Assignment code 8609

Name: - Tehreem kanwal

User id :- 0000489541

Semester:- Spring 2024

Subject name;- philosophy of education

Tutor Name:- Muhammad Irfan Ashiq

 Exercise #01
Question#1:-Education can not be separated from philosophy .Give examples to support
your answer.

Ans:- Education and Philosophy

Education and philosophy are deeply intertwined, as philosophical beliefs and principles often
shape educational practices and systems. Here are some examples to support this connection:
 Curriculum Development: The choice of subjects, content, and teaching methods in a
curriculum is influenced by philosophical perspectives. For instance, a curriculum that
emphasizes critical thinking and creativity may be influenced by the philosophy of
constructivism.
 Ethical Education: Philosophical theories on ethics and morality often inform the development
of ethical education programs within schools. For example, the teaching of virtues and moral
reasoning may be influenced by philosophical theories of ethics such as virtue ethics or
deontology.
 Educational Goals: Philosophical ideas about the purpose of education, such as whether it
should primarily focus on personal development, social transformation, or vocational training,
shape the goals and objectives of educational institutions.
 Teaching Methods: Different philosophical perspectives, such as behaviorism, constructivism,
and humanism, influence the choice of teaching methods and approaches used by educators.
 Educational Policy: The formulation of educational policies is often guided by philosophical
beliefs about the role of the state, the rights of individuals, and the nature of knowledge.
In summary, education and philosophy are interconnected in various aspects, from curriculum
design to ethical education, and from teaching methods to educational policy.
Education is the basic all of us need, and it is also essential for a decent living, without
education we as a society would be uncivilized and hum. Philosophy is logical and it helps to
shape the values of education. These values are standards of people’s behavior that make a
judgment of what is important or not. Any change in the values will affect every aspect of
society; therefore changes should be done by analyzing with the support of philosophy the
needs of the people. Because philosophy plays a huge role in preparing correction for the mind
and belief values that suit the particular time.

Moreover, philosophy is at the heart of teaching-learning curriculum development in education.

These help educators to formulating their beliefs, and assumptions of making the value of their
judgments. Although philosophy and education are two different, they linked together are
closely, because, without any prior assumptions about education, the educational system will
act as directionless. So every philosopher or educationist believed that the relationship between
education and philosophy is very close, and they are known as the two sides of the same coin.
That’s why educationists have basic information about philosophies in order to know the nature
of a specific concern.
1.2 Philosophy in Education

Philosophy helps to develop various important skills and makes a central contribution to the
educational enterprise. It also has defined as the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and
existence. Philosophy construct of clear formulations education in essence, and with philosophy
support of action in essence. The right direction of education is not only concerned with
teaching-learning ideology, because it may promise a future utopia. This is also one way of
human thinking philosophy of education, and this philosophical thinking strongly emphasizes
the clear formulation of ideas and problems of education from educational theory and practice.
It consists of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and esthetics.

It is well known that education reflects and goes with philosophy, also considered to guide the
educational process. It not only helps to identify conflicts and contradictions in learning theory
but also helps to understand and to modify the learning process because it clarifies assumptions
that are underlying educational theories. It may influence what subjects are taught, and how
values are taught, within and around the core curriculum. Philosophy is like s science it helps to
constitute primordial problems because there is a discipline in education that has to deal with
analyzes intrinsic issues of education. As educators, it’s required creativity, autonomy, and
curiosity to teach learners without compromising any intellectual levels.
1.3 Nature of Philosophy of Education

A classroom philosophy begins with beliefs in learning and teaching, because it may include
strategies or techniques which teacher use in their classroom. These approaches are towards an
academic portfolio that should underpin the narrative. It has to demonstrate awareness and
reflection beyond specific experience because philosophy consciously guides the process of
education in many different ways. Philosophy of education also refers to learners’ evaluation of
their goals, and methods. This evaluation of learning occurs not only within the premises of
formal educational. However, to understand more concept of the philosophy of education, it is
necessary to understand the meaning of these two terms

Philosophy; and Education;

Philosophy literally means love of wisdom; this may tell something about nature because many
disciplines seek wisdom. On the other side, education is the process of educating or teaching
many disciplines because education is defined as developing knowledge, skill, and character.
The philosophy of education is a method of approaching undergoing teaching, training and
learning in order to improve knowledge and skills. This process is also defined as developing
powers by attaining academic training. Therefore, education is closely related to various aspects
of human philosophy, it is also believed that education performs two functions, namely
conservative and creative. Having knowledge of the philosophy of education would benefit not
only teachers or policymakers but also helps to systematize in a hierarchy various components
of the system of education.

