Unit - 6 Logical Reasoning

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Unit – 6 [ Logical Reasoning ]
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PDF Notes Academy Logical Reasoning
What is Argument?
An argument is a set of statements, one of which, the conclusion is taken to be supported by the
remaining statements, the premises.
For example;
Premises: All men are mortal

Socrates is a man
Conclusion:Socrates is
mortal
In the above example, there are three statements, 1) All men are mortal, 2) Socrates is a
man, and 3) Socrates is mortal. The premises of the Argument is the first two statement,
and the last statement is a Conclusion. The statements of premises support the statement
of conclusion. This type of arrangement is called an Argument.
Forms of Arguments
There are three types of Arguments:
1. Deductive Arguments
2. Inductive arguments, and
3. Abductive arguments
1. Deductive Argument: an argument where the conclusion follows validly from the premises. In
other words, an argument where the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
Example:
Premises: All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Conclusion Socrates is mortal
In the above example, the premises, all men are mortal, and Socrates is a man, give a guarantee the truth
of the conclusion; Socrates is mortal. The conclusion follows the validity according to the premises.
2. Inductive Argument:
An argument where the premises point several cases of some pattern and the conclusion states that this
pattern will hold in general.
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An inductive argument will not be deductively valid, because even if a pattern is found many times,
that does not guarantee it will always be found. Therefore, an inductive argument provides weaker, less
trustworthy support for the conclusion than a deductive argument does.
For Example:
Premises: We have seen 1000 swans., and

All of them have been white.
Conclusion: All swans are white.
In the above example, we have seen just 1000 swans (not all in the world), and all of them have been
white. But it does not mean that all swans in the world are white. White swans are a case of a pattern in
those particular circumstances. Hence, we have concluded in general that all swans are white. But it might
not be true actually. This type of arrangement of premises and conclusion is an example of an Inductive
argument.
3. Abductive (or Hypothetico-Deductive) Argument:
An argument that (i) points out a particular fact, (ii) points out that if a particular hypothesis were true,
we would get this fact, and so (iii) concludes that the hypothesis is indeed true.
Abductive arguments seem to make an even bigger jump than inductive arguments. Inductive arguments
generalize, while abductive arguments say that successful predictions “prove” theory is true. Abductive
arguments are not deductively valid because false theories can make true predictions. So, true predictions
do not guarantee that the theory is true.
Example:
Premises:
These coins conduct electricity (fact)
If these coins are made of gold (hypothesis),
then they would conduct electricity (prediction).
Conclusion: These coins are made of gold.
Structure of Categorical Propositions
A proposition is simply a claim about the world that has truth value. Every proposition can be expressed
as a declarative (i.e., not a question or command) sentence.
Categorical Proposition is any statement which relates two classes or categories of entities. In other words,
a categorical proposition is a proposition that relates two classes of objects. A class is a group of objects.
Example: Cats are mammals

Here, a class or category (Cats) are related to another class or category (Mammals). So, “Cats are
mammals” is a Categorical proposition.
Components of Categorical Propositions
For any categorical proposition, there are four components:

A. Subject Term: First category or class
B. Predicate Term: Second category or class
C. Copula: The grammatical link (verb) between subject and predicate terms.
D. Quantifiers: Words that specify the quantity of the subject and predicate terms.
1. Universal:
a. Affirmative: ‘All’ (includes all of a class)
b. Negative: ‘No’ (excludes all of a class)
2. Particular: ‘Some’ (includes part of a class)
Example: All cats are mammals

Here, All – Quantifier
Cats – Subject Term
Are – Copula
Mammals – Predicate term
Properties of Categorical Propositions

Each categorical proposition has both quantity and quality properties. The followings are the properties:
Quantity: The quantity of a categorical proposition is determined by the quantifier used.
Quality: The quality of a categorical proposition is determined according to whether the proposition
asserts of denies an overlap between the classes.
Affirmative: if a proposition asserts an overlap between the classes or category named, the quality of the
proposition is affirmative.
Negative: In this, a proposition denies an overlap between the categories or classes named,
Distribution: If the proposition refers to the entire class named by a term, that term is distributed and if
it does not refer to the entire class named by a term, then the term is undistributed.

Types of Categorical Proposition
There are four types of categorical position:
1 All politicians are liars (Universal Affirmative) - A

2 No politicians are liars. (Universal Negative) - E
3 Some politicians are liars. (Particular affirmative) - I
4 Some politicians are not liars. (Particular negative) - O
1. Universal Affirmative (A- Propositions): In a proposition, if every member of the subject class is
also a member of the predicate class, then it is called Universal Affirmative Proposition. In other
words, whole of one class is included or contained in another class.
In an example “All politicians are liars”, every member of the class of politicians, is a member
of another class of liars.
A universal affirmative proposition can be written as: All S is P
S and P represent the subject and predicate terms, respectively. Such a proposition affirms that the
relation of class inclusion holds between the two classes and says that the inclusion is complete,
or universal.
2. Universal Negative (E- Proposition): The proposition in which no members of the subject class
are members of the predicate class.
In an example “No politicians are liars”, no member of the class of politicians, is a member of
another class of liars.
Systematically, Universal Negative proposition can be represented as: No S is P
Such a proposition affirms that the no relation of class inclusion holds between the two classes and
says that the exclusion is complete, or universal.
3. Particular affirmative (I-proposition): The proposition in which at least one members of the
subject class is also a member of the predicate class.
In an example “Some politicians are liars”, some member of the class of politicians, is a member
of another class of liars.
Systematically, Particular affirmative proposition can be represented as: Some S is P
4. Particular negative (O-proposition): The proposition in which at least one members of the
subject class is not a member of the predicate class.

In an example “Some politicians are not liars”, some member of the class of politicians, is a
member of another class of liars.
Systematically, Particular affirmative proposition can be represented as: Some S is not P.
A brief of Four Kind of Categorical Proposition
Type Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate
A All S are P
E All (No) S are not (are) P
I Some S are P
O Some S are not P
Complete Chart for categorical Proposition (Helpful for Exam)
Type Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate Quantity Quality Subject Term Predicate Term
A All S are P Universal Affirmative Distributed Undistributed
are not
E All (No) S P Universal Negative Distributed Distributed
(are)
I Some S are P Particular Affirmative Undistributed Undistributed
O Some S are not P Particular Negative Undistributed Distributed
It is important to remember this chart because the properties of categorical propositions are used as
one method of determining the validity of a categorical syllogism.

Classical Square of Opposition
The opposition is an immediate inference grounded on the relation between propositions which have
the same terms but differ in quantity or quality (or both).
For any formal opposition between two propositions, it is essential that their terms should be the same.
There can be no opposition between two such propositions as these:
All angels have wings.

(1)
No cows are carnivorous.
(2)
The square of opposition shows us the logical inferences (immediate inferences) we can make from
one proposition type (A, I, E, and O) to another.
Contradictories: Two propositions are said to be contradictories if both cannot be true, and both cannot
be false at the same time. In other words, if the opposition is between two propositions, which differ both
in quantity and quality.
Here, A - All politicians are liars and O - Some politicians are not liars, and similarly, E and I propositions
are contradictories.
Contraries: Universal propositions are said to be contraries because they cannot both be simultaneously
true. In other words, the opposition is between two universals which differ in quality.

A- All politicians are liars is true, the E- No politicians are liars must be false. Simalrly, if the E-
proposition is true, then the A-proposition is false.
Subcontraries: If the two particular propositions can both be true but cannot both be false. In other words,
the opposition is between two particulars which differ in quality. It means that they cannot both be
simultaneously false.
Subalternation: The universal to particular and particular to universal inferences are called
subalternation. In other words, the opposition is between two propositions which differ only in quantity.
These inferences are valid if the superaltern (A or E) is true, then the subaltern (I or O) is true. If the
subaltern is false, then the superaltern is false.

Categorical Syllogism
A syllogism is an argument containing two premises and a conclusion.
Categorical syllogisms: A categorical syllogism is a syllogism whose premises and conclusion are
categorical propositions.
For example:
Premises:
1. All hats are fashionable clothing.

2. All fashionable clothing is purple.
Conclusion:
3. So, some hats are purple.
A Standard Form Categorical Syllogism Contains:
• Two premises and a conclusion, each a standard form categorical proposition.

• Major Term: A major term which appears only in the first premise and the predicate of the
conclusion.
• Minor Term: A minor term which appears only in the second premise and the subject of the
conclusion
• Middle Term: A middle term which appears in both premises but not in the conclusion.
• Major Premises: The major premise is the premise which contains the major term.
• Minor Premise: The minor premise is the premise which contains the minor term.
Mood and Figure of Syllogism

The categorical syllogisms can be categorise as:
• The kind of standard form categorical proposition which appears as its first (i.e., major) premise,
• The kind of standard form categorical proposition which appears as its second (i.e., minor)
premise, and
• The kind of standard form categorical propositions which appears as its conclusion.
Mood: When the major premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion of a categorical syllogism
arrange in a series of three letters (A, E, I, or O) corresponding to the type of categorical proposition is
called MOOD of an argument.

Example:
Premises: All P are M

All S are M
Conclusion: Some S are P
The first premise is of the form A

The second premise is of the form A
The conclusion is of the form I.
Thus, the mood of this Argument is AAI.
In another example, to figure out the FORM of the premises and the conclusion in the following example:
Premises:
1.No S are P (E-propostion)
2.Some S are P (I-Proposition)
Conclusion:
3. Some S are not P (O-Proposition)
Thus, the mood of this Argument is “EIO”.
When you have to determine the mood of a categorical syllogism, you need to find out which of the four
forms of categorical proposition each line of the Argument is (A, E, I, or O).
Figure
The figure of a categorical syllogism is a number which corresponds to the placement of the two middle
terms.
For example, consider the following arguments:

P 1. All mammals are creatures that have hair.
P 2. All dogs are mammals.
P 3. Therefore, all dogs are creatures that have hair.
Notice that the middle term in the major premise is on the LEFT, while the middle term in the minor
premise is on the RIGHT. Whenever this happens, we say that the argument has figure “1.”
There are four possible figures in the categorical syllogism:

Figure1: When the middle term is on the left in P 1, and on the right in P 2.
Figure2: When the middle term is on the right in both premises.
Figure3: When the middle term is on the left in both premises.
Figure4: When the middle term is on the right in P 1, and on the left in P 2.
Important Points of Mood and Figures:
• There are 64 different moods

• And each mood has 4 different figures.
• Thus, there are 64*4=256 different kinds of standard form categorical syllogisms.
Valid Argument Forms
There are two kinds of valid argument forms:
1. Unconditionally Valid Forms: There are fifteen combinations of mood and figures that are valid
from the Boolean standpoint, and we call these “unconditionally valid” argument forms. The chart below
depicts ALL of 15 the unconditionally valid argument forms.
2. Conditionally Valid Forms: There are some inferences that are NOT valid from the Boolean
standpoint, which is valid from the Aristotelian standpoint. In addition to the fifteen unconditionally valid
argument forms, there are nine conditionally valid argument forms for categorical syllogisms:

RULES FOR VALIDITY
A standard form categorical syllogism is valid on the modern theory if and only if each of the following
five propositions is all true of it. A standard form categorical syllogism is valid on the traditional theory
if and only if each of the first four propositions is true of it.
1. The middle-term is distributed at least once.
2. If a term is distributed in a conclusion, then that term is distributed in one of the premises.
3. There is at least one affirmative premise.
4. There is a negative premise if and only if there is a negative conclusion.
5. If both premises are universal, then the conclusion is universal.
Informal and Formal Fallacy:
Simply, a fallacy is a mistake in reasoning. In other words, a defect in an argument that misleads the mind
is called a fallacy.
There are two types of fallacy:
Formal Fallacies: A fallacy in which there is the involvement of an error in the form, arrangement, or
technical structure of an argument is called Formal Fallacy.
Informal Fallacies: Informal fallacies are a matter of unclear expression that deal with the logic of the
meaning of language. Opposite to it, formal fallacies deal with the logic of the technical structure.
An informal fallacy involves such things as:
• the misuse of language such as words or grammar,

• misstatements of fact or opinion,

• misconceptions due to underlying presuppositions, or

• just plain illogical sequences of thought.
Uses of Language in Logic

A logic always deals with the analysis and evaluation of arguments. Since arguments are expressed in
language, the study of arguments requires a carefully attention to language in which arguments are
expressed.
The followings are three important uses of language:
1. Informative,
2. Expressive and
3. Directive uses of language.
1. Informative use of language: It involves an effort to communicate some content or to describe

something or to give information about something. When I say a child, "The Second of October is the
Gandhi Jayanti.” The language I used is informative.
This kind of use of language presumes that the content of what is being communicated is true, so it
will be our main focus in the study of logic.
When a sentence is used informatively, it reports that something has some feature or that something lacks
some feature. Consider the following two sentences:
1. Parrot has a feather.

2. Parrot is not mammals.
The first proposition reports that having feather is a feature of a Parrot. The second proposition reports
that Parrot do not have some essential qualities found in mammals. In, both cases it provides information
about the world.
Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing
feelings.
Expressive discourse, qua expressive discourse, is best regarded as neither true or false.
2. Expressive use of Language: This type of language is often used to express our emotions, feelings,
or attitudes. For example: It’s too bad! It’s wonderful! etc.
When language is used expressively or emotively, it cannot be characterized as true or false.

3. Directive uses of language: When the use of llanguage is often to give direction as Commands,
requests, instructions, questions etc., to do or not to do something.
Consider the following examples:
1. Finish your homework.

2. Wash your clothes.
3. Are you feeling well?
In all the above examples, the directive use of language. Directive use of language is not normally
considered true or false (although various logics of commands have been developed).
Connotations and Denotations of Terms
Denotation is the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word only. Not emotions or feelings are
associated with the word.
Ex: The teacher walked into the classroom. This example does not have any hidden meaning. A teacher
simply walked into a classroom.
Connotation: A word’s emotional meaning; suggestions and associations that are connected to a word.
Words can be positive, negative, or neutral. Words can also connote specific feelings or emotions.
Different types of Definition
Lexical: The purpose of a lexical definition is to report the way a word is standardly used in a language.
Most definitions found in a dictionary are lexical definitions.
Ex. Fossil, Cat, Dogs etc.
Persuasive: The purpose of a persuasive definition is to influence people’s attitudes, not to neutrally and
objectively capture the standard meaning of a word.
Eg. Teenagers, Abortion etc.
Stipulative: A stipulative definition stipulates (assigns) a meaning to a word by coining a new word or
giving an old word a new meaning. A stipulative definition is neither true nor false; it is neither accurate
nor inaccurate.
Eg. Sugarnecker, Black Holes, etc.

