Biology Learn Malawi Form 2

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 1
INVESTIGATIVE SKILLS
Website: www.learnmalawi.com
Email: info@learnmalawi.com
Compiled By: Malazi Mkandawire
Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

INVESTIGATIVE SKILLS
Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
1 plan investigations
2 carry out investigations
3 analyse data
4 draw conclusions
Contents
• Planning investigations
o identifying aim of the investigations
o formulating hypotheses
o identifying variables
o designing investigations
• Carrying out investigations
o carrying out investigations systematically
o making observations
o recording data
• Recording and analyzing data
o presenting data in table and graphic forms
o analysing data
▪ looking for qualitative and quantitative mathematical
relationships
• Drawing conclusions
o interpreting data and drawing conclusions
o writing reports
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Knowledge in science is built through scientific Investigations. Scientific
investigation is a plan of asking questions and testing possible answers
by using the scientific method. The scientific method refers to a series
of standard steps that are used gather scientific knowledge.
Investigative skills
In biology, the term investigation means an experiment or practical work
undertaken to find something out about living organisms. However,
investigations can be good or bad depending on how well thought out the
design of the experiment is. There are basic skills that one must use in
scientific investigation. These skills are: planning the investigation,
performing the investigation, analyzing the investigation, drawing
conclusion.
PLANNING THE INVESTIGATION
A plan is an outline of what one intends to do. To come up with a plan, a
student must undertake relevant background reading. From background
reading the student will learn about correct use of scientific conventions
like notation and SI units. A plan of your investigation should have the
following main components:
1. Aim/reason of the experiment/investigation
2. hypothesis
3. variables
4. experimental design (or design of the investigation)
Other auxiliary things that a plan should contain are notes on any
anticipated problems, ethical issues, and how they can be managed.
Identifying aim of the investigation

A person using the scientific method must first identify a problem that
needs solving. The aim is a goal that one wants to learn by the end of the
investigation. The following steps are involved in coming up with the aim:
1. Observation
2. Research problem
An observation is anything that is detected through human senses or

with instruments and measuring devices that enhance human senses.
Observations often lead to interesting questions. The question is also
called a research problem as such this step is also called identifying a
problem.
For example, a student may observe that his friend is tall. His question
might be - Why is my friend so tall? The aim is derived from the research
problem. The aim must start with the word “To”: To observe; To
investigate; To examine; To analyze; and so on. In this example, the aim
is “To know why my friend is tall”.
formulating hypotheses
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a scientific question. For instance,

they might guess that their friend is tall because he drinks a lot of milk. To
solve one problem, several hypotheses may be proposed. For instance,
another guess is that their friend is tall because he has tall parents.
Hypotheses often also include an explanation for the educated guess. For
example, the hypothesis that the friend is tall because he drinks a lot of
milk can be explained by the reason that milk is good for your bones.
Similarly, the hypothesis that the friend is tall because his parents are tall is
explained by the reason that he inherited tall genes from his parents.
A scientifically useful hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. A

hypothesis is an assertion that an observation is true. Falsifiable means
that the hypothesis, the true statement, can be proved to be false. you
can either support a hypothesis or you can disprove it – show that it is
false. you cannot however prove that a hypothesis is true because a
hypothesis is by convention inherently or implicitly true. The next step will
be hypothesis testing whose aim is to find evidence that will either support
the hypothesis or falsify it (disprove it).
To test a hypothesis, you first need to make a prediction based on the

hypothesis. A prediction is a statement that tells what will happen under
certain conditions. It can be expressed in the form: If A occurs, then B will
happen. Based on your hypotheses, you might make the following
predictions: If a person drinks a lot of milk, then they will grow to be very
tall. If a person has tall parents, then they will also be tall.
Identifying variables
A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the
experiment. Typically, an experiment only tests one variable and all the
other conditions in the experiment are held constant.
An experiment generally tests how one variable is affected by another.
i. The affected variable is called the dependent variable, or outcome

variable. In other words, the dependent variable is the thing (or
things) that you are measuring as the outcome of your experiment.
ii. The variable that affects the dependent variable is called the
independent variable. In other words, the variable that is tested is
known as the independent variable. It is also called the
manipulated variable because this is the variable that is
manipulated by the researcher.
iii. Any other variables (control variable) that might also affect the
dependent variable are held constant, so the effects of the
independent variable alone are measured. A Controlled variable I
a variable that is kept the same during a scientific experiment. Any
change in a controlled variable would invalidate the results.

Sometimes not all control variables may be made constant. A
confounding variable is a condition that is not held constant that could
affect the experimental results.
Designing investigations (Testing hypothesis)
The test of a hypothesis may include experimentation (investigation),

additional observations, or the synthesis of information from a variety of
sources or modelling. We will assume the hypothesis is tested via an
experiment. Before an experiment is carried out, it has to be designed. A
design of the experiment will have the following:
• Aim: A brief sentence describing the purpose of the experiment.

• Apparatus: A list of the apparatus.
• Method/procedure: A list of the steps followed to carry out the
experiment.
Here is a sample design:
Testing for Starch
Aim
To test various leaves for the presence of
starch
Hypothesis:
Where starch is present, iodine reagent
will turn green areas of the leaf to blue
black
Materials
• Eye protection
• Bunsen burner
• Tripod and gauze
• Heatproof mat
• 250ml beaker
• Boiling tube
• Forceps
• White tile
• Iodine
• Ethanol
• Variegated leaf
Method:
1. Dip the leaf in the boiling water for

about two minutes
2. Dip the leaf in boiling alcohol e.g.
ethanol
3. Dip the leaf in warm water for
about two minutes
4. Spread the leaf on a white tile and
add a few drops of iodine solution
on the leaf
Figure x.x: sample experiment design
Aim of the experiment
The aim has been explained in a previous section.
Apparatus
All the apparatus that you will need for the investigation needs to be listed.
• Sizes of beakers, test tubes and measuring cylinders

• Specialised equipment that you may need must also be included
(make sure that this equipment is available for your research).

• Include all chemicals and quantities that are required for your
investigation.
Method or procedure
This is where you test your hypothesis (or prediction). Guidelines for a
method are as follows:
• Write down the scientific method in bullet format for your

investigation.
• The method should be written so that a complete stranger will be
able to carry out the same procedure in the exact same way and get
almost identical results.
• The method should be written in the past tense using the passive
voice.
• The method must be clear and precise instructions including
o The apparatus
o Exact measurements or quantities of chemicals or substances
• Ensure that your method is written out in the correct sequence, with
each step of the experiment numbered.
• State the criteria you will look for or measure to get results.
• Give clear instructions how the results should be recorded (table,
graph etc.)
• Include safety precautions where possible.
CARRYING OUT INVESTIGATIONS

This stage as three steps
1. Carrying out investigations systematically
2. Making observations
3. Recording data
carrying out investigations systematically

This is where you follow the instructions that are written down in the
procedure.
Making observation or measurements
While the experiment is running, you will be noticing some changes. You
have to take note of any changes that are happening to the samples or
specimen. Some experiments involve taking measurements. You have to
follow instructions on how to use the stipulated measuring instrument.
Recording data
The observations and measurements that we make during investigations
are the results or data of the investigation. The results (data) may be
qualitative or quantitative.
• Qualitative results (qualitative/categorical data) - These results are

textual description of the changes that have been observed. They
usually describe quality or characteristics of things being studies.
qualitative data is also called categorical data. Qualitative data
address – what type or which category and are further classified as
ordinal and nominal
o Ordinal data – these take ranked data or logically orders data
eg population size (small, medium, large), attitudes (strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
o Nominal-these take data that cannot be logically organized in a
sequence such as – gender, eye colour, type of leaf.
• Quantitative results (quantitative/numerical data) - These results are
numeric information about observation or measurements that have
been done. Numerical data address – how many or how much
questions. they are further classified into continuous and discrete
data.
o Continuous data can take any value between a certain set of
real numbers, for example, length (7.85 metres), age (12.5
million years) or production (canola crop yield of 2.6 tonnes per
hectare)

