Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration

Section 4
Ocean Geologic Features

T his introduction summarizes ocean geology as it

relates to the Ocean Exploration expeditions. It is
not a comprehensive examination of all aspects of ocean
earth sciences. It starts with features of the continental
shelf associated with passive margins—those that are
less tectonically active—and includes both hard and soft
bottoms. The introduction goes on to look at the common
features among tectonically-active margins, hotspots
and sea floor spreading regions that create particularly
interesting ecosystems and geologic features.

Major Ocean Features: Two major ocean features are shallow continental
Continental Margin margins and the deep sea. Sea level changes through
and Deep Sea time have exposed and submerged the upper portion
of continental margins, called the continental shelf.
Continental shelves of the world vary greatly in their
width from a few kilometers to a hundred or more, but
are relatively shallow in depth. Most extend offshore to
water depths of 100 to 200 m. Just beyond the shelf, the
sea floor slope is much steeper. This is the continental
slope. At the base of the slope lies the continental rise,
which is less steep and quite broad in places. The shelf,
slope and rise together make up the entire continental
margin. Many continental margins have steep-walled
submarine canyons cutting through them. Some canyons
may have formed during lowered sea levels as rivers ran
out across the shelf, cutting into it. Submarine canyons
are also channels for turbidity currents—water that
carries sediment down slope—and continues the erosion
that formed the canyon.

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Passive Margin Processes Continental margins may be geologically active or

passive. Active margins occur along tectonic plate
boundaries where earthquakes and/or volcanoes are
common. Passive margins are not associated with plate
boundaries, experiencing little volcanism and relatively
fewer earthquakes. The Atlantic Ocean’s continental
shelf is a passive margin so the Ocean Exploration
Hudson Canyon, Deep East and Islands in the Stream
expeditions focused on features of passive margins.

Shelves and Sediment The shelf is generally a broad, gently slopping platform
that extends from the shoreline to the continental slope.
It has thick accumulations of both coarse and fine-grained
sediments. Since fine particles remain suspended in the
water column longer than larger or denser particles, finer
and lighter particles are carried farther, often to the edge
of the shelf, before they settle. Consequently, slope and
deep-sea sediments tend to be finer grained.

The continental slope is an abrupt drop. Sediments on

the steep slope are largely soft mud. The slope flattens
at the bottom where sediment slides pile up, forming
the continental rise. Its thick sediment accumulations
have fallen from the continental shelf—down the slope,
sometimes quite abruptly.

Submarine Canyons Submarine canyons cut into the shelf. They usually have
v-shaped profiles, steep walls, rock outcrops, flat floors,
strong currents, and deep-sea sediments fans at their
base. Most are on the upper, steeper part of the slope.
They run perpendicular to the shelf, across the continen-
tal shelf and slope. Generally submarine canyons are
associated with major rivers.

Turbidity Currents Turbidity currents form deep-sea sediment fans at the

base of the slope. Fine sediments suspended by currents
cause water to become murky or turbid. Turbid water is
more dense and sinks. Turbidity currents—down-slope
movements of sediment-laden water—continuously

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erode many submarine canyons. Some turbidity currents

are quite dense and abrupt in forming. These currents
are set into motion when sand and mud on the continen-
tal shelf are loosened, perhaps by sudden melting of gas
hydrates, by collapse of an overly steep slope, or by an
earthquake. The sediment mixes with water to form a
dense suspension, flowing like an avalanche down-slope,
eroding and accumulating more sediment. Turbidity
currents are likely contributors to submarine canyon
growth. As they lose momentum, they deposit sediment
as deep-sea fans at the canyon’s lower end.

These deposits, called turbidites, are characterized by

decreasing sediment size from the bottom to the top of
a flow—forming graded bedding. As sediments settle,
coarser, heavier particles settle out first, followed by
finer sand and then clay.

Some 78% of the world’s ocean sediments are in these

three zones of the continental shelf. They are thickest
along passive continental margins like the East and
Gulf Coasts and less so along active margins such as the
western U. S. coastline.

