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Ecodesign of photovoltaic grid-connected systems

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 Ecodesign of photovoltaic grid-connected systems
Jorge Raul Perez Gallardo, Catherine Azzaro-Pantel, Stéphan Astier, Serge
Domenech, Alberto Alfonso Aguilar-Lasserre

To cite this version:

Jorge Raul Perez Gallardo, Catherine Azzaro-Pantel, Stéphan Astier, Serge Domenech, Alberto Al-
fonso Aguilar-Lasserre. Ecodesign of photovoltaic grid-connected systems. Renewable Energy, Else-
vier, 2014, 64, pp.82-97. �10.1016/j.renene.2013.10.027�. �hal-01913568�

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Perez Gallardo, Jorge Raúl and Azzaro-Pantel, Catherine and

Astier, Stéphan and Domenech, Serge and Aguilar-Lasserre,
Alberto Alfonso Ecodesign of photovoltaic grid-connected systems.
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Ecodesign of photovoltaic grid-connected systems
J.R. Perez-Gallardo a, C. Azzaro-Pantel a, *, S. Astier b, S. Domenech a, A. Aguilar-Lasserre c
a
Université de Toulouse, INPT, UPS, Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, 4 Allée Emile Monso, F-31432 Toulouse, France
b
Université de Toulouse, INPT, UPS, LAPLACE (Laboratoire PLAsma et Conversion d’Energie), ENSEEIHT, 2 rue Charles Camichel, BP 7122, F-31071 Toulouse
Cedex 7, France
c
Instituto Tecnológico de Orizaba, Division of Research and Postgraduate Studies, Av. Instituto Tecnológico 852, Col. Emiliano Zapata, 94300 Orizaba,
Veracruz, México

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Optimization approaches for PV grid-connected system (PVGCS) have focused on optimizing the tech-
Keywords: nical and economic performances. The main objective of this study is thus to propose an integrated
Optimum system sizing framework that manages simultaneously technical, economic and environmental criteria. Life Cycle
Photovoltaic grid-connected system Assessment (LCA) is applied for the evaluation of environmental impacts of PVGCS. The proposed
Environmental impact framework involves a PVGCS sizing simulator involving the computation of solar irradiance coupled to an
Life cycle assessment outer optimization loop, based on a Genetic Algorithm. The objective is to maximize the annual energy
Genetic algorithms
generated by the facility. The analysis was carried out for different types of solar panel technologies:
monocrystalline silicon (m-Si), polycrystalline silicon (p-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride
(CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS). The environmental impact assessment was achieved by use of
the IMPACT 2002þ method embedded in the SimaPro software tool with Ecoinvent database. The other
chosen criteria based on technical and economic aspects concern the payback time of investment (PBT)
and energy payback time (EPBT).
To select the best option among the five choices under study, a weighted evaluation is performed on all
criteria in order to obtain a score for each technology. The technology with the lowest total score is the a-Si
technology. A more relevant analysis is then performed taking into account the environmental impacts per
kWh produced, as new criteria. In this case, the CIS PV module technology best meets the objectives.

1. Introduction on PV module plane, PV module temperature, shading, inverter

efficiency and size, maximum power point tracking losses and the
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems will be a major alternative in arrangement of the various electrical connections [5e8].
coming decades to cope with the scarcity of fossil fuels [1,2]. The The size and configuration of a PVGCS are critical for evaluating
direct conversion technology based on solar PV has several positive profitability and environmental performance [9,10]. The search for
attributes. Although hydroelectric, thermal and nuclear power are an optimal arrangement of collectors in a field, trying to satisfy
cheaper in generation, solar PV has an edge over them since it re- different objectives, constitutes an important challenge. The
quires almost no maintenance and neither depletes natural re- optimal deployment is principally based on production [5,6,11e14]
sources nor pollutes while in operation [3,4]. The energy source, or economic [9,12,15] criteria. Another criterion that has lately been
our sun, is free and inexhaustible. PV technology is also very robust used to evaluate PVGCS is the environmental impact [3,16e20].
and has a long life. As PVGCS is exclusively made with static components gener-
The PV grid-connected system (PVGCS) performance depends ating no particulate matter emission and requiring no fluid main-
exclusively upon the availability of solar energy at the site, system tenance, the only potential impact of PVCGS during operation is
elements and configuration, and load parameters. The annual en- related to the environmental impact on flora and fauna arising from
ergy generated by a PVGCS is calculated as the sum of hourly pro- change in land use. It can also cause changes in the economic ac-
duction over the entire year. This hourly production depends on tivities. Emissions are generated by the use of fossil fuel-based
many parameters such as PV collector peak power, solar radiation energy [16,21,22] during the manufacture of the components,
building and subsequent recycling of the components. This paper
deals with this particular issue.
* Corresponding author. Although different models and tools have been developed to
E-mail address: Catherine.AzzaroPantel@ensiacet.fr (C. Azzaro-Pantel). achieve the optimum PVGCS configuration, they are limited to a