1.4 Difference between Philosophy and Education

Philosophy and education have two different views and points that have to identify in a
different key. The philosophy of education’s primary objective is to clarify the knowledge,
prioritizing, theories, logical, and rhetorical analyzes because education has to direct specific
aims and objectives. However, on the face philosophy and education don’t even relate to each
other because one is an art and the other a thing of its own, although the relationship between
philosophy and education is quite a deep set by a philosophical approach. Logically education
and philosophy are not the same but they slightly differs, and this not means that both are not
static and always changing their identity.
 Philosophy Education

Fundamentally it is study of nature of Process of liberating people into the

knowledge, and reality; society.

It deals with nature, and human It deals with the process of learning
existence; and imparting knowledge.

It also deals with abstract knowledge It deals with concrete knowledge

It is a contemplative process It is an active process.

It focuses on the reality and It focuses on the transmission of

existence. knowledge.

It viewed on certain differences It tailored towards the needs of the

identified. society.

Philosophy is theory. Education is the practical.

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Question#2:-How does ‘idealism’impact different areas of education,Discuss.

Ans:- IMPLICATIONS OF IDEALISM IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Idealism is a very old philosophical thought and it has exercised a potent influence on the
mind of man throughout the ages. Even in modern times when people are not inclined towards
accepting any dogmatic creed or philosophy, idealism has certain attractions which appeal to
the human mind and thereby exercise a great influence on human thinking. In education the
influence of idealism has gone a long way to restrict some of the radical thinking and establish
the worth of the eternal ideals and values of life.
The word idealism is derived from two distinct sources-the idea and the ideal. Idea means true
and testified knowledge. The word ideal stands for the perfected form of an idea or ideas. An
idealist does not have considerations for material values of life. A thinker who idolizes ‘Mind
and Self’ is an idealist. Idealism is one of the oldest schools of philosophy.

TYPES OF IDEALISM

(a) ABSOLUTE IDEALISM

It is the one type which has found its way into educational philosophy. This lays down
that the heart of reality is to be found in thought or reason. Reason is absolute; in fact it is the
absolute. Being absolute, it is also one i.e., monistic. Everything, thus, is interrelated and all
contradictions reconciled. Furthermore the complete cause of any single occurrence involves
the whole of reality. The cosmos is great thought process, and the absolute is god thinking.
Everything happens as a result of the self-willed idea i. e. absolute. The absolute is already
complete, and self-realized. Nature is the medium through which the absolute progressively
reveals itself in external form. Mind of man however, is a part of the absolute whole. The
absolute being the whole and education being a part thereof, it may be that study of the
fragment may reveal important facts of the totality.

The centralistic approach to idealism on the whole has committed this educational
philosophy to the prominent importance of consciousness. Mind is ultimately spiritual, not
materialistic. Human nature is to be viewed, as more than a behaving organism, responding to
the stimuli of its environment. Man is too atomistic. Idealism stresses certain wholeness.
Nothing happens in any part of the system that does not affect the
rest.

On religious and moral education, the definition of the absolute is unmistakably of

theistic characteristics. Since the aim of education is the increasing realization of the absolute,
all education appears tinged with religious significance. This includes moral education. Reason
being the absolute, the universe is one of law and order. So too there is a oral law in the
universe backed by the authority of the absolute. Thus lays an inescapable moral imperative on
education.

(b) MODERN IDEALISM

It has given a different tune to educational philosophy. In this concept idealism more
to do this idea as metal state. n this idealism might be called a philosophy of idealism. The `I` of
idealism being interested for euphony. The knowledge one has of his environment is idea of it.
The environment in itself cannot be known through intermediate idea of it. The environments in
itself cannot be known directly. It can only be known through intermediate idea of human
knower. From which the learner’s knowledge takes, therefore, is bound to be in part the product
of his human way of apprehending it. Such concepts are supplied by the mind of human
learning.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF IDEALISM

The fundamental principles of idealism are:

(1) TWO FORMS OF THE WHOLE WORLD

Idealism believes in two forms of the world- Spiritual world and Material world,
Idealists gives more importance to spiritual world in comparison to the material world. They
believe that spiritual world is real and the ultimate truth whereas the material world is transitory
and moral. According to Horne- “Idealism holds that the order of the world is due to the
manifestation in space and time of an eternal and spiritual reality.”
(2) IDEAS ARE MORE IMPORTANT THAN OBJECT

According to Idealists, knowledge of mind and soul can be obtained through ideas only.
Hence, they have given more importance to ideas over the objects and material or later. In the
words of Plato “Ideas are of the ultimate cosmic significance. They are rather the essences or
archetypes which give form to cosmos. These ideas are eternal and unchanging.”

