What is DNA?

“DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and transmitting the
hereditary materials or the genetic instructions from parents to offspring.”

❖ DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms including plants, mammals, insects, microbes etc.
❖ Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.
❖ Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a
small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called
mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA) [Mitochondria are structures within cells that convert
the energy from food into a form that cells can use].
❖ The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases:
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
❖ Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those
bases are the same in all people.
❖ The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for
building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the
alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.
❖ DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called
base pairs.
❖ Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule.
❖ Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide.
❖ Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double
helix.
❖ The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs
forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the
vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
❖ An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself.
❖ Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the
sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs
to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
What is RNA?

RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid molecule and made up of

ribonucleotides.

❖ A ribose nucleotide in the chain of RNA consists of a ribose sugar, phosphate

group, and a base.

❖ In each ribose sugar, one of the four bases is added: Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U).

❖ The base is attached to a ribose sugar with the help of a phosphodiester bond. As
RNA comprises many ribose nucleotides, the length of the chains of nucleotides
can vary according to their types or their functions.

❖ RNA thus differs from DNA, on the type of sugar used to make the molecule and
replacement of base Thymine in DNA with Uracil in RNA. Additionally, DNA is a
double-stranded molecule whereas RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
Properties of RNA

❖ RNA is a single-stranded molecule and not a double helix, one of the

consequences of this, is that RNA can form a variety of three-dimensional
molecular complexes than DNA.

❖ RNA has ribose sugar in its nucleotides, rather than deoxyribose. These two
sugars differ from each other in the presence or absence of an Oxygen atom.

❖ Ribose sugar is also a cyclical structure consisting of 5 Carbon and one Oxygen
just like DNA. But the major difference is the presence of extra OH group in 2’
Carbon of ribose which is absent in deoxyribose sugar.

❖ The OH group in 2’ Carbon makes the RNA molecule prone to hydrolysis.

 ❖ Some studies have also concluded that this chemical liability of RNA due to extra
OH- the group has led to DNA being the genetic storehouse as it lacks OH group
in 2’Carbon making it more stable to hold information.

❖ RNA nucleotides carry the nitrogenous bases, Purines, and Pyrimidines. But in
RNA in place of Pyrimidine Thymine, Uracil is present which too forms hydrogen
bonding with Adenine just as Thymine does in DNA molecule.

Structure of RNA

Fig: Structure of RNA. Created with BioRender.com

❖ RNA is a typical single-stranded biopolymer of ribonucleotides bonded with each

other via a phosphodiester bond.

❖ An RNA strand is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction from a locally single-stranded

region of DNA.

❖ It has ribose sugars that are attached to four bases: Adenine, Guanine, Uracil, and
Cytosine. Ribose sugar has an extra OH- group in 2’ Carbon as compared to
deoxyribose sugar in DNA.

❖ This extra OH- group in RNA, has led them to be synthesized for short-term
functions.

❖ The three-dimensional structure of RNA is critical to its stability and function.

❖ RNA being a single-stranded molecule can form a complex structure by allowing

its ribose sugars and bases to be modified on the action of cellular enzymes (that
attach chemical groups), to perform different functions.
 ❖ They are even capable of folding on themselves and showing intramolecular
hydrogen bonding between complementary strands, making it a double-stranded
molecule to exhibit specific function.

Composition of RNA

❖ RNA is a biopolymer of nucleotides bonded with each other via a phosphodiester

bond.
❖ The nucleotide that makes up the RNA are also referred to as Ribose nucleotide
due to the presence of ribose sugar in their structure. Overall, RNA is composed
of a ribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.
❖ Ribose sugar is a cyclical structure made up of five carbons and one oxygen
atom. This sugar contains two OH-groups at 2’ Carbon and 3’ Carbon.
❖ This ribose sugar is attached to a nitrogenous base via hydrogen bonding.
❖ There are four nitrogenous bases namely: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Uracil (U),
and Cytosine (C).
❖ These nitrogenous bases pair complementarily with each other: G with C and A
with U.