Theoretical: Theoretical definitions can explain concepts theoretically. Sometimes definitions are given
for terms, not because the word itself is unfamiliar, but because the term is not understood. Such concepts
require theoretical definitions, which are often scientific or philosophical in nature.
For example, when your chemistry teacher defines water by its chemical formula H2O, he is not trying to
increase your vocabulary (you already knew the term water), but to explain its atomic structure.
Accepting a theoretical definition is like accepting a theory about the term being defined. If you define
spirit as “the life-giving principle of physical organisms,” you are inviting others to accept theidea
that life is somehow a spiritual product.
Precising: A precising definition takes a word that is normally vague and gives it a clear precisely defined
meaning.
Eg. Lite, Low-income, middle aged, etc.
Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive reasoning
Reasoning: According to the Oxford Dictionary, Reasoning can be defined as “the action of thinking
about something in a logical, sensible way.”
Merriam-Webster dictionary defines as “the process of thinking about something in a logical way in
order to form a conclusion or judgment. Or, the ability of the mind to think and understand things in a
logical way.”
We can say that reasoning is a process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make
predictions, or construct explanations in a logical way.
There are two major types of reasoning, deductive and inductive. The third type of reasoning is
Abductive reasoning. We will discuss only the first two.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning is an argument in which widely accepted truths are
being used to prove that a conclusion is right. The truths can be the recognised rules, laws, theories, and
others. In other words, deductive reasoning starts with the assertion of general rule and proceeds from
there to a guaranteed specific conclusion.
In practice, syllogism is the most basic form of deductive reasoning, where two premises that share
some idea support a conclusion. It may be easier to think of syllogisms as the following theorem: If A=B
and C=A, then B=C.
Deductive reasoning is meant to demonstrate that the conclusion is absolutely true based on the logic of
the premises.

We will understand the deductive reasoning by comparing the following example of syllogisms:
Example A:
All musical instruments make sounds.

Airplanes make sounds.
Therefore, airplanes are musical instruments.
The example A contains two objectively true premises, but its conclusion is false. Because the airplanes
and musical instruments to be totally separate entities while still having the same properties.
Example B: All art is an imitation of nature.

Music is art.
Therefore, music is an imitation of nature.
In example B, the premises are overlapping, and this premises support and prove that a conclusive
statement is definitely true.
You can more easily imagine the above arguments like this:
Inductive Reasoning
“Inductive reasoning is a method of argument in which the premises are viewed as supplying some
evidence for the truth of the conclusion.”
Most of the dictionaries define inductive reasoning “as the derivation of general principles from specific
observations.”
Inductive reasoning begins with observations which are specific and limited in scope and then proceeds
to a generalised conclusion that is likely, but not sure, in light of accumulated evidence. You could say
that inductive reasoning moves from the specific to the general.
Compare these inductive arguments:
Example A: The cost of education has been increasing over the past several decades.
Therefore, higher taxes on the rich Indian are probably the best way to help middle class Indians.
Example B: The past two Dabangg movies have been incredibly successful at the box office.
Therefore, the next Dabangg movie will probably be successful.

The reasoning in example A is weak while example B is strong. In example A, the two statements made
are likely true on their own, but the first premise does not predict the second to be true. Since there is no
obvious correlation between the two, the argument is weak.
In the example B, the premise identifies a pattern, and the conclusion provides a logical continuation of
this pattern without exaggeration. Thus, the argument is strong
The followings are the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning
Basis for Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

comparison
Approach It follows a top down approach. It follows a bottom-up

approach.
Starts from Deductive reasoning starts from Inductive reasoning starts from
Premises. the Conclusion.
Validity The conclusion must be true if the the truth of conclusions does not
premises are true. guarantee by the truth of
premises.
Usage It is difficult to use, as we need It is fast and easy, as we need

facts which must be true. evidence instead of true facts.
We often use it in our daily life.
Process Theory – hypothesis – patterns - Observations – patterns –

confirmation. hypothesis - Theory.
Argument Arguments may be valid or Arguments may be weak or

invalid. strong.
Structure It reaches from general facts to It reaches from specific facts to

specific facts. general facts.
Qualitative It is more precise and It is more general and

/Quantitaive quantitative. qualitative.

Analogies
Analogy basically means similarity of one object to another in certain aspects.

The purpose of analogy is to test the ability to identify the relationship between the pairs of numbers,
letters or words.
A given question consists of words, letters or numbers related to each other based on some logic and it is
required to identify a word, letter or number analogous to those given in the question.
The analogical relationship can be established in two ways as follows:
A. Basic Relation: The basic relation can be followed as:
In above illustration, the relation of No. 3 to No. 4 or No. 4 to No.3 is in the same pattern as the relation
of No.1 to No. 2 or No. 2 to No. 1
B. Advanced Relation: Th advanced relation is as follows;
Here in the illustration, the relation of ‘2’ to ‘4’ or ‘4’ to ‘2’ is the same as the relation of ‘1’ to ‘3’ or ‘3’
to ‘1’.
For more clarity about the analogical relationship,

let us consider the example given below:
Doctor : Hospital : : Teacher : School
After a deeper relationship analysis, we will find the following

A. Doctor : Hospital
A doctor works in a hospital. It means a hospital is a working place for a doctor. Hence, the Doctor and
Hospital have a worker and working place relationship.
B. Teacher : School
A teacher works in a school. It means school is the working place for a teacher. Hence, Teacher and
School have a worker and working place relationship.

It is observed that in both cases A and B, the relationship is in a similar pattern, that is, the relationship
as a worker and working place. Therefore, we can say that the above examples are analogical pairs.
There are several categories of questions under Analogy; Some of them are as follows:
• Analogous Pair Completion

• Analogous Pair Selection
• Direct or Simple Analogy
• Double Analogy
• Similar Word Selection
• Analogy Detection
• Multiple Word Analogy
• Letter Based Analogy (Unit 5- Reasoning)
• Number Based Analogy (Unit 5- Reasoning)
We don’t need to go to a deep study of analogies. The simplest form of questions is asked in UGC NET
Exam.
We are here to explain the simplest form of analogical questions only.
Analogous Pair Completion

In this type of question, 2 pairs of words are given, and the words in the first pair are related to each
other in a specific way.
For Example:
Leaf : Tree : : Page : ?
(a) Forest (b) Root (c) Red (d) Book
Ans. (d) ‘Leaf’ is the part of ‘Tree’ and similarly ‘Page’ is the part of ‘Book.’
Analogous Pair Selection

In this case of analogy, a pair of words is given, which is followed by four pairs of words as options to
choose the correct pair.
Example; Introvert: Extrovert

(a) Against : Favour (b) Extreme : Interim (c) Angle : Tangent (d) Action : Law
Ans. (a) Introvert is an antonym of Extrovert. Similarly, Against is an antonym of Favour.
Direct or Simple Analogy

In this case, two words are given, which are related to each other in a particular manner. Another word is
given followed by four options. First to identify the relationship between the first two words. Then, to
pick that word from the options, which bears the exact same relationship to the third word, as the first
two bear.
Example
“Melt” is related to Liquid in the same way as “freeze” is related to
Options: (a) Ice (b) Crystal (c) Water (d) Cubes

Ans. (a) “Melt” is associated with “Liquid” because after melting, we obtain liquid. Similarly, the state
of “Water” after freezing is ‘Ice.’
Double Analogy
In this case, 2 words are given on both the left and right side of the sign of double colon (::). On both
sides, one of the two words is left out marked as A and B or I and II. The question is followed by four
options from which a candidate is required to find out the correct pair of words. The selected pair will
make an appropriate analogical relationship between the two words to the left and similarly two words
to the right of the sign of double colon (::).
Example
A : Wheat : : Brick : B
Options: (a) A. Bread , B. Clay (b) A. Cereal, B. Clay

(c) A. Farmer, B. Mason (d) A. Farmer, B. Clay
Ans. (a) ‘Wheat’ is used to make ‘Bread’. Similarly, ‘Clay’ isused to make ‘Brick’.
Similar Word Selection

In this types of analogy, a group of 3 or 4 words is given followed by 4 other words as alternatives.
Then, have to choose the alternative, which is similar to the given words.
Example
Mumbai: Lucknow : Kolkata
Options: (a) Pune (b) Bikaner (c) Patna (d) Ludhiana
Ans. (c) Mumbai, Lucknow, and Kolkata are the capitals of 3 Indian states. Similarly, Patna is the
capital of Bihar.
Analogy Detection
In this analogy, the candidate is required to identify the common feature among the given words and
pick the right alternative that mentions the properties common to the given words.
Example
Nose : Eyes : Ears
Options: (a) They are parts of the body below waist
(b) They are not the external part of human body
(c) They are internal part of human body
(d) They are parts of the body above neck
Ans.(d) ‘Nose,’ ‘Eyes,’ and ‘Ears’ are the parts of the human body above the neck.
Multiple Word Analogy

In this case, a group of 3 or 4 inter-related words is given. To solve the analogy, the right group of words
is required to choose from the options provided. The relationship among these words should have
similar relationships as words inter-related in question.
Example
Furniture : Table : Almirah
Options: (a) Building : Wall : Brick
(b) Fruit : Orange : Apple
(c) Mother : Father : Sister
(d) Sea : Road : City
Ans.(b) ‘Orange’ and ‘Apple’ are both ‘Fruits’ as similar relation of ‘Table’ and ‘Almirah’ with
‘Furniture’.
Venn diagram: Simple and multiple uses for establishing the validity of
arguments
Venn Diagram
Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of objects that share something in
common.
A Venn diagram uses overlapping circles or other shapes to illustrate the logical relationships between two or more sets of
items. They serve to graphically organise things and highlighting how the items are similar and different.
The main aim of the Venn Diagram is to test the validity of arguments through the relation between premises and
conclusion by diagrams.
For example:
Source: lucidchart
In this example, Whales and Fish belong to two different groups, but there is something common between them. The
common feature is, they live in the ocean, and it has easily represented by two circles overlapping to some extent.
There are TEN conditions by which we can test the validity of arguments. The conditions are followings:
Condition 1: If all the items are of different groups, then they will be shown by the diagram as given below.
For e.g. Dog, Cow, Horse

These animals are of three different groups; there is no relation between them. Hence, they will be represented by three
different circles.
Condition 2: If the first word is related to the second word, and the second word is related to the third word. Then
the representation will be shown by diagram as given below.
E.g., Unit, Tens, Hundreds
Ten units together make one Ten (in one ten, the whole unit is available), and ten tens together make one hundred.
Condition 3: If two different items are entirely related to the third item, they will be shown as below.
E.g., Pen, Pencil, Stationery
Condition 4: If there is some relation between two items, and these two items are completely related to a third
item, they will be shown as given below.
E.g., Women, Sisters, Mothers
Some sisters may be mothers and vice-versa. Similarly, some mothers may not be sisters and vice-versa. But all the
sisters and mothers belong to women group.
Condition 5: Two items are related to a third item to some extent but not completely, and the first two items
totally different.
E.g., Students, Boys, Girls
The boys and girls are different items, while some boys may be students. Similarly, among girls, some may be students.
Condition 6: All the three items are related to one another, but some extent, not completely.
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E.g., Boys, Students, Athletes
Boys Students
Athletes
Some boys may be students and vice-versa. Similarly, some boys may be athletes and vice-versa. Some students may be
athletes and vice-versa.
Condition 7: Two items are related to each other completely, and the third item is entirely different from the first two.
E.g., Lions, Carnivorous, Cows
All lions are carnivorous, but no cow is lion or carnivorous.
Condition 8: The first item is completely related to the second, and the third item is partially related to the first and
second items. Eg. Females, Mothers, Doctors
Femal
Docto
In the example, all Mothers belong to Females, but some Mothers are Doctors, but not all.
Condition 9: First item is partially related to the second, but the third is entirely different from the first two. E.g., Dogs,
Flesh-eaters, Cows

Some dogs are flesh-eaters, but not all while any dog or any flesh-eater cannot be a cow.
Condition 10: The first item is wholly related to the second, and the third item is partially related to the first and second
items.
E.g., Males, Fathers, Children
Indian Logic: Means of knowledge

Logic is the study of inference and argument. Logic has always fascinated humankind for its sheer scope
of immense arguments and discussions. It is the scientific study of ‘reasoning. Using the term “Scientific”
does not mean anything related to the basic sciences. The usage of the term is primarily more as an
adjective meant to qualify how the study is undertaken. Indian logic has been differently viewed in the
different ages. Many academicians have discussed Indian logic as a system by dissociating ‘Buddhist
logic’ from it. Indian logic must be studied as the form of correct arguments and inference patterns, which
was developed in India from the methodology of philosophical debate.
Schools of Indian Logic:

The development of Indian logic over the ages can be classified into the following categories:
• Ancient
• Medieval
• Modern
Indian Ancient School (650 B.C. to 100 A.D)

Indian ancient school had a great impact on the development of Indian logic. Ancient school offers a
fine treatment of soul distinguishing carefully between knowledge and work. The Upanishads are dealt
with the soul and its destiny constituted a very important branch of study called Aatmaa-vidyaa (the
science of soul), and Adhyatma-vidyaa (the Divine Science).
Aatmaa Vidya was at a later stage called Ānvīkṣikī (the science of inquiry). About 650 B.C. Ānvīkṣikī
bifurcates into philosophy and Logic, named as Darsana and Hetu-Vidya or Tark-Vidyaa, respectively.
However, tark-vidya was not received with favor by the particular section of the Brahmanas. In the
Ramayana, Valmiki discredits those who are indulged in the seriousness of the science of Logic. Vyasa
in Mahabharata, says that who has the addiction to logic, will be turned into a jackal in his next birth.

Several stories of inflicting of penalties on those given to the study of Tark- Vidyā are found in plenty
in the Skandapurāna and other works.
Despite of it, Ānvīsikī was held in very high esteem due to the authority that it attaches to the vedas.
Kings were trained in logic, and the entity of reasoning was acknowledged in the administration of
justice.
Kautilya, in his arthaśāstra characterises Ānvīshikī (logic) as the lamp of all sciences. It seems that the
unfavorable criticism to which Ānvīsikī had long been exposed, terminated practically in the first century
A.D. under the name of Nyāya- Sāstra.
Between 1 A.D. and 100 A.D., there was the growth of the name Nyāya (‘right’ or ‘justice’). Nyaya-
Sastra is, therefore, the science of right judgment or valid reasoning. It is the science of inference for
the sake of others. It is also the science of demonstration.
The first regular work on the Nyāya Sāstra is the Nyāya Sūtra or “aphorism on true reasoning.” The
book is divided into five other books, each book containing two chapters called āhnikas (diurnal portion).
It contains the references to the Sānkhya, Vaiśesika, Yoga, Mimāṃsā, Vedānta and Buddhist System
of philosophy. The Nyāya sūtra consists of sixteen categories, which comprise all the topics of the
course debate.
The categories are:
1. The right means of knowledge (pramāna)
2. The object of right knowledge (prameya)
3. Doubt (samśya)
4. Purpose ( prayojana)
5. Example (drastānta)
6. Tenet (sidhānta)
7. Members (avayava)
8. Confutation (tarka)
9. Ascertainment (nirnaya)
10. Discussion (vāda)
11. Wrangling (jalpa)
12. Cavil (vitaṇḍā)
13. Fallacy( hetrābhāsa)
14. Quibble (chhala)
15. Analogue (jāti)
16. The point of defeat (nigrahasthāna)
Perception, inference, comparison, and a word or verbal testimony are the means of right knowledge.
Soul, body, senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, pain, and emancipation are the
objects of the right knowledge.