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.10.027
single objective evaluation, usually based on technical or economic Isotropic models assume that the intensity of the sky-diffused
criteria, and in few cases, on environmental criteria. radiation is uniform over the sky dome. Hence, the diffuse radiation
The goal of this work is to propose a system for generating incident on a tilted surface depends on the fraction of the sky dome
alternative configurations of PV power plants, taking into account seen by it. The most widely used model belonging to this category is
simultaneously three criteria based on technical, economic and the one developed by Liu and Jordan (presented in Ref. [23]).
environmental aspects, while considering different types of PV The second group of models assumes both, the anisotropy of the
solar technologies through an optimization method. In the first part sky diffused radiation in the circumsolar region (sky near the solar
of this paper, the analysis of a literature review reports the different disc) and, an isotropically distributed diffuse component from the
studies and tools that enable the modeling and design of a PVGCS. rest of the sky dome.
Secondly, the optimization approach is described in detail. Then,
the results obtained after the proposed methodology was tested 2.3. Output energy estimation
into single-objective studies are discussed. Finally, the major
contribution of this work is highlighted along with some ideas that The design of PVGCS must take into account the dimensions of
could be implemented in the future. the field, the balance of system components and, solar radiation
data. In addition, shading and masking affect the collector
2. Literature review deployment, by decreasing the incident energy on collector sur-
faces of the field.
System modeling forms a key part of the PV system design. It can In a solar field, an array of PV modules (collectors), are deployed
provide answers to a number of important issues such as the overall in different rows with spacing; this allows tilting and facilitates
array size, orientation and tilt, and the electrical configuration. The maintenance. In this arrangement, a collector may cast a shadow on
design criteria depend generally on the nature of the application. the adjacent row during the day, thus decreasing the amount of
The applications of PVGCS vary from small building integrated collected energy. This shading effect depends on the spacing be-
systems to PV power plants. Modeling tools are available to provide tween the collector rows, the collector height, the tilt angle, the row
solar radiation data, assess possible shading effects and produce the length and on the latitude of the solar field. The use of many rows of
resulting electrical layout of the array as presented in what follows. collectors, densely spread, not only increases the surface available
to transform solar irradiation, but also increases the shading.
2.1. PV system design and sizing tools The spacing, and consequently, shading has also an influence on
local environmental since it does not allow grass or farm crops to
When designing a PVGCS, it is very difficult to make an accurate grow between the PV panels. This aspect will not be studied in this
assessment of the power generation through photovoltaic conver- paper.
sion because it depends on many uncertain parameters. A wide The balance of system (BOS), that encompasses all the compo-
variety of software tools now exist for the analysis, simulation and nents of a photovoltaic system besides the photovoltaic panels, also
sizing of photovoltaic systems. These tools present different de- influences the estimation of the annual energy generated by the
grees of complexity and accuracy depending on the specific tasks facility because of the efficiency of the electrical components.
that each tool had been developed for. Examples of these sizing and
simulation tools are given in Table 1. In general, they involve the 2.4. Techniques for sizing PV systems
estimation of solar radiation (using a meteorological database or a
mathematical model) and/or the estimation of the energy gener- In any PVGCS, sizing represents an important part of the design.
ated by the system taking into account the characteristics and Besides being an economic waste, an oversized system can nega-
location of the PV components in the field (e.g. modules, the bal- tively affect further utilization of solar cells and energy generation.
ance of system), weather consideration and solar radiation. Undoubtedly, at the present stage of development of PV technology,
the major impediment to a wider market penetration is the high
2.2. Solar radiation investment costs of the PV systems [2].
The solar field design problem may be described by mathe-
Solar radiation on tilted surfaces is a very important aspect in matical expressions. The configuration of PV is based on criteria
the design of flat plate PV collectors for power plants. To eliminate such as the minimum field area required for producing a given
the effects of local features, solar radiation is measured on hori- amount of energy, the maximum energy generated from a given
zontal surfaces, free of obstacles. Consequently, solar radiation data field or minimum cost of investment.
is most often given in the form of global radiation on a horizontal There are recent methods developed for sizing the parameters
surface. Since PV modules are usually positioned at an angle to the for PVCGS based on Artificial intelligence (AI) and Genetic algo-
horizontal plane, the radiation input to the system must be calcu- rithm (GA) techniques [6,15,26e29].
lated from this data.
Global radiation on a tilted surface consists of three compo- 2.4.1. Genetic algorithm
nents, i.e., beam radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected radiation. Genetic algorithms (GA) are inspired by the way organisms
The calculation of irradiance arriving on a tilted surface, used as adapt to the harsh realities of life in a hostile world, i.e., by evolu-
input global horizontal data, raises two main problems, firstly, the tion and inheritance. The algorithm imitates, in the process, the
separation of the global horizontal radiation into its direct and evolution of population by selecting only fit individuals for
diffuse components and secondly, the estimation of the irradiance reproduction.
components incident on an inclined surface. GAs were envisaged by Holland in the 1970s as an algorithmic
Over the years, different models have been developed to esti- concept based on a Darwinian-type survival-of-the-fittest strategy
mate solar radiation over tilted surfaces [23e25]. These models can with sexual reproduction, where stronger individuals in the pop-
be classified as isotropic or anisotropic models. However, a large ulation have a higher chance of creating an offspring. A genetic
majority of these models use the same method of calculating beam algorithm is implemented as a computerized search and optimi-
and ground-reflected radiation, the main difference being the zation procedure that uses principles of natural genetics and nat-
treatment of the diffuse radiation. ural selection. The basic approach is to model the possible solutions
Table 1
System sizing and simulation programs.