o Discrete data can take a value based on a count from a set of
distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction
between one value and the next closest value, for example,
number of kangaroos in a paddock
The results can be recorded in charts, graphs or tables. Scatter plots and
line graphs are used to graph numerical data.
ANALYZING DATA
This stage is about examining the results and involves the following:
• making summaries
• observing trends
• looking for trends and relationships.
The aim of analysis is to either support the hypothesis or prediction or
falsify it.
Summaries
Some statistical summaries that might be made include the mean, range,
median
Trends and relationships
Some data may exhibit an increasing trend, a decreasing trend, a constant
trend – neither increasing or decreasing. Correlation is used to check if
datasets are related. The relationship can be any of the following: ratio,
proportion – you can have a direct proportion or an inverse proportion.
Ratios compare values, while proportions compare ratios.
Ratios compare values. You can compare the number of brown-haired

boys to the number of blond-haired boys, or to the number of pencils in
the classroom, or to the number of brown-haired girls, or … well, you get
the idea. Ratios compare values of the same things or things that are

different. Say you have 10 brown-haired girls in a class, and 6 blonde-
haired girls in the same class. You can set up six different ratios:
• 10/16 - Brown-haired girls to all girls
• 6/10- Blonde-haired girls to brown-haired girls
• 6/16- Blonde-haired girls to all girls
• 10/6- Brown-haired girls to blonde-haired girls
• 16/10 - All girls to brown-haired girls
• 16/6- All girls to blonde-haired girls
Ratios can be written as proper or improper fractions. They can also be

written with a semicolon, like this: 10:16 or 6:10
Proportions
When you compare two ratios, you use proportions. You are asking if the
first ratio is the same, less than, or more than the second ratio. If ration
are not qual, then they are not proportional. Proportional relationship are
either direct or inverse.
A proportional relationship is one in which two quantities vary directly with
each other. We say the variable y varies directly as x if:
y=kx
for some constant k , called the constant of proportionality . a direct

proportional relationship may be expressed by saying that " y varies
proportionally with x " or that " y is directly proportional to x ." This means
that as x increases, y increases and as x decreases, y decreases-and that
the ratio between them always stays the same. a and b will be in direct
proportion if a/b = k(k is constant) or a = kb. In such a case if b 1, b2 are
the values of b corresponding to the values a 1, a2 of a respectively then,
a1/b2 = a2/b1

Figure x.x: Direct proportional graph
Two quantities a and b are said to be in Inverse proportion if - Increase in

a decreases the b and Decrease in a increases the b But the ratio of their
respective values must be the same. a and b will be in inverse proportion if
k= ab. In such a case if b 1, b2 are the values of b corresponding to the
values a1, a2 of a respectively then, a1b1 = a2b2 = k, When two quantities
a and b are in inverse proportion then they are written as a ∝ 1/b
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion needs to link the results to the aim and hypothesis. In a
short paragraph, write down if what was observed is supported or rejected
by the hypothesis by restating the variables that were tested. If your
original hypothesis does not match up with the final results of your
experiment, do not change the hypothesis. Instead, try and explain what
might have been wrong with your original hypothesis. What information did
you not have originally that cause you to be wrong in your prediction?
REFERENCES
https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/introduction-
to-life-sciences/00-introduction-to-life-sciences-02 17-07-202
https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/curriculum/vce/vce-study-
designs/biology/advice-for-teachers/Pages/DefiningVariables.aspx 17-07-
2020

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 2
PLANT STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Objectives
1 describe structure and functions of plants
2 describe the process of photosynthesis
Contents
• Functions - leaves, stems, roots
• Internal structure of flowering plants
o Internal structure of the leaf
▪ cuticle, epidermis, stomates, mesophyll, veins
▪ Distribution of stomates on the upper and lower sides of
the leaf
o Internal structure of the stem
o Internal structure of the roots
• Photosynthesis
o Food making in green plants
▪ Word equation
▪ Chemical equation
o Raw materials for photosynthesis
o Conditions necessary for photosynthesis
o Investigations on conditions necessary for photosynthesis: light,
carbon dioxide, chlorophyll

Introduction
The main parts of a plant include: Roots, Stem, Leaves, Flowers, and Fruits
(see figure x.x)
Figure x.x: main parts of a plant
Internal structure of the leaf

We will look at the following parts of the internal structure of the leaf:
cuticle, epidermis, stomates, mesophyll, and veins (see figure x.x).

Figure x.x: internal structure of the parts of a leaf
Epidermis
This is a layer of cells that lies on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf.
These cells do not contain chloroplasts. The epidermis gives the leaf its
shape and protect the inner cells of the leaf: prevent bacteria and fungi
from getting into the leaf, secrete wax that forms the cuticle. On top of the
epidermis lies a thin waxy layer called cuticle. The cuticle helps with the
following:
• Helps the surface of the leaf to prevent excessive evaporation

• Block water from entering through the surface of the leaf
• Protects internal organs of the leaf from damage of physical forces
The cells are quite transparent and permit most of the light that strikes
them to pass through to the underlying cells. most of the stomata
(thousands per square centimeter) are located in the lower epidermis.
Although most of the cells of the lower epidermis resemble those of the
upper epidermis, each stoma is flanked by two sausage-shaped cells called
guard cells. These differ from the other cells of the lower epidermis not
only in their shape but also in having chloroplasts. The guard cells regulate
the opening and closing of the stomata. Thus, they control the exchange of
gases between the leaf and the surrounding atmosphere.

Stomata (or stomata pore)
These are openings on the surface of the leaf. The singular for stomata is
stoma. In most dicotyledons (plants with broad leaves e.g bean leaves),
stomata are on the lower side of the leaf. In monocotyledons (plants with
narrow leaves e.g grass), stomata are on either side of the leaf. Each
stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. Guard cells control the
opening and closing of stomata. Guard cells, unlike other cells in the
epidermis, do contain chloroplasts.
When the stomata are open, they allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the
leaf where it is used for photosynthesis. If the stomata close, the carbon
dioxide supply to the leaf cells is virtually cut off and photosynthesis stops.
Mesophyll
This is a layer of cells that is between the epidermis. It is divided into two
parts: the upper palisade mesophyll and the lower spongy mesophyll.
The palisade cells are usually long tightly packed and contain many
chloroplasts and carry on most of the photosynthesis in the leaf.
The spongy mesophyll cells vary in shape, but usually rounded and loosely
packed, with several air spaces between them. They also contain
chloroplasts as such they make food through photosynthesis. Their main
functions are to act a temporary storage of sugars and amino acids
synthesized in the palisade layer and to aid in the exchange of gases
between the leaf and the environment.
The mesophyll main function is to make food by photosynthesis. Their

chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use its energy to join carbon dioxide and
water molecules to make sugar molecules. In daylight, when
photosynthesis is rapid, the mesophyll cells are using up carbon dioxide. As
a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air spaces falls to a low
level and more carbon dioxide diffuses in from the outside air, through the
stomata. This diffusion continues through the air spaces, up to the cells
which are using carbon dioxide. These cells are also producing oxygen as a
by-product of photosynthesis. When the concentration of oxygen in the air
spaces rises, it diffuses out through the stomata.
Vascular bundle
They run through the petiole, midrib and veins. Vascular bundles consist of
two different types of tissues, called xylem and phloem. The xylem
vessels are long thin tubes with no cell contents when mature. They have
thickened cell walls, impregnated with a material called lignin, which can
form distinct patterns in the vessel walls, e.g. spirals. Xylem carries water
and salts to cells in the leaf. The phloem is in the form of sieve tubes. The
ends of each elongated cell are perforated to form sieve plates and the
cells retain their contents. Phloem transports food substances such as
sugars away from the leaf to other parts of the plant.
The water needed for making sugar by photosynthesis is brought to the

mesophyll cells by the veins. The mesophyll cells take in the water by
osmosis because the concentration of free water molecules in a leaf cell,
which contains sugars, will be less than the concentration of water in the
water vessels of a vein. The branching network of leaf veins means that no
cell is very far from a water supply. The sugars made in the mesophyll cells
are passed to the phloem cells of the veins, and these cells carry the
sugars away from the leaf into the stem.
Stomata opening and closing
Changes in the turgor and shape of the guard cells can open or close the
stomatal pore. Stomata are open during the hours of daylight but closed
during the evening and most of the night (Figure 6.21).