Medieval School of Indian Logic (100 A.D. to 1200 A.D.):

The unique features of medieval logic are the termination of the ancient school, the formation of school
under the influence of Jain and Buddhist ideas of logic. The ancient logic dealt with sixteen categories
comprising heterogeneous elements as a doctrine of salvation and the nature of soul etc. Inference, a
kind of pramāna, which was briefly noticed in the ancient logic, receives full treatment in the medieval
school. The number of technical terms were coined, and great subtleties were introduced in the
definitions. The medieval logic thus formed, is called pramāna sāstra in Sanskrit, which means the
science of the right knowledge.
According to the Jains, logic was called ‘hetu’. Hetu as similar with valid knowledge is stated to be of
four kinds:
1) Knowledge derived from perception (pratyaksa)
2) Knowledge derived from inference (anumana)
3) Knowledge derived from comparison (upamana)
4) Knowledge derived from verbal testimony (sabda)
The main categories, in the course of study of logic according to the Jain school are:
• Valid knowledge (pramāna): This is the knowledge which ascertains the nature of what was
uncertain to one’s self.
• Syllogism (Vyāpti): This is the inseparable connection between two terms.
• Reason (hetu): Reason is divided as (a) perceptible and (b) imperceptible.
• Example (dṛṣṭānta): For the sake of explaining matters to men of small intellect,the example
becomes a part of inference.
• Inference (anumāna):
• Verbal testimony (āgama): This the knowledge of object derived from the words of reliable
persons or scriptures in virtue of their natural fitness or suggestiveness.
• Scope of valid knowledge (viṣaya)
• Fallacy (ābhāsa)
The following categories are considered by the Buddhist school of logic:

Valid knowledge: only two pramānas, perception and inference in opposition to the four pramānas of
the Nyāya-Sutra,
Reason (hetu): Similar concept of ‘hetu’ according to the ancient school.
Example (dṛṣṭānta): It is to pointing out the connection of the reason with the major terms, one
should state examples.
Negation (apoha): An entity is defined as being the negation of its opposites.
Analogues (Jāti): The concept of analogues is almost similar to the concept of “Jāti” in the Nyāya-
Sutra.
Since the Brāhmaṇas did not differ in respect to their social practices from the Jains, Brāhmaṇas attack
on Jain Logic was not as violent as that on the Buddhist Logic. In fact, the logical theories of the Jains
are in many cases similar to those of the Brāhmanas. The different categories of logic as described in
the Nyāya Sutra are very much similar to the Jain school but differ significantly from the Buddhist
school.
Modern School of Indian Logic
In the Deccan regions of India, the decline of Buddhism commence in the seventh century A.D. The
Brāhmaṇas, borrowed the Budhist logic from the work of the mediaeval school, but for other matters
they went back to the works of the ancient school.
The works so composed in the modern period were technically called “Prakaraṇas” or Manuals of logic.
The manuals are remarkable for their accuracy and lucidity.
The main categories of the cause of logic as identified in the manuals are:
1. Pramāṇa (valid knowledge): which can be classified into:
• Perception (pratyaksha)
• Inference (anumāna)
• Verbal Testimony (āgama)
2. Hetvābhasa (fallacy of reason): Which can be classified as-

• Unproved (asiddha)
• The contradictory (viruddha)
• The uncertain (anaikāntika)
• Non-tried or non-conclusion
• Mistimed or incompatible reason
• Non- erroneous contradiction
3. Example (udāharaṇa)
4. Verbal Testimony(āgama)
5. Emancipation (Mokṣha)
The modern school of Logic suggests that the soul is of two kinds, viz. the individual soul (aparaātma)
and the supreme soul (para ātma). With the knowledge of the supreme soul, the individual soul attains
final emancipation.
The “tarka” is an important component of Logic. But it does not provide any originality in information.
It only proves what has already been known by regular syllogism. The sānkhya, Yoga and Vedānta
believe in buddhi but the Nyāya and the Vaiśesika do not consider Budhhi as reason. It is only an
adventitious consciousness that arises like a spark or light when mind (manas) comes into contact with
the aatman.
Pramanas
Pramana ("sources of knowledge” or “measure”) is an epistemological term in Indian and Buddhist

philosophies referring to the means by which a person obtains accurate and valid knowledge (Prama,
pramiti) of the world. In obtaining Prama, or correct knowledge, Pramana forms one part of a triputi
(trio):

• Pramata, the subject, the knower

• Pramaņa, the means of obtaining the knowledge
• Prameya, the object, the knowable
The three-principal means of knowledge are:

• Pratyaksa (Perception)
• Anumana (Inference), and
• Sabda (Word)
The Sabda (word) is derived from the Veda, which is considered to be inherently valid. Some
philosophers include the statements of reliable persons (apta-vakya) in the concept of Word (sabda), and
add two additional means of obtaining knowledge:
• Upamana (Analogy): enables one to hold on the meaning of a word by analogy, and
• Arthapatti (postulation or Implication): appeals to common sense according to circumstances.
The ancient and medieval Indian books identify six Pramanas, including Anupalabdhi (non-
perception, negative/cognitive proof) as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths.
The most widely accepted and discussed pramanas are:

• Pratyakṣa (Perception)
• Anumāṇa (Inference)
• Śabda (word, testimony)
• Upamāṇa (Comparison, Analogy)
• Arthāpatti (Postulation, Presumption, derivation from circumstances)
• Anupalabdi (non-perception, cognitive proof using non-existence)
Different Ancient Schools and Accepted Pramanas

Schools Accepted Pramanas
Carvaka school Pratyakṣa (perception)
Vaisheshika school Pratyakṣa (perception)
Anumāṇa (inference)
Sankhya, Yoga, Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, Pratyakṣa (Perception)
and Dvaita Vedanta schools Anumāṇa (Inference)
Śabda (word, testimony)
Nyaya school Pratyakṣa (perception)
Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)
Prabhakara Mimamsa school Pratyakṣa (perception)

Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)
Advaita Vedanta and Bhatta Mimamsa Pratyakṣa (perception)
schools Anumāṇa (inference)
Anupalabdi (non-perception, cognitive proof
using non-existence)
The Advaita Vedanta recognizes six pramanas, namely, Pratyaksa(perception), Anumana (inference),
Sabda or Agama (verbal testimony), Upamana (comparison), Arthapatti (presumption) and Anupalabdhi
or Abhava(nonapprehension).
Pratyakṣa (Perception)
The word ‘pratyaksa' consists of two parts viz. “prati” meaning near or before or related to and “aksi”
meaning eye. So, it means the process through which immediate knowledge of an object arises or it
means the instrument by which the object is conceived.
Perception or pratyaksa is the most important and fundamental source of valid knowledge. It is
accepted by all the philosophical schools both vedic and non vedic. It is first and foremost of all the
sources of valid knowledge as it is the most powerful, most fundamental and root of all other sources.
Perception gives a direct or immediate knowledge of reality of an object and therefore it is the root of all
other pramanas. According to the Nyaya, perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but it is
the basis of all other sources or means of knowledge. Hence, it has been said that all the other means of
knowledge presupposes perception and must be based on knowledge derived from perception.
Perception is the final test of all knowledge. Perceptual verification is thus the final test of all other
knowledge and as such, perception is the chief of all the sources of human knowledge.
Types of Pratyaksha
Pratyaksha is broadly divided into two types:
Direct perception (Anubhava): In this type of perception, the knowledge of an object arises when it
comes in contact with sense organs; smell (nose), touch (skin), form (eyes), sound (ears) and taste
(tongue).

Remembered perception (smriti): The knowledge of an objects is based on the memory (smriti). Once
we have seen a table, it is memorised and when the table again appear in front of you, you can easily
recognised, what is this?
Alternatively, it can be divided into indiscriminate perception (nirvikalpa) where perception of the
object is made without recognizing distinguishing features; and discriminate perception (savikalpa)
where distinguishing features are observed.
Traditionally, there are four ways of obtaining pratyaksha. They are:
• Indriya pratyaksha (Sense perception)

• Manas pratyaksha (Mental perception)
• Svadana pratyaksha (Self-consciousness)
• Yoga pratyaksha (Super-normal intuition)
Anumāṇa (inference):
Anumana literally means such knowledge that follows some other knowledge. Anumāṇa (inference) is
the knowledge of an object due to a previous knowledge of some sign or mark. In Anumana Pramana,
we arrive at the knowledge of an object through the medium of two acts of knowledge or propositions.
Inferential knowledge is produced not by direct apprehension but by means of some other knowledge.
The “other” is interpreted in different ways as perceptive knowledge of probans. All systems of Indian
philosophy agree in holding that anumana is a process of arriving at truth not by direct observation but
by means of the knowledge of vyapti or a universal relation between two things.
There are definite steps to be followed in all inferential knowledge. The following steps are accepted for
logical deduction of knowledge by the teachers of Advaita Vedanta :
I. Perceptual evidence: We see smoke on the hill
II. Invariable concomitance: Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as seen in kitchen.
III. Conclusion: Therefore the hill has fire

Sabda or verbal testimony is also called ‘apta-vakyas’ (statement of a trustworthy person, and Agama
(authentic word). A verbal statement can be uttered or written, is human’s most potent instrument for
transmitting knowledge.
A universal way of communication is either an oral or written message, and we learn mostly through
words. We continuously get various information, direction, and knowledge through words. Since school
days, we use words as a valid and effective means of bringing about awareness of things, ideas, or

emotions. Books, magazines, newspapers, letters, conversations, chats, radio, TV, movies, songs, etc.,
all depend on words.
A verbal statement conveying valid knowledge must have an authentic source and free from defects.
Only a competent person possessed of knowledge can impart accurate knowledge. Such knowledge
needs no verification unless, of course, there is doubt about its reliability. If all that we know from
verbal testimony were to await confirmation, then the bulk of human knowledge would have to be
regarded as baseless.
The process of verbal knowledge (Sabda) can not be clubbed with inference. Sabda does not involve any
knowledge of invariable concomitance, as is the case in inference.
A lot of work has been done in regard to the derivation of the meaning of a sentence, especially by the
Mimamsakas. Only that combination of words is called a sentence when four factors are taken care.
They are:
• Expectancy (Akanksha),
• Consistency (Yogyata),
• Contiguity (asatti), and
• Knowledge of the purport (tatparya-jnanam)

According to the Mimamsakas and Advaitins, Upamana is the process by which the knowledge of B’s
similarity to C is gained from the perception of C’s similarity to B, which has been seen elsewhere.
The methodology of Upamana for getting knowledge is seen as distinct from mere inference, and is thus
accepted as a valid mediate method of knowledge.
For example, a person who has seen his cow in a town goes to a forest and sees a wild cow (gavaya).
The person sees the similarity “This wild cow is like my cow”, and on this basis, he also concludes the
opposite to be equally true, that “My cow is like this wild cow”. Thus, by upamana he gains the
knowledge of his cow’s similarity to the wild cow from the perception of the wild cow’s similarity to his
cow.
Upamana is a distinct means of knowledge, and it can not be clubbed under Anumāṇa (Inference). We
cannot have a universal proposition that a thing is similar to whatever is identical to it. Such knowledge
can not be gained without the observation of the two same things together.

Arthapatti means postulation, supposition, or presumption of a fact. Arthapatti is a distinct valid method
of mediate knowledge. In fact, Arthapatti is a method of assumption of an unknown fact to account for a
known fact that is otherwise difficult. Arthapatti can either be from what is seen or from what is heard.

One of the classic examples of this method of knowledge is Shyam; a fat person says that he never eats
during the day time, then we can easily postulate that he eats in the night. For the simple reason that
without this assumption, his fatness and also his getting fatter cannot be explained.
Anupalabdi, Abhava (non-perception, cognitive proof using non-existence)

According to the Advaitins and the Mimasaka school of Kumarila Bhatt, Anupalabdhi is considered to
be a separate independent Pramana. Anupalabdhi literally means non-apprehension. Its non-perception
apprehends the non-existence of a thing.
By not seeing a jar in a place, one knows that it is not there. We use this method of knowledge also very
often, and this is evident from statements like: ‘There is no teacher in the classroom,’ There is no sound
here.’
It may seem paradoxical that non-apprehension of a thing is a means to the apprehension of its non-
existence (Abhava). Both non-perception, as well as perception, serve as a means to get various
knowledge. The knower is conscious of both. They lead to positive and negative experiences.
Direct or indirect knowledge can be the basis of the knowledge of the non-existence of a thing. It could
either be based on our immediate non-perception of a thing or even based on inference or verbal
testimony. In the former Pramanas, the knowledge is immediate, while in the latter case, which is
applicable in supersensual objects, the knowledge of Abhava of a thing is mediate.
Structure and Kinds of Anumana, Vyapti, and Hetvabasha
The Sanskrit word “Anumana” is the combination of two words, “Anu” means ‘after’ and “mana” means
measurement. The whole word literally means measuring after something. According to Indian Philosophy,
Anumana is a knowledge that is obtained after proof. We know by now that knowledge derived through
“anumana” is not direct since it makes use of previous knowledge obtained from other sources of knowledge like
perception, testimony, etc., and enables one to explore further knowledge. Not all the major Indian philosophical
systems accept all the pramanas.
Structure of Anumana
Although all the major schools accept Anumana as a valid source of knowledge, the understanding and
the explanation of each school will have certain variations according to their understanding of knowledge.
In Indian philosophy, the inference is used for oneself and inference for others. When inference is used
for oneself the propositions are not well structured since its primary aim is the acquisition of personal
knowledge without error. In contrast, inference for others has to be well structured because it is used to
convince the other of the truth. We shall concentrate mainly on the understanding of Nyaya School
because it is well known for its logic.
They define the inference as “a process of reasoning in which we pass from the apprehension of some
mark (linga) to that of something else under an invariable relation (vyapti) that exists between them.”
Vyapti is essential in Indian philosophy for making a valid inference: however, it is good to know that
different schools had different names for vyapti; For example, Vaisesikas called it Prasiddhi and Samkhya
called it pratibandha.
Nyaya proposes a longer syllogism; it has five propositions. An argument, according to them, has
five parts: Paksa or Pratinjna, hetu, drastanta, upanaya and nigamana.
Here is a standard example to understand this;
Types Examples
1. Paksa (The Thesis / Pratijna – The hill has fire
Proposition)
2. Hetu (Reason or the ground) Because it has smoke
3. Drstanta (the corroboration) Wherever there is smoke there is fire, as in
the kitchen
4. Upanaya (The application) the hill is so
5. Nigamana (the conclusion) Therefore, the hill has fire
In this process, we begin asserting something. We provide the reason / the ground for the assertion and
make a universal proposition that shows the concomitant relationship between the two with an example
then we apply the universal proposition to the present case and make a conclusion from the preceding
propositions. This type of syllogism is said to have anvaya vyapti – since it denotes a positive
concomitance – if there is smoke then there is fire.
We shall give a specimen from the western example:
1) Ram is mortal
2) Because he is a man
3) All men are mortal like my grandfather
4) Ram is also a man
5) Therefore, Ram is mortal.
The purpose of giving this example is also to show how Indian philosophy combined both induction and
deduction together in the same syllogism. The first three propositions (1 – 3) form inductive syllogism,
while the last three (3 – 5) form as a deduction. Proposition no. 3 is the conclusion for the induction and
the major premise for the deduction.
When it denotes negative concomitance, it is said to have vyatireka Vyapti. An example of this is the
opposite of what we have stated above. The hill has no smoke; because there is no fire; wherever there is
no fire, there is no smoke as in the lake (because water and fire are opposed substances); there is no fire
in the hill; therefore, the hill has no smoke.
Classification of Inference (Anumana)
Inference here is classified based on the nature of vyapti between hetu (smoke) and sadhya (fire). Vyapti
denotes a correlation between two facts of which one is pervaded and the other which pervades.