Sediment is classified either by grain size or its source. Sediment Characteristics

From smallest to largest, the particle sizes are clay, silt,
sand, and gravel. Classified by origin, they are:
• lithogenic – coming from land by erosion of rocks,
• biogenic – derived from hard parts of organisms, usu-
ally calcium carbonate or silica,
• authigenic – precipitated by chemical or biochemical
reactions in the water,
• volcanogenic – particles ejected from volcanoes,
• cosmogenic – grains that originate in outer space.
Sediment composition at a site depends on several fac-
tors. Under high energy conditions, such as waves or
strong currents, fine grains stay in suspension or are re-
suspended whereas coarse grains might settle out. Where
currents scour the sediment most effectively, underlying

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rock is exposed, and is referred to as hard bottom. Lower

energy sites have finer grain because there is not enough
energy to transport coarse material to the site. The shape
of the grains also tells us something. Generally, the more
rounded the grains, the older the sediment. They have
been tumbled and rolled around for a long time. Younger
coarse material may be rounded if it is in a high energy
zone. Sediment bottom environments are referred to as
soft bottom. The characteristics of the sediment deter-
mine which species of organisms occupy the site.

Proximity to land also determines sea floor sediment

composition. The continental shelf is relatively shallow
and close to land, receiving more lithogenic sediment
from rivers and wind-blown dust. The deep sea has some
lithogenic sediments carried by strong currents, but its
sediment is largely biogenic—the hard parts of organ-
isms living near the surface that settle to the bottom
when the organisms die.

Cold Water Seeps and Gas hydrate is an ice-like substance that forms in deep
Gas Hydrates sea sediments when gas molecules, primarily methane,
are trapped in a lattice of water molecules, forming a sta-
ble solid at temperatures above 0°C and pressures above
1 atmosphere. Gas hydrate deposits along ocean margins
are estimated to exceed known petroleum reserves by
about a factor of three. There is at least twice as much
carbon locked up in hydrates as in all other fossil fuels on
the Earth. There is commercial interest in mining meth-
ane from hydrates on the part of a number of countries.

Hydrates influence ocean carbon cycling, global climate

change, and coastal sediment stability. Localized melt-
downs have caused massive continental slope failure.
They are an important geological hazard for shelf oil
and gas production. Massive hydrate dissolution events,
releasing vast amounts of the greenhouse gas methane,
are possible causes of some of the abrupt climate chang-
es seen in the geologic record.

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There are vast hydrate deposits below 1,000 meters

along the US East Coast. The gas hydrate beds leak gas-
es into the water, forming cold seeps on the ocean floor.
This hydrocarbon seepage is common on continental
margins around the world. Chemosynthetic communities
similar to those found at hydrothermal vents form at cold
seeps, using hydrocarbons or hydrogen sulfide for carbon
and energy. Seep tube worms, mussels, and clams form 2
m high bushes over kilometer-sized beds. Most seeps are
also characterized by high microbial productivity.

Seep faunas vary in species and abundance, depending

on the type and amount of seepage. Some species live
exclusively with a particular form of hydrocarbon such
as the hydrate ice worms. Others like the bacterium
Beggiatoa are common at a variety of kinds of seeps.
Seep communities are ecologically valuable as sources of
food and refuge for an array of species. They may also be
economically important as markers of underlying oil and
gas reserves. Perhaps even more interesting, they are
potential sources of new commercially-valuable bacteria.
For all these reasons, Ocean Exploration expeditions
may target cold water seeps.

The outer shell of the Earth, the lithosphere, has about Active Margin Process
a dozen large plates of rock called tectonic plates. Each
moves several centimeters per year relative to adjacent
plates. The plates that make up the lithosphere move
on a hot flowing mantle layer called the asthenosphere,
which is several hundred kilometers thick. Heat within
the asthenosphere creates convection currents (similar
to the currents that can be seen if food coloring is added
to a heated container of water). These convection cur-
rents cause the tectonic plates to move. Plates move in
several ways in relation to each other.