Figure 3.3: Stomata opening and closing - (a)open stomata; (b)
closed stomata [source:Internet]
In the light, the potassium concentration in the guard cell vacuoles

increases. This lowers the water potential of the cell sap and water enters
the guard cells by osmosis from their neighbouring epidermal cells. This
inflow of water raises the turgor pressure inside the guard cells. The cell
wall next to the stomatal pore is thicker than elsewhere in the cell and is
less able to stretch. So, although the increased turgor tends to expand the
whole guard cell, the thick inner wall cannot expand. This causes the guard
cells to curve in such a way that the stomatal pore between them is
opened. When potassium ions leave the guard cell, the water potential
rises, water passes out of the cells by osmosis, the turgor pressure falls
and the guard cells straighten up and close the stoma.
Distribution of stomata
Distribution of stomata varies between monocots and dicots, between plant

species, and between the underside and top side of the leaves on a plant.

Stomata are found more on plant surfaces thriving under higher light,
lower atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and in moist
environments.
Usually the lower surface of a dicot leaf has a greater number of stomata
while in a monocot leaf they are more or less equal on both surfaces. In
most of the floating plants, stomata are found only on the upper epidermis.
Internal structure of the stem

The stem’s anatomy consists of three tissue systems that work together to
support, protect, and aid in nourishing the plant. The stem is composed of
three tissue systems that include the epidermis, vascular, and ground
tissues, all of which are made from the simple cell types.
Figure x.x: internal structure of the sterm

The epidermis is a single layer of cells that makes up the dermal tissue
covering the stem and protecting the underlying tissue. Woody plants have
an extra layer of protection on top of the epidermis made of cork cells
known as bark.

The vascular tissue of the stem consists of the complex tissues xylem
and phloem which carry water and nutrients up and down the length of the
stem and are arranged in distinct strands called vascular bundles. The
xylem and phloem carry water and nutrients up and down the length of the
stem and are arranged in distinct strands called vascular bundles.
Cambium (vascular cambium) is A narrow strip of meristematic cells
that is between xylem and phloem of dicots. Vascular bundles having
cambium between xylem and phloem are called open type. But vascular
cambium is not found in the vascular bundles of monocots. Their vascular
bundles are closed type.
Ground tissue helps support the stem and is called pith when it is
located towards the middle of the stem and called the cortex when it is
between the vascular tissue and the epidermis. Pith is a central area for
storage & support. Cortex is storage area between cambium and
epidermis
Vascular bundles in dicots and monocots

When the stem is viewed in cross section, the vascular bundles of dicot
stems are arranged in a ring. In plants with stems that live for more than
one year, the individual bundles grow together and produce the
characteristic growth rings. In monocot stems, the vascular bundles are
randomly scattered throughout the ground tissue.

Figure x.x: comparison of internal structures of dicots and monocots
Internal structure of the roots

Roots are vital to the plant in a variety of ways: they provide stability, store
nutrients, and act as the primary source of water and nutrient acquisition.
In general, the root comprises all parts of the plat that lie beneath the soil,
even though most of the tissues of the plant, including the vascular tissues,
are continuous throughout the root and shoot (stem, leaves, flowers, etc.).

The epidermis is a single layer of cells on the outside that protects the
inner tissues. Some epidermal cells are specialized to form root hair cells.
These absorb water and dissolved mineral salts.
The cortex consists of parenchyma cells. These cells are large to store
water and food. They also facilitate the movement of water from the root
hair cells on the outside to the xylem on the inside.
The endodermis is lined with Casparian strips, distinctive bands made of a

water-impermeable, waxy substance called suberin, that prevents water
and minerals from passively seeping between the cells and thus forces
water to enter through the cell membranes of the endodermal cells in
order to enter the stele (vascular cylinder).
The stele consists of the:
• Pericycle (responsible for forming lateral roots)

• Xylem (responsible for transporting water and mineral salts to the
stem)
• Phloem (responsible for transporting food from the leaves to the
roots)
Photosynthesis
All living organisms need energy. Organisms are either autotrophs or

heterotrophs depending the source of energy. Autotrophic organisms use
inorganic compounds to make energy containing compounds usually via
photosynthesis. Heterotrophs eat autotrophs or other heterotrophs that have
eaten autotrophs. Autotrophs are called producers. Some organisms are both
autotrophic and heterotrophic. Plants are autotrophs.
Photosynthesis in plants
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates

from raw materials using energy from light. During photosynthesis plants
take carbon dioxide and water and produce glucose and oxygen. In words,
photosynthesis equation is written as:
As a chemical equation, the photosynthesis process can be written as:
Raw materials for photosynthesis
The raw materials for photosynthesis are as follows:
• Carbon dioxide - carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere

through the stomata and then into the intercellular airspaces in
the leaves and finally into the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells.
• Water - water is absorbed through the root hair then into the xylem
of the roots and into the xylem of the stem, it then goes through the

xylem of the leaves into the mesophyll cells and finally into the
chloroplasts.
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis

Factors that affect rate of photosynthesis are:
• light intensity
• carbon dioxide concentration
• temperature
• The amount of chlorophyll also affects the rate of photosynthesis:
We will investigate effects of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll on

photosynthesis
Activity x.x
To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis
Materials
• Potted plant that was in the dark
• Aluminium foil strip
• Clips
• Iodine solution
• White tile
• Methylated spirit
• Water in the beaker
Procedure
1. Detach a leaf and test for starch
2. Cover a portion of the leaf of the potted plant with an aluminum foil
or black carbon paper
3. Use a paper clip to secure the foil to the green leaf. see figure x.x

4. Leave the plant to stand in bright sunlight for 7 hours. See figure
x.x
5. Detach the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil from the plant
to test for start
6. Record the results
Discussion
The following can be observed. The covered portion of the leaf remains
yellow as it does not perform photosynthesis. The area of the leaf that
was uncovered performed photosynthesis and will have starch, therefore
turned blue-black with iodine solution. This proves that light is necessary
for the photosynthesis.

Activity x.x:
To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis
Materials
• Two potted plants, that were in the dark for 24 hours

• Two Transparent plastic bags (polythene bags)
• Potassium hydroxide (potash) Sodium hydroxide (soda lime)
solution
• Sodium bicarbonate
• Elastic bands
• Boiling tube
• Beaker with water
• Two plastic containers
Procedure
1. Place potash or soda lime into a small plastic container. Place the
container onto the pot that is having one of the two plants.
2. Cover the whole plant with the transparent polythene bag
3. Tie the opening of the with an elastic band

4. Label the set-up plant A. see figure for set up of plant A
5. Place Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) into a small plastic

container. Place the container onto the pot that is having the
remaining plant
6. Cover the whole plant with the transparent polythene bag
7. Tie the opening of the with an elastic band
8. Label the setup plant B. see figure for set up of plant B
9. Leave the plants for 48 hours

10. Test for starch
11. Record the results

Discussions
Sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from

the air as such air in polythene bag A has no carbo dioxide. Sodium
hydrogen carbonate releases carbon dioxide into the air as such air in
polythene bag B has carbon dioxide. When we test for start, the leaf
from plant A is yellow to brown while the leaf from plant B is blue black.
This shows that photosynthesis took place in plant B while it did not take
place in plat A as such carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Activity x.x:
To show that Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
Materials
• Variegated leaf
• Tripod stand
• Wire gauze

• White tile
• Iodine solution
• Pair of forceps
• Beakers with water
• Boiling tube
Procedure
1. Detach a variegated leaf
a.
2. Make a sketch of the leaf to record a profile of green parts and

non-green parts
3. Test the leaf for starch
4. Draw the leaf and record the observations.
Discussion
Variegated leaves have pale parts (white or yellow), which do not contain
chlorophyll. The green parts of the leaf contain chlorophyll and are
control. Only the green parts of the leaf react with iodine and turn blue-
black. The pale areas do not produce start as such are yellow brown.