E.g. Smoke is pervaded by fire and fire pervades smoke. Vyapti is established based on its presence of
both in all such events (wherever there is smoke there is fire) and the absence of both (wherever there is
no fire there is no smoke).
The classification is based on the relationship (causal uniformity or non-causal uniformity) between the
reason and what is inferred.
There are three types of inference:
1. Purvavat inference: An inference in which we infer the unperceived effect from a perceived cause.
E.g., we infer of future rain from the appearance of dark heavy clouds.
2. Sesavat inference: An inference in which we infer the unperceived cause from a perceived effect. E.g.
we infer of the past rain from a swift muddy current of water in the river.
3. Samanyatodrasta inference: An inference in which we infer not based on causal relation but the
experience of uniformity. E.g., on seeing the different positions of the moon at long intervals, we infer
that it moves although we might not have perceived the motion.
Vyapti
Most of the Indian thinkers, who regard inference to be a means of knowledge, unanimously accept the
principle of invariable and the way of its ascertainment. Kumārila states, Vyāpti is not a simple assertive
judgment but a necessary judgment. Jaya Tirtha, in his Nyāya Sudhā, defines “inference” as a flawless
reasoning from a mark to a certain conclusion on the basis of an invariable relation that subsists between
them. This invariable relation between the reason (Hetu) and the probandum (Sādhya) is the essential
determinate of inference that distinguishes it from other forms of cognition, viz, perception, and testimony.
Vyapti is an important factor in attaining inferential knowledge. There is a diversity of opinion among the
scholars about Vyapti. The nature of an inference cannot be known without the knowledge of the nature
of Vyapti or invariable concomitance.
Vyapti is the uniform, unconditioned, or natural relation between reason and predicate. The reason must
be known to be invariably concomitant with the predicate in Vyapti. The universal relation of the reason
with the predicate is the Logical ground of inference.
No inference (Anumana) is possible unless there is an invariable concomitance (Vyapti) between the
mark and the character inferred Vyapti between the middle and major terms means generally a relation of
Vyapti of co-existence (Sachacarya) between the two, e.g. wherever there is smoke, there is fire. Previous
knowledge is the knowledge of the Linga or mark as having a universal relation with the Sadhya or major
term and as being present in the Paksa or minor term.
Though there is a difference of opinion among the philosophers of different schools in respect of the
definition, functions, and nature of Vyapti (i.e., invariable concomitance), all of them are of the view that
inference is not possible without the proper knowledge of it and hence it has been considered as a special
cause (karana) of inference by the Logicians.
Types of Vyapti:

There are two kinds of Vyapti;

Anvayavyapti: It is invariable concomitance of the presence of the reason with the presence of the
predicate.
Vyatirekavyapti: It is the invariable concomitance of the absence of the predicate with the absence of the
reason.
Hetvabhasha
Vedanta states in Indian logic, a fallacy is called hetvabhasa, which means the middle-term appears to be
a reason but is not a valid reason. Vatsyayana points out that the fallacy of the Hetu are called hetvabhasa
because these Hetus do not possess the characteristics of the Hetus proper, and yet they appear like the
hetus because of their similarity to them.
Gangesa provides three general definitions of hetvabhasa. 1) There are hetvabhasa the object of that valid
cognition which is opposite of the absence of the instruments of inference 2. Hetvabhasa is that object
which if known prevents the knowledge of Linga from leading to an inference 3. Hetvabhasa is that
characteristics which prevents known inference.
There are five kinds of Hetvabasha:
(i) Asiddha (unfounded or unknown reason): The reason which is not invariably concomitant with the
probandum or that it does not exist in the subject, the reason is to be taken as the unknown reason.
This type of reason is of three forms:
(a) asrayasiddha: That reason whose subject is unknown, e.g., the sky lotus, is fragrant because it is a
lotus, similar to one in the pond. Here, the subject – sky lotus, is a non-existing thing and so unknown.
(b) svarupasiddha: That reason whose form is not to exist in the subject. An example of svarupasiddha
is “sound is transitory because it is visible like a pot.” Here, visibility is the reason, but that is entirely
unknown in sound as it is only audible.
(c) vyapyatvasiddha: that reason which has its invariable concomitance with the probandum unfounded.
(ii) Viruddha (contradictory reason): It is that which has invariable concomitance with the negation of
the probandum. e.g. sound is eternal because, it is a product, like ether. The fact of being a product is
actually concomitant with non-etemality, the opposite of the probandum here.
What is produced is always non-eternal and not-etemal. Therefore, the reason “being a product” becomes
a contradictory one.
(iii) Anaikdntika (inconstant or straying reason): It is of two kinds, the common strayer and the peculiar
strayer. That which is present in all the three paksa, sapaksa and vipaksa, is the common strayer; e.g. (in
syllogism) sound is eternal because it is cognizable, the reason cognisability exists in all eternal and non-
eternal things. That reason which is absent from both sapaksa and vipaksa but exists only in the paksa,
becomes the peculiar strayer, as (in syllogism) “earth is eternal because it has smell” the reason smell does
not exist in any sapaksa or vipaksa, but exists only in earth (paksa).

(iv) Prakaranasama (counterbalanced or opposing reason): It is that which is opposed by another reason
which proves the existence of the opposite of the proposed probandum. For e.g., the sound is non-eternal
as it is devoid of all qualities of eternal things. This is opposed by “sound is eternal because it is devoid
of all qualities of eternal things.” This is also called satpratipak§a one having an adversary.
(v) Kalatyayapadista (stultified or belated reason): It occurs when the opposite of the proposed
probandum is known to exist in the subject by any other more trustworthy means of cognition. It is also
called badhita.
For e.g., the syllogism, “fire is not hot, because it is a product like water’. Here, the probandum proposed
to be proved by the reason “being a product” is “absent of heat.” But it is opposite “presence of heat” in
the subject is already ascertained through perception, as heat is experienced through tactile perception.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The process by which conclusion is arrived at

on the basis of other propositions is termed as 6. With which of the following terms, deduction
(a) Concept (b) Inference inference can be identified.
(c) Connotation (d) Conference (a) Synthetic
(b) Analytic
2. Propositions that support the conclusion of an argument (c) Both (a) and (b)
is called (d) None of the above
(a) Inferences
(b) Premises 7. Which of the following can be defined as
(c) Concepts group of statements that have common conclusion
(d) None of the above (a) Proposition (b) Argument
(c) Concept (d) Fallacy
3. That proposition which is affirmed on the basis of
premises is called 8. The premises provide conclusive grounds for
(a) Major term (b) Concept conclusion in
(c) Conclusion (d) Syllogism (a) Inductive reasoning
(b) Deductive reasoning
4. Deduction and induction are two main forms of (c) Intuitive reasoning
(a) Beliefs (b) Concepts (d) None of the above
(c) Reasoning (d) Assumptions
9. The defining feature of a valid deduction is its
5. A reasoning where we start with certain particular (a) Vagueness (b) Uncertainty
statement and conclude with a universal (c) Indefiniteness (d) Certainty
statement is called a
(a) Deductive reasoning 10. Inductive arguments are typically
(b) Inductive reasoning (a) Analytic (b) Synthetic
(c) Abnormal reasoning (c) Intuitive (d) Aesthetic
(d) Transcendental reasoning

11. The relationship between premises and conclusion in (a) Sufficient evidence
a deductive argument is basically (b) Critical thinking
of (c) Seeing logical relation
(a) Cause–effect (d) Repeated observation
(b) Analytic–synthetic
(c) Implication–entailment 20. A fallacy is a
(d) None of the above (a) True argument
(b) False argument
12. In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is (c) Valid argument
(a) Probable (b) Certain (d) Invalid argument
(c) Definite (d) Predictable
21. Inductive reasoning is based on
13. Certainty is (a) Uniformity of nature
(a) An objective fact (b) God created the world
(b) Emotionally satisfying (c) Unity of nature
(c) Logical (d) Laws of nature
(d) Ontological (June 2010)
22. If it is possible for the premises of a deductive
14. Inductive arguments are properly characterized argument to be true and its conclusion to be false that
as (a) Valid–invalid argument is
(b) Strong–weak (a) Valid (b) Invalid
(c) Definite–indefinite (c) Indescribable (d) Sound
(d) Certain–uncertain
23. Consider the following propositions:
15. In logical reasoning, truth or falsehood is usually A is human and mortal
associated with B is human and mortal
(a) Arguments (b) Inferences C is human and mortal
(c) Propositions (d) Syllogism D is human and mortal
Therefore, ‘All humans are mortal’ is an
16. Validity or invalidity may be predicted of example of
(a) Deductive arguments (a) Deductive argument
(b) Propositions (b) Inductive argument
(c) Terms (c) Syllogistic argument
(d) Concepts (d) None of the above
17. The falsehood of a valid deductive argument’s 24. Which of the following describes a valid deductive
conclusion guarantees that argument with true premises?
(a) The argument is sound (a) Sound (b) Unsound
(b) At least one of the premises is false (c) Fallacious (d) Ambiguity
(c) Premises are true
(d) The validity is uncertain 25. A deductive argument is sound if and only if
it is
18. To be critical, thinking must be (a) Valid and all its premises are true
(a) Practical (b) Invalid and all its premises are true
(b) Socially relevant (c) Is valid and one of the premises is false
(c) Individually satisfying (d) Is valid and its conclusion is false
(d) Analytical
Answer Key
19. Deductive argument involves 1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b)

6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b) (a) Subject (b) Predicate
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c) (c) Object (d) Copula
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (a)
35. A deductive argument is valid if
(a) Premises are false, and conclusion is true
26. Lakshmana is a morally good person
(b) Premises are false, and conclusion is
because
also, false
(a) He is religious. (b) He is educated.
(c) Premises are true, and conclusion is false
(c) He is rich. (d) He is rational
(d) Premises are true, and conclusion is true
27. In terms of nature, both the premises and
conclusion of an argument are
36. Which of the following statements are false?
(a) Commands (b) Propositions
I. Inductive arguments always proceed
(c) Exclamations (d) Questions
from the particular to the general
II. A cogent argument must be inductively
28. Which of the following denotes a statement of relation
strong
between two terms?
III. A valid argument may have a false
(a) Proposition
premise and a false conclusion
(b) Denotation
IV. An argument may legitimately be spoken
(c) Syllogism
of as true or false
(d) None of the above
Codes:
(a) II, III, and IV (b) I and III
29. Structure of a logical argument is based on
(c) II and IV (d) I and II
(a) Formal validity
(b) Material truth
37. The sum total of the objects to which the
(c) Linguistic expression term can be applied is its
(d) Aptness of examples (a) Connotation (b) Denotation
(c) Meaning (d) Function
30. In a deductive argument, conclusion is
(a) Summing up of the premises
38. Denotation is the same as
(b) Not necessarily based on premises
(a) Extension (b) Intension
(c) Entailed by the premises
(c) Value (d) Dictionary
(d) Additional to the premises
39. The function of suggesting qualities possessed
31. Syllogistic reasoning is
by the objects is known as
(a) Deductive (b) Inductive (a) Evaluating (b) Denoting
(c) Experimental (d) Hypothetical (c) Connoting (d) Meaning
32. A syllogism must have

40. Connotation is the same as
(a) Three terms (b) Four terms
(a) Intension (b) Extension
(c) Six terms (d) Five terms
(c) Value (d) Meaning
33. The two kinds of propositions are

41. In a categorical proposition, the predicate is
(a) Connotative–denotative either affirmed or denied of the subject
(b) Categorical–conditional (a) Unconditionally
(c) Both (a) and (b) (b) Conditionally
(d) None of the above (c) Emotionally
34. Which of the following denotes relation between two
terms?
42. The proposition ‘if you work hard you will

succeed’ is an example of is called

(a) Categorical proposition (a) Particular (b) Negative
(b) Conditional proposition (c) Disjunctive (d) Universal
(c) Negative proposition
(d) Pre-emptive proposition 50. Individual propositions are to be regarded as
(a) Universal
43. A disjunctive proposition is a type of (b) Particular
(a) Conditional proposition (c) Negative
(b) Unconditional proposition (d) None of the above
(c) Categorical proposition
(d) Imperative proposition Answer Key
26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (c)
44. Inductive logic studies the way in which a 31. (a) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (d)
premise may 36. (c) 37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (d)
(a) Support and entail a conclusion
46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (d) 49. (a) 50. (a)
(b) Not support but entail a conclusion
(c) Neither support nor entail a conclusion
51. The proposition ‘all men are mortal’ is an
(d) Support a conclusion without entailing
example of
it
(a) Universal affirmative
(b) Universal negative
45. Which of the following statements are true?
(c) Particular affirmative
I. Some arguments while not completely
(d) Particular negative
valid are almost valid
II. A sound argument may be invalid
52. The proposition ‘no men are perfect’ is an
III. A cogent argument may have a probably
example of
false conclusion
IV. A statement may be true or false
Codes:
(a) I and II (b) I, III, and IV
(c) IV alone (d) III and IV
53. ‘Some flowers are green’ is an example of
46. Affirmative or negative is the classification
of propositions on the basis of
(a) Quantity (b) Quality
(c) Validity (d) Truth
47. Universal or particular is the classification

