Course Name- Anatomy and Physiology Course Code-B.P.Ed.

-106

2.3 Digestive System

At its simplest, the digestive system is a tube running from mouth to anus. Its chief goal is to
break down huge macromolecules (proteins, fats and starch), which cannot be absorbed intact,
into smaller molecules (amino acids, fatty acids and glucose) that can be absorbed across the
wall of the tube, and into the circulatory system for dissemination throughout the body.

Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: the
alimentary tract and accessory organs. The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed
of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.
Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary
glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

To learn more about the regions of the digestive system, use the hyperlinks listed below to
branch into a specific topic.

1. Alimentary Tract of the Digestive System

o Mouth

o Pharynx & Esophagus

o Stomach

o Small and Large Intestine

2. Accessory Organs of the Digestive System

o Salivary Glands

o Liver

o Gallbladder

o Pancreas

1. Mouth

The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of the digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food
by ingestion, break it into small particles by mastication, and mix it with saliva. The lips, cheeks,
and palate form the boundaries. The oral cavity contains the teeth and tongue and receives the
secretions from the salivary glands.

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Lips and Cheeks

The lips and cheeks help hold food in the mouth and keep it in place for chewing. They are also
used in the formation of words for speech. The lips contain numerous sensory receptors that are
useful for judging the temperature and texture of foods.

Palate

The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
The anterior portion, the hard palate, is supported by bone. The posterior portion, the soft palate,
is skeletal muscle and connective tissue. Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a projection called
the uvula. During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move upward to direct food away from
the nasal cavity and into the oropharynx.

Tongue

The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech. The surface is covered
with papillae that provide friction and contain the taste buds.

Teeth

A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth. There are 32 teeth in a complete
permanent (secondary) set. The shape of each tooth type corresponds to the way it handles food.

Pharynx & Esophagus

Pharynx

Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When food reaches the opening, sensory receptors
around the fauces respond and initiate an involuntary swallowing reflex. This reflex action has
several parts. The uvula is elevated to prevent food from entering the nasopharynx.
The epiglottis drops downward to prevent food from entering the larynx and trachea in order to
direct the food into the esophagus. Peristaltic movements propel the food from the pharynx into
the esophagus.

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Esophagus

The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway between the pharynx
and stomach. As it descends, it is posterior to the trachea and anterior to the vertebral column. It
passes through an opening in the diaphragm, called the esophageal hiatus, and then empties into
the stomach. The mucosa has glands that secrete mucus to keep the lining moist and well
lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower esophageal sphincters control the
movement of food into and out of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes
called the cardiac sphincter and resides at the esophagogastric junction.

Stomach

The stomach, which receives food from the esophagus, is located in the upper left quadrant of
the abdomen. The stomach is divided into the fundic, cardiac, body, and pyloric regions. The
lesser and greater curvatures are on the right and left sides, respectively, of the stomach.

Gastric Secretions

The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium with numerous tubular gastric
glands. The gastric glands open to the surface of the mucosa through tiny holes called gastric
pits. Four different types of cells make up the gastric glands:

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 Mucous cells

 Parietal cells

 Chief cells

 Endocrine cells

The secretions of the exocrine gastric glands - composed of the mucous, parietal, and chief cells -
make up the gastric juice. The products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly into the
bloodstream and are not a part of the gastric juice. The endocrine cells secrete
the hormone gastrin, which functions in the regulation of gastric activity.

Small & Large Intestine

Small Intestine

The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it empties
into the large intestine. The small intestine finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the
nutrients, and passes the residue on to the large intestine. The liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system that are closely associated with the
small intestine.

The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine
follows the general structure of the digestive tract in that the wall has a mucosa with simple
columnar epithelium, submucosa, smooth muscle with inner circular and outer longitudinal
layers, and serosa. The absorptive surface area of the small intestine is increased by plicae
circulares, villi, and microvilli.

Exocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine secrete mucus, peptidase, sucrase, maltase,
lactase, lipase, and enterokinase. Endocrine cells secrete cholecystokinin and secretin.

The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small intestine is the presence
of chyme. This is largely a local reflex action in response to chemical and mechanical irritation
from the chyme and in response to distention of the intestinal wall. This is a direct reflex action,
thus the greater the amount of chyme, the greater the secretion.

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Large Intestine

The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal
junction, where the ileum enters the large intestine, and ends at the anus. The large intestine
consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.

The wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other parts of the
digestive tract but there are some distinguishing characteristics. The mucosa has a large number
of goblet cells but does not have any villi. The longitudinal muscle layer, although present, is
incomplete. The longitudinal muscle is limited to three distinct bands, called teniae coli that run
the entire length of the colon. Contraction of the teniae coli exerts pressure on the wall and
creates a series of pouches, called haustra, along the colon. Epiploic appendages, pieces of fat-
filled connective tissue, are attached to the outer surface of the colon.

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Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces no digestive enzymes. Chemical digestion
is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. Functions of the
large intestine include the absorption of water and electrolytes and the elimination of feces.

Rectum and Anus

The rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick muscular layer. It
follows the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by connective tissue. The rectum
ends about 5 cm below the tip of the coccyx, at the beginning of the anal canal.

The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal, which continues from the rectum and
opens to the outside at the anus. The mucosa of the rectum is folded to form longitudinal anal
columns. The smooth muscle layer is thick and forms the internal anal sphincter at
the superior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is under involuntary control. There is
an external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is composed
of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.

Accessory Organs

The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but they
have a role in digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.

Salivary Glands

Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and
numerous smaller ones secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed with food
during mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and enzyme amylase. Functions of saliva
include the following:

 It has a cleansing action on the teeth.

 It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and swallowing.

 It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.

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 It begins the chemical digestion of starches through the action of amylase, which breaks
down polysaccharides into disaccharides.

Liver

The liver is located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions of the abdomen,
just beneath the diaphragm. It is the largest gland in the body. On the surface, the liver is divided
into two major lobes and two smaller lobes. The functional units of the liver are lobules with
sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to the central vein of the lobule.

The liver receives blood from two sources. Freshly oxygenated blood is brought to the liver by
the common hepatic artery, a branch of the celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta. Blood that is
rich in nutrients from the digestive tract is carried to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.

The liver has a wide variety of functions and many of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes perform
most of the functions attributed to the liver, but the phagocytic Kupffer cells that line the
sinusoids are responsible for cleansing the blood.

Liver functions include the following:

 secretion

 synthesis of bile salts

 synthesis of plasma protein

 storage

 detoxification

 excretion

 carbohydrate metabolism

 lipid metabolism

 protein metabolism

 filtering

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Gallbladder

The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by
the cystic duct. The principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir for bile.
Bile is a yellowish-green fluid produced by liver cells. The main components of bile are water,
bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.

Bile salts act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats. Cholesterol and bile
pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin are excreted from the body in the bile.

Pancreas

The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion consists of the
scattered islets of Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood.
The exocrine portion is the major part of the gland. It consists of pancreatic acinar cells that
secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven between the cells. Pancreatic enzymes
include anylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase. Pancreatic secretions are controlled by the
hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.

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