BIOLOGY
FORM 2
CHAPTER 3
BLOOD DONATION

BLOOD DONATION
Objectives
1 explain the process of blood donation
2 discuss the role of Malawi Blood Transfusion Service
Contents
• Types of blood donors
o Family replacemenet donors
o Voluntary non-renumerated donors
• Process of blood donation
o pre-donation counselling
o eligibility criteria
o venipuncture
o post-donation counselling
• Role of Malawi Blood Transfusion Service (MBTS)
o MBTS activities –
▪ district campaigns
▪ open days
▪ static clinics
▪ mobile clinics

blood transfusion
blodd transfuion is a process whereby a patient is given blood that has
been donated by another person
circumstances where blood transfusion is necessary
blood transfussion is necessary when an individual loses a lot of blood in
some of the following situations
• mothers at child birth
• accident or injury
• acue anaemia
• surgery
• diseases like malaria that cause acute anaemia
blood donation
a process whereby a healthy individual gives some amount of blood for use
in blood transfusion to a patient. Blood is collected by qualified medical
staff under ministry of healt or red cross or malawi blood transfusion
services
The blood is stored in hospitals in the stores called blood banks. In the
blood banks, the blood is kept at cool temperatures and chemicals are
added to ensure that it does not clot.
Types of blood donors
There are two ype of blood donors
• Family replacemenet donors
• Voluntary non-renumerated donors
Family replacemenet donors
These are family members of a patient who are requested to donate blood
to replace the one the patient used from the blood bank.

After the transfusion, family members of the patient are requested to visit
the hospital to donate blood of any type to replace the amount used by
their relative. This enables continous supply of blood so that more people
should benefit from transfudion services.
Voluntary non-renumerated donors
These are individuals who donate blood out of their will without any
payment. This act enables sufficient blood supply in hospitals.
Process of blood donation

The process of blood donation has the following steps
1. pre-donation counselling,
2. eligibility criteria,
3. venipuncture
4. post-donation counselling
pre-donation counselling
Before blood donation the donor is taught about blood donation

requirements and its importance. Donors are free to ask questions that
can remove any fears that they harbour in their minds. Some of the things
that may be discussed during a blood donation exercise are as follows:
• fear of needle - A needle is used during blood donation. Some

people are afraid of needles as such during couselling the donor is
assured of minimal discomfort when a needle will be used on their
body.
• Fluids – before a blood donation, donors are advised to drink some
fluids. Fluids that have iron are particularly recommended because
iron is used in the formation of blood. Fluids are important because
they keep the body hydrated.

• Preliminary Questions - before blood donations, donors will be asked
some questions as such the donor is made ware of such an activity.
These questions will inquire about
o The history blood disorder in the donor’s family
o Current medical condition of the donor
o Medical history of the donor
o Places that the donor has visited some few weeks before blood
donation
Pre-donation counselling teaches the donor about who is eligible to donate

blood and who is not. This exercise informs the donor that after donation,
their blood would be screened and they would be given the results of the
tests. The results are confidential and can be reveled to the donor after
the test. The results include the blood group, presence of pathogens,
health status of the donor.
eligibility criteria
The following criteria is used
1. The age of the donor- the donor should be middle aged, between 16
and 65 years old.
2. Donors must be health to ensure that there are no disease-causing
pathogens in their blood
3. Donors must not have diseases that are easily transmitted through
blood e.g: HIV AIDS, Syphilis, and hepatitis B and C.
Eligibility also include health checks like blood pressure and haemoglobin
content. the blood pressure must be normal and the haemoglobim must
be the recommended amount.
venipuncture
This is the process where a needle is inserted into a vein to collect blood.
The following steps are used during venipuncture
1. The donor must sit on a donor chair
2. Vein identification - A technician identifies the vein on which to
collect blood from. A technician may tie an elastic band on the upper
part of the arm to help with vein identification as it increases blood
pressure in the vein. In some cases, a donor is asked to squeeze an
object in the hand to increase blood flow to the targeted vein.
3. Cleaning – the technician cleans a small area on the skin of the arm
using antiseptic
4. Inserting the needle – the technician inserts the needle into the vein
to collect the blood. The needle used is large to avoid damaging the
red blood cells. Blood flows from the arm of the donor to the blood
bag. A donor can donate about 450mls of blood. This can be done at
intervals or 3 to 5 months.
5. Resting- After venipuncture the donor is given some refreshments
and is allowed to rest for 10 to 15 minutes
post-donation counselling
The donated blood of each individual is taken to blood transfusion

laboratories for screening. Suring screening blood is tested to determine
suitability for blood transfusion. These tests include:
• The blood groups

• The HIV tests
• Hepatitis B and C tests
• Tests for pathogens
• Rhesus factor tests
The results of the tests are confidential and are then communicated to the
donor.
Malawi blood transfusion services (MBTS)
MBTS was established in 2003 by the government of Malawi.

Role of Malawi Blood Transfusion Service
• Collect blood from donors
• Process the collected blood
• Test and screen the collected blood
• Supply safe and adequate blood and blood products to all authorized
hospitals in malawi
• Encourage the general public to donate blood
• Encourage the establishment of club25
MBTS activities
The MBTS carries out the following activitites: Village campaigns, district
campaigns, open days, static clinics, and mobile clinics.
Static clinics – blood is collected from donors. Blood is collected during
weekdays from 7:30 to 4:30. Static clinics are open to the general public.
To ensure a sustainable supply of blood, the general public, especially
students are encouraged to join club25. Members of club25 donate blood
every 3 months. Static clinics are in Blantyre (Odala center mount
pleasant), Balaka, Lilongwe (mzimba street, close to Kamuzu central), and
Mzuzu (along Chipembere highway).
Mobile clinics – the staff from static clinics go into different localities to
collect blood from people who cannot manage to go to static clinics. The
staff are in two groups, 1) the medical team and 2) the public relations and
counselling team. The role of the medical team is o collect blood. The role
of public relations team is to invite people to donate blood. The role of
counselling team is to prepare the donors psychologically for blood
donation exercise.

Village campaigns – chiefs organize people and MBTS staff will encourage
people to donate blood and the collect blood. These usually take place
when schools are closed.
District campaigns- MBTS teams may visit all schools in a given district to
collect blood.
Open days – these occur at a longer interval, once in a while. This is aimed
at mass collection to meet a target.
Awareness weak-Blood donor awareness week (BDAW) is a weak which is
aimed at collecting blood to carter for the festive holidays (December and
early january). The BDAW falls in November.

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 4
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Objectives
1 state the components and functions of the respiratory system in humans
2 explain the breathing mechanism
Contents
• Parts of the respiratory system and their functions
• Breathing mechanism
o demonstrating the breathing process using a lung model
o discussing the breathing process using the lung model
o discussing limitations of lung model
o discussing the importance of breathing through the nose
• Composition of exhaled air
o discussing the composition of the air breathed out
o demonstrating the presence of water vapour and carbon
dioxide in air breathed out
• Artificial ventilation
o demonstrating how to carry out artificial ventilation using
models (mouth to mouth and mouth to nose)
o discussing how artificial ventilation works

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
The primary function of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the

cells of the body’s tissues and remove carbon dioxide, a cell waste product.
Some animals meet their needs of oxygen through diffusion only. However,
different complexities of respiratory systems are needed for other animals.
for example, earthworms use diffusion. Most insects use tracheal system,
fish use gill system, birds and mammals us the lung system.
Tracheal systems: The main features of the tracheal systems are the
spiracles, the trachea, and the tracheoles. the spiracles are openings for
entry and exit of gases. The trachea is larger tube that carry air for
gaseous exchange. Small tubes that carry air for gaseous exchange are
tracheoles (see figure).
Figure x.x: tracheal system
Gill system: most of Organisms that live in water obtain oxygen from the
water through gills. Gills are thin tissue filaments that are highly branched
and folded. Water passes over gills in one direction. When water passes
over the gills, the dissolved oxygen in water rapidly diffuses across the gills
into the bloodstream. Similarly, carbon dioxide diffuses from the gills to the
water. In the fish water enters from the mouth and exits via operculum
(gill cover).
Figure x.x: gill system
Lung system: the lung system is made up of three major parts: airways,
the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. Just like in the gill system, a
complex circulatory system transports oxygen throughout their entire body.
Parts of the Human respiratory system

Humans have a lung respiratory system. Just like any other lung
respiratory system, it has airways, lungs, and muscles of respiration. The
features of the human respiratory system are shown in figure x.x:

Figure x.x: human respiratory system[source:Internet]
The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body’s
exterior. The lungs act as the functional units of the respiratory system by
passing oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out of the body. The
muscles of respiration, including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles,
work together to act as a pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs
during breathing.
Human respiratory system