Program Source Objective Type of system Main characteristics Resultants Advantages Inconvenient

CalSol Institut National Simulation and data Grid-connected, - Economic analysis tool - CO2 balance - Easy to handle - Only French meteorological
de l’Energie Solaire analysis stand-alone and - Report of yield production - Pre-sizing database
(INES), France of PV system DC-grid system and monthly irradiation - Available online - No PV components database.
- Economic report - Insufficient energy loss
calculation and
economic analysis
- No interconnection with
another program is
allowed
PVGIS Institute for Estimation of solar radiation Grid-connected - Meteorological database - Report of yield production - Easy to handle - Exclusive to Europe and Africa
Energy and simulation of a PV - Interactive maps - Monthly or daily radiation - Import meteorological - No PV components database
and Transport e system data - No energy loss calculation and
European - Available online economic analysis
Commission - No interconnection with
another program is
allowed
PVSOL Solar Design Design, simulation and Grid-connected - Extensive meteorological - Report of yield - Easy to handle - No interconnection with
Company, data analysis of PV and stand-alone and PV components database. production, efficiency "3D animation another program is
UK system - Calculation of shading losses of system and losses - Import of meteorological allowed
"3D design tool - Economic report data
- Economic analysis tool - Possibility of parameter
settings
- Good quality results
PVsyst University of Sizing, design, simulation Grid-connected, - Extensive meteorological - Report of yield - Import of meteorological - Unfriendly use
Geneva, and data analysis of stand-alone and and PV components database. production, irradiation, data - Sizing restricted to collector
Switzerland PV system DC-grid system - Calculate shading losses efficiency of system "3D animation configuration
"3D design tool and losses - Possibility of parameter - No interconnection with
- Economic analysis tool - Economic report settings another program is
- Good quality results allowed
SolarPro Laplace System Design and simulation Grid-connected - Meteorological and PV - Report of yield - Easy to handle - No energy loss calculation and
Co., Japan of PV system components database production economic analysis
"3D design tool - No interconnection with another
- Calculation of shading losses program is allowed
to the search problem as binary strings. Various portions of these
bit-strings represent parameters in the search problem. If a
problem-solving mechanism can be represented in a reasonably
compact form, then GA techniques can be applied using procedures
to maintain a population that represent candidate solutions, and
then let that population evolve over time through competition
(survival of the fittest and controlled variation). A GA will generally
include the three fundamental genetic operations of selection,
crossover and mutation. These operations are used to modify the
chosen solutions and select the most appropriate offspring to pass
on to succeeding generations. GAs consider many points in the
search space simultaneously and have been found to provide a
rapid convergence to a near optimum solution in many types of
problems: in other words, they usually exhibit a reduced chance of
converging to local minima.
GA applications are appearing as alternatives to conventional Fig. 1. Functional flow diagram of the proposed methodology.
approaches and in some cases are useful where other techniques
have been completely unsuccessful. GAs are also used with intel- the system components and limitations on the design of the
ligent technologies such as neural networks, expert systems, and installation.
case-based reasoning. c) The evaluation of economic, technical and environmental
criteria.
d) The optimization of the above criteria in order to generate
3. PVGCS optimization approach alternatives for the optimal configuration of PVGCS.

As explained in the previous section, several programs and

mathematical models have been developed to calculate either the
solar irradiance received at a given point on the planet or size a 3.1. Solar radiation model
PVGCS. Most of the studies reviewed [5,6,9,27,28,30] suggest opti-
mizing PVGCS while considering only one criterion. Other authors The solar radiation model computes the radiation received at
[17,19,20,31] address only the issue of the environmental impact the site where the future plant will be built. Fig. 2 shows the input
assessment of the elements of a PV system with emphasis on the PV data necessary for the operation of the model, sub-models and the
module technology. Our main purpose consists of generating outputs.
alternative PVGCS configurations, taking into account their tech- The inputs for this module are classified into two groups. The
nical, economic and environmental impact. former group is composed of meteorological data of the studied
The main problem found in the programs described in Table 1 is site. The average hourly temperature is available from various da-
the lack of an integrated approach that allows the optimization of tabases. Another important element to establish the relationship
the sizing of a PVGCS. The coupling of all elements, via an external between solar radiation on the surface of the Earth and the extra-
program to optimize the model using a genetic algorithm, is diffi- terrestrial radiation is the index of transparency of the atmo-
cult due to the closed structure used. sphere or clearness index (Kt). This index is the radio between the
To overcome the problem of interoperability, the design of a horizontal radiation of a particular hour and the extra-terrestrial
simulator for received solar radiation coupled with a sizing module radiation for that hour, as expressed by:
constitutes the most suitable option. The simulator must be
G
designed in an open manner so that it can be interfaced easily with Kt ¼ (1)
Go
an outer optimization loop. The MULTIGEN environment previously
developed in our research group [32] was selected as the genetic The latter group is composed of all the data inherent to the
algorithm platform. It can treat both mono- and multi-objective geographic location of the site where the facility will be placed. This
problems. In this work, only the mono-objective case is consid- information allows us to estimate the position of the sun and the
ered. Hence, the potential of GAs to solve multi-objective problems solar radiation that the facility will handle every hour.
serves as an incentive to use such an optimization strategy. This When radiation passes through the atmosphere of Earth,
constitutes a natural way to extend this work. As it was initially changes in its trajectory may occur because of the elements present
developed in Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) in Excel, the same in it. Elements such as ozone, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water
language is used for simulation purpose. vapor absorb radiations; some are reflected by the clouds. Dust and
The main advantages include the automation of repetitive tasks water droplets also cause disturbances. The result is the decom-
and calculations, and the easy creation of macros in a friendly position of the incident solar radiation into a receiver placed on the
programming language. surface in different components [33].
Fig. 1 illustrates the system flow diagram for optimizing a The estimation of diffused radiation is very complex because it
PVGCS. The proposed system is a simulation tool coupled with an depends on the composition, shape and position of the elements
optimization module based on genetic algorithms for optimal that cause the scattering of radiation and this may vary with time.
configuration alternatives. The system involves the following Diffused radiation is essentially anisotropic. The amount of re-
models: flected radiation is affected by the nature of the ground and by a
wide range of features (snow, vegetation, water, etc.).
a) The estimated solar radiation received by the system ac- Solar radiation received on a horizontal surface is split into its
cording to the geographic location. beam and diffused components. These components provide the
b) The PVGCS sizing based on a mathematical model that pro- basis for estimating solar radiation on tilted surfaces. Fig. 3 shows
vides the annual energy generated from the characteristics of the relations among the different levels of solar radiation.
 Fig. 2. Data flow diagram of solar irradiance estimation model.