(3)IMPORTANCE OF MAN OVER NATUR

To Idealists, man is more important than material nature. It is because man can think and
experience about material objects and material phenomena. Hence, the thinker or the one who
experiences is more important than the object or the phenomena experienced. Man is endowed
with intelligence and a sense of discrimination. Thus, he is not a slave of the environment as
animals are but the moulds and transforms the environment for his own good and welfare of the
society. In short, he creates his own world of virtue and his creativity achieves higher and
higher levels of art in many areas.

(4)FAITH IN SPIRITUAL VALUES

According to Idealists, prime aim of life is to achieve spiritual values-Truth, beauty and
goodness. These spiritual values are undying and permanent. The realization of these values is
the realization of god. In the pursuit of these absolute values man rises higher and higher in the
moral plane till he attains divinity. For the achievement of these spiritual values all the
capacities of man are to be harnessed to the full. These capacities are- knowing, feeling and
willing.

(5)IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Idealists give much importance to the ‘self’ of the individual. Hence they insist upon the
fullest development of the personality of an individual. According to them the development of
personality means achievement of ‘perfection’. Plato rightly speaks that each individual has an
ideal self. He tries to develop that ideal ‘self’ more and more. This self-realization is the true
sense of the term. It may be noted that self-realization means knowledge of the ‘self’ or soul.
This self-realization can only be achieved in society. Hence, development of social qualities is
very essential for self-realization as it expresses itself in the form of love, sympathy, fellow-
feeling and co-operation for the good of all and discrimination among human beings on any
basis of caste, creed, sex, race or status etc. It clears the fact that Idealism advocates the concept
of universal education. In short Idealism believes in the welfare of whole human community.

(6)FULL SUPPORT TO THE PRINCIPLE OF UNITY IN DIVERSITY

Idealists give full support to the principle of Unity in Diversity. They believe that is of
spiritual nature. This may be called Universal Consciousness or Divinity. This underlying
divine force maintains the existence and working of all entities. Idealists call this power as God,
the Supreme Force which is omnipotent and omnipresent.

IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Idealism prescribes certain fundamental aims of education which are directly influenced
by the aims and principles of life. In this context Ross puts forth the view, “The function of
education is to help us in our exploration of the ultimate universal values so that truth of the
universe may become our truth and give power to our life.’’ Some of the important aims of
education as laid down by idealists are given below

(1) SELF REALIZATION.

According to idealism man is the most beautiful creation of god-His grandest

work. It lays great stress on the exaltation of human personality it is self-realization The aim of
education is to develop the self of the individuals higher till self-realization is achieved It is
in fact making actual or real the highest potentialities of the self.

(2) UNIVERSAL EDUCATION.

Education according to idealism should be universal in nature. The universe is

regarded as a thought process. Education should be based on the teaching of Universal truth
from the stand-point of rationality of the Universe

(3) SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT.

Idealists give greater importance to spiritual values in comparison with material

attainments. According to Rusk, “Education must enable Mankind through its culture to enter
more and more fully into the spiritual realm, and also enter more and more fully into the
spiritual realm, and also enlarge the boundaries of spiritual realm”.
(4)TRANSMISSION AND PROMOTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE

The aim of idealistic education is the preservation ; enrichment and transmission of

culture, Education must contribute to the development of culture .It should help in
enlarging the boundaries of spiritual realm

(5)CULTIVATION OF MORAL VALUES

According to idealism, man is essentially a moral being. Therefore, moral,

intellectual and aesthetic aspects of his personality should be promoted. According to
Dr.Prem Nath “The process of education must lead to the deepest spiritual insight and to the
highest moral and spiritual insight and to the highest moral and spiritual insight and to the
highest moral and spiritual conduct .”

(6) PREPARATION FOR A HOLY LIFE

Idealism prepares an individual for a holy life. Froebel says.”The object of education is
the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy life.’’

(7) DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND RATIONALITY

Idealism wishes that education should develop the mind fully. It makes a person
rational as well. Only the highly developed mind can understand the all pervading force.
The idealists believe that education must help in the full evolution of mind , the
emancipation of spirit, self realization and the realization of higher values of life and to
train the whole man completely and fully for manhood and not some part of man.

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

While developing curriculum, idealists give more importance to thought, feelings, ideals
and values than to the child and his activities. They firmly hold that curriculum should be
concerned with the whole humanity and its experiences. It must consist of humanities.

The curriculum should give good mental experience of all types.