Part Function

The main route by which air enters the gas exchange
Nasal cavity
system
It is also an entry point to the respiratory system but the
Mouth air is not thoroughly cleaned, warmed, and moistened as
is the case with nasal air
Flap of tissue that closes over the glottis in a reflex action
Epiglottis when food is swallowed. This prevents food from entering
the gas exchange system
The voice box, which uses the flow of air across it to
Larynx
produce sounds.
Major airway to the bronchi, lined with cells including
mucus-secreting cells. Cilia on the surface move mucus
Trachea
and any trapped microorganisms and dust away from the
lungs
Incomplete
Prevent the trachea and bronchi from collapsing but allow
rings of
food to be swallowed and moved down the esophagus
cartilage
Left and right Tubes leading to the lungs are similar in structure to the
bronchus trachea but narrower, and divide to form bronchioles
Lung The organ where gas exchange takes place
Small tubes that spread through the lungs and end in
alveoli. For tubes with diameter 1mm or less, there is no
Bronchioles cartilage and they collapse quite easily. Their main
function is still as an airway but a little gas exchange may
occur.
alveoli The main site of gas exchange in the lungs
Ribs Protective bony cage around the gas exchange system
Intercostal
Found between the ribs and important in breathing
muscles
Pleural
Surround the lungs and line the chest cavity
membranes

Space between the pleural membranes, usually filled with
Pleural cavity a thin layer of lubricating fluid that allows the membranes
to slide easily with breathing movements.
Broad sheet of tissue that forms the floors of the chest
Diaphragm
cavity, also important in breathing movements.
Breathing mechanism
Breathing (or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and out of the
lungs. There are two parts to the process of breathing - takin air into the
chest, known as inhalation and breathing air out again, called
exhalation. The chest cavity is effectively a sealed unit of air, with only
one way in or out - through the trachea. Breathing involves a series of
pressure changes in the chest cavity that in turn bring about movements of
the air.
bronchioles and alveoli (air sacs). The volume of the thoracic cavity will
increase when the external intercostals muscle contract to cause the ribs
and sternum to move upwards and outwards. Also the diaphragm
contracts by pulling downwards and flattens. This will lead to a decrease in
the pressure around the lungs. Atmospheric pressure forces air into the
lungs through the nostrils. In the breathing out process, the movements
described for the breathing in are reversed. We will illustrate breathing via
a lung model.
Demonstration of lung model
The model is composed of the bell jar with a Y-tube to which balloons have
been attached and a rubber sheeting seals the bottom.
Materials
• Bell jar
• Two balloons
• Rubber stopper with a hole
• Glass tube (Y shaped)
• Rubber sheet
• Rubber band
Procedure
1. Assemble the materials as shown in the figure below.
2. Pull the rubber sheeting down. Observe any changes.

3. Slowly push or allow the rubber sheeting to return to its original
position. Observe any changes
4. Close the tube and repeat steps 2 and 3. Observe changes
Questions
1. What does each part represent in the human respiratory system?

2. What happens changes take place when rubber sheeting is moving
down or returning to its original position
3. Describe what happens when the tube is closed
Description
The tube represents the trachea. The Y branching of the tube represent
the bronchus. The balloon represents the lungs. The bell jar represents the
chest cavity. The rubber sheet represents the diaphragm. As the rubber
sheet is pulled down, the volume of the cavity increases. This causes the
pressure to fall. Air rushes in to equalise the pressure causing the balloons
to inflate. As the rubber sheet is pushed up, the volume of the cavity
decreases, the pressure rises, and the air rushes out of the balloons
causing them to deflate. When the tube is closed, the lungs do not inflate
as the rubber sheeting is moved down.
Similarities and differences
structure similarities differences

Glass tube/trachea Allows air to pass Glass is rigid and
through, splits into two inflexible unlike the
cartilage bund tracea
Bell jar/chest cavity Air tight Unable to move, the
ribs can move up and
out to increase the
volume of the thorax
Balloons/lungs Can inflate and deflate, The balloons are large
are elastic like the open spaces whereas
alveoli the lungs are made up
of millions of individual
elastic alveoli
Rubber Can be domed up to The diaphragm only
sheet/diaphragm decrease the volume in flattens, it is not pulled
the jar downwards like the
rubber sheet
Limitations
The table below gives a summary of differences that leads to

limitations
Thorax Bell jar Model

Thoracic cavity filled with pleural Bell jar filled with air
fluid
Cartilage in trachea flexible Glass tube rigid
Diaphragm flattens Rubber sheet drawn downwards
Lungs composed of many alveoli Balloons empty
Ribs move to change thoracic cavity Bell jar does not move
volume
• The experiment also shows that only the diaphragm and not the
intercostal muscles, are responsible for the increase in volume in the
thoracic cavity during inhalation/decrease in volume of thoracic cavity
during exhalation. In reality both diaphragm and intercostal muscles
help
• Does not show air passing through nostrils where dust particles and
foreign particles are trapped and the air is warmed and moistened in
the mucous membrane
• the ribs (represented by the jar) are unable to move
The importance of breathing through the nose

Composition of exhaled air
Gaseous exchange occurs by a process of a simple diffusion between the
alveolar air and the deoxygenated blood in the capillaries. Blood is
continuously flowing through the capillaries past the alveoli, exchanging
gases. The air within alveoli is constantly being refreshed with air from
outside by breathing. The composition of the gases in the human gas
exchange system is given in table x.x:
Table 12.2: The composition of the gases in the human gas exchange
system.
%inspired %alveolar %expired Reason
air air air
some of the oxygen is

oxygen 20.70 13.20 14.50 used by the
cells of the body during
respiration
carbon dioxide is made

Carbon
0.04 5.00 3.90 by the cells
dioxide and is transported by
blood to the
lungs
nitrogen 78.00 75.60 75.40 Not used
the alveolar surface has

a thin film
Water vapour 1.24 6.20 6.20 of moisture to aid gas
exchange, and
some of this
evaporates
The temperature of expired air is greater than inspired air since expired air
is warmed by the body heat whilst within the body.
Demonstrating the presence of water vapour in air breathed out
materials
• mirror
• cobalt chloride paper
procedure
1. Hold a mirror in front of your face

2. Take a deep breathe and then exhale air over the mirror several time
3. Wait for a few minutes
4. Using dry hands, place the cobalt chloride paper of the surface of the
mirror
Question
What changes did you observe on the mirror and the cobalt chloride
paper?
Description
When you blow out air onto the mirror, the mirror becomes opaque due to
water vapour. The vapour forms liquid droplets. When a cobalt chloride
paper is placed on the surface of the mirror, it absorbs the liquid droplets
and it turns pink which shows that exhaled air contains moisture.
Demonstrating the presence of carbon dioxide in air breathed out
materials
• conical flask
• L shaped glass tubes
• Cork
• Lime water
• Clock
Procedure
1. Take two tubes and put them in two holes on the cork
2. Put about 5ocm3 of lime water in a conical flask and close it using
the cork. Make the flask airtight as shown in the following figure
3. Make sure that one tube is dipped into the lime water.
4. Breathe in heavily. Then as you breathe out blow your exhaled air
into the tube dipped in limewater.
5. Remove your mouth from the tube and breathe in again. Blow in
your inhaled air again into the tube.
6. Repeat the procedure observing what happens to the lime water.
7. Record your results.
Question
What happens to the lime water when you breathe in and breathe out?
Description

From the experiment, you may have realized that when exhaled air is
blown into the lime water, the lime water takes a very short time to turn
cloudy (or Milky).
The experiment shows that exhaled air contains a lot of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide makes clear lime water form a white suspension which
looks cloudy or milky.
Artificial ventilation
Artificial ventilation is a first aid practice that is carried out on individuals
who are having difficulties in breathing. Breathing difficulties may be
caused by accidents, fainting, or health complications. This is also called
artificial resuscitation or artificial respiration.
Artificial ventilation is done by blowing air using ones mouth into the mouth
of the patient. The person carrying out the first aid places their mouth onto
the mouth of the patient and lows in air into the patient as such it is called
the kiss of life.
Procedure for artificial ventilation

1. Let the patient lie on his/her back on a mat or soft material.
2. Check if the airway is clear and remove any obstructing substances
3. Place one hand under patients’ neck and another on the forehead.
Lift up on neck and partially tilt the head backwards.
4. Pull the chin upwards.
5. Close the patients’ nose.
6. Take a deep breath then place your mouth onto the mouth of the
patient covering it completely.
7. Breathe out heavily forcing the air into the lungs of the patient.
8. Remove your mouth and
9. gently press the chest of the patient to force air out

10. Repeat procedures 4 to 9 until the patient starts to breath
without help.
Should the breathing fail after 20 trials, rush the person to the nearest
health facility.
Mouth-to-mouth - This involves the rescuer making a seal between his or
her mouth and the patient's mouth and 'blowing', to pass air into the
patient's body. Mouth-to-nose - In some instances, the rescuer may need
or wish to form a seal with the patient's nose.