3.1.1. Components of hourly radiation on horizontal surface 3.1.2. Components of hourly radiation on tilted surface
Hourly irradiance received on the horizontal surfaces may be The most appropriate procedure to calculate the global irradi-
expressed by: ance on a tilted surface is to obtain separately the components to be
defined after, as expressed by:

G ¼ Gb þ Gd (2)
Gb ¼ Gb;b þ Gb;d þ Gb;r (5)
Presented in Ref. [23], Miguel et al. establish a correlation be-
tween the diffuse fraction of hourly global horizontal irradiance and
the clearness index. This correlation is given by the following 3.1.2.1. Beam irradiance. The amount of beam irradiance on a tilted
expressions: surface can be calculated by multiplying the beam horizontal
irradiance by the beam ratio factor (rb).
8
0:995 " 0:081Kt if Kt < 0:21
Gd < Gb;b ¼ Gb rb (6)
¼ 0:724 þ 2:738Kt " 8:32Kt2 þ 4:967Kt3 if 0:21 $ Kt $ 0:76
G
0:180 if Kt > 0:76
:

(3) cos q
rb ¼ (7)
Then, the beam irradiance can be calculated by reformulating cos qz
Eq. (2) as follows: One consideration must be taken into account in calculating this
component, when the sun shines on the back of the surface (cos
q < 0) the irradiance on the PV modules is normally not utilized,
Gb ¼ G " Gd (4)
Gb,b ¼ 0. A factor max (0, cos q) is introduced in Eq. (7).

Fig. 3. Sequence for determination of hourly global tilted irradiance.

 maxð0; cos qÞ Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), a research laboratory for
rb ¼ (8) the U.S. Department of Energy. This software tool contains a Solar
cos qz
Position Algorithm (SPA) [36] for solar radiation applications
developed by the NREL. The algorithm can calculate the sun
zenith and azimuth angle with uncertainties equal to (0.0003' .
3.1.2.2. Reflected irradiance. The reflectivity of most types of MIDC SOLPOS Calculator calculates the position of the sun in the
ground surfaces is rather low [33] except snow and ice. Conse- sky and its intensity for any given location, day, and time. It is
quently, the contribution of this type of irradiance falling on a valid from the year 1950e2050 and has an uncertainty of
receiver is low. Eq. (9) computes ground-reflected irradiance. (0.01' [37].
As we mention in Table 1, PVsyst is a PV simulation tool devel-
1 " cos b oped at the University of Geneva, Switzerland to be used by ar-
Gb;r ¼ rG (9)
2 chitects, engineers and researchers. In 2011, PVsyst got excellent
results in the PHOTON Magazine evaluation [38]. The evaluation
where r is the reflectivity of the ground and depends on the
considered approximately 20 different PV simulation software
composition of the ground. A value of 0.2 is commonly adopted.
available on the market, for the study of PV systems yield, and tried
to assess the accuracy of irradiance data in the horizontal plane and
3.1.2.3. Diffuse irradiance. The methods used to estimate the
ambient temperature, as well as horizon shading,
diffuse irradiance on a tilted surface are classified as either isotropic
The lowest statistical difference between the result of our
or anisotropic models. The isotropic models assume that the in-
simulator and those of the PV simulation software tools considered
tensity of diffuse sky radiation is uniform over the sky dome. Hence,
as references was found when the formula developed by Hay et al.
the diffuse irradiance incident depends on the fraction of the sky
reported in Ref. [23] for diffused radiation was used (eq. (12)).
dome where the surface is located.
A well-known isotropic model was proposed by Liu and Jordan
3.2. PVGCS sizing model
(1963).
The second model of the system aims at calculating annual
1 þ cos b
Gb;d ¼ Gd (10) energy generated by the system from the radiation computed by
2
the first model and the characteristics of the electrical components.
Better results are obtained with the supposed anisotropic This model considers the following aspects:
models. These type of models include a circumsolar brightening,
which assumes that the highest intensity is found at the periphery a) The field dimension where the PVGCS will be installed;
of the solar disk and decreases with increasing angular distance b) Technical aspects of the different elements of the PVGCS.
from the periphery. c) Design restrictions due to maintenance and safety purposes.
Hay and Devis (consulted in Ref. [23] propose a model based on These restrictions concern not only the maximum weight of the
the assumption that all that is diffused can be represented by a structures that will support the PV modules but also the stan-
circumsolar component coming directly from the sun and an dards and best practices to ensure appropriate maintenance in
isotropic component coming from the entire celestial hemisphere. case of problems during operation of the PVGCS.
The diffuse irradiance on a tilted surface is then:
Fig. 4 describes the main elements of this model.
Gb;d ¼ Gd rd (11)
3.2.1. PVGCS mathematical sizing model
G G 1 þ cos b Weinstock and Appelbaum [9] formulated the PVGCS sizing
$ %$ %
rd ¼ b rb þ 1 " b (12) problem as a mathematical problem. The optimal design parame-
Go Go 2
ters of the solar field were determined to obtain the maximum
Reindl et al. propose another model (presented in Ref. [23], (Eq. annual incident energy on the collector planes for a given field size.
(13)). This model extends the Hay and Davies model by adding the The improvements that were implemented relative to the model
horizon brightening. The horizon brightening is assumed to be a presented in Ref. [9] concern the computation of the output power
linear source at the horizon, independent of azimuth. In fact, for of the system, mainly in the following aspects:
clear skies, the horizon brightening is highest at the horizon and
decreases in intensity away from the horizon. For overcast skies, the ) The equation used to calculate the diffuse irradiance received by
horizon brightening has a negative value. the collector was replaced by the anisotropic model of Hay et al.
sffiffiffiffiffiffi [24].
%" $ %#
Gb Gb 1 þ cos b Gb 3 b ) The reflected irradiance was included in the calculation of the
$ %$
rd ¼ r þ 1" 1þ sin (13)
Go b Go 2 Go 2 radiation received by the installation.
) The method used to calculate energy loss caused by the shadow
generated by adjacent collectors was changed. An array indi-
cating the number of panels covered in a collector was created
3.1.3. Validation following the method proposed by Ziar et al. [39]
The simulator was used to estimate the annual radiation
received in 4 different positions: Toulouse, France (43.4' N, 1.2' E, The model considers a horizontal field without elevations with a
altitude 152 m), Sydney, Australia (33.5' S, 151.1' E, altitude fixed length L and a fixed width W. It comprises K rows of solar
42 m), Mexico City, Mexico (19.2' N, 99.1' W, altitude 2277 m) collectors with a horizontal distance D between the rows; each
and Singapore, Singapore (1.1' N, 104.1' E, altitude 5 m). The collector has a length LC, a height H, and are tilted by an angle b with
results were compared with those estimated for the same cities respect to the horizontal (Fig. 5). Each collector is an array of PV
by PVsyst software [34] and MIDC SOLPOS Calculator 2.0 [35]. modules arranged in Nr rows and Nc columns. The length of col-
MIDC SOLPOS Calculator 2.0 was developed by the National lector row LC and its height HC are given by:
 Fig. 4. Data flow diagram of PVGCS model.

