Programming Logic and Design

Seventh Edition
Chapter 3
Understanding Structure
 Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
• The disadvantages of unstructured spaghetti code
• The three basic structures—sequence, selection, and
loop
• Using a priming input to structure a program
• The need for structure
• Recognizing structure
• Structuring and modularizing unstructured logic

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The Disadvantages of Unstructured
Spaghetti Code
• Spaghetti code
– Logically snarled program statements
– Often a complicated mess
– Programs often work but are difficult to read and maintain
– Confusing and prone to error
• Unstructured programs
– Do not follow the rules of structured logic
• Structured programs
– Follow the rules of structured logic

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 Figure 3-1 Spaghetti code logic for washing a dog

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Structure
– Basic unit of programming logic
– Sequence structure
• Perform actions in order
• No branching or skipping any task
– Selection structure (decision structure)
• Ask a question, take one of two actions
• Dual-alternative ifs or single-alternative ifs
– Loop structure
• Repeat actions while a condition remains true

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-2 Sequence structure

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-3 Selection structure

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Dual-alternative ifs
– Contain two alternatives
– The if-then-else structure
if someCondition is true then
do oneProcess
else
do theOtherProcess
endif

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Single-alternative ifs
if employee belongs to dentalPlan then
deduct $40 from employeeGrossPay
– An else clause is not required
• null case
– Situation where nothing is done

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-4 Single-alternative selection structure

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Loop structure
– Repeats a set of actions while a condition remains true
• Loop body
– Also called repetition or iteration
– Condition is tested first in the most common form of loop
– The while…do or while loop

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-5 Loop structure

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Loop structure

while testCondition continues to be true

do someProcess

while you continue to be hungry

take another bite of food
determine if you still feel hungry

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• All logic problems can be solved using only sequence,
selection, and loop
• Structures can be combined in an infinite number of
ways
• Stacking structures
– Attaching structures end-to-end
• End-structure statement
– Indicates the end of a structure
– The endif statement ends an if-then-else structure
– The endwhile statement ends a loop structure

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-6 Structured flowchart and pseudocode with three stacked structures

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structure
• Any individual task or step in a structure can be
replaced by a structure
• Nesting structures
– Placing one structure within another
– Indent the nested structure’s statements
• Block
– A group of statements that execute as a single unit

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-7 Flowchart and pseudocode showing nested structures—

a sequence nested within a selection

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-8 Flowchart and pseudocode showing nested structures—

a loop nested within a sequence, nested within a selection

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures

Figure 3-9 Flowchart and pseudocode for a selection within

a loop within a sequence within a selection
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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Structured programs have the following
characteristics:
– Include only combinations of the three basic structures
– Each structure has a single entry point and a single exit
point
– Structures can be stacked or connected to one another only
at their entry or exit points
– Any structure can be nested within another structure

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program
• Priming input (or priming read)
– Reads the first input data record
– Is outside the loop that reads the rest of the records
– Helps keep the program structured
• Analyze a flowchart for structure one step at a time
• Watch for unstructured loops that do not follow this
order
– First ask a question
– Take action based on the answer
– Return to ask the question again
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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program

Figure 3-15 Structured, but nonfunctional, flowchart of number-doubling problem

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program

Figure 3-16 Functional but unstructured flowchart

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 Figure 3-17 Functional, structured flowchart for the number-doubling problem

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 Figure 3-18 Structured but incorrect solution to the number-doubling problem

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 Understanding the Reasons for
Structure
• Clarity—unstructured programs are confusing
• Professionalism—other programmers expect it
• Efficiency—most languages support it
• Ease of maintenance—other programmers find it
easier to read
• Supports modularity—easily broken down into
modules
• It can be difficult to detect whether a flowchart is
structured

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 Recognizing Structure
A Structured Flowchart

Figure 3-20 Example 2

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 Recognizing Structure
An Unstructured Flowchart

Figure 3-21 Example 3

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 Figure 3-23 Structured dog-washing flowchart and pseudocode
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 Figure 3-24 Modularized version of the dog-washing program
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 Summary
• Spaghetti code
– Statements that do not follow rules of structured logic
• Three basic structures
– Sequence, selection, and loop
– Combined by stacking and nesting
• Priming input
– Statement that reads the first input value prior to starting
a structured loop

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 Summary
• Structured techniques promote:
– Clarity
– Professionalism
– Efficiency
– Modularity
• Flowcharts can be made structured by untangling
• Logical steps can be rewritten to conform to the
three structures

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