So cognition (knowing) affecting (feeling) and conation (striving) should find due
place. Sciences and art should be taught as fully integrated. Since the main aim of
education according to the philosophy of idealism is
to preserve and advance the culture of human race ,so subjects like Religion, Ethics,
philosophy, History, Literature etc, should be provided in the curriculum. Healthy
mind is found in healthy baby only. So health, hygiene, games and sports should find an
important place in the curriculum.

IDEALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Idealism has not prescribed specific methods of teaching. According to idealism, class-room is
a temple of spiritual learning, a meeting place of human minds- a place for self education. For
this no particular method has been suggested.However, the following methods have been
advocated by different idealists:

· Learning through reading

· Learning through lecturing

· Learning through discussion

· Learning through imitation

· Descrates employed the device of simple to complex

IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE

Naturalism provides unrestricted freedom to the child whereas Idealism wants

to keep the child under discipline. Idealists believe that there can be no spiritual development of
the child without discipline. This leads to inner discipline. “The discipline is not to be imposed
on pupils. The teacher has only to help them to develop self discipline and through that self
knowledge”

Self-insight and self analysis are the main disciplinary factors. The main task of
education is the cultivation of higher values of life through moral and religious education. It
requires the teacher to present a good example and exercise lasting impact upon the pupil’s
mind. A teacher is an ideal person to be emulated by this pupil.

IDEALISM AND TEACHER

Idealism assigns a special role to the teacher. It considers teacher as a spiritual guide
for the child. The teacher serves as a living model for the student. He sets the environment in
which education takes place. He carries the child from darkness to light. He is to guide the
student towards utmost possible perfection

Idealism regards the teacher as the priest of man’s spiritual heritage. He is a co-worker
with God in perfecting man. An idealist teacher is a philosopher, friend and guide. According to
Gentle- A teacher is “a spiritual symbol of right conduct.” He is thus, an indispensable
necessity.

According to Froebel, the school is a garden, the teacher is a cautious gardener and the
child is a tender plant. The plant can grow, no doubt, without help but the good gardener sees
that the plant grows to the finest possible perfection. Through teacher’s guidance the child can
make his natural development into a process leading to perfection and beauty.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF IDEALISM TO EDUCATION

Idealistic philosophy in education emphasizes ‘the exaltation of personality’, which is the

result of self-realization, achieved by spiritual knowledge, self-discipline and dignified teacher.
Idealism assigns a very important place to the teacher who is respected as a guide, and
philosopher. They emphasize the importance of moral and spiritual education and points out the
values of humanities, social sciences, art and literature. It emphasizes man’s perfection in
various facets of life-physical, spiritual, intellectual, moral, esthetic and social.

EVALUATION OF IDEALISM

(1)The common criticism regarding Idealism is that it is an abstract and vague doctrine. It
avoids the present realities and prepares the child for the next world.

(2) Idealism is concerned with the ultimate end of life. It avoids the real problems day to day
living. Education should be such as to make individuals capable to solve the problems that
confront them from time to time able to lead a happy and contented life.

(3) Idealism lays more emphasis on thinking and mental activities. This increases the
importance of intellectualism unnecessarily.

(4) Idealistic education gives more importance to teacher in relation to the child. Modern
psychology emphasizes the prime and central importance of child.

(5) Idealistic methods of teaching emphasize cramming and rote memory. In modern
education, these methods are given little importance.
CONCLUSION

Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing scientific world view.

Idealistic concepts like ‘spirit’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, and ‘the cosmos’ have little relevance in the
class-room teaching. There is too much emphasis on good manners and modesty which may be
mistaken. It neglects child’s psychological nature. Idealism does not contribute to methods of
teaching. It sets unobtainable goals. Idealistic scheme of education, by and large, pays attention
to physical, industrial, social and electronic environment of today. It neglects social aspects of
life. It over emphasizes humanity and under rates science and technology. In all, we can say that
idealistic approach to education has its own merits and shortcomings. It should, therefore, be
supplemented by other philosophy or philosophies of education.

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Question#3:-Define and explain ‘ pragmatism’as a modern philosophy which has

reshaped educational policy and practices.

Ans:-

How do teachers apply pragmatism?

Teachers can apply pragmatism by making their learning practical. Any time they teach a topic
they should help students understand its real-world applications. They can also have students
practice or experience new skills or situations.
What is pragmatism?
Pragmatism is a philosophy of practicality that has been applied to education. According to this
philosophy, education should be focused on real-life applications and student growth.