Plates slide horizontally past each other at transform Transform Plate Boundaries
plate boundaries. Friction may lock plates temporarily
as they try to move past each other, creating huge stress

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Main Types of Plate Boundaries

Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/Vigil.html
in the boundary. If the force becomes too great, the
plates may move abruptly, creating earthquakes. Places
where breaks occur are called faults. A well-known
transform plate boundary is California’s San Andreas
Fault.

Divergent Plate Boundaries Where tectonic plates move away from each other,
divergent plate boundaries form. Here magma—molten
rock—rises from deep within the Earth and erupts,
forming new crust in the lithosphere. Most divergent
plate boundaries are underwater. Iceland is an exception.
The boundaries form submarine mountain ranges called
oceanic spreading ridges or rifts. These underwater
ridges may be substantial—as much as 2,000 to 3,000 m
high. They form the longest mountain chain in the world.
As new oceanic crust forms at the ridges, older crust is
progressively moved farther and farther from the ridge,
creeping along at a rate of a few centimeters per year. As
the new oceanic crust moves away from the ridge, it cools
and contracts, decreasing the ridge height.

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Hydrothermal vents form at ridges. Ocean water per- Deep Hydrothermal Vents
colates down into rock fractures and encounters rising
magma. Super-heated water, gases, and minerals escape
from deep within the Earth. These vents provide the
raw materials for communities whose primary producers
are chemosynthetic bacteria—both endosymbiotic and
free-living—enabling rich assemblages of organisms to
live in deep water, far from sunlight.

Yet another plate boundary is convergent. Here tectonic Convergent Plate Boundaries
plates are pushed together. Usually one plate moves un-
der the other—it is subducted. Deep trenches often form
where one tectonic plate is being pushed beneath a sec-
ond plate. Volcanic activity and earthquakes are common.
As the sinking plate moves deeper into the mantle, the
overlying mantle partially melts, forming new magma.
It rises, erupting as a volcano. Island arcs produced by
volcanic activity often form along a convergent boundary.

Many of the Ocean Exploration expeditions focus on

active margins. The 2002 Submarine Ring of Fire
Expedition investigated the formation of new ocean
crust on the edge of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate off
the coast of western North America. This comparatively
small tectonic plate has a divergent boundary with the
Pacific plate as well as a convergent boundary with the
North American plate, making it a microcosm of the
large plate dynamics. The Mt. St. Helen eruption in
1980 was a result of the subduction of the Juan de Fuca
plate beneath the North American plate. The divergent
boundary is an active spreading center that is organized
along three ridges: Gorda Ridge, Juan de Fuca Ridge, and
Explorer Ridge.
Hotspots
Volcanoes also form at hotspots, thought to be pipelines
to magma reservoirs in the upper Earth’s mantle. The
Hawaiian Islands are the result of volcanic activity
associated with a hotspot that appears to penetrate the
Pacific plate. The Pacific tectonic plate moves over the

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asthenosphere to the northwest at 5 to 10 cm per year.

As it moves over the hotspot, magma periodically erupts,
forming volcanoes that become islands.

source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html#anchor15039288

Where to Find More Activities There are seven activities in this section that use in-
on Ocean Geologic Features quiry-based experiences to introduce your students to
some of the earth science discussed above. There are a
number of Ocean Exploration Expedition Activities from
2001 and 2002 exploration on the OE CD and web site.
Their topics appear below:
Sediments
• Let’s Bet on Sediments from Deep East 2001 and
Hudson Canyon 2002

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• Mud is Mud … Or Is It? from Islands in the Stream