Types of RNA

Of many types of RNA, the three well known and most commonly discussed and found in
almost all organisms. These three types of RNA are:

1. mRNA (messenger RNA)

2. rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

3. tRNA (transfer RNA)

1. mRNA (messenger RNA)

Fig. mRNA (messenger RNA). Created with BioRender.com

❖ It is a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the strands

of DNA.

❖ mRNA is the version of the genetic materials that leave the nucleus and move to
the cytoplasm where responsible proteins are synthesized.

❖ This RNA has utmost importance during protein synthesis, when the ribosome
moves along this mRNA, it reads the base sequences and uses the genetic code
to translate them into specific proteins.

❖ These codes are in the form of triplet sequences of nitrogenous bases and are
often referred to as codons.

❖ As we now know that mRNA is responsible for transferring the genetic information
into ribosomes where by reading the base sequences on mRNA, the translation of
proteins is made possible, thus the name resembles its functions i.e., messenger
RNA.

❖ We can even say mRNA is the molecule that uses genetic code present on a
portion of DNA and make proteins. If mRNA wouldn’t have existed then the
information on DNA could never be used by our body.
2. rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

Fig: rRNA (ribosomal RNA). Created with BioRender.com

❖ It is a single-stranded RNA molecule found in cells that forms the part of the
protein-synthesizing organelle, Ribosome.

❖ It is synthesized inside the nucleus particularly in the nucleolus where rRNA coding
genes are present. The synthesized rRNA can be of varying sizes, commonly
distinguished as small and large.

❖ These newly synthesized rRNAs combine with ribosomal proteins and form smaller
subunits and larger subunits of ribosomes respectively.

❖ These rRNAs are vital in recognizing conserved regions of incoming mRNAs and
tRNA thus facilitating their binding and carrying out protein synthesis.

❖ Additionally, rRNA also has enzymatic activity (peptidyl transferase) and catalyzes
the formation of the peptide bond in between two aligned proteins/amino acids
during protein synthesis.
3. tRNA (transfer RNA)

Fig: tRNA (transfer RNA). Created with BioRender.com

❖ It is a type of RNA molecule that helps to decode information present in mRNA

sequences into specific proteins.

❖ It is encoded by DNA in the cell nucleus and transcribed with the help of RNA
polymerase ΙΙΙ.

❖ The structure of tRNA folds upon itself and creates an intra complementary base
pairing which gives raise to hydrogen-bonded stems and associated loops that
contains nucleotides with modified bases.

❖ The structure in two-dimensional resembles a cloverleaf having three loops and

an open end. are usually 75-90 ribonucleotides in length.

❖ Each of these loops consisting of arms has a distinct name and function. The three-
loop consisting arms are namely: DHU or D arm, which has recognition site for
specific enzyme amino-acyl tRNA synthetase; T arm that consists of ribosome
recognition site and Anticodon arm that recognizes and bind to mRNA present in
the ribosome.

❖ The open end with no loop is the site for attachment of amino acid, via 3’ OH
bonding with COOH- group of the amino acid.

❖ In general, tRNA reads the code on the mRNA sequence in Ribosome and
translates specific amino acid, it does so along the length of the mRNA and gives
 out a polypeptide chain of amino acids (proteins) in association with other
important enzymes like aminoacyl tRNA synthetase and peptidyl transferase.

Some other types of RNA

1. Ribozymes

❖ These types of RNAs refer to those RNAs that are capable of showing enzymatic
activities.

❖ They were first discovered in introns of precursor ribosomal RNA of Tetrahymena

thermophilus, where it was found that these noncoding sequences were capable
of excising themselves without any protein or external source.

❖ These RNAs play vital roles in major reactions like RNA splicing, viral replication,
and tRNA biosynthesis.
 ❖ rRNAs also show enzymatic activities and thus can be termed as Ribozymes.

2. Antisense RNAs

❖ Antisense RNAs are those RNAs that contain sequences that are complementary
to protein-coding sequences of mRNA.

