Simple A.

C Generators
 The generator effect can be used to generate a.c in an alternator
 A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy in the form of alternating current

An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to slip rings

 A rectangular coil that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field

 The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that
press on two metal slip rings
o The slip rings and brushes provide a connection between the coil
and the meter
 When the coil turns in one direction:
o The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then
back again
o This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and
an EMF, and therefore current, is induced in the coil
 The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit
repeatedly changes direction as the coil spins
o This is because the induced EMF in the coil repeatedly changes its
direction
o This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in
the same direction
 The induced EMF and the current alternate because they
repeatedly change direction
 Graphs for A.C. Generators
 The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and
direction as the coil rotates
 The size of the induced EMF depends on the number of field lines it cuts
o The induced EMF is greatest (maximum value) when the coil
is horizontal, or parallel with the field lines, as in this position it
cuts through the field at the fastest rate
o The EMF is smallest (0) when the coil is vertical, or perpendicular
with the field lines as in this position it will not be cutting through
field lines

Alternating EMF showing the position of the magnet relative to the coil

 When the magnet is in position 1 the magnetic field lines of the

magnet do not cut the coil
o This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
 When the magnet is in position 2 the magnetic field lines of the magnet
are at 90° to the coil
o This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
 When the magnet is in position 3 the magnetic field lines of the
magnet do not cut the coil
o This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
 When the magnet is in position 4 the magnetic field lines of the magnet
are at 90° to the coil
o This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
o As the poles of the magnet are reversed compared to position 2
the induced EMF will also be in the opposite direction compared to
position 2
o This means that the graph will show a negative trace

 When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field lines

o When the number of field lines cut is at its maximum
 o Induced EMF = 0
 When the plane of the coil is parallel to the field lines
o When the number of field lines cut = 0
o Induced e.m.f is at its maximum

The A.C output from an alternator leads to a current which is both in the
positive and negative region of the graph

.
Magnetic Field Around Wires & Solenoids
 When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced
around the wire
o A conducting wire is any wire that has current flowing through it
 The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses
o The compasses would produce a magnetic field lines pattern that would
like look the following

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

 The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles

 o A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire has no poles
 As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
o This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets
weaker as the distance from the wire increases
 The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the
magnetic field

The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the
direction of the magnetic field around the wire

 Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse
the direction of the magnetic field

Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field
produced

 If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic

field
 Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the
strength of the magnetic field
 o This means the field lines will become closer together

Magnetic Field Around a Solenoid

 When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part
of the coil, passing through the centre of it

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil

 To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled
to form a solenoid
 The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet

Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

 The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform

 One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side
behaves like the south pole
o To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed
from the end
o If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is
the south pole
 o If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is
the north pole
 If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed
 If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic
field produced around or through the solenoid

Poles of a Solenoid

Magnetic Effects of Changing Current

 A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet by adding a soft iron core
 The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through
the coils
o The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will
create a much stronger magnet overall

 The magnetic field produced by the electromagnet can be switched on and off
o When the current is flowing there will be a magnetic field produced
around the electromagnet
o When the current is switched off there will be no magnetic field produced
around the electromagnet

An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

 Changing the direction of the current also changes the direction of the magnetic
field produced by the iron core
Factors Affecting Magnetic Field Strength

 The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased
by:
o Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
o Increasing the number of coils
o Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils

 The strength of an electromagnet can be changed by:

o Increasing the current will increase the magnetic field produced around
the electromagnet
o Decreasing the current will decrease the magnetic field produced around
the electromagnet

Applications of the Magnetic Effect

 Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications, including:
o Relay circuits (utilised in electric bells, electronic locks, scrapyard cranes
etc)
o Loudspeakers & headphones

Relay Circuits

 Electromagnets are commonly used in relay circuits

 Relays are switches that open and close via the action of an electromagnet
 A relay circuit consists of:
o An electrical circuit containing an electromagnet
o A second circuit with a switch which is near to the electromagnet in the
first circuit