) Maintenance and installation constraints required to limit the

Lc ¼ Nc Lm (14) height of collector above the ground Emax, i.e.:

H ¼ Nr Hm (15)
The variables considered in this model are b, D, K, H where K is a Hsin b $ Emax (18)
discrete variable. The following constraints are also involved:
) The collector height H itself can be limited by the solar field
) The variation of the collector parameter values and distances are construction, maintenance and by PV module manufacturer, i.e.:
considered by the field width, i.e.:

KHcos b þ ðK " 1ÞD $ W (16) H $ Hmax (19)

) The space between collector rows D is less than the distance ) The collector tilt angle may vary in the range of 0' e90' :
Dmin, i.e.:

0' $ b $ 90' (20)

D * Dmin (17)

Fig. 5. Solar collector field. a) Position of two tilted collectors b) Solar collector configuration.
 Fig. 8. Life Cycle Assessment framework.
Fig. 6. Shading by collectors in a stationary solar field [9].

This matrix makes it possible to determine if a module receives

solar irradiation during the whole day or only at given hours of the
) The number of collector rows of the configuration is less than or day. In addition, the status matrix assumes that any partially
equal to 2 and discrete: shaded module at a given time is considered as a fully shaded
module.

2 $ K˛Z þ (21) 3.2.3. Output energy of solar field

The output power of the modules in a row connected in series
depends on three main factors: module efficiency (h), module
3.2.2. Direct shading temperature (Tm), and the number of shaded modules at a given
In the case of large-scale solar plants, collectors are set in several time. The meteorological data at the specific site together with the
rows and shading by neighbors may become inevitable. The geographical coordinates of the site allow calculating the power
shadow that is projected from a collector to another one varies delivered by a module as a function of time.
throughout the day and can be determined geometrically [39,40].
The amount of shading depends on the distance between the Qm ðtÞ ¼ hAGb ðtÞ (23)
collector rows D, their height H, the row length Lc, the tilt angle b
and the latitude f (see Fig. 6). The module temperature was calculated according to Van
A status matrix is defined, M(j, k, t, n), as follows in order to Overstraeten et al. [13], eq. (24), and the loss of power due to
determine the shaded modules of the collector in a specific hour t temperature rises over 25 ' C is taken into account in eq. (25) for the
and in a specific day n [28]: power delivered by a module at time t and day n:

*
1 if module in column j and row k is unshaded at hour t in day n
Mðj; k; t; nÞ ¼ (22)
0 if module in column j and row k is shaded at hour t in day n

Fig. 7. Evaluation of criteria model.

 Fig. 9. Boundaries fixed for LCA in a PVGCS.

