoking can lead to smokers cough
2) ALCOHOLISM
It is a disease in which a person cannot manage without alcohol.
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL
- The heart may enlarge and become powerless.
- The liver cell may be destroyed, resulting in a very serious liver diseases
- Stomach ulcer may developed
- Malnutrition may develop due to lack of appetite.
- Heavy drinking can lead to accidents.
- It weakens the muscles
- Pregnant women who drink give birth to babies with small heads, underweight, less intelligent
and there is greater risk of miscarriage.
- It can lead to poverty since all the money is being spent on Alcohol.
- It leads to loss of consciousness
3) EXERCISE AND REST

IMPORTAMCE OF EXERCISE AND REST.
- Exercise helps to improve respiratory circulation.
- Exercise makes the muscles to be strong so that they can support the body better.
- Exercises help to get rid of excretory materials and improves digestion.
- Exercise increases blood circulation
- When we are resting that is sleeping it helps in the repairs of worn out tissues in the body and
the building up of new ones take place.
WATER MANAGEMENT
SOURCES OF NATURAL WATER
25
A) ATMOSPHERIC WATER: It includes rain snow, hail stones.
B) UNDERGROUND WATER: Water hidden in the soil
C) SURFACE WATER: It includes ocean, rivers lakes, ponds, streams, etc.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the release of harmful substances into water bodies by man’s activities which are
harmful to living organism including man.
- Oil spillage due to leakage from an oil tank.
- Hot water from industries
- Discharge of industrial waste containing harmful substances e.g mercury
- Chemical fertilizers
- Discharge of untreated sewage into water bodies
- Use of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides)
- Testing of bombs in water.
EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION ON AQUATIC LIFE
- Oil is poisonous and kills fish, sea birds, and aquatic organisms
- Heat from hot water may kill aquatic organisms.
- Mercury attacks the brain and spinal cord leading to unsteadiness in the legs and hands
tiredness, ringing in the ears, vision problems.
- If nitrates that is found in fertilizers gets into a baby’s guts it turn into nitrite which makes it
difficult for the baby blood to carry oxygen.
- Untreated sewage may contain disease causing organisms like bacteria that causes typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, etc.
- Fish killed by chemicals causes many health problems like stomach problems, cancer.
PREVENTION OF WATER POLLUTION
- Treating sewage in sewage treating center before emptying it into a river, sea, etc.
- Oil tankers should have double to prevent breakage of tanks in case of an accident
- Ensuring that organic manure should be used instead of chemical fertilizers
- Reduce the amount of fertilizer that runs into water bodies through run offs , by not using
fertilizers in steep slopes
- Institute laws to prevent water pollution e.g banning the use of chemicals for fishing
- Educating of the population on the effects of water pollution and how it can be prevented.
WATER PURIFICATION (TREATMENT)