❖ These are single-stranded like mRNA but cannot code for proteins.

❖ However, they can interfere and inactivate their complementary mRNA sequences
thus inhibiting protein synthesis.

❖ This ability of antisense RNAs has led researchers to create artificial antisense
RNAs that can inhibit the protein synthesis of potential disease-causing organisms
or of infected cells which then end up killing unwanted cells.

Functions of RNA

❖ The prime function of RNA is in protein synthesis.

❖ Without RNA, the information encoded in DNA could have never been transcribed
to make essential proteins that a cell needs to maintain its integrity.

❖ mRNAs have now been widely used in pharmaceutical industries to synthesize

potential vaccines.

❖ Moreover, mRNAs are now used to develop new categories of medicines

❖ mRNAs have made the formation of the cDNA library possible.

❖ rRNAs are structural units of Ribosomes, which are essential organelles during
protein synthesis.

❖ Ribozymes can help suppress the expression of specific mRNA by cleaving them
out without relying on the host’s machinery.

❖ Artificial antisense RNAs are capable of arresting protein synthesis by binding with
the mRNAs, which have contributed to the human’s ability to combat diseases and
mutations.
Functions of RNA in Protein Synthesis

Cells access the information stored in DNA by creating RNA to direct the synthesis of
proteins through the process of translation. Proteins within a cell have many functions,
including building cellular structures and serving as enzyme catalysts for cellular chemical
reactions that give cells their specific characteristics. The three main types of RNA directly
involved in protein synthesis are messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and
transfer RNA (tRNA).

In 1961, French scientists François Jacob and Jacques Monod hypothesized the
existence of an intermediary between DNA and its protein products, which they called
messenger RNA. Evidence supporting their hypothesis was gathered soon afterwards
showing that information from DNA is transmitted to the ribosome for protein synthesis
using mRNA. If DNA serves as the complete library of cellular information, mRNA serves
as a photocopy of specific information needed at a particular point in time that serves as
the instructions to make a protein.

The mRNA carries the message from the DNA, which controls all of the cellular activities
in a cell. If a cell requires a certain protein to be synthesized, the gene for this product is
“turned on” and the mRNA is synthesized through the process of transcription. The mRNA
then interacts with ribosomes and other cellular machinery to direct the synthesis of the
protein it encodes during the process of translation. mRNA is relatively unstable and
short-lived in the cell, especially in prokaryotic cells, ensuring that proteins are only made
when needed.

[A diagram showing mRNA as a long strand with sets of 3 letters grouped; the left of the
mRNA is labeled 3-prime, the right is labeled 5-prime. An oval labeled ribosome small
subunit sits under the mRNA and spans 3 of the 3-letter groups. A larger dome (labeled
ribosome large subunit) sits on top of the mRNA at this same region. The large subunit
has 3 gaps where rectangles labeled tRNA sit. These rectangles each sit on a group of
3-letters on the mRNA at one end and contain an amino acid on the other end. The tRNA
on the left has a single amino acid. The tRNA in the middle has a growing pepetide chain
of many amino acids. The tRNA on the right as no amino acids and is leaving the
ribosome.]

Fig: A generalized illustration of how mRNA and tRNA are used in protein synthesis within
a cell.

rRNA and tRNA are stable types of RNA. In prokaryotes and eukaryotes, tRNA and rRNA
are encoded in the DNA, then copied into long RNA molecules that are cut to release
smaller fragments containing the individual mature RNA species. In eukaryotes,
synthesis, cutting, and assembly of rRNA into ribosomes takes place in the nucleolus
region of the nucleus, but these activities occur in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Neither
of these types of RNA carries instructions to direct the synthesis of a polypeptide, but they
play other important roles in protein synthesis.

Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and protein. As its name suggests, rRNA is a major
constituent of ribosomes, composing up to about 60% of the ribosome by mass and
providing the location where the mRNA binds. The rRNA ensures the proper alignment
of the mRNA, tRNA, and the ribosomes; the rRNA of the ribosome also has an enzymatic
activity (peptidyl transferase) and catalyzes the formation of the peptide bonds between
two aligned amino acids during protein synthesis. Although rRNA had long been thought
to serve primarily a structural role, its catalytic role within the ribosome was proven in
2000.2 Scientists in the laboratories of Thomas Steitz (1940–) and Peter Moore(1939–)
at Yale University were able to crystallize the ribosome structure from Haloarcula
marismortui, a halophilic archaeon isolated from the Dead Sea. Because of the
importance of this work, Steitz shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with other
scientists who made significant contributions to the understanding of ribosome structure.

Transfer RNA is the third main type of RNA and one of the smallest, usually only 70–90
nucleotides long. It carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis in the
ribosome. It is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct
amino acid to be inserted in the polypeptide chain being synthesized. Any mutations in
the tRNA or rRNA can result in global problems for the cell because both are necessary
for proper protein synthesis

[A diagram of the 2-dimentional tRNA which is a single long strand of RNA folded into a
plus shape with loops on the sides and bottom. The regions where the tRNA is folded so
that there are 2 parts of the strand forming the linear portions of the plus are held together
by hydrogen bonds labeled intramolecular pairing. The loop at the bottom has a set of 3
letters that are complimentary to 3 letters on the mRNA. The top part of the plus has a
single stranded end at the 3-prime end; this is attached to an amino acid. B) The 3-
dimentional structure looks like single strand folded into a double stranded structure with
a bend in the middle.]
Fig: A tRNA molecule is a single-stranded molecule that exhibits significant intracellular
base pairing, giving it its characteristic three-dimensional shape.
RNA as Hereditary Information

Although RNA does not serve as the hereditary information in most cells, RNA does hold
this function for many viruses that do not contain DNA. Thus, RNA clearly does have the
additional capacity to serve as genetic information. Although RNA is typically single
stranded within cells, there is significant diversity in viruses. Rhinoviruses, which cause
the common cold; influenza viruses; and the Ebola virus, are single-stranded RNA
viruses. Rotaviruses, which cause severe gastroenteritis in children and other immune
compromised individuals, are examples of double-stranded RNA viruses. Because
double-stranded RNA is uncommon in eukaryotic cells, its presence serves as an
indicator of viral infection. The implications for a virus having an RNA genome instead of
a DNA genome are discussed in more detail in Viruses.
DNA vs. RNA – A comparison chart

Comparison DNA RNA

Full Name Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Function DNA replicates and stores genetic RNA converts the genetic
information. It is a blueprint for all information contained within
genetic information contained within DNA to a format used to build
an organism. proteins, and then moves it to
ribosomal protein factories.

Structure DNA consists of two strands, RNA only has one strand, but
arranged in a double helix. These like DNA, is made up of
strands are made up of subunits nucleotides. RNA strands are
called nucleotides. Each nucleotide shorter than DNA strands. RNA
contains a phosphate, a 5-carbon sometimes forms a secondary
sugar molecule and a nitrogenous double helix structure, but only
base. intermittently.

Length DNA is a much longer polymer than RNA molecules are variable in
RNA. A chromosome, for example, length, but much shorter than
is a single, long DNA molecule, long DNA polymers. A large
which would be several centimetres RNA molecule might only be a
in length when unraveled. few thousand base pairs long.

Sugar The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose sugar

which contains one less hydroxyl molecules, without the hydroxyl
group than RNA’s ribose. modifications of deoxyribose.
Bases The bases in DNA are Adenine (‘A’), RNA shares Adenine (‘A’),
Thymine (‘T’), Guanine (‘G’) and Guanine (‘G’) and Cytosine
Cytosine (‘C’). (‘C’) with DNA, but contains
Uracil (‘U’) rather than
Thymine.
 Base Pairs Adenine and Thymine pair (A-T) Adenine and Uracil pair (A-U)

Cytosine and Guanine pair (C-G) Cytosine and Guanine pair (C-
G)

Location DNA is found in the nucleus, with a RNA forms in the nucleolus,
small amount of DNA also present in and then moves to specialized
mitochondria. regions of the cytoplasm
depending on the type of RNA
formed.
Reactivity Due to its deoxyribose sugar, which RNA, containing a ribose
contains one less oxygen-containing sugar, is more reactive than
hydroxyl group, DNA is a more DNA and is not stable in
stable molecule than RNA, which is alkaline conditions. RNA’s
useful for a molecule which has the larger helical grooves mean it is
task of keeping genetic information more easily subject to attack by
safe. enzymes.