365 X
X 24
Tm ðtÞ ¼ 20 þ 0:035Gb ðtÞ (24) Qout ¼ Nr Nc Qm ðt; nÞ
n¼1 t¼1
Nr X
Nc
(26)
365 X
X 24 X
þ ðK " 1Þ Mðj; k; t; nÞQm ðt; nÞ
Qm ðt; nÞ ¼ hAGb ðt; nÞ½1 þ Tk ðTm ðt; nÞ " 25Þ, (25) n¼1 t ¼1 k¼1 j¼1

The integration of eq (25) over a year predicts the annual energy The first part of the equation (26) represents the energy pro-
produced by a module. duced by the unshaded first collector and the second part com-
The yearly incident solar energy of the field is given by: prises the energy produced by the K"1 shaded collectors.

Mid-point categories End-point categories

Human Toxicity

Respiratory effects

Human Health
Ionizing radiation

Ozone layer depletion

Photochemical oxidation

Aquatic ecotoxicity Ecosystem Quality

Terrestrial ecotoxicity

Inventory results
Aquatic acidification

Aquatic eutrophication
Climate Change

/nutri
Terrestrial acid/nutri

Land occupation

Global warming
Resources
Non-renewable energy

Mineral extraction

Fig. 10. IMPACT 2002þ framework: Mid-point and End-point categories [42].
 Table 3
Typical features of various commercial PV modules technologies.

PV module Hm (m) Wm (m) h (%) Tk (%/' C) Nominal power (Wp)

m-Si [43] 1.56 1.05 20.10 "0.380 327.00

p-Si [44] 1.64 0.94 15.50 "0.485 300.00
a-Si [45] 1.31 1.11 7.20 "0.200 105.00
CdTe [46] 1.20 0.60 11.50 "0.250 82.50
CIS [47] 1.26 0.98 12.20 "0.310 150.00

Primary energy required for manufacturing

EPBT ¼ (28)
Annual primary energy produced
Primary energy required for manufacture is obtained as a result
of a LCA study. It is reported into the Non-renewable energy cate-
gory. The yearly energy produced is converted to annual primary
Fig. 11. Process for evaluate environmental criteria. energy produced. A conversion factor of 2.58 is used to transform
1 kWh electricity into primary energy [41].

3.3.2. Environmental criteria

3.3. Evaluation of criteria Environmental assessment is performed following the meth-
odology of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) established by ISO-14040-
The third model of the integrated system is dedicated to the 44. LCA is a technique that characterizes and assesses the total
evaluation of the three criteria. For each criterion, a performance environmental burdens associated with a product or a system, from
index was selected. These indexes will allow the evaluation and raw materials acquisition to end-of-life management. This method
comparison of the resulting options. Fig. 7 summarizes the different compares the environmental damage of different products, pro-
elements required by this model. cesses or systems together, and analyses the different stages of the
life cycle of a product. LCA provides support elements for industrial
3.3.1. Techno-economic criteria policies such as the choice of design and improvement of products
The technical and economic criteria chosen in this study concern or the selection of a production method, and is also interesting for
the payback time of investment and energy payback time, respec- public actions. According to the norms, LCA is divided into 4 parts
tively. Their choice is summarized in the following. (Fig. 8):
In project evaluation and capital budgeting, the payback time
(PBT) is an estimation of the time that will be necessary for an ) Goal and scope definition. The objectives and scope of the study
investor to recover the initial investment. It is used to compare are described and a functional unit to which emissions and
investments that might have different initial capital requirements. extractions are reported is established. The system boundaries
It is calculated by the following expression: are fixed;
) Inventory analysis. It involves creating an inventory of flows from
Cost of project and to nature. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy
PBT ¼ (27) and raw materials as well as emissions to air, water and soil. The
Annual Cash Inflows
input and output data needed for the construction of the in-
The cost of project considers all the components that make up ventory are collected for all activities within the system
the installation (PV modules, cables, mounting system.), the boundary;
construction and the edification cost as well as the cost of
connection to grid. Annual cash flow represents the income
generated by selling all the energy produced.
Table 4
Energy payback time (EPBT) is the time in which the input energy
Results obtained for the best configuration that maximizes the output energy of the
during the PV system life-cycle (which includes the energy system.
requirement for manufacturing, installation, energy use during
PV module b (' ) K D (m) Yearly Qout (kWh)
operation, and energy needed for decommissioning) is compen-
sated by electricity generated by the PV system. m-Si 18.42 55 0.84 430,397
p-Si 21.22 60 0.80 328,453
a-Si 17.01 54 0.81 131,021
CdTe 34.86 78 0.80 227,324
CIS 19.73 56 0.88 225,536
Table 2
Comparison between both approaches.