26
The aim of water purification is to kill germs, remove dirt and odour found in the water
METHODS OF WATE PURIFICTION
1. By sedimentation and decantation
2. By adding alum
3. By exposure to air and sunlight
4. By boiling
5. By adding chlorine
6. By adding eau de javel
WATER MAINTENANCE
1. Purified water should be stored in clean containers
2. Containers should have a tight fitting lid
3. Clean cups or dishes should be used to collect water from the containers
4. Make sure hands do not touch water when collecting the water
AIR
Air is a mixture of gases. It is the clear air in which living this live and breathe
COMPOSITION OF AIR
It consist of about 78% N2, 21% O2, and 1% of other gases, mainly, argon, plus carbon dioxide, water
vapor and little amounts of noble gases (helium, neon, xenon and krypton)
USES OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL AIR
A. USES OF NATURAL AIR
1. Air contains oxygen which is essential for life, ie , all living things use oxygen for breathing
2. Air supports combustion (burning)
3. The nitrogen in the air is essential for the growth of plants
4. A layer of ozone (O3) which is present high up in the atmosphere prevents the harmful ultra
violet radiation (UV) rays of the sun from reaching us.
5. Moving air has a great force, which enables the movement of soil beats and gliders. It also
helps in the dispersal of plant seeds
6. Compressed air is used in filling tyres
7. Carbon dioxide is used by green plants in photosynthesis
B. USES OF ARTIFICIAL AIR
1. Planes, divers and astronauts, carry artificial oxygen
27
2. In hospitals, patients with breathing problems are given oxygen in an oxygen mask or in an
oxygen tent
3. In steel works, oxygen is used to convert impure iron from the blast furnace into steels.
4. Liquid nitrogen is very cold and is used to quick freeze food in food factories
5. Helium is used to fill balloons and air ships since it is lighter than air
6. Carbon dioxide is used in making fizzy drinks in industries e.g Coka cola
7. Carbon dioxide is used to raise dough in bakery industries
8. Fire extinguishers contain carbon dioxide.
AIR POLLUTION
It is the release of substances into the atmosphere by human activities that are harmful to other living
things and man himself
AIR POLLUTANTS
1. Carbon monoxide which is gotten from cigarette fumes and exhaust pipes of motor vehicles
2. Carbon dioxide which is released from motor exhaust pipes, burning of fuel, like coal and
wood
3. Sulphur dioxide formed when coal and oil are burnt in industries
4. Chlorofluorocarbons. These are chemicals containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon, mostly
emitted from refrigerators
5. Noise from the city traffic, continuous loud music, etc.
6. Smoke , which consist of tiny particles of carbon (sooth) floating in the air
7. Tar, which is found in cigarettes
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Carbon monoxide combines with blood haemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability
of the blood to carry oxygen. It can lead to collapse and death in high concentrations
2. Carbon dioxide causes global warming
3. Sulphurdioxide is poisonous to plants and thus tends to reduce the growth of many plants, eg
wheat, lettuce.
4. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) damages the ozone layer
5. Noise causes headaches, persistent ringing in the ear and depression
6. Smoke causes eye irritation , headache and cough
7. Tar causes lung cancer, bronchitis and heart diseases.
HOW TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION
28
1. Factories and industries should be built far from residential areas
2. Promoting the use of bicycles as a means of transport.
3. Educating the population on the dangers of air pollution
4. Banning the use of chemicals that destroy the ozone layer such as CFCs
5. Build high up chimneys so that waste gases are discharged high up and have more time to
diffuse before reaching the ground
6. Use electrical energy in industries in place of chemical energy
LAND POLLUTION
It is the release of substances into the environment by human activities that are harmful to other
living things and man himself
CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION
1. Littering of paper waste
2. Use of open dumps
3. Use of pesticides
4. Bush burning
5. Fall outs from atomic bombs, explosions, nuclear accidents
EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION
1. Open dumps form fertile grounds for rats, houseflies, mosquitoes, etc
2. The decomposition of waste on land causes bad odour
3. Land pollution destroys the beauty of the environment
4. Waste may occupy part of the road causing traffic congestion.
5. Pesticides kill both the pest and other living organisms
6. Abandoned cars occupy valuable land and also serve as a hide out for dangerous organisms
like snakes, thieves, etc.
CONTROL OF LAND POLLUTION
1. Reduce the amount of waste we produce
2. Reusing the waste we generate e.g bear and beverage bottles
3. Recycling of solid waste e.g metals, aluminum
4. We should use biodegradable plastics
5. Put laws to prevent land pollution
6. Do regular clean up campaigns
7. Educating the population on better ways of managing garbage
29
8. Avoid bush burning
9. Use biological control instead of chemical control of pests.
CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY

A) BIODIVERSITY
It is the variety of living things on earth; the different plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms, and
the ecosystems within which they live and interact.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY TO HUMANS
1. It is a source of food
2. It is a source of drugs especially from plants
3. A source of industrial material eg animal skin
4. A source of leisure
5. Ecological services
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
This is the conservation of all living things on earth (biodiversity), including the ecosystem in which
they live and interact.
Biodiversity conservation therefore involves the conservation of gardens, forest, water bodies such as
ponds lakes, rivers, etc
INTERDEPENDENCE OR ASSOCIATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

- GRAZING
It is the eating of plants by herbivorous animals, e.g goat, cow, horse, rabbit, etc.
- FOOD CHAINS
A food chain is the transfer of energy from sunlight to green plants, through a series of animals with
each organism feeding on the other and providing food for the succeeding one.
- Each organism has only one source of food in a food chain and the death of one organism in a
food chain disrupts the whole chain.
- A food chain can be broken down to the following stages producer, consumer, and
decomposer.
i. PRODUCER
30
They are organism that can make their food using sunlight, water, CO 2 through the process of
photosynthesis
- Examples include green plants, such as plantain, cocoyam, cassava, maize etc
ii. CONSUMER
They are organisms which cannot make their own food so depend on producers either directly (by
feeding on the producers) or indirectly (by feeding on another organism that feed on the producer)
There are various types of consumers:
- Consumer that feed directly on producers are called Primary consumers. Primary consumers
are all herbivores or vegetarians (grass eaters) e.g. goat, cow, grasshopper, sheep etc
- Consumers that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. They are all
carnivores (flesh eaters) e.g lion
- Some consumers feed on plants and animal matter. They are called omnivores e.g pig, man,
etc Omnivores can therefore be primary and secondary consumers.
iii. DECOMPOSERS
Producers and consumers will eventually die and their dead bodies will become the food for
consumers.
Decomposers are saprophytes. A saprophyte is an organism that feed on dead and decaying
organisms eg bacteria and fungi
REPRESENTATION OF FOOS CHAINS