When a current passes through the coil in Circuit 1, it attracts the switch in Circuit 2,
closing it enables a current to flow in Circuit 2
  When a current flows through Circuit 1, a magnetic field is induced around the
coil
o The magnetic field attracts the switch, causing it to pivot and close the
contacts in Circuit 2
o This allows a current to flow in Circuit 2

 When no current flows through Circuit 1, the magnetic force stops

o The electromagnet stops attracting the switch
o The current in Circuit 2 stops flowing

 Scrapyard cranes utilise relay circuits to function:

o When the electromagnet is switched on it will attract magnetic materials
o When the electromagnet is switched off it will drop the magnetic
materials

 Electric bells also utilise relay circuits to function:

Animation: Electric bells utilise relay circuits. As the current alternates, the metal arm
strikes the bell and drops repeatedly to produce the ringing effect

 When the button K is pressed:

o A current passes through the electromagnet E creating a magnetic field
o This attracted the iron armature A, causing the hammer to strike the bell B
o The movement of the armature breaks the circuit at T
o This stops the current, destroying the magnetic field and so the armature
returns to its previous position
o This re-establishes the circuit, and the whole process starts again

Loudspeakers & Headphones

 Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound

o They work due to the motor effect

 A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one

pole of a permanent magnet
 Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

 An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker

o This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil

 As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the

magnetic field will be constantly changing
 The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from
the permanent magnet
 The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
o The direction of the force at any instant can be determined
using Fleming’s left-hand rule

 As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted

on the coil will constantly change direction
o This makes the coil oscillate

 The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate

o This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

,
Investigating the Field Around a Wire
 The magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in
solenoids can be investigated using:
o A thick wire
o A solenoid (a wire wrapped into a coil) - for example, a metal slinky
o Cell, ammeter, variable resistor and connecting wires
o Cardboard with holes (the holes must be large enough for the wire
to fit through)
o Clamp stand
o Iron filings or a compass

 Spread the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard and place the magnetic
needle on the board
 Tap the cardboard slightly and observe the orientation of iron filings
When the current direction is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite
direction showing that the direction of the field reverses when the current
reverses

Experiment 1: Plotting the magnetic field around a wire

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole in the middle of the cardboard and
secure it to the clamp stand
o Secure the wire vertically so it sits perpendicularly to the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable
resistor and ammeter on either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Place plotting compasses on the card and draw dots at each end of the
needle once it settles
o Make sure to draw an arrow to show the direction of the field at
different points
2. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the
process above
3. Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots on the
card
4. Then remove the compass, or compasses, and link the dots using a
smooth curve – this will be the magnetic field line
5. Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic
field lines

Using iron filings:

1. If using iron filings, simply pour the filings onto the cards and gently shake
the card until the filings settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around
the wire
Experiment 2: Plotting the magnetic field around a solenoid

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole on one side of the cardboard and loop
it through a hole on the other side of the cardboard and secure it to the
clamp stand
o Secure the wire so it forms a circular loop around the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable
resistor and ammeter on either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Follow the procedure outlined in Experiment 1

o Note: this can be carried out using a solenoid, but since a solenoid
is essentially many circular loops, the pattern around a circular loop
can be extended to give the pattern around a solenoid

Using iron filings and a solenoid:

1. Take a solenoid (a metal slinky works well for this) and thread it through
pre-made holes in a piece of card
2. Pour the filings onto the card and gently shake the card until the filings
settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around the solenoid

 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

 A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field
o When interacting with an external magnetic field, it therefore will
experience a force
 A current-carrying conductor will only experience a force if the current
through it is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines
o A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform
magnetic field
o When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a
force which makes it move
 A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed
through it

 Two ways to reverse the direction of the force (and therefore, the copper
rod) are by reversing:
o The direction of the current
o The direction of the magnetic field

This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as 'the motor effect'. The direction of

the force is determined by Fleming's left-hand rule.
Left Hand Rule
 The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire
depends on the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic
field
 All three will be perpendicular to each other
o This means that sometimes the force could appear to be acting
either into or out of the page
 The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by
using Fleming's left-hand rule:

Fleming's left-hand rule can be used to determine directions of the force,

magnetic field and current
Worked example

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is placed
into the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown below, there
will be a downwards force acting on the wire.