K B (' ) Qout (kWh) Table 5

Maximum incident energy WAP 58 24.62 2,641,034 PBT and EPBT for each configuration.
PB 58 24.62 3,201,915
PV module EPBT (yr) PBT (yr)
Maximum output energy without energy loss WAP 58 24.62 328,048
PB 58 24.62 397,793 m-Si 2.36 5.90
Maximum output energy with energy loss WAP 57 21.33 268,000 p-Si 2.67 7.59
PB 57 21.26 327,338 a-Si 2.04 7.59
CdTe 1.77 9.23
A ¼ Results of Weinstock and Appelbaum (WAP). PB ¼ Results of our approach (PB
CIS 2.14 6.29
model, Perez-Gallardo et al.).
Fig. 12. Results of the environmental impacts normalized to unity.
 ) Impact assessment. It consists to assess the potential environ- by the facility is the objective function. In all cases, the same
mental impacts based on the inventory made in the previous geographical position (Tel Aviv), the same type of PV module and
phase; the available surface are considered. The same limitations as those
) Interpretation of results. Based on the results of the impact used for the WAP example are used: minimum space between
assessment, it is possible to establish a set of conclusions and collector rows (Dmin) equal to 0.80 m, maximum collector height
recommendations for the study. (Hmax) equal to 1.98 m and height of collector above the ground
(Emax) equal to 1.80 m. The technology of the panel used in the WAP
Following the guidelines indicated by the LCA methodology for study is not mentioned explicitly but the computation is performed
environmental impact analysis for PVGCS, the first step is to set the with the assumption of a 12% efficiency. The GA parameters are the
boundaries of the system under analysis. Fig. 9 illustrates a following ones: number of generations equal to 200; crossover rate
simplified PVGCS with the boundaries fixed in order to apply the of 0.90 and mutation rate of 0.50. Table 2 shows the comparison
LCA methodology. It must be emphasized that a thorough appli- between the results obtained by our approach and the WAP
cation of an LCA methodology would require to take into account example [28].
the recycling phase of the PV panels. Hence, this issue suffers from a In order to verify the relevance of our model, the same criteria as
lack of data for all PV technologies. This explains mainly why it was those used in the approach proposed by Weinstock and Appelbaum
not included in the environmental assessment and is an area that [28] were used in the optimization procedure. They involve
merits further exploration. respectively the maximum solar incident energy of the field
The software tool SimaPro 7.3 was used here for modeling the without any type of energy losses, then the maximum output en-
system under analysis and the calculation of environmental im- ergy of the PVGCS at the incident irradiance only considering the
pacts. This program involves the Ecoinvent database that allows module efficiency and shading, and finally the maximum output
determining the flow of materials, energy and emissions in order to energy of the PVGCS while accounting all possible energy losses.
make the inventory flow list of the system. Ecoinvent has over 4000 Table 2 shows that a good agreement is obtained between both
industrial process databases in different sectors such as energy, models. Not surprisingly, the difference in the amount of output
transport, building materials, chemicals, washing agents, paper & power for the three cases is mainly due to the improvement in the
board, agriculture and waste management. computation of irradiance received at the facility as presented in
IMPACT 2002þ [42], included in SimaPro 7.3, was selected as a Section 3.2.1.
method for evaluating the environmental impacts. This method Optimization runs were then performed for different types of
proposes a feasible implementation of a combined midpoint/ solar panel technology. In the simulations, only one technology is
damage approach linking the environmental evaluation results of assumed per field which means that no mixed technologies are
the inventory flow list via 14 midpoint categories which can then allowed. In what follows, the maximum output energy, taking
be regrouped into four damage categories (Fig. 10). Midpoint/ into account all possible energy losses, was considered as an
damage approach performs environmental impact assessment of a objective function. Table 3 provides information for five different
process at relatively early stages in the cause-effect chain (midpoint PV commercial module technologies that were tested: mono-
categories) and as far back as possible in the cause-effect chain crystalline silicon (m-Si), polycrystalline silicon (p-Si), amor-
(damages categories). All midpoint scores are expressed in units of phous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium
a reference substance and related to the four damage categories. diselenide (CIS).
The impacts grouped into the midpoint categories of different The best configuration for maximizing the output energy of the
flows of material, energy and emission involved in the field was searched for in each PV module technology (Table 4). The
manufacturing and commissioning of the plant are obtained from location, assumptions and constraints for the new set of optimi-
the characterization factors determined by the method selected as zations are the same as in the previous case. The GA parameters are
follows (eq. (29)): the following ones: number of generations equal to 200; crossover
X rate of 0.90 and mutation rate of 0.50.
SIi ¼ FIs;i - MS (29) The results suggest that the configuration using PV modules
S based on m-Si generates the highest amount of annual energy
under the conditions given in the case studied.
where SIi represents the characterization score for the impact The result of the evaluation of PBT and EPBT for each configu-
category i, FIs,i is the characterization factor for the substance S in ration (Table 5) shows that the lowest EPBT is achieved by using PV
the impact category i, and Ms is the mass of substances from the modules based on CdTe but this technology does not lead to the
different flows. lowest PBT value. Even though the m-Si PV module generates the
Fig. 11 summarizes the process followed to evaluate the envi- maximum output energy, its EPBT is high due to the amount of
ronmental impacts generated by a PVGCS. energy required during the manufacturing phase.
The results of the environmental impact assessment (12 main
3.4. Decision variables midpoint categories) for each configuration are shown in Fig. 12 by
the use of radar charts. To facilitate the comparison, normalization
The optimization is performed here in a mono-objective mode. was performed by assigning the value 1 to the maximum value of
The technique adopted is a genetic algorithm to facilitate its
extension to a multi-objective mode. The decision variables that
are used are the same as indicated in the mathematical model (b, D, Table 6
K, H). Final ranking of alternatives.