2002
• An Underwater Sediment Slide? see Hudson Canyon
2002

Cold Water Seeps/Methane Hydrates

• It’s a Gas! in Deep East 2001 and Hudson Canyon
2002

Plate Tectonics
• The Biggest Plates on Earth from Submarine Ring of
Fire 2002

Hotspots, Volcanoes and Plate Movement

• Volcanoes, Plates and Chains in Exploring Alaska’s
Seamounts 2002
• History’s Thermometers from Exploring Alaska’s
Seamounts 2002
• Mystery of the Alaskan Seamounts in Exploring
Alaska’s Seamounts 2002
• Roots of the Hawaiian Hotspot from Northwest
Hawaiian Islands Exploration 2001
• Islands, Reefs and a Hotspot in Northwest Hawaiian
Islands Exploration 2001

Mid-ocean Ridges, Rifts and Hydrothermal Vents

• The Galapagos Spreading Center in Galapagos Rift
Expedition 2002
• AdVENTurous Findings on the Deep Sea Floor from
Galapagos Rift Expedition 2002
• Yo-Yos, Tow-Yos and pH, Oh My! from Galapagos
Rift Expedition 2002
• Mystery of the Megaplume in Submarine Ring of Fire
2002

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Lesson Plan 6

Let’s Bet on Sediments

Focus  1/4 cup of each of the 3 sizes of sediments – small

Sediment settling characteristics and shelf bottom gravel, sand and silt
composition  Water to fill the 3 jars
 Sediment Analysis Worksheets for each student
Focus Question  Stopwatch
Is sediment size related to the time the sediment is  Magnifying glass
suspended in water? If so, how?  Plastic spoon

Learning Objectives Part III: Teacher Demonstration

Students will investigate and analyze patterns of  10 gallon aquarium
sedimentation in the Hudson Canyon.  1/2 cup of each of the 3 sediments used above
 Water - enough to fill the aquarium
Students will observe that heavier particles sink  Hair dryer or aquarium filter
faster than finer particles so bottom type is related
to distance from the sediment source. Audio/visual Materials
 Overhead Projector
Students will infer that a passive continental margin
is not as geologically quiet as previously thought. Teaching Time
Two 45-minute period
Additional Information for Teachers of Deaf
Students Seating Arrangement
There are no formal signs in American Sign Cooperative groups of four
language for many of the Key Words and most
are difficult to lipread. These words are the key Key Words
to the lesson. Having the vocabulary list on the Turbidites
board as a reference during the lesson will be Sedimentation
extremely helpful. It would also be helpful to copy Sediments
the vocabulary list on a handout for the students North American plate
to read after the lesson. If this is a new topic for Suspension
the students, additional time may be required to Deep-sea fans
discuss Part I. Active continental margin
Passive continental margin
Materials Topography
Turbid
Part II: For each group of 4
Turbidity currents
 3 pint jars with lids, e.g. Snapple bottles, mayon-
Shelf break
naise jars or canning jars

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Continental shelf 3. When they have finished discussing Part II, you,
Continental slope THE TEACHER ONLY, turn a hair dryer on and
Continental rise use it to produce surface currents in the aquarium
Submarine canyon (alternately use an aquarium filter to produce
Graded bedding currents). SAFETY PRECAUTION: DO NOT DROP
Avalanche HAIR DRYER INTO AQUARIUM. A PERSON
COULD GET ELECTROCUTED!
Background Information
Review information in Section 4 of this Curriculum 4. While the class is watching, pour all three
on sediments and passive margins. sediment samples into the aquarium, starting with
the most coarse.
Learning Procedure
Part I Discussion 5. Observe how the water currents affect the types of
Using information from the Mission Plan for the sediment.
Hudson Canyon Cruise 2002, http://oceanexplorer.
noaa.gov/explorations/02hudson/background/plan/plan.html, 6. Discuss with the class why the Hudson Canyon
discuss the features of a passive continental margin. has fine sediment deposits on and around it and
Introduce submarine canyons and the location of not coarse sediments. Use this demonstration as
Hudson Canyon. Challenge the students to test evidence.
sediments for settling rates and other features related
to continental shelf and submarine canyon geology. 7. Discuss turbidity currents and how they form
deep-sea fans.
Part II Activity
1. Have student groups gather the materials listed The BRIDGE Connection
above for Part II. http://www2.vims.edu/bridge/DATA.cfm?Bridge_
Location=archive1103.html – Activity about ocean
2. Ask the students to predict which sediment type sediments and diatom oozes
will reach the bottom the fastest and which the
slowest on the Sediment Analysis Worksheet. The “Me” Connection
Have students walked along a shallow stream or
3. Working independently in their groups, have the river where they can see the bottom? What were
students observe and analyze the three sediment the bottom sediments like? Can they explain their
types using the Sediment Analysis Worksheet. observations in relation to speed of the water flow?