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 5
SENSE ORGANS

SENSE ORGANS
Objectives
1 describe structure and functions of eye, ear and skin
2 outline the defects of eye and ear
Contents
• drawing and labelling parts of the eye, ear and skin
• Parts of the eye, ear, and skin and their functions
• discussing how the eye, ear and skin work
• Defects of the eye and ear and their correction
o discussing how to take care of the eye, ear and skin
o discussing the common defects of the eye and ear
o discussing corrective measures of defects of the eye and ear

Sensory System
A stimulus is a change in light, temperature, pressure, etc., which

produces a reaction in a living organism. Living organisms have sense cells
that respond to stimuli. Structures that detect stimuli are called receptors.
In a sensory system, a stimulus activates receptors, which convert the

stimulus to a nerve impulse — an action Potential— that travels to the
brain where it may trigger a sensation or perception:
Technically, a stimulus is a form of energy that activates receptor endings

of a sensory neuron. That energy is converted to the electrochemical
energy of action potentials—the nerve impulses by which the brain receives
information and sends out commands in response. The brain’s basic
response is a sensation, which is conscious awareness of a stimulus.
Higher-level processing results in a perception—an understanding of what
the sensation means.
Sense organs
The human body experience two types of senses: general senses and
special sense. General senses include pain, temperature, light touch,
pressure, and a sense of body and limb position. Special senses include
taste, smell, vision, hearing, and balance. Most of the general senses will
be from receptors within the skin, internal organs, bones, joints, and
muscles. Most of the special senses will be from sophisticated sensory
organs such as the eye, ear, nose, tongue. Table x.1 gives examples of
sense organs and their stimuli.

Table x.x: sense organs and their stimuli
Sense organ stimulus

Ear Sound, body movement (balance)
Eye Light
Nose Chemicals - smells
Tongue Chemicals – taste
The skin senses temperature, pressure, touch, pain. Receptors will detect
the energy, convert the energy into an impulse. Receptors in the eye will
convert light energy into the electrical energy of a nerve impulse.
Receptors in the ear will convert the energy in sound vibrations into nerve
impulses. The sensory receptors are in five categories:
Mechanoreceptors, Thermoreceptors, Nociceptors,
Chemoreceptors, Osmoreceptors, Photoreceptors.
receptor description examples

Mechanoreceptors detect changes in mechanical Touch, pressure -
energy Pressure changes
in fluid Mechanical
pressure against
body surface,
position, or
acceleration,
Stretching of
muscle, Fluid
movement
Thermoreceptors Respond to heat or cold Change in
temperature
Nociceptors (pain detect damage pinching, tearing,
receptors) to tissues or burning
Chemoreceptors detect chemicals dissolved in Substances in
the fluid around them. The tissue fluid,
chemicals come from the substances in

food we eat, in the air we saliva, odours in air
breathe, or in our blood. or water,
Osmoreceptors detect
changes in water volume
(solute concentration) in a
body fluid
Photoreceptors detect visible light Wavelengths of
light
In this section we will look at the eye, ear, and skin.
The eye
The human eyes are spherical organs located in the orbits or eye
sockets of the skull. The eyebrows, eyelids and conjunctiva are adapted
to provide mechanical protection for the eye. The lacrimal gland is a
specialized organ for producing the tears. Tears are constantly produced by
this gland to lubricate the conjunctiva. Tears drain away via tiny channels
called canaliculi to the nasolacrimal duct (tear duct), and thence to the
nose. This is why a watery discharge from the nose frequently
accompanies an episode of crying.
Figure x.x: Appearance of the eye

The eye is attached to the orbit by six muscles called the extrinsic eye
muscles. Extrinsic eye controls eye movement. Small tendons connect
the extrinsic muscle to the sclera.
Figure x.x: Extrinsic muscles of the eye
The human eye consists of three distinct layers: the outer layer – consists
the sclera and cornea; the middle layer consists of choroid, ciliary body,
and iris; the inner layer has the retina.
Figure x.x: anatomy of the eye

The functions of the parts of the eye are given in the table x.x:
Table x.x: functions of the parts of the eye
Layer Part Function(s)

Outer layer sclera 1. Provides insertion for extrinsic eye
muscles
2. Protect eyeball
cornea 1. Allows light to enter
2. bend incoming light
Middle layer choroid 1. Absorbs stray light – prevents
scattering of light
2. Provides nutrients to eye
structures
Ciliary body 1. Regulates lens (hold the lens and
control the shape of the lens),
allowing it to focus images
iris 1. Regulates amount of light entering
the eye
pupil 1. Entrance of light
Optic nerve 1. Transmits impulses from the
retina to the brain
Inner layer retina 1. converts light to nerve impulses
fovea 1. Increases visual acuity
The accessory structure and their functions are given below.
Table x.x:accessory structures and their functions
Part Function
Lens Focus image on retina
Vitreous humour Holds retina and lens in place
Aqueous humour Supplies nutrients to structures in contact with the
anterior cavity of the eye

The sclera is the white of the eye. The sclera protects most of the
eyeball. The front part of the sclera is clear, it is called the cornea. The
cornea allows light to enter the eye. The conjunctiva is a thin epithelium,
which lines the inside of the eyelids and the front of the sclera and is
continuous with the epithelium of the cornea.
The choroid is a thin middle coat that lies between the sclera and retina.
It has an extensive network of blood vessels as such it supplies nutrients to
the eye. It has a black pigment that prevents the scattering of light.
Towards the very front, the choroid becomes the iris. The iris is the
colored (pigmented) portion of the eye visible through the cornea. The
hole in the center of the iris is called the pupil. The pupil allows the light
to penetrate the eye. The pupil looks black because all the light entering
the eye is absorbed by the black pigment in the choroid. The iris contains
smooth muscle cells. The smooth muscle of the iris regulates the diameter
of the pupil. Opening the pupil lets more light in, and narrowing it reduces
the amount of light that can enter. The pupils open and close reflexively in
response to light intensity. This reflex is an adaptation that protects the
light-sensitive inner layer, the retina.
Towards the front of the choroid but behind the iris, the choroid forms the
ciliary body. The ciliary body contains smooth muscle fibres, which
control the shape of the lens thereby focusing the light. The lens is
attached to the ciliary body by suspensory ligaments and divides the eye
into two cavities. Everything in front of the lens is the anterior cavity;
everything behind the lens is the posterior cavity. The posterior cavity is
filled with a clear, gelatinous material called the vitreous humor. The
vitreous humor holds the retina in place and supports the lens. The
vitreous humour is Formed during embryonic development and remains
throughout the life of the person. The anterior cavity is filled with a clear,
watery fluid called the aqueous humor. Small amounts of aqueous
humor are continually produced each day. The aqueous humor provides
nutrients to the cornea and lens and carries away cellular wastes. In
normal. healthy individuals, aqueous humor production is