Pragmatism in Education
Pragmatism in education states that learning should be focused on life and growth. The topics
students study in school should have practical applications to their current or future situations or
careers. While topics like math and science can help students in their day-to-day life,
proponents of the pragmatism philosophy also argue that other topics should be included in the
curriculum to help students grow. Schools should not only teach information, but also help
students grow as people.
In recent years more schools have introduced Social Emotional Learning (SEL) curriculum.
These lessons are meant to help students deal with difficult real-life situations. They also teach
students to handle conflict and to regulate their emotions. Through these lessons, many teachers
and administrators hope it will help students not only be more prepared for life but also become
better students.

Pragmatic Approach to Learning

The pragmatic approach to learning states that learning should be practical. Education should
apply to the real world. Many teachers tackle this by using real-world scenarios that students
either will encounter or may have already encountered. It is not enough to simply give students
a lecture about climate change. To make this learning more practical, the teacher should have
students research how climate change is affecting their students' lives and possible future. They
could also look into steps they can take to help deal with the issue of climate change. This
would be an authentic application of practical learning.
Teaching students about current issues is a great way to introduce practical learning. Teaching
students current social issues does not just teach them about real-world problems, but it can help
give them the tools to be more prepared for adult life. These social issues affect them; it is their
future that will be impacted by the choices of our elected officials.
Core Principles of Pragmatism

1. Practical Consequences: Pragmatism asserts that the meaning and truth of ideas are
grounded in their practical effects and usefulness. If an idea works effectively in practice
and solves problems, it is considered valuable.
2. Experience and Experimentation: Pragmatists believe that knowledge and
understanding come from practical experiences and experimentation. Ideas should be
tested through action and revised based on their outcomes.
3. Adaptability: Pragmatism values adaptability and flexibility in thought. Beliefs and
theories should evolve based on new experiences and results rather than remaining rigid
or static.

Impact on Educational Policy and Practices

1. Student-Centered Learning: Pragmatism has influenced the shift towards student-

centered learning approaches. Educational practices now focus on the needs, interests,
and experiences of students, emphasizing active learning and engagement over passive
reception of information.
2. Experiential Learning: Following pragmatist principles, educational policies
increasingly incorporate experiential learning, where students learn through hands-on
activities, real-world problem-solving, and direct experience, rather than solely through
theoretical instruction.
3. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: Pragmatism has shaped curricula to emphasize
critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Students are encouraged to apply their
knowledge to practical situations and develop solutions, reflecting the pragmatist focus
on the application and effectiveness of ideas.
 1. Continuous Improvement: Reflecting pragmatist principles, educational systems
have adopted models of continuous improvement. Feedback from students,
teachers, and real-world outcomes are used to refine and enhance educational
practices and policies.
2. Integration of Knowledge: Pragmatism promotes the integration of various
disciplines and knowledge areas. Educational practices often focus on
interdisciplinary learning, where students make connections between different
fields and apply integrated knowledge to solve complex problems.

In summary, pragmatism has significantly reshaped educational policy and practices by

prioritizing practical outcomes, experiential learning, and adaptability, leading to a more
dynamic and student-focused educational environment

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Question#4:-Brief discuss different sources of Knowledge from prehistoric to modern

day world.

Ans:- There are gernerally four sources of knowledge; intuition, authority, rational induction,
and empiricism. Intuition is knowledge that is gained through a feeling or thought that might
turn out to be true.

There was no human documentation in that period, therefore there are no literary sources
available to study the prehistoric period. Also, during that time, humans did not know the use of
coins and other similar materials. Hence, the only option left for studying the prehistoric period
is the archaeological remains.
The only way to study and gather information about the prehistoric period is by taking a look
and examining the archaeological remains of that period. The archaeological remains become
the primary source of study about the prehistoric period.

There was no human documentation in that period, therefore there are no literary sources
available to study the prehistoric period. Also, during that time, humans did not know the use of
coins and other similar materials. Hence, the only option left for studying the prehistoric period
is the archaeological remains.

Archaeologists and physical anthropologists are the major researchers into human prehistory,
and they employ excavation, geologic and geographic surveys, and other scientific analyses to
expose and understand the character and behaviour of preliterate and nonliterate peoples.
Human population geneticists and historical linguists are also contributing to these discussions.

Cultural anthropologists aid in the context-setting of social interactions in which items of

human origin travel between individuals, allowing for the examination of any article that
originates in a prehistoric human context. As a result, a vast range of scientific and social
sciences, including anthropology, archaeology, archaeoastronomy, comparative linguistics,
biology, geology, molecular genetics, palaeontology, palynology, physical anthropology, and
many more, give information on prehistory.