4. Lead a discussion of results—did they predict Connection To Other Subjects

correctly? Did they all get the same results? Mathematics, English/Language Arts

Part III Demonstration Extension Evaluation

1. While the students are working on Part II, set up a Students will write a paragraph summarizing
10-gallon aquarium in front of class. what they learned about turbidity currents and the
sedimentation.
2. Fill it with water.
The teacher will review each student’s Sediment
Analysis Worksheet.

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Extensions National Science Education Standards

Ask students to research slumping and underwater Content Standard A – Science as Inquiry
avalanches. • Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
• Understandings about scientific inquiry
Ask students to investigate the various sources of Content Standard B – Physical Science
sedimentation caused by human activity. • Motions and forces
Content Standard D – Earth and Space Science
Ask students to identify all of the deep-sea canyons • Structure of the Earth system
found along the Atlantic Coast. • Earth’s History
Content Standard F – Science in Personal and Social
Visit the Ocean Explorer Web Site at Perspectives
www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov • Natural Hazards
Content Standard G – History and Nature of Science
Visit the National Marine Sanctuaries web page for • Nature of science
a GIS fly-through of the Channel Islands National • History of science
Marine Sanctuary at http://channelislands.noaa.gov/
Activity developed by Tanya Podchaski, Bernards
Resources High School, Bernardsville, New Jersey
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium, 1998,
The Biology of the Hudson-Raritan Estuary: A Additional information for teachers of deaf students
Teachers Guide: New Jersey Marine Sciences developed by Denise Monte, Teacher of the Deaf
Consortium, Sandy Hook , New Jersey. http://nsgd.gso. and Audiologist, American School for the Deaf,
uri.edu/njmsc/njmsce97002/njmsce97002index.html West Hartford, Connecticut

Tarbuck, E.J., and Lutgens, F.K., 1999, EARTH An

Introduction to Physical Geology (6th ed.): Prentice
Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey,
p. 450-452

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Student Handout
Sediment Analysis Worksheet
Part I:
1. Collect materials:
3 jars filled with water
3 1/4 cup sediment samples
1 plastic spoon

2. Set jars filled with water aside.

3. Analyze the three sediment samples.

4. Sketch each of the three sediment samples and indicate scale in the boxes below:
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

5. Use your magnifying glass to look at the three samples.

a. Does each of your samples have smooth edges or rough edges?
Sample 1:
Sample 2:
Sample 3:

b. Are each of your samples the same color throughout or are they made up of
various colors?
Sample 1:
Sample 2:
Sample 3:

6. If you were to drop each of these samples into water, which one would fall to the
bottom the fastest? The slowest?

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Student Handout
7. Using your jars, add one spoonful of each sediment to each jar and record the
time it takes the entire sediment sample to reach the bottom, using the watch.
Settling time may take as much as 24 hours.

Jar 1 with Sample 1: ________________________ seconds

Jar 2 with Sample 2: ________________________ seconds
Jar 3 with Sample 3: ________________________ seconds

8. Using the observations from above, predict what would happen if you added all
three samples at once to the large jar.

9. Using one jar add 2 spoonfuls of each of the other sediment samples. Then tighten
the lid on the jar. Shake the jar to make a sediment-laden suspension and observe
what happens with all the sediments. Sketch your observations below.