balanced by drainage through tiny ducts. If the outflow via the tiny ducts is
blocked, the aqueous humor builds up inside the anterior cavity, creating
internal pressure leading to a disease called glaucoma.
The innermost layer of the eye is the retina. The retina has two layers –
the outer pigmented layer and an inner layer that contains
photoreceptors and associated nerve cells. Two types of photoreceptors
are present in the retina: rods and cones. The rods, so named because
of their shape, are sensitive to low light Rods function at night and produce
grayish, somewhat vague black-and-white images. The cones, also named
because of their shape, operate only in brighter light. They are responsible
for visual acuity-sharp vision-and color vision.
Rods and cones are found throughout the retina, but the cones are most
abundant in a tiny region of each eye lateral to the optic disc. This spot is
called the macula lutea, meaning “yellow spot.” In the center of the macula
is a minute depression, about the size of the head of a pin, known as
the fovea centralis; meaning central depression). The fovea contains
only cones. The sharpest vision occurs at the fovea because it contains the
highest concentration of cones and because the bipolar neurons and
ganglion cells do not cover the cones in this region as they do throughout
the rest of the retina. The number of cones in the retina decreases
progressively from the fovea outward, whereas the number of rods
increases. Thus, the greatest concentration of rods is found in the
periphery of the retina.
Sensory fibers from the retina form the optic nerve, which takes nerve
signals to the visual cortex of the brain. The optic nerve leaves at the optic
disc, or blind spot, so named because it contains no photoreceptors and is
therefore insensitive to light – vision is not possible. You can prove this to
yourself by putting a dot to the right of center on a piece of paper. Use
your right hand to move the paper slowly toward your right eye, and make

sure you look straight ahead. The dot will disappear at one point—this is
your right eye’s blind spot. The two eyes together provide complete vision
because the blind spot for the right eye is not the same as the blind spot
for the left eye. The blind spot for the right eye is right of center, and the
blind spot for the left eye is left of center.
Tear glands under the top eyelid produce tear fluid. This is a dilute
solution of sodium chloride and sodium hydrogen carbonate. The fluid is
spread over the eye surface by the blinking of the eyelids, keeping the
surface moist and washing away any dust particles or foreign bodies. Tear
fluid also contains an enzyme, lysozyme, which attacks bacteria.
How the eye works
In vision, light enters the eye and forms an upside image of the retina.
Figure x.x: Image formation in the eye
The steps in vision are:
1. Light refracts – light is reflected off an object and enters the eye via
the cornea. The cornea bends the light rays so that it passes through
the pupil.
2. The muscles of the iris adjust the pupil to control the amount of light
entering the eye – The iris, the colored or pigmented part of the

eye, is composed of two sets of muscle fibers that govern the size of
the iris’s central opening, the pupil. One set of fibers is arranged in a
circular fashion, and the other set extends radially like the spokes of
a wheel. In bright light, the iris’s circular muscle fibers contract,
reducing the size of the pupil. This narrowing is termed constriction.
In contrast, in dim light, the radial muscles contract, pulling the
opening outward and enlarging it. This enlargement of the pupil is
known as dilation.
Figure x.x: Function of the iris. In bright light, circular muscles

contract and constrict the pupil, limiting the light that enters the eye.
In dim light, the radial muscles contract and dilate the pupil, allowing
more light to enter the eye
3. The light rays pass through the pupil into the aqeuos
humour. The aqeous humour refracts light towards the lens
4. The ciliary muscle adjusts the lens to focus the image on the retina
(accommodation) - The lens changes shape to accommodate near
or far targets. The ability of the eye to change the shape of its lens
to maintain its focus is known as accommodation. When light is
coming from a distant object, ciliary muscles relaxes, tension (force)
of the sensory ligaments is increased which pull the lens to be
flattened. When light is coming from a nearby object, ciliary muscle
contract, sensory ligaments are compressed (tension is relaxed), the
compression of ligaments pushes the lens to bulge (become more
round).
5. The extrinsic eye muscles produce convergence- The eyes generally

move in unison by the effect of extrinsic eye muscles. Both
eyes point in the same direction when viewing a distant object. When
viewing nearby objects, eyes turn inwards (converge) or are directed
medially to simultaneously view the object, a process called
convergence. Convergence allows the image of the object being
viewed to fall onto the center of each retina. Without convergence
the viewer would experience double vision.
6. Light stimulates retinal receptor cells (rods and cones)- The light is
focused on the retina. The image produced is smaller than the real
object. the image on the retina is inverted upside down and reversed
from left to right due to over-refraction. The retina contains light-
receptor cells known as rods and cones. Rods and Cones cells on the
retina contain photosensitive chemicals. The rods contain the
chemical rhodopsin, and the cone contains cone pigments. There are
three types of these pigment: red, blue, and green. Each cone has
one of these pigments and is therefore sensitive to the corresponding
color. Once the light rays produce an image on the retina, chemical
reactions occur at the rods and cones which then transmits electrical
impulses to the nerve cells which are attached to rods and cones.
7. The optic nerve transmits impulses to the brain. All the nerve cells of
the retina converge to form a single nerve, the Optic Nerve. The
electrical impulses travel through the optic nerve to the brain
8. The occipital lobe cortex interprets the impulses. The image is then
sent to part of the occipital lobe of the brain called the primal visual
cortex which is responsible for interpreting the image.
Defects of the eye and their correction

Defects of the eye are due to the following:
• injuries
• diseases
• pathogens – bacteria and viruses
• inherited abnormalities
• natural changes associated with aging.
The outcomes range from some relatively harmless conditions, such as

nearsightedness, to total blindness. Examples of effects of the eye are
given below:
Defect and cause description correction

Eyestrain human eye is best suited for computer operators
distance vision so near-point look away from their
work – computers, books , and screens and that
so on cause eyestrain which can readers look up from
cause a progressive their materials
deterioration of eyesight regularly, letting their
eyes focus on distant
objects. This action
relaxes the ciliary
muscles, reducing
eyestrain

Color blindness - The retina lacks some or all of none
inheritance the cone cells with pigments
that normally respond to light of
red or green wavelengths. Most
of the time, color-blind people
have trouble distinguishing red
from green only in dim light.
However, some cannot
distinguish between the two
even in bright light.
night blindness- Rods are affected hence difficult Take foods that are
deficient in vitamin to see in dim light rich in vitamin A
A
Myopia (or Long eyeball - the eyeball is Myopia can be
nearsightedness) wider than it is high, or the corrected by contact
- inheritance ciliary muscle responsible for lenses or prescription
adjusting the lens contracts too glasses that cause
strongly. Then, images of incoming light rays to
distant objects are focused in diverge (Concave or
front of the retina instead of diverging lens)
on it therefore you are not able
to see far objects
Hyperopia, Short eyeball - The eyeball is Glasses or contact
farsightedness - “taller” than it is wide (or the lenses (Convex or
inheritance lens is “lazy”), so close images converging lens) that
are focused behind the bend the light inward
retina hence you are not able bring
to see near objects near objects into
sharp focus on
the retina
astigmatism- one or both corneas have an glasses or contact
inheritance uneven curvature; they cannot lenses
bend incoming light rays to the
same focal point.

Presbyopia- aging lens responds slowly or only Glasses
partially, making it difficult to
focus.
Cataracts – The eyes lens becomes cloudy. Surgery – replacing
aging, injury, if cataract is severe the lens lens with artificial lens
diabetes becomes totally opaque, no light
can enter the eye.
macular a portion of the retina breaks Treatment is difficult
degeneration - down and is replaced by scar unless the
aging tissue. As a result, a “blind spot” problem is detected
develops. Often both eyes are early.
affected.
Glaucoma - aging results when too much aqueous drugs or surgery
humor builds up inside the before
eyeball. Blood vessels that the damage becomes
service the retina collapse under severe.
the increased fluid pressure. An
affected person’s vision
deteriorates as neurons of the
retina and optic nerve die.
Conjunctivitis- inflammation of the conjunctiva. antibiotics
bacteria or allergy Symptoms
include redness, discomfort, and
a discharge.
Trachoma- Trachoma damages both the
bacteria eyeball and the conjunctiva.
Then, other bacteria can enter
the damaged tissues and cause
secondary infections. In time
the cornea can become
so scarred that blindness
follows.
herpes infection Herpes simplex, a virus that a pregnant woman
– virus causes cold sores and genital who has a history of
herpes, also can infect the genital herpes likely

cornea. Because blindness can will be delivered by
result from a herpes infection Caesarian section to
in the eyes, avoid any chance of
. exposing her
newborn to the virus
Malignant This is the most common eye
melanoma cancer. It typically develops in
the choroid (the eye’s middle
layer) and may not trigger
noticeable vision problems until
it has spread to other parts of
the body
retinoblastoma a cancer of the retina. Surgery or radiational
therapy
Care for the eye
• Eat a healthy, balanced diet. Your diet should include plenty or

fruits and vegetables, especially deep yellow and green leafy
vegetables
• Wear protective eye wear. To prevent eye injuries, you need eye
protection when playing certain sports, working in jobs such as
factory work and construction, and doing repairs or projects in your
home
• If you wear contacts, take steps to prevent eye infections.