Sources of Knowledge

Epistemic Awareness:
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy defined as “the study of human knowledge.” Like
epistemology TOK involves questioning our sources and the nature and accuracy of our
knowledge in the hope that we will develop a more informed understanding of what we know
and don't know. That is, enabling us to become more epistemically aware.
It is important because accurate knowledge of our two worlds - the real world and the inner
world - correctly informs us of the conditions we must cope with. To know facts is to survive;
not to know, or to assess one's environment wrongly, is to lose the fight for survival.

We face two serious epistemological problems.

1. How can we determine which facts are true? As human beings living in the
st
21 Century we are surrounded by a wealth of information but not all of it is trustworthy, so
we must find a way to double check fact-claims. We must learn somehow to screen out the
fictions but let in the facts. On what criteria can we decide what are facts and what are false
claims?

2. How can we determine which facts are important? However, it is not enough to
simply determine which facts are true, we must also consider which facts are useful. A
correct catalogue of the size and shape of every blade of grass on my lawn may well be
factually true but it will not be as useful as knowing that my lawn is on fire and about to
engulf my house. Given the overwhelming number of facts available to us, what criteria can
we use for deciding what is more important, what less?

Almost everything that we know originates from four basic sources:

· Senses (possibly the most important)
· Authority (knowledge from other sources, hopefully experts)
· Reason
· Intuition

The Senses
Information from the senses is called empirical knowledge and empiricists believe that the
fundamental source of all knowledge is our senses. Our senses are exploratory organs; we use
them all to become acquainted with the world we live in. We learn that candy is sweet, and so
are sugar, jam, and maple syrup. Lemons are not, and onions are not. The sun is bright and
blinding. Glowing coals in the fireplace are beautiful if you don't touch them. Sounds soothe,
warn, or frighten us. Through millions of single sense-events we build a fabric of empirical
information which helps us interpret, survive in, and control the world about us.

We have a number of different kinds of senses:

· The objective senses that tell us about the world: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste
· The visceral senses, in our mouths and gut that give us the sense of stomach ache
· The proprioceptive senses, in our muscles that tell us if our fist is clenched or not
· The balance senses, mostly in our ears that tell us if we are … um … balanced

However, our senses present us with a serious credibility problem. Before we start the TOK
course most of us are naïve realists people who simply accept what their senses are telling them
as the truth … but is there any way we can actually be sure about this? Can we really trust what
our senses seem to tell us?

Unfortunately the answer must be a reluctant no. Our senses do not give us a "true picture" of
the real world; they give us useful picture – a picture that is designed to help us move around,
survive in and take advantage of our world. To take a simple example: if you think about it we
know that the chairs we sit on are not actually not solid: they are made of atoms which are
actually more space than anything else. Yet our senses tell us that they are solid. Why? Because
in terms of day to day survival there is no point knowing about atoms: you need to know that a
chair will hold you up if you sit on it and that a rock will hurt if it falls on you: a sensitive
awareness of the arrangement of the sub-atomic particles of a boulder as it plummets towards
you will not do your survival chances any good.

Authority:
Other people are continual sources of information. Such information, however, is always
second-hand knowledge - or third-, fourth-, or nth-hand knowledge. It is all "hearsay." The
farther it is removed from our own personal experience, the more caution we must exercise
before accepting a fact-claim.

All of our historical knowledge is acquired in this way as is most of our knowledge of the
sciences. We can't experience the past or personally repeat every experiment, so we must trust
the specialists and accept, though not blindly, the discoveries they record for us. They key thing
with knowledge from authority is that it can be double-checked and the work of scientists and
historians is continually being ‘double checked’ as other workers in the same field (even
sometimes us in our classrooms) repeat their experiments or investigations. A healthy cynicism
of sources, the development of the skills required to check facts and an awareness of which
sources are more or less reliable is a good way to ensure that the knowledge we receive from
authority is as good as it can be.

Reason:
Reasoning might be defined as the process of using known facts to arrive at new facts. In this
way Reason can help us arrive at new facts or new knowledge BUT only as long as the original
facts we put into the process are correct and the process itself is reliable.

Imagine you are travelling in Japan and you know that the exchange rate is 200 yen to a dollar,
you can easily work out that an 800 yen sushi meal will actually cost you $4. This is new
knowledge (you didn’t know it before) but … it only works if your original facts are right (i.e.
you’ve got the correct exchange rate and are correct about the cost of the meal) and if the
process is right (you can do multiplication / division properly)
Reasoning generally comes in two forms: deduction and induction. Deduction is the kind of
reasoning usually used in Maths and is the more certain of the two as it involves ‘drawing out’
valid conclusions from previously known facts – e.g. All cats are animals, Jack is a cat, so Jack
is an animal. Induction, on the other hand, is usually used in Science and is less certain as it
involves jumping from some things you have observed to making universal statements about all
things – e.g. I drop this pencil and it falls, so it is likely all dropped pencils (and indeed things)
will fall. Notice that both forms are usually dependent on sensation to give us the initial facts or
ideas in the first place.