10. Based on your observations above, explain what graded bedding means.

Part II Demonstration Extension:

1. Looking at the aquarium in the front of the room, predict which sediment
sample each type of current—surface and/or turbidity—would move.

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Student Handout
2. Write a short essay comparing an underwater turbidity current avalanche to a
snow avalanche found in the mountains.

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Lesson Plan 7

Mud is Mud…Or is It?

Focus in your class, you may need to add an additional

Comparing and analyzing deep-sea sediments class period to teach vocabulary and to teach some
of the Background Information to the students prior
Focus Question to the activity. It might be helpful to copy the Back-
What are some sources of variation in deep-sea ground Information and hand it out to the students
sediments and how do they differ? to read at the beginning of the activity. Then you
may lead the students in a discussion of what they
Learning Objectives have read. This will be a good introduction to the
Students will compare and contrast similar items. activity and would allow for review of unfamiliar
vocabulary.
Students will use computers to find information.
Materials
Students will identify variables affecting deep-sea  Computer with Internet access
habitats and organisms.  One Sediment Comparison Worksheet per student

Students will use different scales, comparing sizes of Audio/visual Materials

items shown at different scales.  Overhead projector

Additional Information for Teachers of Deaf Teaching Time

Students 45-minute period
In addition to the words listed as Key Words, the fol-
lowing words should be part of the vocabulary list: Seating Arrangement
Authigenic Diverted Groups of 2 to 3 students
Volcanogenic Fauna
Cosmogenic Calcium carbonate sediment Key Words
Resuspended Oolitic sands Sediment
Classify Lithogenic
Composition Biogenic
Eddie
Although the Key Words are integral to the unit, Continental shelf
they will be difficult to introduce prior to the activity. Plateau
They are really the material of the lesson. There are Upwelling
no formal signs in American Sign Language for any Gulf Stream
of these words and many are difficult to lipread. If Scarp
some of these topics have not already been covered

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Background Information The Savannah Scarp sediment samples come from

In this activity students will study photographs of ac- 61m (200 ft) deep about 60 miles offshore. Here
tual sediments from the southeastern United States’ the Savannah Scarp is limestone rock which prob-
continental shelf. These enlarged photos enable ably originated as loose grains of calcium carbon-
the students to measure grain size and to observe ate sediment or oolitic sands that became cemented
actual structure of the grains. Students will be chal- together during the lower sea level of the last Ice
lenged by the need to keep scale in mind as they do Age, approximately 18,000 years ago.
their analysis. Soft bottom sediments determine the
species composition of organisms that live in and on The Charleston Bump rises above the relatively flat
them. Where they are scoured away revealing hard Blake Plateau beyond the edge of the continental
bottom, totally different species become established. shelf in the South Atlantic Bight. From over 700 m
(2,300 ft), the bottom rises to a shallow scarp at
Sediment can be classified either by grain size or 375m (1,230 ft). From there, the bottom plunges in
mode of formation. From smallest to largest, the a series of steep scarps with rocky cliffs, overhangs
particle sizes are clay, silt, sand, and gravel. Using and caves. The Charleston Bump deflects the flow of
origin, sediments can be classified as: the Gulf Stream. Its warm current is pushed offshore
lithogenic: from land by erosion of rocks, by the Bump, producing eddies that are important
biogenic: from hard parts of marine organisms fish habitats. In these eddies mixing and upwell-
made of calcium carbonate or silica, ing bring nutrient-rich, deep water to the surface,
authigenic: precipitates from chemical or bio- enhancing plankton production which supports a
chemical reactions in the water, diverse assemblage of zooplankton and fish. The
volcanogenic: material ejected from volcanoes, Charleston Bump sediment sample came from about
including ash, 100 mi. offshore from a depth of about 490 m
cosmogenic: grains that originate in outer space. (1,600 ft).