54. The proposition ‘some Indians are not spiritual’
of the propositions on the basis of
is an example for
(a) Quantity (b) Quality
(c) Validity (d) Truth
48. A proposition in which the predicate refers
to all individual objects denoted by the subject
is called
55. When a term is used in its entire extent,
(a) Particular (b) Negative
referring to the objects denoted by the term,
(c) Disjunctive (d) Universal
it is said to be
(a) Undistributed (b) Excluded
49. A proposition in which the predicate belongs
(c) Distributed (d) Verified
only to a part of the denotation of the subject

the same subject but differing in quality

56. When a term refers only to a part of the class only?
of things denoted by the term that term is (a) Contrary opposition
said to be (b) Contradictory opposition
(a) Undistributed (b) Unexcluded (c) Subaltern
(c) Distributed (d) Verified (d) Sub contrary
57. Universal affirmative proposition distributes 64. Which of the following terms show the relationship
(a) Subject between two propositions having
(b) Predicate the same subject, but differing in both quality
(c) Both subject and predicate and quantity?
(d) Neither subject nor predicate (a) Contrary opposition
(b) Contradictory opposition
58. Universal negative proposition distributes (c) Sub alternation
(a) Subject (d) Sub contrary
(b) Predicate
(c) Both subject and predicate 65. The relation between two particular propositions
(d) Neither subject nor predicate having the same subject and predicate
but differing in quality is
59. Particular affirmative proposition distributes (a) Contrary (b) Contradictory
(a) Subject (c) Sub alternation (d) Sub contrary
(b) Predicate
(c) Both subject and predicate 66. Which of the following shows that an opposition
(d) Neither subject nor predicate is the relation between two propositions
having the same subject and predicate
60. Particular negative proposition distributes but differing in quantity only?
(a) Subject (a) Contrary (b) Contradictory
(b) Predicate (c) Subaltern (d) Sub contrary
(c) Both subject and predicate 67. If one of the contraries is true, the truth
(d) Neither subject nor predicate value of the other is
(a) True
61. The process of passing directly from a single (b) Partially true
proposition to a conclusion is (c) False
(a) Immediate inference (d) Neither true nor false
(b) Mediate inference
(c) Definition 68. If one of the contraries is false, the truth
(d) Classification value of the other is
(a) True
62. Which of the following asserts the agreement (b) False
or disagreement of a subject and (c) Neither true nor false
predicate after having compared each with (d) Doubtful
middle term?
(a) Immediate inference 69. If one of the contradictories is true, the other
(b) Mediate inference must be
(c) Definition (a) True
(d) Classification (b) False
(c) Doubtful
63. Which of the following shows the relationship (d) Neither true nor false
between two universal propositions having

70. Both the contrary propositions cannot be (b) Singular proposition

(a) True (b) False (c) Emotive proposition
(c) True and false (d) Doubtful (d) Invalid proposition
71. Of the two sub contraries if one is false, the 77. The quantity of the proposition is determined
other is necessarily by the extension of the
(a) True (a) Subject
(b) False (b) Predicate
(c) Doubtful (c) Both subject and predicate
(d) Neither true nor false (d) Copula
72. If one of the two sub contraries are true, then 78. In a conditional proposition, the part which
the other one is expresses the condition by ‘if’ or its equivalent
(a) True is
(b) False (a) Antecedent (b) Consequent
(c) Doubtful (c) Opposite (d) Meaning
(d) Neither true nor false
79. Which of the following terms describe the syllogism?
73. Between sub alternations, if the universal is (a) Mediate and deductive
true, the particular is (b) Immediate and deductive
(a) True (c) Mediate and inductive
(b) False (d) Immediate inductive
(c) Doubtful
(d) Both true and false 80. The major term is the
(a) Subject of the conclusion
74. If the particular proposition of a sub alternation (b) Copula
relation is false, its corresponding universal (c) Predicate of the conclusion
proposition will be (d) Predicate of the minor premise
(a) True
(b) False 81. The minor term is the
(c) Both true and false (a) Subject of the conclusion
(d) Doubtful (b) Predicate of the conclusion
(c) Subject of the major premise
75. If the particular proposition of a sub alternation (d) Predicate of the major premise
relation is true, the truth value of the universal proposition
is 82. That term which occurs in the premises and
(a) True not in the conclusion is
(b) False (a) Major term
(c) Both true and false (b) Minor term
(d) Doubtful (c) Middle term
Answer Key
51. (a) 52. (b) 53. (c) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (a) 57. (a) 58. (c) 83. Which of the following performs the function
59. (d) 60. (b) 61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (b) 65. (d) 66. (c) of an intermediary?
67. (c) 68. (d) 69. (b) 70. (a) 71. (a) 72. (c) 73. (a) 74. (b) (a) Major term (b) Middle term
75. (d) (c) Minor term (d) Copula
76. The proposition, ‘Chanakya is wise’, is an example of
84. How many times each term occurs in the
(a) Negative proposition
syllogism?

(a) Once (b) Twice

(c) Thrice (d) Four times 92. Which of the following statements say the
same thing? (December 2006)
85. All Indians are hardworking. All Punjabis i. ‘I am a teacher’ (said by Arvind)
are Indians. Therefore, all Punjabis are hardworking. The ii. ‘I am a teacher’ (said by Binod)
above argument is iii. My son is a teacher (said by Binod’s
(a) Invalid (b) False father)
(c) Valid (d) True iv. My brother is a teacher (said by Binod’s
sister)
86. If one premise is negative, the conclusion v. My brother is a teacher (said by Binod’s
must be only sister)
(a) Negative vi. My sole enemy is a teacher (said by
(b) Positive Binod’s only enemy)
(c) Both negative and positive Codes:
(d) Neither negative nor positive (a) i and ii
(b) ii, iii, iv, and v
87. Combination of which of the following two (c) ii and vi
types of premises yield no valid conclusion. (d) v and vi
(a) Universal (b) Particular
(c) Affirmative (d) Categorical 93. Which of the following are the correct ways
of arguing?
88. No conclusion is possible from two I. There can be no second husband without
(a) Universal premises a second wife
(b) Affirmative premises II. Anil is a friend of Bob, Bob is a friend
(c) Negative premises of Raj, hence Anil is a friend of Raj
(d) Categorical premises III. A is equal to B, B is equal to C, hence A
is equal to C
89. If one premise is particular, the conclusion IV. If everyone is a liar, then we cannot
must be prove it
(a) Universal (b) Negative Codes:
(c) Affirmative (d) Particular (a) iii and iv
(b) i, iii, and iv
90. Which one of the following is not an argument? (c) ii, iii, and iv
(a) If today is Tuesday, tomorrow will be (d) i, ii, iii, and iv
Wednesday
(b) Since today is Tuesday, tomorrow will 94. Which of the following is an analogous
be Wednesday statement?
(c) Ram insulted me, so I punched him in (a) Man is like God
the nose (b) God is great
(d) Ram is not at home so he must have (c) Gandhi is the father of the nation
gone to town (d) Man is a rational being
91. Which one of the following statements is
completely nonsensical? 95. Venn diagram is a kind of diagram to
(a) He was a bachelor, but he married (a) Represent and assess the truth of elementary
recently inferences with the help of
(b) He is a bachelor but he married recently Boolean Algebra of classes
(c) When he married, he was not a bachelor (b) Represent and assess the validity of
(d) When he was a bachelor, he was not elementary inferences with the help of
married Boolean Algebra of classes

(c) Represent but not assess the validity of 101. Determine the nature of the following definition,
elementary inferences with the help of ‘Abortion means the ruthless murdering
Boolean Algebra of classes of innocent beings’
(d) Assess but not represent the validity of (a) Lexical (b) Persuasive
elementary inferences with the help of (c) Stipulative (d) Theoretical
Boolean Algebra of classes
102. Which one of the following is not an argument?
96. ‘A is true because B is true; B is true (a) Abhimanyu does not eat in the day so he must be
because A is true’. This type of argument is eating at night
termed as (b) If Abhimanyu is growing fat and if he does not eat
(a) Inductive argument during the day, he will be eating at night
(b) Deductive argument (c) Abhimanyu eats in the night so he does not eat during
(c) Circular argument the day
(d) None of the above (d) Since Abhimanyu does not eat in the day, he must be
eating in the night
97. Which of the following is an example of
circular argument? 103. If P is true, Q is true. If P is false, Q is
(a) God created man in his image and false. The relation of this proposition is
man created God in his own image (a) Independent (b) Equivalent
(b) God is the source of scripture and the (c) Sub contrary (d) Contradictory
scripture is the source of our knowledge
of God 104. Two propositions with the same subject
(c) Some of the Indians are great because and predicate terms but different in quality are
India is great (a) Contradictory (b) Contrary
(d) Rama is great because he is Rama (c) Subaltern (d) Sub contraries
98. All students are not geniuses (June 2003) 105. ‘No men are mortal’ is contradictory to
(a) Many students are not genius (a) Some men are mortal
(b) All geniuses are students (b) Some men are not mortal
(c) No student is a genius (c) All men are mortal
(d) None of the above (d) No mortal is man
99. Determine the nature of the following 106. Which of the following statements are always true?
definition, ‘poor’ means having an annual I. A wooden table is a table
income of `1,000. II. Now, it is raining or not raining
(a) Persuasive (b) Precising III. The sun rises in the East every day
(c) Lexical (d) Stipulative IV. A chicken comes out of hen’s egg.
Codes:
100. In the expression, ‘Nothing is larger than (a) I and III (b) I, III, and IV
itself’, the relation ‘is larger than’ is (c) I and II (d) II and III
(a) Antisymmetric (b) Asymmetrical
(c) Intransitive (d) Irreflexive 107. Persons educated through a foreign language
are sure to be unpatriotic. Mark
Answer Key (a) If the statement is a fact
76. (b) 77. (a) 78. (a) 79. (a) 80. (c) 81. (a) 82. (c) 83. (b) (b) If the statement is an advice
84. (b) 85. (c) 86. (a) 87. (b) 88. (c) 89. (d) 90. (a) 91. (b) (c) If the statement is an opinion
92. (b) 93. (a) 94. (a) 95. (b) 96. (c) 97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (b) (d) If the statement is a prejudice
100. (d)
108. Statement: ‘Decline of British Empire

should have resulted in decline of English and Arabia’. This statement is

language’. Mark (a) Factual (b) Logical
(a) If the statement is a fact (c) Opinion (d) Reactionary
(b) If the statement is an advice
(c) If the statement is an opinion 115. Consider the following statements:
(d) If the statement is a prejudice I think
Thinking things exist. Therefore, I am (i.e. I exist as a
109. If ‘X loves Y’, what can be inferred about thinking thing)
‘Y loves X’. It is This argument is
(a) True (a) Valid (b) Invalid
(b) False (c) Doubtful (d) Cannot be said
(c) May be true
(d) None of the above 116. Which one of the following statements follow
from the statement ‘only goods trains stop at this station’?
110. ‘Honesty is the best policy’ because (a) Some goods trains stop at this station
(a) God rewards those who follow this maxim (b) All goods trains stop at this station
(b) It leads to recognition in the society (c) Some goods trains do not stop at this station
(c) It facilitates cohesiveness in society (d) All trains that stop at this station are goods trains
(d) It leads to material prosperity and spiritual
Awakening 117. Evaluate the following statements in terms
of whether each is a fact, opinion, prejudice, or advice.
111. Consider the following statements: I. Women are not suitable for police service
I. The sunset is beautiful II. In a democracy no party should be in power for too
II. Mahatma Gandhi believed in non-violence long
III. Do not tell the world what you can do, just do it III. Have proper rest, even during the examination time
IV. Those who own a car are rich Which one of the IV. Obesity is a risk factor for coronary heart disease
following is correct? Which one of the following is correct?
Fact Opinion Advice Assumption Opinion Prejudice Fact Advice
(a) I IV III II (a) II III IV I
(b) II III IV I (b) II I IV III
(c) IV II I III (c) III I IV II
(d) II I III IV (d) II IV III I
112. Education and socio-economic development 118. Information: NET test is conducted for
are postgraduates.
(a) Related in a direct proportion Inferences:
(b) Related in an indirect proportion (a) Kumar is a postgraduate, so she should have
(c) Sometimes related and sometimes not related undertaken the test
(d) Not related (b) Kamal is a graduate. She cannot take the NET
examination
113. Bats are mammals because bats suckle (c) All postgraduates can take the NET examination
their young and (d) No other agency can take the NET examination
(a) All those who suckle their young are mammals
(b) All mammals suckle their young 119. For a proposition to be true, it is necessary
(c) Some of those who suckle their young are mammals. that it should have all the following characteristics
(d) All of the above EXCEPT
(a) It must be objective
114. ‘A single shelf of a good European Library (b) It must be in tune with accepted beliefs
is worth the whole native literature of India (c) It must be consistent

(d) It must be testable (a) All workers in the factory are graduates
(b) Everybody in the factory has a graduation certificate
120. Four inferences are drawn from the statement (c) Some of the factory workers have higher qualification
given below, which one can be the correct inference? (d) Only one worker in the factory is a graduate
Statement
People in Australia generally speak English. 125. All that glitters are not gold
Inferences (a) Many things that shine are other than gold
(a) Rosy speaks English. So she is from Australia (b) Whatever shines is other than gold
(b) Rahim knows English. That is why he is going to (c) Gold is not the only glittering substance
Australia next month (d) All of the above
(c) Rahul has been living in Australia, most probably he
can speak English Answer Key
(d) Ramesh does not know English. He cannot talk to 101. (b) 102. (b) 103. (c) 104. (d) 105. (b) 106. (b) 107.
anyone if he goes to Australia (d) 108. (c) 109. (c) 110. (c) 111. (d) 112. (a) 113. (a) 114.
(d) 115. (a) 116. (d) 117. (b) 118. (c) 119. (b) 120. (c)
121. (c) 122. (b) 123. (a) 124. (d) 125. (d)
Directions (Questions 121–135): In each of
the questions below, a proposition is followed
126. Most dresses in that market are expensive means
by four answer choices. Match the proposition
(a) There are no cheap dresses available in that market
with one of the choices that seems to be the most
(b) There are some cheap dresses also in that market
justified or applicable.
(c) Some dresses in that market are expensive
121. The spread of the Internet for higher education
is premised on
127. Every library has books
(a) Research and development are vital
(a) Books are only in library
(b) Browsing encourages critical thinking
(b) Libraries are meant for books only
(c) Easy management and dissemination of knowledge
(c) No library is without books
(d) India should be second to none in the world
(d) Some libraries do not have readers
122. World Trade Organization believes in Intellectual

128. The electronic media convinces its viewers that the
Property and Liberalized Trade
likelihood of their becoming the victim of a violent crime
Regime Their belief is based on the assumption
is extremely high; at the same time by its very nature, it
that
persuades viewers to passively accept whatever happens
(a) Modern economy bestows equal benefits
to them
(b) Knowledge-based economy and globalization is a
(a) Exposure to electronic media promotes criminal
reality
behaviour
(c) All countries are well suited for modern trade
(b) The users of electronic media are more vulnerable to
(d) Rich countries will always help the poor countries
become victims of violence than others
123. The essence and justification to beauty contests are
(c) Electronic media promotes a feeling of helpless
that
vulnerability in viewers
(a) Women have standard features on which they can be
rated
(b) Beautiful women have a vision and role to play in
129. This book can help because all good books help
social upliftment
(a) This is not a good book
(c) They symbolize eternal freedom for women
(b) This is a good book
(d) They provide an opportunity for beautiful
(c) No good book helps
women of the world to come on one platform
(d) Some good books help
124. This worker is a graduate. No one else in
130. Soldiers serve their country
the factory is a graduate.