The problem with reasoning is that deduction (the most certain form of reasoning) can never
teach us anything new because all the information is there in the facts at the start, while
induction (the thing that can give us what seems like new knowledge) can’t ever give us
anything certain, only things that are likely to be the case.

Intuition:
Although the word intuition has connotations of the mystical or unscientific, when carefully
defined it can be considered a source of knowledge. Intuition refers to insights or bits of
knowledge which suddenly ‘pop’ into consciousness as our deeper subconscious chugs away
working on data that we have collected earlier. We have all probably had the experience where
the answer to a question we were previously thinking about but have currently forgotten has
suddenly popped into our minds for no reason. This is intuition and, as such, like reason, it too
is dependent on our senses to provide the raw material on which the subconscious works.

Sometimes intuition seems to be a ‘feeling’. We often say something like "I have the feeling
he's not telling the truth," without being sure of why. The psychologist Jung suggested that
actually this is actually a form of unconscious reasoning where your subconscious picks up on
the tell-tale signs of lying (sweating, nervous movements, etc) that are too subtle for your
conscious mind to notice and processes them resulting in the ‘feeling’ that this person is
untrustworthy.

The problem with intuition however, is that most of our intuitions are wrong and they need
careful double checking before they are trusted.

Other Sources:
· Faith often accompanied by supernatural revelation;
· Instinct;
· Racial Memory / the Collective Unconscious – another idea of Jung’s, that we have
cultural memories that we can all inherit and share without actually experiencing the thing
that caused the memory in the first place;
· Extrasensory Perception;
· Anamnesis ("recollection") or the remembrance of things from a past life;
· Spiritualism and the Occult, such as Ouija boards, tarot cards, etc.

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Question#5:-Compare and contrast ‘empirical ‘knowledge with our sourcesof knowledge.

Ans:- What is Empirical Evidence?

Empirical evidence is the information obtained through observation and documentation of

certain behavior and patterns or through an experiment. Empirical evidence is a quintessential
part of the scientific method of research that is applicable in many disciplines.

In the scientific method, the pieces of empirical evidence are used to validate or disprove a
stated hypothesis, statement, or claim. In the scientific world, a hypothesis can be accepted by
the community only if sufficient (empirical) evidence that supports the hypothesis is provided.

Breaking Down the Evidence

Empirical evidence is primarily obtained through observation or experimentation. The

observations or experiments are known as primary sources. However, it can also be obtained
through various secondary sources, including articles, reports, newspapers, etc. The process of
finding empirical evidence is called empirical research.

The main concern with empirical research is the collection of unbiased evidence. Researchers
must carefully design the research while minimizing exposure to potential errors. In the
scientific world, it is common that several scientists or researchers gather evidence
simultaneously by replicating the same study. In addition, peer review is a primary tool in
science that is used to validate the evidence provided in a study or research.
Types of Empirical Evidence

The two primary types of empirical evidence are qualitative evidence

and quantitative evidence.

1. Qualitative

Qualitative evidence is the type of data that describes non-measurable information. Qualitative
data is used in various disciplines, notably in social sciences, as well as in market research
and finance. In such fields, the research generally investigates human behavior and its patterns.
The non-measurable nature of qualitative data, as well as its subjective analysis, makes it prone
to potential biases.

2. Quantitative

Quantitative evidence refers to numerical data that can be further analyzed using mathematical
and/or statistical methods. Quantitative data is used in almost every discipline of science.

Unlike qualitative data, the evidence obtained using quantitative data is generally considered to
be unbiased as the validity of the data can be easily verified using mathematical/statistical
calculations or analysis.

Knowledge is a complex process involving various sensory and cognitive mechanisms, and this
is how information is obtained from the environment. Since the beginning of human
civilisation, each individual has used different methodologies to understand the world around
them. Indeed, through observation, research and analysis, several generations have faced
various challenges.
Knowledge is a complex process involving various sensory and cognitive mechanisms, and this
is how information is obtained from the environment. Since the beginning of human
civilisation, each individual has used different methodologies to understand the world around
them. Indeed, through observation, research and analysis, several generations have faced
various challenges.
But there are different types of knowledge, classifiable by their acquired or their foundation and
universality.

What are empirical knowledge and its examples?