Sediment composition is also influence by waves Learning Procedure

and currents. They sort by grain size and density 1. The sediment sample photos are at http://
as well as wearing down rough edges over time. oceanica.cofc.edu/samplematerial/images.htm.
Proximity to land also helps determine the sediment Students should open the page twice so that they
composition. Since the shelf is close to land, it has can have Bump sediment on one window and
more lithogenic sediment. Most deep-sea sediments Scarp sediment on the other for easy comparison.
are largely the hard parts of surface-water organ-
isms that settle to the bottom. 2. Once at the page, they can choose Bump or
Scarp sediment by clicking the appropriate but-
The sediment pictures used for this activity came ton. They can then enlarge the images by clicking
from the Savannah Scarp and the Charleston Bump. on them.
The Savannah Scarp is a series of rocky ridges
and outcrops where Gulf Stream currents have 3. The Sediment Comparison Worksheet refers to
diverted sediments away from the underlying rock, Figures 1-6. These figure numbers are just for this
forming a rocky reef. It is at about 55 m (180 ft) activity and DO NOT match the image numbers
with a steep drop to 70 m (250 ft) or more. Along on the web page. Use the key on the Sediment
this drop large rocks, ridges, ledges, caves, and Comparison Worksheet.
overhangs provide spectacular habitat for a diverse
abundance of organisms.
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4. Working independently, have the students com- Resources

plete the worksheet. http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/islands01/welcome.html

5. If you need to use an overhead, make overheads “A Profile of Savannah Scarp”, NOAA Ocean
of the figures for each question on the Sediment Exploration Web Site (2001) George R. Sedberry,
Comparison Worksheet and use them to take the Senior Marine Scientist, Marine Resources
students through the worksheet. For example: Research Institute, South Carolina Department
Question 1 refers to Figures 1 and 2. Put them of Natural Resources – http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/
both on one overhead so they are next to each explorations/islands01/background/islands/sup7_savannah.html
other and easily compared.
“A Profile of the Charleston Bump”, from NOAA
The BRIDGE Connection Ocean Exploration Web Site (2001) George
http://www2.vims.edu/bridge/DATA.cfm?Bridge_ R. Sedberry, Senior Marine Scientist, Marine
Location=archive1103.html – Activity about ocean Resources Research Institute, South Carolina
sediments and diatom oozes Department of Natural Resources – http://
oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/islands01/background/
The “ME” Connection islands/sup11_bump.html
(See Extension #2) Have the students describe what
organisms can best survive in the soil in their back- “Getting to the Bottom of a Rocky Rubble Reef”,
yard versus the organisms that may live in the other from NOAA Ocean Exploration Web site (2001)
habitat from which they gathered soil. Dr. Leslie R. Sautter, Dept. of Geology and
Environmental Sciences, College of Charleston,
Connections To Other Subjects Charleston, SC – http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/
Oceanography, Geology explorations/islands01/log/sep9/sep9.html

Evaluation National Science Education Standards

Completed Sediment Comparison Worksheets Content Standard A – Science as Inquiry
• Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
Extensions • Understandings about scientific inquiry
Go to http://oceanica.cofc.edu/samplematerial/samples.htm and Content Standard D – Earth and Space Science
request actual samples of the sediment from the • The origin and evolution of the Earth system
Charleston Bump and the Savannah Scarp. (They
are FREE!!). Using the samples, go back to the same Activity developed by Rachel McEvers, College
web page and have your students go through the of Charleston
activity available on the web page.
All figures courtesy of Project Oceanica
Have students gather soil samples from two very
different habitats (e.g., a beach and their back- Additional information for teachers of deaf students
yard). Modify the worksheet, using many of the developed by Denise Monte, Teacher of the Deaf
same questions, to suit the samples they have col- and Audiologist, American School for the Deaf,
lected. West Hartford, Connecticut

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 Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration
oceanexplorer.noaa.gov Section 4: Ocean Geologic Features