 In representing a food chain, the organisms are arranged in a linear (straight) manner,
beginning with the producers and then the primary consumer followed by secondary
consumer.
 The organisms are then connected with pointed arrows as shown in the food chain below;
Maize Goat Man
(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)
The arrows represent the flow of energy through the ecosystem. Since the arrows points to the
organisms which are doing the eating.
31
CAMEROON LEGISLATION (LAWS) ON POACHING FORESTRY, FISHING AND
FOREST EXPLOITATION
Cameroon legislation on poaching forestry, fishing and forest exploitation was deliberated and
adopted by the National Assembly and the legislation was later signed into law by the President of
the Republic in January 1994.
PROTECTION OF NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY

- It is forbidden to light fire without authorization that will damage the vegetation
- Clearing or exploitation shall be forbidden in forests or parts of the forest that has been
declared out of bounds, or classified as state forest.
- It is forbidden to dump toxic waste into water bodies that can destroy animals and plants.
- Any natural person or cooperate body wishing to carry out forest exploitation activities shall
be granted approval under conditions fixed by decrees.
PROTECTION OF WILD LIFE AND BIODIVERSITY

- Animal species living in the state territory shall for the purpose of protection, be classified
into 3 classes. A, B and C according to conditions laid down by order of the minister in
charge of wild life.
- The species of class A shall be totally protected and may on no occasion be killed except
where animal constitutes dangers or course damage to person or property.
- The species of class B shall be protected and may be hunted, capture or killed subject to grant
of a hunting permit.
- The species of class C shall be partially protected. Their capture or killing shall be regulated
by conditions laid down by order of the minister in charge of wild life.
PROTECTION OF PERSONS AND PROPERTY AGAINST ANIMALS
- If animals constitute a danger to persons and property, order can be given by the minister in
charge of wild life to hunt them down.
- No person will be charge for killing an animal if he did that in order to protect himself, his
livestock or crops.
- Proof of lawful defense will be given within 72hrs by the official in charge of the nearest
wildlife service.
EXERCISE OF HUNTING RIGHTS
- Hunting permits can be given to people who have fire arms license
32
- Hunting permits and license shall be personal and non-transferable
- Photographing and filming of wildlife animals for commercial purpose, shall be considered as
an act of hunting
- The grant of a hunting permits shall entail the payment of fees the rate of which shall be fixed
by the finance law.
- The exportation of wild animals, their hides, skin, horns, etc, shall be subjected to the
presentation of a certificate of origin and an export permits issued by the administration in
charge of wildlife
- The breeding of wild animals in ranches, or farms shall be subject to an authorization issued
by the administration in charge of wildlife.
FISHERIES
 The right to fish water ways and coast shall belong to the state.
 Any person or company wishing to carry out fishing must apply for a fishing permit first.
 Issuing of a fishing permit shall be subjected to the payment of exploitation tax, in which the
rate shall be fixed by the finance law.
 Any person who wishes to fish Crayfish and small shrimps shall first obtain a special
authorization to be determined by law.
 Fishing licences shall be of three types: the licence to catch fish, the licence to fish in shrimps,
the licence to fish in high sea.
 Fishing permits shall be of four types:
Permit A: the permit for semi industry fishing
Permit B: the permit for sport fishing.
Permit C: the permit for profit making in small-scale fishing.
Permit D: the permit for fisheries research.
 The issuing or renewal of a fishing license or permit shall be subject to the payment of an
exploitation tax.
 The scale of fishing exploitation rights shall be forbidden.
THE END. Tell: 650007108

Form One Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Form One Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Form One Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

ANGHA DESMOND EMBA BIOMEDICAL : option MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCES

1.4 Relationship between Biology and other science subjects

1.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

1.7 Differences between Plants and Animals

1.8 OBSERVATION OF LIVING THINGS.

Equipment used in Observing Living things.

Functions of the various parts

1.9 Describing observation

BIOLOGICAL DIAGRAMS AND DRAWINGS

How to draw biological diagram

Functions of the Parts of the Cell.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

THE HABITAT OF LIVING ORGANISMS.

EFFECTS OF CHANGING SEASON ON ORGANISMS

IMPROVING SOIL QUALITY

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT FARMING METHODS

B) DISADVANTAGES (Negative impact of agriculture on the environment)

CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

HUNTING, FISHING, HARVESTING AND GARDENING

REASONS WHY PEOPLE CARRY OUT FISHIHG

TECHNIQUES OR METHODS OF MARKET GARDENING

MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

TYPES OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

5. AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

CARE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

NUTRITIONAL DISEASES DUE TO DEFICIENCY

HEALTHY EATING HABITS

PRINCIPLES OF FOOD HYGIENE

3) EXERCISE AND REST

WATER PURIFICATION (TREATMENT)

CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY

INTERDEPENDENCE OR ASSOCIATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

REPRESENTATION OF FOOS CHAINS

PROTECTION OF NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY

PROTECTION OF WILD LIFE AND BIODIVERSITY

THE END. Tell: 650007108

You might also like