Empiricism (from the Greek empeirìa, which means experience) is a philosophical branch born
in Britain’s second half of the 17th century. Human knowledge derives exclusively from the
 senses or experience. In a broad sense, today by empiricism is meant a practical and
experimental approach to learn, based on investigation and a way of proceeding a posteriori, in
preference to pure deductive logic.
Empirical knowledge is the product of experience; It is acquired when the sense organs
establish contact with the external world. This type of knowledge has allowed humanity to
accumulate valuable and diverse backgrounds throughout its history.
The use of fire, the emergence of agriculture, and the domestication of plants and animals are
examples of empirical knowledge transmitted from generation to generation. The validity of
much empirical knowledge about medicine, astronomy, agriculture, navigation, and
construction, among others, has been proven by daily practice.

Characteristics of empirical knowledge

Empirical knowledge is characterised by the following:
 Empirical knowledge uses sensory data as the basis of any form of knowledge and proceeds
from sensation to concept, not vice versa.
 Empiricism affirms that knowledge is acceptance of sensory data in its concrete and particular
immediacy.
 Human knowledge always starts from the particular: no universal notions condition the
movement of thought, but the universality of concepts (obtained through generalizations) is
only a point of arrival, a conquest.
 The method of empiricism is induction.
 Empiricism does not recognise any knowledge that does not come from an immediate contact of
the subject with the object. The primary source of all knowledge is the empirical data that take
the name of sensations, perceptions, impressions, and ideas.
 Empiricism limits the scope of knowledge to empirical data and denies thought the possibility
of going beyond it, thus negating the opportunity of metaphysics.


Types of empirical knowledge
Two different types of empirical knowledge can be identified, one particular and the other
contingent. Particular empirical knowledge is identified because it refers to specific situations,
to a unique reality.
But, it is not possible to guarantee that experience based on experience can be applied to other
cases in a generalised way. In contrast, contingent empirical knowledge is identified because it
describes characteristics attributed to an event. However, they could change shortly for several
reasons.
Difference between empirical and scientific knowledge
Empirical is an adjective often related to the term science. It is used in both the natural and
social sciences, and this means the use of working hypotheses that can be disproved by
observation or experiment (i.e., ultimately from experience). In another sense, the term
empirical in science can be synonymous with experimental.
On the other hand, scientific knowledge is obtained from an appropriate systematic
investigation, which makes it possible to discover ongoing relationships between facts and
phenomena.

Summing up
The objective of empirical knowledge is to know the observable reality to solve society’s
practical problems; that of scientific knowledge is to describe, explain theoretically, predict and
transform reality. Scientific knowledge includes describing all the discoveries in scientific
works, monographs, essays. These different types of paper help to organise and pass all
scientific progress to the next generation.
The study of empirical knowledge comprises the instruments of human work and the field of
labour and social activity; scientific knowledge is definite, real, and contains the essence of
reality.
Empirical knowledge does not use unique methods of learning, unlike scientific knowledge.
Empirical knowledge does not develop theoretical systems: learning takes the form of concrete
indicators (it does not have a theoretical-methodological basis). On the other hand, scientific
knowledge develops academic systems verifiable in practice and is guided by scientific,
philosophical principles.
Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this
proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure.
Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other
fields, like epistemology and law.
There is no general agreement on how the terms evidence and empirical are to be defined. Often
different fields work with quite different conceptions. In epistemology, evidence is
what justifies beliefs or what determines whether holding a certain belief is rational. This is
only possible if the evidence is possessed by the person, which has prompted various
epistemologists to conceive evidence as private mental states like experiences or other beliefs.
In philosophy of science, on the other hand, evidence is understood as that
which confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories.
For this role, evidence must be public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or
events and unlike private mental states, so that evidence may foster scientific consensus. The
term empirical comes from Greek ἐμπειρία empeiría, i.e. 'experience'. In this context, it is
usually understood as what is observable, in contrast to unobservable or theoretical objects. It is
generally accepted that unaided perception constitutes observation, but it is disputed to what
extent objects accessible only to aided perception, like bacteria seen through a microscope or
positrons detected in a cloud chamber, should be regarded as observable.

Empirical evidence is essential to a posteriori knowledge or empirical

knowledge, knowledge whose justification or falsification depends on experience or
experiment. A knowledge, on the other hand, is seen either as innate or as justified by rational
intuition and therefore as not dependent on empirical evidence. Rationalism fully accepts that
there is knowledge a priori, which is either outright rejected by empiricism or accepted only in
a restricted way as knowledge of relations between our concepts but not as pertaining to the
external world.

Scientific evidence is closely related to empirical evidence but not all forms of empirical
evidence meet the standards dictated by scientific methods. Sources of empirical evidence are
sometimes divided into observation and experimentation, the difference being that only
experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead
of being passively observed.

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