(a) Men mostly serve their country

(b) The persons who serve their country are soldiers
(c) Some persons who are soldiers serve Directions (Questions 136–150): In each of the
their country questions below, two statements are followed by
(d) Women usually do not serve them two conclusions I and II. Assuming that the given
country as they are not soldiers statements are true even if they are at variance
with the commonly known facts, pick up one of
131. To pass any competitive exam, one must the following answer choice which you think is
work hard correct.
(a) Getting good grades in exam needs hard work (a) If only conclusion I follows
(b) All those who work hard, pass (b) If only conclusion II follows
(c) The candidates who work hard overcome anxiety in (c) If both I and II follow
the competitive exam (d) If neither I nor II follows
(d) Without hard work, one does not pass the competitive
exams 136. Statements
Some tables are golden.
132. All the books written by Professor Bhardwaj All teaks are tables.
are textbooks. Some of his books are published by India Conclusions
Publishing House I. Some teaks are golden.
(a) India Publishing House publishes textbooks only II. Some golden are teak.
(b) Some textbooks written by Professor Bhardwaj are
published by publishers other than M/s India Publishing 137. Statements:
House No man is a tiger.
(c) All the books published by M/s India Publishing Karan is a man.
House have been written by Professor Bhardwaj Conclusions
(d) None of the above I. Karan is not a tiger.
II. All men are not Karan.
133. All students in my class are bright. Mehtab
is not bright 138. Statements
(a) Some students are not bright All boys are men.
(b) Mehtab is not a student of my class All men are fathers.
(c) Mehtab must change the school Conclusions
(d) No student is dull I. Some men are boys.
II. All boys are fathers.
134. Which one of the following is NOT correct?
A belief becomes a scientific truth when it 139. Statements
(a) is established experimentally All teachers are girls.
(b) is arrived logically No girl is dull.
(c) is accepted by many people Conclusions
(d) can be replicated I. No boy is a teacher.
II. No teacher is dull.
135. Child labour can best be eradicated if the
following is done for the concerned children 140. Statements
(a) Schools are opened and free lunch is provided All poets are inspiring.
(b) Employment is provided to parents and free education All artists are inspiring.
given to children Conclusions
(c) Appropriate laws are enacted and enforced I. All artists are poets.
(d) Employers of child labourers are punished II. Some inspiring persons are not artists.
and children are sent to school

141. Statements II. All hardly working people are not

No villagers own a car. ambitious.
Shankar owns a car. (December 2002)
Conclusions 148. Statements
I. Shankar lives in a town. All horses are donkeys.
II. Shankar owns a car. All donkeys are monkeys.
Conclusions
142. Statements I. All horses are monkeys.
Some teachers are women. II. All monkeys are horses.
No teacher is absent.
I. There are no male teachers. All garden are schools.
II. All women teachers are present. All schools are colleges.
Conclusions
143. Statements I. All gardens are colleges.
Some benches are chairs. II. Some gardens are not colleges.
Hammer is a bench.
I. Some chairs are benches. No tree is bottle.
II. Hammer is not a chair. No bottle is unbreakable.
Conclusions
144. Statements I. No tree is unbreakable.
All books are stones. II. Nothing unbreakable is tree.
All stones are papers.
Conclusions Answer Key
I. Some papers are books. 126. (c) 127. (c) 128. (c) 129. (b) 130. (c) 131. (d) 132.
II. Some papers are stones. (b) 133. (b) 134. (c) 135. (b), 136 – d, 137 – a, 138 – c,
139 – b, 140 – d, 141 – d, 142 – d, 143 – a, 144 – c, 145 –
c, 146 – d, 147 – a, 148 – a, 149 – a, 150 – d,
145. Statements
Only graduates are eligible for this post.
Directions (Questions 151–167): In each of the
Most rickshaw pullers are graduates.
questions below, there are two statements followed
Conclusions
by three to four conclusions numbered I, II, III, and IV.
I. Some rickshaw pullers are eligible for
You have to take the given statements to be true
this post.
even if they seem to be at variance with commonly
II. All those eligible for this post are
known facts and then decide which of the
graduates.
given conclusions logically follow from the given
statements.
146. Statements
All grapes are oranges.
151. Statements
Some apples are not oranges.
All magic are women.
Conclusions
All women are crazy.
I. All apples are grapes.
Conclusions
II. Some apples are grapes.
I. All magic are crazy.
II. All crazy are magic.
147. Statements
III. Some crazy are magic.
All students are ambitious.
IV. Some crazy are women.
All ambitious persons are hardworking.
Choices
Conclusions
(a) Only I, III, and IV follow
I. All students are hardworking.

(b) Only II and III follow Choices

(c) All conclusions follow (a) Only I and III follow
(d) None of the conclusions follow (b) Only II and IV follow
(c) All follow
152. Statements (d) None follows
All cats are mammals.
No tigers are cats. 156. Statements
Conclusions Some rabbits are bears.
(a) No tiger is a mammal. No goats are bears.
(b) No mammals are tigers. Conclusions
(c) Cats are tigers. I. Some rabbits are not goats.
(d) None of the above II. All rabbits are goats.
III. Some goats are not rabbits.
153. Statements IV. All goats are rabbits.
Some boxes are round. Choices
All rounds are spheres. (a) Only I follows
Conclusions (b) Only III follows
I. Some boxes are spheres. (c) Either I or II follows
II. Some spheres are boxes. (d) Either III or IV and I follow
III. Some spheres are round.
IV. All spheres are round. 157. Statements
Choices No systems are desks.
(a) I, II, and III follow All desks are books.
(b) II, III, and IV follow Conclusions
(c) I, III, and IV follow I. Some systems are books.
(d) I, II, and IV follow II. Some systems are not books.
III. Some books are systems.
154. Statements IV. Some books are not systems.
All books are clocks. Choices
Some clocks are chips. (a) Only II follows
Conclusions (b) Only IV follows
I. Some clocks are books. (c) I and IV follow
II. No clocks are books. (d) Either I or II and IV follow
III. Some books are chips.
IV. No books are chips. 158. Statements
Choices All branches are flowers.
(a) I and III follow All flowers are trees.
(b) Only I follows Conclusions
(c) Either I or II follows I. All branches are trees.
(d) Either III or IV and I follows II. All trees are branches.
III. All flowers are branches.
155. Statements IV. Some trees are branches.
Some tables are TVs. Choices
Some TVs are radios. (a) Only I and IV follow
Conclusions (b) Only II and III follow
I. Some tables are radios. (c) All follow
II. Some radios are tables. (d) None follows
III. All radios are TVs.
IV. All TVs are tables. 159. Statements

Some bags are pockets. independence.

No pocket is a pouch. Choices
Conclusions (a) Only I is implied
I. No bag is a pouch. (b) Only II is implied
II. Some bags are not pouches. (c) Both I and II are implied
III. Some pockets are bags. (d) Neither I nor II is implied
IV. No pocket is a bag.
Choices 163. Statement
(a) Only I and III follow Most teachers are hardworking.
(b) Only II and III follow Conclusions
(c) Only either I or IV follows I. Some teachers are hardworking.
(d) None follows II. Some teachers are not hardworking.
Choices
160. Statements (a) Only I is implied
All politicians are honest. (b) Only II is implied
All honest are fair. (c) Both I and II are implied
Conclusions (d) Neither I nor II is implied
I. Some honest are politicians.
II. No honest is politician. 164. Proposition
III. Some fair are politicians. No teacher is on time for the class.
IV. All fair are politicians. (June 2002)
Choices Conclusions
(a) None follows I. No persons who are on time for their classes are
(b) Only I follows teachers.
(c) Only I and II follow II. Some teachers are not late for their classes.
(d) Only I and III follow III. Most teachers come to their classes on time.
161. Statements IV. Few teachers come on time for their classes.
All the students passed the examination.
Some students are girls. 165. Statement
Conclusions Necessity is the mother of all inventions.
I. Some boys passed the examination. Conclusions
II. All the girls failed the examination. I. There can be no invention without there being a mother.
III. None of the boys passed the II. Mother is a necessity. (June 2002)
examination. Choices
IV. None of the girl students failed the (a) Only I is implied
examination. (b) Only II is implied
Choices (c) Both I and II are implied
(a) Only I and II follow (d) Neither I nor II is implied
(b) Only II and III follow
(c) Only I, II, and III follow 166. Statement
(d) None of the above No man is infallible.
Conclusions
162. Statement I. All men are fallible.
Most of the Indian states existed before II. No infallible persons are men.
independence Choices
Conclusions (a) Only inference I is correct
I. Some Indian states existed before (b) Only inference II is correct
independence. (c) Both inferences I and II are correct
II. All Indian states did not exist before (d) Neither inference I nor inference II is

correct Republic Day.
167. Statements 217. Assertion (A): Robert Clive defeated

All aeroplanes are trains. Siraj-ud-daulah in the Battle of Plassey.
Some trains are chairs. Reason (R): The army of Clive was the best
Conclusions and it followed the best strategic policy.
I. Some aeroplanes are chairs.
II. Some chairs are aeroplanes. 218. Assertion (A): The Hoysala sculptures
III. Some chairs are trains. have highly detailed descriptions and ornamentation.
IV. Some trains are aeroplanes. Reason (R): Hoysala sculptures are soft;
Codes: these have been created in Chloristic
(a) None follows Schism.
(b) Only I and II follow
(c) Only II and III follow 219. Assertion (A): Akbar abolished jizya in
(d) Only III and IV follow 1564 but reimpose it subsequently.
Reason (R): As a young man he was quite
Answer Key liberal and tolerant but became orthodox
151 – c, 152 – d, 153 – a, 154 – b, 155 – d, 156 – d, 157 – and reactionary as he matured.
d, 158 – a, 159 – b, 160 – c, 161 – d, 162 – d, 163 – b, 164
– a, 165 – d, 166 – a, 167 – d 220. Assertion (A): Gupta period is described
as the Golden Age of Indian History.
Reason (R): Guptas issued a large number
Directions (Questions 213–232): Assertion and of gold coins.
reasoning type questions have one assertion and
one reason. The question is followed by four options. 221. Assertion (A): Most of the Himalayan rivers
(a) A is true but R is false. are perennial.
(b) A is false but R is true. Reason (R): They are fed by melting snow.
(c) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct
explanation of A. 222. Assertion (A): Earthworms are not good
(d) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct for agriculture.
explanation of A. Reason (R): Earthworms break down the
soil into fine particles and make it soft.
213. Assertion (A): Hindi should be the official
language of India. 223. Assertion (A): The Greek influence on the
Reason (R): Majority of people living in Indian art manifested itself in the form of
India are Hindus. Gandhara School of Art and moved from
Taxila to Mathura and Sarnath.
214. Assertion (A): In India, people elect them Reason (R): During Gupta period, art
own representatives for Parliament and became entirely and truly Indian.
State Assemblies.
Reason (R): India is a democratic country. 224. Assertion (A): Heavy water is used as a
moderator in nuclear reactor.
215. Assertion (A): In India, cotton crop is Reason (R): Thermal neutrons are used for
grown mainly in alluvial soils. fission reactions in a reactor.
Reason (R): Alluvial soils are very fertile.
216. Assertion (A): The Indian Constitution 225. Assertion (A): The ‘Green Belt’ represents
came into force with effect from 26 January a planning concept for controlling the physical expansion
1950. of large cities.
Reason (R): 26 January is celebrated as

Reason (R): ‘Green Belt’ is an integral component of a 213 – c, 214 – d, 215 – b, 216 – d, 217 – a, 218 – a, 219 –
planned city. c, 220 – c, 221 – d, 222 – b, 223 – c, 224 – c, 225 – c, 226
– c, 227 – c, 228 – d, 229 – d, 230 – d, 231 – a, 232 - a
226. Assertion (A): The import of Chinese toys
was recently banned by the Government of India. Deductive and Inductive
Reason (R): The plastic materials used to 1. The validity of an argument depends on
make the toys are not biodegradable. a. the form of the argument
b. the content of the argument
227. Assertion (A): Conversion of coal to diamond c. the truth of premises
is a physical change. d. the truth of the conclusion
Reason (R): Physical change does not change the Answer: A
composition of materials.
2. Which term is distributed in a universal proposition?
228. Assertion (A): Caste involves a system a. both subject and predicate
consisting of many castes arranged in a hierarchy of rank b. neither subject nor predicate
and status. c. subject
Reason (R): The hierarchical ordering of castes is based d. predicate
on the distinction between purity and pollution as per Answer: C
ancient literature.
3. The obverse of "No tiger is a pet" is
229. Assertion (A): Seasonal employment a. "All non-pets are non-tigers."
results in large-scale migration of agricultural b. "All tigers are non-pets."
labourers from agriculturally backward regions to that of c. "No tiger is a non-pet."
developed regions. d. "No pet is a tiger."
Reason (R): In seasonal unemployment, Answer: B
once the seasons are over, the agricultural
workers, especially landless labourers and 4. Which of the following states a valid rule of syllogism?
marginal farmers remain unemployed. a. The minor term must be distributed at least once in the
premises.
230. Assertion (A): Intensive cultivation accelerates land b. No conclusion follows from two negative premises.
degradation. c. If both the premises are particular the conclusion must
Reason (R): Second Green revolution be particular.
emphasizes on the improvement of mechanism d. No term can be distributed in the premise if it is not
to stop land degradation. distributed in the conclusion.
Answer: B
231. Assertion (A): Division of work is the separation of
work processes into a number of 5. The fallacy of undistributed middle occurs in a
tasks with each task performed by a separate syllogistic argument, if
person or a group of persons. a. the middle term is undistributed in both the premises
Reason (R): Division of labour is a complex b. the middle term is undistributed at least in one of the
web of independent and isolated work. premises
c. the middle term is undistributed only in the major
232. Assertion (A): One of the important decisions premise
of the framers of the constitution of India was to d. the middle term is undistributed only in the minor
guarantee every adult citizen in India the right to vote. premise
Reason (R): The universal adult franchise is not Answer: b
consistent with the principle of equality.
6. When we assume the truth of the very point we have
Answer Key set out to prove, we are committing a

fallacy. Which of the following is NOT a name of this Answer - c

fallacy?
a. Begging the question. 5. Sankhya theory of causation is called
b. Circular reasoning. a. Satkaryavada
c. Ignoratio elenchi. b. Asatkaryavada
d. Petitio principii. c. Vivarthavada
Answer: c d. None of the above
Answer - a
7. Which of the following is not a name of Mill’s
Methods? 6. The ultimate goal of the Yoga system is to achieve
a. Method of Agreement a. Supernatural power
b. Method of Difference b. Knowledge about the world
c. Method of Accident c. Atmajnana
d. Method of Residues d. None of the above
Answer: c Answer - c
8. Argument by Analogy is a form of 7. Nyaya syllogism (Vyapti) has

a. deductive argument. a. Three propositions
b. inductive argument. b. Four propositions
c. both deductive and inductive argument. c. Five propositions
d. not a proper form of argument. d. None of the above
Answer: c Answer - c
Indian Logic 8. The negative padartha in Vaisesika system is called