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

o Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the

(magnetic) Field.
o Step 2: Determine the direction of the current

o Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond
finger points in the direction of the Current

Step 3: Determine the direction of the force

The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the
force)

o Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

Feel free to use Fleming's left hand rule in your exam, just don't make it too
distracting for other students!

Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field

  When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will
experience a force if the wire is perpendicular
o This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual
electron flowing through the wire
 Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the
field can exert a force on the particle, causing it to deflect
o The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel
and the magnetic field lines
o The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
 In the case of a electron in a magnetic field the second finger points in the
opposite direction to the direction of motion
o Conventional current is said to flow opposite to the direction of flow
of electrons
o The finger represents current
o An alternative is to use the right hand to work out directions for
charged particles

When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is

deflected by the field

 If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:

o It will experience the maximum force
 If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
o It will experience no force
 If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
o It will experience a small force
 Electric motors
The DC Motor
 The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
 The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate)
positioned in a uniform magnetic field:

A simple d.c. electric motor

 This causes the coil to rotate since it experiences a turning effect

 The turning effect is increased by increasing:
o The number of turns on the coil
o The current
o The strength of the magnetic field

Operation of a DC Motor
 When the current is flowing in the coil at 90 to the direction of the
o

magnetic field:
o The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
o The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field
produced by the magnets
o This results in a force being exerted on the coil
o The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-
hand rule
o As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil,
the force produced from the magnetic field will push one side of the
coil up and the other side of the coil down

 This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in
the vertical position
o In the vertical position momentum keeps the coil turning until the
magnetic force takes over again
  The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil
o This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing every half
turn
o This keeps the current leaving the motor in the same
direction (d.c)
 Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in
which the forces are acting
o As a result, the coil will continue to rotate

Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current

 The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil
every half turn
o This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is
flowing

Factors Affecting the D.C Motor

 The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:

o Increasing the current
o Use a stronger magnet
 The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
o Reversing the direction of the current
o Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing
the poles of the magnet
 The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
o Increasing the current in the coil
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
o Adding more turns to the coil

Worked example
A d.c motor is set up as shown below.

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines


o These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of
the magnet

Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils

o Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative terminal

Step 3: Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine the direction of the force
on each side of the coil

o Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the

(magnetic) Field
 o Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond
finger points in the direction of the Current
o The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the
force)

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation


o The coil will be turning clockwise

Transformer
 A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or
decrease the potential difference of an alternating current (voltage
transformations)
o This is achieved using the generator effect

 A basic transformer consists of:

o A primary coil
o A secondary coil
o A soft iron core

 Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

 Structure of a transformer

Operation of a Transformer
 An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil
 The current is continually changing direction
o This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the
primary coil

 The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field

passes through it
 As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside
the secondary coil
o This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces a
potential difference

 As the magnetic field is continually changing the potential difference

induced will be alternating
o The alternating potential difference will have the same
frequency as the alternating current supplied to the primary coil
 If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause
an alternating current to flow

Step-up & Step-down Transformers

 A transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil
o The primary coil is the first coil
o The second coil is the second coil
 A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power
source
o A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than
on the primary coil (N > N )
s p

 A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power

source
 o A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary
coil than on the primary coil (N < N )
s p

Transformer Calculations
 The output potential difference (voltage) of a transformer depends on:
o The number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
o The input potential difference (voltage)

 It can be calculated using the equation:

 This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

 Where
o V = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
p

o V = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)

s

o n = number of turns on primary coil

p

o n = number of turns on secondary coil

s

 The equation above can be flipped upside down to give:

 The equations above show that:

o The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary
coils of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the number of turns on each
coil

Worked example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil. The
input potential difference across the primary coil is 500 V.