Teacher Answer Key

Sediment Comparison Worksheet

If you are doing this activity on the web refer to the following key for the proper images:
Figure 1 = Bump Image #4
Figure 2 = Scarp Image #7
Figure 3 = Bump Image #1
Figure 4 = Scarp Image #5
Figure 5 = Bump Image #15
Figure 6 = Scarp Image #3

1. What are the two main ways to classify sediment?

By particle size and basis of formation.
2. What is the difference between biogenic and lithogenic sediment?
Biogenic sediment is composed of the skeletal remains of microscopic organisms and
fragments of coral. Lithogenic sediment is derived from the weathering and erosion of rocks
on land and is composed of mostly rock fragments.
3. Figure 1 was taken from the Charleston Bump. Figure 2 was taken from the Savannah Scarp.
How would you classify each of them in terms of their basis of origin—their primary composition?
The Bump sediment is primarily biogenic and the scarp sediment is primarily lithogenic.
4. Give two reasons why the samples might be so different in composition.
The Scarp is much closer to land than the Bump (60 mi offshore vs. 100 mi.) and, therefore,
receives more eroded rock from rivers and wind-blown debris. The Scarp is much shallower
than the Bump. The Gulf Stream runs past the Bump making it a very high energy area, thus
preventing fine particles from settling out.
5. Figure 3 is from the Bump. Figure 4 is from the Scarp. Using the 3-mm scale bar in each
figure, determine which of these samples has the larger grain size. What do you think is the
main reason for this?.
The Bump has larger grains due to the high energy environment of the Gulf Stream.
6. Low-energy conditions tend to have what size sediment grains?
Fine
7. Using Figures 5 (Bump) and 6 (Scarp) as well as all the previous figures, describe any simi-
larities in the two sediments.
They should be able to find many of the same organisms or “grains” in each of the two
samples.Grain shape in both is mixed. There are rounded coral and rock pieces and
angular shell fragments in both.
8. What can grain shape tell us about sediment?
It can tell us about the age (young or old, not specific years) of the sediment. It can tell us
about the energy conditions where the sediment was collected.
9. Again using all of the figures, what are some other differences you notice?
The color of the two sediments is different. The Scarp sediment is a very dark, almost a
greenish color, whereas the Bump sediment is a light to medium brown.

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 Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration
Section 4: Ocean Geologic Features oceanexplorer.noaa.gov

Student Handout

Figure 1

Figure 2

60 Figure 3
 Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration
oceanexplorer.noaa.gov Section 4: Ocean Geologic Features

Student Handout

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6 61
 Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration
Section 4: Ocean Geologic Features oceanexplorer.noaa.gov

Student Handout
Sediment Comparison Worksheet

If you are doing this activity on the web refer to the following key for the proper images:
Figure 1 = Bump Image #4
Figure 2 = Scarp Image #7
Figure 3 = Bump Image #1
Figure 4 = Scarp Image #5
Figure 5 = Bump Image #15
Figure 6 = Scarp Image #3

1. What are the two main ways to classify sediment?

2. What is the difference between biogenic and lithogenic sediment?

3. Figure 1 was taken from the Charleston Bump. Figure 2 was taken from the
Savannah Scarp. How would you classify each of them in terms of their basis
of origin (i.e., what is the primary composition of each?)

4. Give two reasons why the samples might be so different in composition.

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 Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration
oceanexplorer.noaa.gov Section 4: Ocean Geologic Features

Student Handout

5. Figure 3 is from the Bump. Figure 4 is from the Scarp. Using the 3-mm scale
bar in each figure, determine which of these samples has the larger grain size.
What do you think is the main reason for this?

6. Low-energy conditions tend to have what size sediment grains?

7. Using Figures 5 (Bump) and 6 (Scarp) as well as all the previous figures, describe
any similarities in the two sediments.

8. What can grain shape tell us about sediment?

9. Again using all of the figures, what are some other differences you notice?

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