a. Visesa
1. Which of the following is not a source of knowledge? b. Abhava
a. Perception c. Samanya
b. Inference d. None of the above
c. Speculation Answer - b
d. Authority
Answer: C 9. Mimamsa accepts the authority of
2. Carvak is known as the founder of a. Vedas
a. Brahminism b. Puranas
b. Indian Materialism c. Gita
c. Spritualism d. None of the above
d. None of the above Answer - a
Answer - b
3. Pratityasamutpadavada in Buddhism explains 10. Who did advocate “Brahma satya jagat mithya.”?
a. Transmigration of soul a. Ramanuja
b. Nirvana b. Sankara
c. Law of causation c. Ballabhacharya
d. None of the above d. None of the above
Answer - c Answer - b
4. The Jaina Philosophy advocates 11. According to Ramanuja, the relation between Brahma
a. Monism and Isvar is -
b. Dualism a. Difference
c. Pluralism b. Identity
d. None of the above c. Identity-in-difference

d. Identity and Difference 108. The indirect proofs for the existence of self,
Answer - c according to the Jain philosophers, are
(a) Soul is mover.
(b) co-ordinator.
(c) Efficient cause,
Pramanas and Types
(d) All of these.
(Answer Key is Highlighted in Dark) 109. The Jains have refused the Charvaka view of self
103. While, according to Samkhya, Philosophy effect is on the basis of
the real modification of cause, according to Samkara, (a) No evidence.
it is (b) Against causation.
(a) Real. (c) Illogical.
(b) Unreal. (d) All of these.
(c) Indescribable. 110. Buddha’s theory of self is known as
(d) None of these. (a) Theory of no-soul.
104. The theory of causation advanced by Samkara (b) Immutable self.
has been proved by (c) Eternal self.
(a) Experience. (d) None of these.
(b) Logic, 111. Buddha’s theory of self is similar to the theory
(c) Scriptures. propounded in the West by
(d) All of these. (a) William James.
105. The relation between the Jiva and Brahman, (b) David Hume,
according to Samkara, can be explained as (c) Bertrand Russel.
(a) Identity. (d) All of these.
(b) Reflection. 112. The existence of soul in Indian philosophy has not
(c) Emanation. been accepted by the schools known as
(d) Evolution. (a) The Charvakas.
106. According to the theory known as (b) The Buddhists,
Avacchedavada, causation means (c) Both.
(a) Destruction. (d) None of these.
(b) Annihilation, 113. Man, according to Charvaka philosophy, is
(c) Reflection. (a) The physical body.
(d) None of these (b) The self.
107. Ramanuja’s theory of causation is known as (c) The consciousness.
(a) Vivartavada. (d) None of these.
(b) PrakrtiParinamavada. 114. Happiness and sorrow and other mental
(c) Brahman Parinamavada. activities, according to Charvaka, are the attributes of
(d) Asatkarayavada. (a) Body.

(b) Self. (b) Mind,

(c) Consciousness, (c) Intellect.
(d) None of these. (d) All of these
115. Charvaka philosophers have been classified into 122. The Samkhya theory of self, is based upon
(a) Dhurta. (a) The Vedas.
(b) Susikshit. (b) The Bhagwadgita.
(c) Both. (c) The Puranas.
(d) None of these. (d) None of these.
116. The sage Vatsyayan belongs to the Charvaka 123. The chief characteristics of the self according to
School of Samkhya philosophy, is
(a) Dhurta. (a) Pure consciousness.
(b) Susikshit. (b) Rebirth.
(c) Both. (c) Eternity.
117. Rebirth, according to Buddha, is connected with 124. In evolution self aims at
self as (a) Enjoyment.
(a) Relevant. (b) Liberation,
(b) Irrelevant, (c) Both.
(c) fundamental. (d) None of these.
(d) None of these. 125. The chief arguments to prove the existence of
118. Buddha’s attitude towards self can be said to be selfadvance by Samkhya philosophies are
(a) Dogmatic. (a) Structure of things.
(b) sceptic, (b) The Gunas.
(c) Indifferent. (c) Substratum of knowledge.
(d) Agnostic. (d) All of these.
119. Man, according to Buddha, can be said to be 126. The self is proved on the basis of the
(a) sanghat psychological tendencies of
(b) Self. (a) Enjoyment
(c) Body. (b) Knowledge,
(d) None of these. (c) Salvation
120. The self, according to Samkhya theory is (d) All of these
(a) Body. 127. The plurality theory of self in Indian philosophy
(b) Mind. has been accepted by
(c) Intellect. (a) The Jainas.
(d) All of these. (b) The Samkhya.
121. The self, according to Samkhya is different from (c) The Mimamsa
(a) Body. (d) All of these

128. The unitary theory of self in Indian philosophy (b) Epistemology.

has been supported by (c) Logic.
(a) advaita Vedanta. (d) All of these.
(b) The Jainas. 135. Causation in Indian philosophy has been
(c) The Mimamsa. explained by
(d) The Samkhya. (a) satkaryavada.
129. Samkhya theory of self has been criticised on the (b) Asatkaryavada.
basis of (c) parinamavada.
(a) Confusion between Jiva and Atman. (d) All of these.
(b) Proofs for practical self only. 136. The theory, that the effect is the real result of the
(c) Illogical. cause, is known as
(d) All of these. (a) satkaryavada.
130. The most important theory of self in Indian (b) asatkaryavada.
philosophy has been advanced by (c) parinamavada.
(a) Advaita Vedanta. (d) vivartavada.
(b) Jainas. 137. The theory, that the effect is only the apparent of
(c) Buddhists. the cause, is known as
(d) Samkhya. (a) Satkaryavada.
131. Self, according to Samkara, is (b) Asatkaryavada.
(a) Brahman. (c) Parinamavada.
(b) Eternal, (d) Vivartavada.
(c) transcedent 138. The theory that the effect is already implicit in
(d) All of these. the cause, is known as
132. The most important characteristic of self, (a) Satkaryavada.
according to Samkara is (b) asatkaryavada.
(a) Metaphysical. (c) Parinamavada.
(b) Epistemological. (d) Vivartavada.
(c) Axiological. 139. The Theory that the effect is not implicit but
(d) All of these super-imposed upon cause, is known as
133. The fundamental basis of Samkara’s theory of (a) satkaryavada.
self is (b) asatkaryavada.
(a) Dualism. (c) parinamavada.
(b) Non-dualism. (d) vivartavada.
(c) Qualified monism. 140. Ramanuja’s theory of causation is known as
(d) Pluralism. (a) Brahman Parinamavada.
134. Samkara’s theory of self is based upon (b) Prakrti Parinamavada.
(a) Metaphysics. (c) Both of them.

(d) None of these. (c) Both of them.

141. The theory of causation known as Parinamavada (d) None of these
in Indian philosophy has been supported by 148. The reflection of Brahman as according to
(a) Samkhya. Samkara, is due to
(b)Ramanuja. (a) Avidya.
(c) Both of them. (b) Adhyasa.
(d) None of these. (c) Vyavahara.
142. The cause, according to Indian philosophy, can be (d) All of these.
classified as 149. According to PranvadinCharvakas the nature of
(a) Material cause. self is
(b) Immediate cause. (a) Body.
(c) Efficient cause. (b) Sense organs,
(d) All of these. (c) Vital principle.
143. The material and the efficient cause, according to (d) Mind.
Samkhya philosophy, are related as 150. According to AtmaManovadin, Charvakas self is
(a) Identical. (a) Body.
(b) Contradictory, (b) Sense organs,
(c) Different. (c) Vital principle.
(d) None of these. (d) Mind.
144. The Mimamsa theory of causation is known as 151. The Charvakas deny the existence of
(a) Theory of energy. (a) Self.
(b) vivartavada. (b) Merit and demerit.
(c) parinamavada. (c) Heaven and hell.
(d) None of these (d) All of these.
145. The world, according to Samkara, is the result of 152. The Charvaka theory of self can be termed as
(a) Real causation. (a) Materialist.
(b) Super-imposition. (b) vitalist.
(c) Evolution. (c) Mentalist.
(d) None of these. (d) All of these.
146. The theory known as Satkaryavada includes 153. The false knowledge, according to Samkara, is
(a) Parinamavada. known as
(b) Vivartavada. (a) vidya.
(c) Both of them (b) avidya.
(d) None of these. (c) adhyasa.
147. The causal relation, according to Samkara is (d) May a.
(a) Real change. 154. The cause of the power of Maya, according to
(b) Unreal change, Samkara, is

(a) vidya. (c) Falsehood.

(b) aidya. (d) All of these.
(c) adhyasa. 161. The only valid Pramana according to Charvaka is
(d) None of these. (a) Perception.
155. The cause of bondage of the Jiva in the world, (b) Scriptures,
according to Samkara, is (c) Inference.
(a) vidya. (d) None of these.
(b) avidya. 162. According to materialism, the only valid pramana
(c) adhyasa. is
(d) May a. (a) Perception.
156. The nature of Avidya, according to Samkara, can (b) Scriptures,
be described as (c) Inference.
(a) eternal. (d) None of these.
(b) Natural. 163. Perception coming through the contact of
(c) Both of them. external senses with objects according to Charvaka is
(d) Neither of these. known as
157. The aim of the study of Vedanta scriptures is: (a) external.
(a) Liberation from Avidya. (b) Internal.
(b) Achievement of self. (c) Both of them.
(c) brahmanrealisation. (d) None of these.
(d) All of these. 164. The nature of perception according to Charvaka
158. Knowledge according to Mimamsa philosophy, is can be said to be
(a) real. (a) Authentic.
(b) Unreal. (b) Inauthentic.
(c) Both of them. (c) Both of them.
159. The nature of world as illusion has been accepted 165. The Charvakas have challenged the validity of
in Indian philosophy by (a) Inference.
(a) advaita Vedanta. (b) Scriptures,
(b) mimamsa. (c) Both of them.
(c) vishishitadvaita. (d) None of these.
(d) All of these. 166. The validity of scriptures has been challenged by
160. The relationship of the ultimate reality with the the Charvakas in the field of
world in Indian philosophy has been explained by the (a) Perceptible things.
theory of (b) Imperceptible things.
(a) Reality. (c) Both of them.
(b) Error. (d) None of these.

167. Charvakas have rejected the validity of scriptures (a) Anekantvada.

on the basis of (b) Ekantvada.
(a) Absence of physical proof. (c) Both of them.
(b) Criticism of inference. (d) None of these.
(c) Contradictions and tautologies. 174. Pramanas, according to Jaina’s include
(d) All of these. (a) Direct.
168. Charvaka criticism of scriptures has been (b) Indirect.
challenged by (c) Both of them.
(a) Nyaya (d) None of these.
(b) Advaita Vedanta 175. The knowledge of the qualities of the Paksha
(c) Samkhya through the Hetu is known as
(d) All of these. (a) Paramarsa.
169. The philosophers who have condemned (b) Anuman.
Charvaka, challenge to Vedas include (c) Vyapti.
(a) Udayana. (d) None of these.
(b) Vainkathnath. 176. The invariable relation between the Hetu and the
(c) Samkara. Saddaya in Nyaya Philosophy is known as
(d) All of these. (a) Paramarsa.
170. The arguments presented in favour of the Vedas (b) Anuman.
include (c) Vyapti.
(a) Authenticity of the authors. (d) None of these.
(b) Character of the authors. 177. Vyapti can be properly defined as
(c) Purpose to the authors. (a) Invariable concomitant.
(d) All of these. (b) Causal relation.
171. The most important element in the Jain theory of (c) Sequence.
Pramanas is (d) None of these.
(a) Perception. 178. The knowledge of the relation between a name
(b) Naya. and the thing named in Nyaya is known as
(c) Scriptures. (a) Perception.
(d) Inference. (b) Inference,
172. Knowledge according to Jain philosophers can be (c) Comparison.
called (d) Testimony.
(a) Pramana 179. The knowledge gained through the testimony of
(b) Naya the reliable statement of scripture is known as
(c) Both of them (a) Perception.
(d) None of these. (b) Inference,
173. The theory of Naya is based upon (c) Comparison.

(d) Testimony. (c) Both of them.

180. Words according to Nyaya can be classified as (d) None of these.
(a) Drastartha. 187. The perceptual knowledge, according to
(b) Adrastartha. Mimamsa, can be classified as
(c) Both of them. (a) Savikalpa.
(d) None of these. (b) Nirvikalpa.
181. The basis of the classification of scriptural words (c) Both of them.
according to Nyaya can be (d) None of these.
(a) Meaning of words. 188. The immediate knowledge according to Mimamsa
(b) Origin of words. is known as
(c) Both of them. (a) Perceptual.
(d) Neither of these. (b) Non-perceptual,
182. The words which are given to the seers through (c) Both of them.
the God himself are known as (d) None of these.
(a) Vedic. 189. Knowledge of name, shape, quality etc is known
(b) Laukika. as
(c) Both of them. (a) Savikalpa.
(d) None of these. (b) Nirvikalpa.
183. Words created by ordinary human beings are (c) Both of them.
known as (d) None of these.
(a) Vedic. 190. Knowledge arising out of similar cognition or
(b) Laukika. perception is known as
(c) Both of them. (a) Inference.
(d) None of these. (b) Comparison,
184. The nature of Vedic words can be described as (c) Testimony.
(a) True. (d) Perception.
(b) False. 191. The Pramana of Upmana in Indian philosophy
(c) Both of them. has been accepted by
(d) None of these. (a) Nyaya.
185. Prama literally means the experience which is (b) Mimamsa.
(a) real. (c) Vedanta.
(b) Unreal. (d) All of these.
(c) doubtful. 192. The most important source of knowledge
(d) None of these. according to Mimamsa is
186. Valid knowledge according to Mimamsa includes (a) Perception.
(a) Perceptual. (b) Inference,
(b) Non-perceptual, (c) Comparison.

(d) Testimony. 199. Prama, according to Vedanta, is the knowledge

193. The Vedic statements, according to Mimamsa, which is
can be classified as (a) Uncontradictory.
(a) Siddhartha. (b) Contradictory.
(b) Vidhayaka. (c) Worldly.
(c) Both of them. (d) Other worldly.
(d) None of these. 200. Pramanas, according to Vedanta, can be classified
194. Sentences pertaining to objective existence are as
known as (a) Perception.
(a) Siddhartha. (b) Inference,
(b) Vidhayaka. (c) Scriptures.
(c) Both of them. (d) All of these.
(d) None of these.
195. Statements concerning the Mode of Performance

of religious activity are known as
(a) Siddhartha. Answers
(b) Vidhayaka. 101. (c) 102. (b) 103. (b) 104. (d) 105. (b) 106. (b) 107.
(c) Both of them. (c) 108. (d) 109. (a) 110. (a) 111. (a) 112.(c) 113. (a) 114.
(d) None of these. (a) 115.(c) 116. (b) 117.(c) 118. (d) 119. (a) 120. (d) 121.
196. “Achieve heaven through charity for a whole (d) 122. (a) 123. (a) 124.(c) 125. (d) 126. (d) 127. (d) 128.
month,” is a statement which can be classified as (a) 129. (a) 130. (d) 131. (a) 132. (d) 133. (b) 134. (b)
(a) Upadesaka. 135. (d) 136.(c) 137. (d) 138. (a) 139. (b) 140. (a) 141. (c)
(b) Atidesa. 142. (d) 143. (c) 144. (a) 145. (b) 146. (b) 147. (b) 148.
(c) Both of them. (d) 149. (c) 150. (d) 151. (d) 152. (c) 153. (b) 154. (b)
(d) None of these. 155. (b) 156.(c) 157(d) 158. (c) 159. (d) 160. (b) 161. (a)
197. The postulation of a fact by the impossibility of its 162. (a) 163. (c) 164.(c) 165. (c) 166. (b) 167. (d) 168. (d)
opposite is known as 169. (d) 170. (d) 171. (b) 172. (c) 173. (a) 174.(c) 175. (a)
(a) Arthapatti. 176. (b) 177. (d) 178. (c) 179. (d) 180.(c) 181. (c) 182. (a)
(b) Anupalabdhi. 183. (b) 184. (a) 185. (a) 186.(c) 187. (c) 188. (a) 189. (a)
(c) Inference. 190. (b) 191. (d) 192. (d) 193.(c) 194. (a) 195. (b) 196. (b)
(d) Testimony. 197. (a) 198. (b) 199. (a) 200. (d)
198. The immediate knowledge of the nonexistence of
an object is known as 201. The identity of the subject and object
(a) Arthapatti. consciousness adopting the form of external object is
(b) Anupalabdhi. known as
(c) Inference. (a) Perception.
(d) Testimony. (b) Inference,
(c) Scriptures. (c) Perception.