PV module Final weighted evaluation Ranking

4. Optimization of annual energy output CdTe 40 3
a-Si 32 1
The example given by Weinstock and Appelbaum [28] (referred CIS 36 2
as WAP in the following) is used to validate the relevance of the p-Si 58 4
m-Si 58 4
proposed approach. The maximization of annual energy generation
Fig. 13. Results of the environmental impacts per annual energy generated ratio normalized to unity.
Table 7 considered when only the results obtained from the LCA study is
Final ranking of alternatives (environmental impact per kWh produced). taken into account but it falls to fourth position if these values are
PV module Final weighted evaluation Ranking divided by the amount of energy produced. Table 7 shows that the
CdTe 39 2
configuration with m-Si has a better performance than p-Si for
a-Si 47 4 silicon-based PV modules even if they have the highest impacts in
CIS 30 1 almost all environmental categories in Fig. 12. The configuration
p-Si 63 5 with CIS and CdTe has the best trade-off in both cases. Further work
m-Si 45 3
would now consist in encompassing PV recycling in the LCA step in
order to study if the same trend is observed.

each category. The computed relative impacts represent the ratio 5. Conclusions
between the environmental impact and this maximum value.
The result analysis shows that among seven of the 12 categories, The goal of the present work was to develop a new approach for
the highest impacts occur when m-Si technology is used to build generating alternative configurations of PV power plant by adding
the PV power plant e.g. in Global Warming category, where the CO2 an environmental assessment to the traditional way of determining
in the air is the reference flow, the installation with PV modules the optimum PV power plant configuration. An integrated frame-
based on m-Si, generates more kg of CO2 after the characterization work based on a PVGCS sizing simulator involving the computation
of all inventory flows. Likewise, for the Non-renewable Energy of solar irradiance coupled to an outer optimization loop was thus
category, the most MJ of non-renewable primary energy consumed designed and tested.
by the entire process evaluated within the boundaries set for the Our approach was applied to the maximization of annual energy
LCA study was found at installations with m-Si based PV modules. generation by the facility as the objective function. The analysis was
In spite of its low EPBT, the solar plant with CdTe modules has a carried out for different types of solar panel technology, with only
significant impact within the category of Non-carcinogens, i.e., the one technology assumed per field: monocrystalline silicon (m-Si),
characterization of the different flows in the inventory for CdTe polycrystalline silicon (p-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium
module installation results in a large amount of chloroethylene telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS). The environ-
C2H3Cl into the air, a substance that affects human health. The mental impact assessment was achieved by use of the IMPACT
potential consequence is not related with carcinogenic effects. 2002þ method embedded in the SimaPro software tool with
To select the best compromise among the five alternatives Ecoinvent database. The 12 main midpoint impact categories were
proposed by our model relative to the set of possibilities, a computed for each configuration as well as PBT and EPBT. The result
weighted evaluation is performed for the 15 goals (maximizing analysis shows that among seven of the 12 environmental cate-
final energy generation output, minimizing PBT, minimizing EPBT gories, the highest impacts occur when m-Si and p-Si technologies
and minimizing 12 environmental impacts). First, a classification are used. Despite a low EPBT value, CdTe modules have a significant
for each solar plant configuration at each goal was made giving a impact within the category of Non-carcinogens.
value of 1 to the choice that best meets the objective and 5 the To select the best compromise among the five options proposed
worst. The value assigned to each choice in a given goal is multi- by our model, a weighted evaluation was then performed on all
plied by a weighting factor. This factor depends on the importance criteria in order to obtain a score for each technology. The alter-
of each of the goal for the person responsible for making the final native with the lowest total score was the a-Si technology. A similar
choice. An equal factor was assigned to the 15 goals. Then, the analysis was then performed by taking into account the environ-
scores obtained by each alternative are added to give a cumulative mental impacts per kWh produced as new criteria. In this case, the
score. As can be seen in Table 6, the alternative with the lowest total CIS PV module technology best meets the objectives.
score is the a-Si technology. Finally, this investigation highlighted that the early design stage
Another analysis is then performed taking into account the of PVGCS should take into account not only economic performance
energy generated by each configuration. This new analysis consists but also the environmental impacts as those proposed in LCA
in assessing the environmental impact per kWh produced, as methodology. The proposed framework is now extended to the
follows: multi-objective optimization case by considering simultaneously
the conflicting criteria. For this purpose, the selection of GAs will
facilitate an easy extension to a multi-criteria investigation, as
SIi
index ¼ (30) already carried out in previous investigations [32]. Another sug-
Qout
gestion is to extend the system boundaries to consider the recycling
The weighting factor is the same for all objectives. The results phase of the module.
are presented through radar charts normalized to unity (Fig. 13). It
can be highlighted that the PV technology with the higher ratio is Nomenclature
the one based on p-Si modules (7 of 12 categories). Although the
environmental impacts of m-Si based technology are higher, these A PV module area, m2
are offset by the large amounts of energy generated annually. D distance between collector rows, m
The same weighted evaluation is made for this analysis and the Dmin minimum distance between collector rows, m
results are reported in Table 7. The CIS PV module technology best E equation of time, min
meets the objectives. Emax maximum collector height above ground, m
Reviewing the results obtained from the weighted evaluation in FIs,i characterization factor
Tables 6 and 7, if all criteria have the same weights, the conversion Go extraterrestrial irradiance, W/m2
efficiency of PV module takes an important role depending on the Gon normal extraterrestrial irradiance, W/m2
form of the evaluation of the environmental categories. It may G global irradiance, W/m2
serve as a mitigating circumstance to the values reported for the Gb beam irradiance, W/m2
different environmental categories. e.g. the alternative based on a- Gd diffuse irradiance, W/m2
Si PV module proved to be the best trade-off for all the objectives Gb global irradiance onto PV module tilted, W/m2
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