Ultraviolet DNA is vulnerable to damage by RNA is more resistant to

(UV) ultraviolet light. damage from UV light than
Sensitivity DNA.

What are the key differences between DNA and RNA?

We can identify five key categories where DNA and RNA differ:

• Function
• Sugar
 • Bases
• Structure
• Location

Function

DNA encodes all genetic information, and is the blueprint from which all biological life is
created. And that’s only in the short-term. In the long-term, DNA is a storage device, a
biological flash drive that allows the blueprint of life to be passed between generations.
RNA functions as the reader that decodes this flash drive. This reading process is multi-
step and there are specialized RNAs for each of these steps. Below, we look in more
detail at the three most important types of RNA.

What are the three types of RNA?

Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies portions of genetic code; a process called transcription,
and transports these copies to ribosomes, which are the cellular factories that facilitate
the production of proteins from this code.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for bringing amino acids, basic protein building
blocks, to these protein factories, in response to the coded instructions introduced by the
mRNA. This protein-building process is called translation.

Finally, Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the ribosome factory itself, without
which protein production would not occur.

Sugar

Both DNA and RNA are built with a sugar backbone, but whereas the sugar in DNA is
called deoxyribose (left in image), the sugar in RNA is called simply ribose (right in image).
The ‘deoxy’ prefix denotes that, whilst RNA has two hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to its
carbon backbone, DNA has only one, and has a lone hydrogen atom attached instead.
RNA’s extra hydroxyl group proves useful in the process of converting genetic code into
mRNAs that can be made into proteins, whilst the deoxyribose sugar gives DNA more
stability.
Figure: The chemical structures of deoxyribose and ribose sugars are compared. The
chemical structures of deoxyribose (left) and ribose (right) sugars. Bases

The nitrogen bases in DNA are the basic units of genetic code, and their correct ordering
and pairing is essential to biological function. The four bases that make up this code are
adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Bases pair off together in a double
helix structure, these pairs being A and T, and C and G. RNA doesn’t contain thymine
bases, replacing them with uracil bases (U), which pair to adenine.

Structure

While the ubiquity of Francis Crick and James Watson’s (or should that be Rosalind
Franklin’s?) DNA double helix means that the two-stranded structure of DNA structure is
common knowledge, RNA’s single-stranded format is not as well known.

RNA can form into double-stranded structures, such as during translation, when mRNA
and tRNA molecules pair. DNA polymers are also much longer than RNA polymers; the
2.3m long human genome consists of 46 chromosomes, each of which is a single, long
DNA molecule. RNA molecules, by comparison, are much shorter.

Location

Eukaryotic cells, including all animal and plant cells, house the great majority of their DNA
in the nucleus, where it exists in a tightly compressed form, called a chromosome4. This
squeezed format means the DNA can be easily stored and transferred. In addition to
nuclear DNA, some DNA is present in energy-producing mitochondria, small organelles
found free-floating in the cytoplasm, the area of the cell outside the nucleus.

The three types of RNA are found in different locations. mRNA is made in the nucleus,
with each mRNA fragment copied from its relative piece of DNA, before leaving the
nucleus and entering the cytoplasm. The fragments are then shuttled around the cell as
needed, moved along by the cell’s internal transport system, the cytoskeleton. tRNA, like
mRNA, is a free-roaming molecule that moves around the cytoplasm. If it receives the
correct signal from the ribosome, it will then hunt down amino acid subunits in the
cytoplasm and bring them to the ribosome to be built into proteins5. rRNA, as previously
mentioned, is found as part of ribosomes. Ribosomes are formed in an area of the nucleus
called the nucleolus, before being exported to the cytoplasm, where some ribosomes float
freely. Other cytoplasmic ribosomes are bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, a
membranous structure that helps process proteins and export them from the cell.