a) Calculate the output potential difference

b) State what type of transformer this is

Answer

Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

 Number of turns in primary coil, = 20

 Number of turns in secondary coil, = 800
 Voltage in primary coil, = 500 V

Step 2: Write the equation linking the output potential difference () to the known
quantities

 There will be less rearranging to do if is on the top of the fractio

Step 3: Rearrange the equation to make the subject

Step 4: Substitute the known values into the equation

Part (b)

The secondary voltage is larger than the primary, therefore this is a step-up transformer
Exam Tip

When you are using the transformer equation make sure you have used the same letter (p
or s) in the numerators (top line) of the fraction and the same letter (p or s) in
the denominators (bottom line) of the fraction.

There will be less rearranging to do in a calculation if the variable which you are trying to
find is on the numerator (top line) of the fraction.

The individual loops of wire going around each side of the transformer should be referred
to as turns and not coils.
Transformer Efficiency
 An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient
o Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to
the law of conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output

 If a transformer is 100% efficient:

Input power = Output power

 The equation to calculate electrical power is:

P=V×I

 Where:
o P = power in Watts (W)
o V = potential difference in volts (V)
 o I = current in amps (A)

 Therefore, if a transformer is 100% efficient then:

V ×I =V ×I
p p s s

 Where:
o V = potential difference across primary coil in volts (V)
p

o I = current through primary coil in Amps (A)

p

o V = potential difference across secondary coil in volts (V)

s

o I = current through secondary coil in Amps (A)

s

 The equation above could also be written as:

P =V ×I
s p p

 Where:
o P = output power (power produced in secondary coil) in Watts (W)
s

Worked example

A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V ac mains electricity supply to the 230
V needed for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.

Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from the
mains supply.
Step 1: List the known quantities

o Voltage in primary coil, V = 115 V

p

o Voltage in secondary coil, V = 230 V s

o Current in secondary coil, I = 5 As

Step 2: Write the equation linking the known values to the current drawn from the
supply, Ip

V ×I =V ×I
p p s s

Step 3: Substitute in the known values

115 × I = 230 × 5p

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find I p

Step 5: Calculate a value for I and include the correct unit
p

I = 10 A
p

High-Voltage Transmission
 Transformers have a number of roles:
o They are used to increase the potential difference of electricity before it is
transmitted across the national grid
o They are used to lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines to
the lower voltages used in houses
o They are used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages
used by many electronic devices

Advantages of High Voltage Transmission

 When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the

wires heats them, resulting in energy loss
 To transmit the same amount of power as the input power the potential
difference at which the electricity is transmitted should be increased
o This will result in a smaller current being transmitted through the
power lines
o This is because P = IV, so if V increases, I must decrease to transmit the
same power
 A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being
produced in the wire
o This will reduce the energy loss in the power lines

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in
the cables

Calculating Power Losses

 When a current passes through a wire, the current creates a heating effect which
means the wires warm up
 This means they lose electrical energy as heat which reduced the efficiency of the
transformer
o This is due to electrical resistance which is present in all wires
 The power (energy per second) lost in the wire is given by the following equation

P = IR 2

 Where:
o P = power in watts (W)
o I = current in amps (A)
o R = resistance in ohms (Ω)

 Since the power is the energy lost per second, the total energy lost in a time t will
be:

E=P×t

 Where:
o E = energy in joules (J)
o t = time in seconds (s)
 A step-up transformer may be used to increase the voltage of a power supply
from the power station to the transmission wires
 The number of turns and voltage for the transformer is related by the following
equation:

 Where:
o V = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
p

o V = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)

s

o n = number of turns on the primary coil

p

o n = number of turns on the secondary coil

s

 A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil, N , than on the
s

primary coil, N p

 Since a transformer cannot output more power than is put into

it, increasing the voltage must result in the current being lowered

I V = IV
p p s s

 Where:
o I = current in the primary coil in amps (A)
p

o I = current in the secondary coil in amps (A)

s
  Lower current results in less power and energy loss in the cables
o This makes the transfer of electrical energy through the wires
more efficient