(d) All of these. (d) All of these.
202. The relation of subject and object in perception, 208. The imposition of some external objects upon the
according to Vedanta, is self, according to Samkara, means
(a) Identical. (a) Atmakhyativada.
(b) Different, (b) Anyathakhyativada.
(c) Contradictory. (c) Akyativada.
(d) None of these. (d) Asatkhyativada.
203. The knowledge which results by the past 209. The theory of error known as Atmakhyativada in
impressions based upon the awareness of Indian philosophy has been presented by
concomitance is known as (a) Advaitavedanta.
(a) Perception. (b) Samkhya.
(b) Inference, (c) Nyaya.
(c) Scriptures. (d) Mimamsa.
(d) All of these. 210. The theory of imposition of a mental concept
204. The most important pramana, according to upon the external world is known as
Advaita Vedanta, is (a) Atmakhyativada.
(a) Perception. (b) Akhathakhyativada.
(b) Inference, (c) Mmyativada.
(c) Scriptures. (d) Asatkhyativada.
(d) All of these. 211. The imposition of an object upon another due to
205. While Nyaya admits as many as five stages in the illusion is known as
process of inference, Samkara has admitted (a) Atmakhyativada.
(a) Three. (b) Anyathakhyativada.
(b) Seven. (c) Akhyativada.
(c) Two. (d) Asatkhyativada.
(d) None of these. 212. The imagination of quality in a thing which has
206. The best theory of Pramanas in Indian been the subject of imposition of the object having that
philosophy has been presented by quality leads to the error known as
(a) Nyaya. (a) Atmakhyativada.
(b) Samkhya. (b) Anyathakhyativada.
(c) Advaita Vedanta. (c) Akhyativada.
(d) None of these. (d) Asatkhyativada.
207. The most, important source of knowledge, 213. The imposition of some quality in a thing where it
according to Indian philosophy is is not, is known as
(a) Scriptures. (a) Avidya.
(b) Inference, (b) Adhyasa.

(c) Akhyati. (a) Soul.

(d) None of these. (b) Jiva.
214. The proper cause of adhyasa, according to (c) Sense organs.
Samkara, is (d) None of these.
(a) Avidya. 221. The knowledge which the Jiva attains without any
(b) Maya. help is known as
(c) Vyavahara. (a) pratyaksha
(d) All of these. (b) Paroksha
215. The world, according to Samkara, is (c) Both of them.
(a) Real. (d) None of these.
(b) Unreal. 222. The knowledge of a thing by means of Hetu,
(c) Illusory. according to Jain’s is known as
(d) None of these. (a) Pratyaksha.
216. In Indian philosophy the theory of error has been (b) Paroksha.
mostly utilised in the field of (c) Both of them.
(a) Metaphysics. (d) None of these.
(b) Epistemology. 223. Knowledge according to Nyaya, can be properly
(c) Axiology. described as
(d) All of these. (a) Prama
217. Samkara has utilised the Adhyasa to explain (b) Aprarna
(a) Nature of Brahman. (c) Both of them.
(b) Nature of self. (d) None of these.
(c) Nature of world. 224. Uncontradicted knowledge arising out of the
(d) Nature of liberation. sense object contact is known as
218. The proper nature of Adhyasa can be explained (a) Perception.
as (b) Inference,
(a) Knowledge. (c) Comparison.
(b) Ignorance, (d) Testimony.
(c) Both of them. 225. The most important source of knowledge
(d) None of these. according to Nyaya philosophy is
219. The right knowledge, according to Samkara, is (a) Perception.
known as (b) Inference,
(a) Vidya. (c) Comparison.
(b) Avidya. (d) Testimony.
(c) Adhyasa. 226. Anuma knowledge according to Nyaya is
(d) Maya. (a) Perception.
220. The knowledge known as Pramana is gained by (b) Inference.

(c) Comparison. D. RSTSG

(d) Testimony. Q2) In any discipline, theories and observables (related
experimental results)
227. The proper means of anumana according to
A. should complement each other
Nyaya is B. often more than not should contradict each other
(a) Perception. C. need not have anything to do with each other
D. should compensate each other
(b) Hetu.
Q3) Doctor: Medicine: : Teacher
(c) Sadhya. A. Class
(d) Paksha. B. Lecture
228. Liberation, as becoming a part of God, according
C. Education
D. Students
to Ramanuja is known as Q4) ELEGANCE is relate d to VULGARITY in the same
(a) Salokya. way as GRACEFUL is related to
(b) Samipya.
A. AWKWARD
B. COMELY
(c) Sanidhya. C. ASPERITY
(d) Sayujya. D. DIRTY
229. Liberation, as nearness to Ishwara according to Q6) Montreal protocol is related to
A. Ozone depletion
Ramanuja is known as
B. Nuclear weapons
(a) Salokya. C. Sea-bed
(b) Samipya. D. Landmines
Q7) Find the odd one out of the following
(c) Sanidhya.
A. hockey
(d) Sayujya. B. cricket
230. The important means for achievement or C. baseball
liberation, according to Samkara, is D. basketball
Q8) If BOY is coded as ACNPXZ and COW as
(a) Distinction of self and not-self. BDNPVX then how will you code LIFE?
(b) Concentration on Om. A. KMHJEGDF
(c) Religious practices. B. LMGHEGDF
C. LMHJGEFD
(d) All of these.
D. None of these
201. (a) 202. (a) 203. (b) 204.(c) 205. (a) 206. (a) 207. (d)
208. (a) 209. (a) 210. (b) 211.(c) 212. (d) 213. (b) 214. (d) Q9) Hour is related to “second” in the same four
A. Bodhgaya
215. (b) 216. (d) 217.(c) 218. (b) 219. (a) 220. (b) 221. (a)
B. Secondary
222. (b) 223. (a) 224. (a) 225. (b) 226. (b) 227. (b) 228. C. Primary
(d) 229. (b) 230. (d) D. Intermediary
Q10) Bull is relate d to Drought in the same way as cow is
related to..........
Analogies MCQ A. Livestock
B. Milch
Q1) If EFGHIJK is coded as VUT-SRQP then LIMIT can
be coded as C. Farm
A. KNRNC D. Fodder
B. ORNRG
C. JKOKG

Q11) If Dust is called Air, Air is called Fire, Fire is called A. saturnine: energy
Water, Water is called colour. colour is called Rain and B. principled: method
Rain is called Dust; the where do fish live? C. inquisitive: science
A. colour D. boundless: expanse
B. Dust Q22) STOKE: SMOTHER::
C. Water A. incinerate: heat
D. Fire B. animate: enervate
Q13) COACH: TEAM:: C. contest: decry
A. groupie: band D. acknowledge: apprehend
B. foreman: jury Q23) In a certain code, FHQK means GIRL. How will
C. diplomat: country WOMEN be written in the same code?
D. senator: senate A. VNLDM
Q14) ANARCHY: GOVERNMENT: : B. FHQKN
A. confederation: state C. XPNFO
B. trepidation: courage D. VLNDM
C. serenity: equanimity Q24) The letters in the first set have certain relationship.
D. computer: hard drive Based on this relationship, what is the right choice for the
Q15) GALVANIZE: CHARISMATIC LEADER:: second set, AST: BRU:: NQV:?.
A. jeer: fan A) ORW B) MPU
B. correct: charlatan C) MRW D) OPW
C. retreat: champion
Q25) In a certain code, PAN is written as 31 and PAR as
D. moderate: arbiter
Q16) SENTEN CE: WORDS:: 35. In this code PAT is written as:
A. album: guitar A. 30
B. paragraph: punctuation B. 37
C. novel: index C. 38
D. collage: paper strips D. 39
Q17) PARRY: BLOW:: Q26) If in a certain language PUN C-TUAL is coded as 1
6 5 9 8 6 2 3, how would ACTUPULN be coded?
A. Equivocate : question
B. cower : start A. 8 3 4 5 3 6
C. boomerang: backlash B. 2 9 8 6 1 6 3
D. cast: invective C. 8 3 4 5 3 0
Q18) DISQUIETUDE: ANXIOUS:: D. 8 3 4 5 3 9
A. isolation: sequestered Q27) Choose the odd word:
B. cupidity: bellicose A. Nun
C. embellishment: overstated B. knight
D. nonplus: perplexed C. Monk
Q19) MILK: DRAIN:: D. Priest
A. insult: commend
Q28) If the radius of a circle is in-creased by 50 per cent.
B. abstract: distend
Its area is increased by:
C. extend: disregard A) 1.25
D. exploit: employ B) 1
Q20) ABSTRUSE: CLEAR:: C) 0.75
A. nondescript: conspicuous D) 0.5
B. highbrow: indifferent
C. affable: agreeable Q29) Ina certain code, GAMESMAN written as
D. prominent: manifest AGMEMSAN. How would DISCLOSE be written in that
Q21) OMNISCIENT: KNOWLEDGE:: code?

A) IDSCOLSE B) IDCSOLES B. Pleased

C) IDSCOLES D) IDSCLOSE C. Cruel
D. Loving
Q31) In a certain code, CLOCK is written as KCOLC. Q40) 28: 126:: 126:?
How would STEPS be written in that code?
A. SPEST A) 127
B. SPSET B) 28
C. SPETS C) 56
D. SEPTS D) 81
Q32) The letters in the first set have a certain relationship.
On the basis of this relationship mark the right choice for Q41) 17: 19:: 47:?
the second set: BDFH: OMKI:: GHIK:? A. 53
A. FHJL B. 59
B. RPNL C. 41
C. LN PR D. 34
D. LJHF Q42) NUMBER: UNBMRE:: GHOST:?
Q33) Light: Sun:: Heat:? A. HGSOT
A. Electricity B. TSOGH
B. Moon C. OGHST
C. Fire D. SOTGH
D. Star
Q34) Handsome: Beautiful:: Husband:? Q43) Disease: Health:: Freedom:?
A) Women B) Wife A. Slavery
C) Girl D) She B. Pleasure
C. Plight
Q35) 3: 10:: 8:? D. Beauty
Q44) ABC: ZYX:: CBA:?
A) 10
A. DCY
B) 13
C) 17
B. BCA
D) 14 C. XYZ
D. XZY
Q36) Monday: April:: Friday:? Q45) UTS: FDC:: WVU:?
A. July A) YWV
B. Saturday B) WXY
C. August C) UVW
D. Tuesday D) HGF
Q37) Parrot: Cage:: Man:?
A. Home Q46) Butter: Milk:: Oil:?
B. Motor Car A. Cow
C. Prison B. Seeds
D. Forest C. Curd
Q38) Waiting: Boredom:: Education:? D. Grains
A. Class Q47) Crime: Punishment:: Deed:?
B. Enlightenment A. Pleasure
C. Schooling B. Hatred
D. Cunning C. Sin
Q39) Angry.: Night:: ? : Day D. Prize
A. Helpful Q48) Soldier: Gun:: Blacksmith:?

A. Wood
B. Sword Q51) Mother: Daughter:: Father:?
C. Iron A. Son
D. Hammer B. Brother
Q49) Crime: Punishment:: Deed:? C. Boy
A. Pleasure D. Sister
B. Hatred
C. Sin Answer Key
D. Prize
Q1) B, Q2) A, Q3) C, Q4) A, Q5) B, Q6) A, Q7) D, Q8)
Q50) Air: Atmosphere:: Water:? A, Q9) C, Q10) B, Q11) A, Q12) C, Q13) B, Q14) B, Q15)
D, Q16) D, Q17) A, Q18) D, Q19) D, Q20) A, Q21) D,
A. Island Q22) B, Q23) C, Q24) D, Q25) B, Q26) B, Q27) B, Q28)
B. Earth A, Q29) A, Q30) D, Q31) C, Q32) C, Q33) C, Q34) B,
Q35) C, Q36) C, Q37) C, Q38) B, Q39) B, Q40) B, Q41)
C. Ocean
A, Q42) A, Q43) A, Q44) C, Q45) D, Q46) B, Q47) D,
D. Drop Q48) D, Q49) D, Q50) C, Q51) A,

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Unit – 6 [ Logical Reasoning ]

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Premises: All men are mortal

There are three types of Arguments:

Conclusion Socrates is mortal

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Premises: We have seen 1000 swans., and

Conclusion: All swans are white.

3. Abductive (or Hypothetico-Deductive) Argument:

Conclusion: These coins are made of gold.

Structure of Categorical Propositions

Example: Cats are mammals

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Components of Categorical Propositions

For any categorical proposition, there are four components:

2. Particular: ‘Some’ (includes part of a class)

Example: All cats are mammals

Properties of Categorical Propositions

Quantity: The quantity of a categorical proposition is determined by the quantifier used.

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Types of Categorical Proposition

There are four types of categorical position:

1 All politicians are liars (Universal Affirmative) - A

Systematically, Universal Negative proposition can be represented as: No S is P

Systematically, Particular affirmative proposition can be represented as: Some S is P

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Systematically, Particular affirmative proposition can be represented as: Some S is not P.

A brief of Four Kind of Categorical Proposition

Type Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate

E All (No) S are not (are) P

O Some S are not P

Complete Chart for categorical Proposition (Helpful for Exam)

A All S are P Universal Affirmative Distributed Undistributed

I Some S are P Particular Affirmative Undistributed Undistributed

O Some S are not P Particular Negative Undistributed Distributed

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Classical Square of Opposition

All angels have wings.

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1. All hats are fashionable clothing.

3. So, some hats are purple.

A Standard Form Categorical Syllogism Contains:

• Two premises and a conclusion, each a standard form categorical proposition.

Mood and Figure of Syllogism

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Premises: All P are M

The first premise is of the form A

For example, consider the following arguments:

There are four possible figures in the categorical syllogism:

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Figure2: When the middle term is on the right in both premises.

Figure3: When the middle term is on the left in both premises.

Important Points of Mood and Figures:

• There are 64 different moods

Valid Argument Forms

There are two kinds of valid argument forms:

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