Unusual types of DNA and RNA

The structure we have described in this article is certainly the most common form of DNA,
but it isn’t the whole story. Other forms of both DNA and RNA exist that subvert the
classical structures of these nucleic acids.

Z-DNA

While the structure of DNA you will see above – and in any biology textbook you might
care to open – has a right-handed helix, DNA molecules with left-handed helices also
exist. These are known as Z-DNA. Canonical, “classic” DNA is called B-DNA.

Z-DNA molecules are:

Thinner (18 A wide as opposed to 20 A wide B-DNA)

Have a different repeating unit (two base pairs as opposed to one)

Have different twist angles between bases

Z-DNA is thought to play a role in regulating gene expression and may be produced in
the wake of DNA processing enzymes, like DNA polymerase.

A-DNA

Identified at the same time as B-DNA by Rosalind Franklin, A-DNA is an alternative DNA
structure that often appears when the molecule is dehydrated. Many crystal structures of
DNA are in an A-DNA form. It has a shorter structure, with different numbers of base pairs
per turn and tilt than B-DNA. A-DNA’s biological relevance has been greatly expanded on
in recent years, and it is now recognized that A-DNA is involved in many roles, such as:

Binding to DNA enzymes, such as polymerases – this transition may enable specific
atoms to be exposed for enzymatic action.

Protection from damage – A-DNA is far less susceptible to ultraviolet ray damage, and
spore-forming bacteria have been shown to adopt an A-DNA conformation, which may
be a protective change.

Triplex DNA

A triple-helix DNA structure can form when certain nucleobases – pyrimidine or purine –
occupy the major grooves in conventional B-DNA. This can happen naturally or as part
of intentional DNA-modifying strategies for research purposes.

Triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) can bind conventional two-stranded DNA, which

can help guide agents that are used to modify DNA to specific genomic locations. H-DNA
is an endogenous, triple-stranded DNA molecule that encourages mutation of the
genome.
2. Salient features of the structure of DNA

The B form DNA, also known as the Watson- Crick DNA is the most stable and prevalent
form of DNA. The important structural features of B- DNA are:

1. There are two polynucleotide chains in the DNA spirally twisted around each other
to form a right handed double helix.
2. The sugar-phosphate backbones remain on the outside, while the core of the helix
contains the purine and pyrimidine bases.
3. The diameter of DNA is 2 nm or 20 A°. The length of a complete turn of helix is 3.4
nm or 34 A° i.e. there are ~10.5bp per turn.
4. The DNA helix has a shallow groove called minor groove (-1.2nm) and a deep
groove called major groove (-2.2nm). Proteins interact with DNA through the minor
and major grooves without disrupting the DNA strands.
5. Each polynucleotide chain is made up of four different bases. The purine bases
present in DNA are adenine and guanine and the pyrimidine bases present are
thymine and cytosine. The sequence of purine and pyrimidine carry the genetic
information whereas the sugar and phosphate groups perform the structural role.
6. Each polynucleotide chain has direction or polarity. Further, each polynucleotide
chain has 5΄phosphorylated and 3΄hydroxyl ends.
7. The two strands run in opposite direction (i.e.) they are antiparallel.
dsRNA

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is most commonly found as the genomic basis of many
plant, animal and human viruses. These include Reoviridae and the rotaviruses, which
are responsible for diseases like gastroenteritis. dsRNA molecules are potent
immunogens – they activate the immune system, which then cuts the dsDNA as a
protective mechanism. The discovery of the protein machinery that permits this reaction
led to the development of gene-silencing RNAi technology, which won the 2006 Nobel
Prize for Physiology or Medicine.