Wash your hands well before you put in or take out your contact
lenses. Also follow the instructions on how to properly clean them,
and replace them when needed.
• Avoid working or reading in dim light. Dim light causes strain to the
eyes.

• Give your eyes a rest. If you spend a lot of time using a computer,
you can forget to blink your eyes and your eyes can get tired. To
reduce eyestrain, try the 20-20-20 rule: Every 20 minutes, look away
about 20 feet in front of you for 20 seconds.
• Avoid rubbing your eyes.The hands are exposed to a lot of dirt,
dust and bacteria, and all of these can be easily transferred to your
peepers each time you touch or rub them. Flush the object out of the
eye using clean slightly warm water.
• Always wash your eyes with clean warm water.
• Wear glasses only after recommendation by a doctor.
The ear
The human ear is an organ of special sense. It serves two functions: it

detects sound, and it detects body position, enabling us to maintain
balance. The outer ear consists of an irregularly shaped piece of cartilage
covered by skin, the auricle, and the earlobe, a flap of skin that hangs
down from the auricle.
The ear consists of three regions: the outer ear, the middle ear, the inner
ear.

Figure x.x: anatomy of the ear
Outer ear - The outer ear consists of auricle, earlobe, and external
auditory canal. The auricle (pinna) is an irregular shaped piece of
cartilage covered by skin. The earlobe is a flap of skin that hangs down
from the auricles. The external auditory canal (ear tube or ear
canal) is a short tube which transmits airborne sound waves to the middle
ear. The lining of external auditory canal has skin containing modified
sweat glands that produce earwax. Earwax contains antibiotics that
reduce ear infections and traps foreign particles such as bacteria
Middle ear -the middle ear lies entirely within the temporal bone of the
skull. The eardrum (or tympanic membrane), separates the middle ear
cavity from the external auditory canal.

Inside the middle ear there are three small bones called the ossicles.
These are the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup)
because their shapes resemble these objects. The middle ear begins at
the tympanic membrane (eardrum) and ends at a bony wall containing
two small openings covered by membranes. These openings are called the
oval window and the round window. Three small bones are found
between the tympanic membrane and the oval window. The malleus
adheres to the tympanic membrane, and the stapes touches the oval
window.
The middle ear cavity opens to the pharynx via the auditory tube, or
eustachian tube. The eustachian tube serves as a pressure valve.
Normally, the eustachian tube is closed. Yawning and swallowing, however,
cause it to open, allowing air to flow into or out of the middle ear cavity.
This equalizes the internal and external pressure on the eardrum
Inner ear
The inner ear occupies a large cavity in the temporal bone and contains
two sensory organs, the cochlea and the vestibular apparatus. The
cochlea is shaped like a snail-shell and houses the receptors for hearing.
The vestibular apparatus consists of two parts: the semicircular
canals and the vestibule. The semicircular canals are three ring-like
structures set at right angles to one another. They house receptors for
body position and movement. The vestibule is a bony chamber lying
between the cochlea and semicircular canals. It also houses receptors
that respond to body position and movement.
Cochlea - cochlea has three fluid filled canals: Vestibular duct (canal),
Cochlear duct (canal), Tympanic duct (canal). The basilar membrane
separates Cochlear canal and tympanic canal. The basilar membrane
supports organ of Corti (spiral organ). Organ of corti is the receptor organ
for sound, it contains receptor cells, the hair cells, and the gelatinous
material called the tectorial membrane. The hair cells sit on the basilar
membrane, and their stereocilia are embedded in the tectorial membrane.
Figure x.x: parts of cochlea
vestibular apparatus- The vestibular apparatus houses receptors that

detect body position and movement. - The vestibular apparatus consists of
the two parts, the semicircular canals and the vestibule. The vestibule is a
bony chamber between the cochlea and semicircular canals

semicircular canals - The three semicircular canals are arranged at right
angles to one another. Each canal is filled with a fluid called endolymph.
the base of each semicircular canal expands to form the ampulla. On the
inside wall of each ampulla is a small ridge of tissue, or crista. Each crista
consists of a patch of receptor cells. Each receptor cell contains numerous
microvilli and a single cilium embedded in a cap of gelatinous material, the
cupula.
Utricle and Saccule – these are fluid filled membranous sacs within
the vestibular apparatus. Each sac contains granules called otoliths,
gelatinous material called an otolithic membrane, and hair cells. the
stereocilia of hair cells is embedded in in the otolithic membrane.

Figure x.x: structure of utricle and saccule
How the ear works
Hearing
The auricle Funnels sound waves into external auditory canal. The Ear lobe
and external auditory canal Directs sound waves to the eardrum. The
eardrum vibrates when struck by sound waves. When the membrane is
struck by sound waves, it vibrates. This causes the malleus to rock back
and forth. The malleus, in turn, causes the incus to vibrate, which causes
the stapes, the stirrup-shaped bone, to move in and out against the oval
window which in turn vibrates and transmit sound waves vibrations to the
cochlea. The ossicles amplify the magnitude of the vibrations of sound
waves. When sound waves are transmitted from the middle ear to the
inner ear, they create pressure waves in the fluid in the vestibular canal.
The fluid pressure waves created in the vestibular canal pass through
vestibular membrane into the cochlear canal. From cochlea canal, pressure
waves pass through the basilar membrane into the tympanic canal.
Pressure is relieved by the outward bulging of the round window
As fluid pressure in moving through the cochlea, it causes the basilar

membrane to vibrate. This vibration stimulates the hair cells. The hair cells
generate nerve impulses which are transmitted to auditory cortex of the
brain via the auditory nerve (cochlear nerve or precisely the
vestibulocochlear nerve). The brain interprets the impulses as sound.
Position and movement
Head rotation movement (rotational equilibrium)- When your head

rotates, fluid in a canal corresponding to that direction moves in the
opposite direction. As the fluid presses against the cupula, the hairs bend.
This bending sends nerve impulses through vestibular nerve to the brain.
The brain uses information from the hair cells within each ampulla of the
semicircular canals to maintain equilibrium. Appropriate motor output to
various skeletal muscles can correct our present position in space as
needed.
Because the semicircular canals are set in all three planes of space,
movement in any direction can be detected. By alerting the brain to
rotation and movement, the semicircular canals contribute to our sense of
dynamic balance- balance while moving.
Dizziness – When we spin, the cupula slowly begins to move in the same
direction we are spinning, and bending of the stereocilia causes hair cells
to send messages to the brain. As time goes by, the cupula catches up to
the rate we are spinning, and the hair cells no longer send messages to the
brain. When we stop spinning, the slow-moving cupula continues to move
in the direction of the spin and the stereocilia bend again, indicating that
we are moving. Yet the eyes know we have stopped. The mixed messages
sent to the brain cause us to feel dizzy.
Gravitational Equilibrium, acceleration, and deceleration- The

utricle is especially sensitive to horizontal (back and- forth) movements and
the bending of the head, and the saccule responds best to vertical (up-
and-down) movements. When the body is still, the otoliths in the utricle
and the saccule rest on the otolithic membrane above the hair cells. When
the head bends or the body moves in the horizontal and vertical planes,
the otoliths are displaced. The otolithic membrane sags, bending the
stereocilia of the hair cells beneath. Movements of the otolithic membrane
and otoliths signal changes in the head’s orientation relative to gravity,
acceleration, and deceleration. Nerve impulses from the vestibular
apparatus travel to reflex centers in the brain stem. As the signals are
processed along with information from your muscles and eyes, the brain
orders compensating movements that help you keep your balance when
you stand, walk, jump, dance, or move your body in other ways. The

utricle and saccule are for both dynamic and static balance (balance while
not moving).
Defects of the ear and their correction

Deafness is a condition whereby an individual is unable to hear. There are
two types of deafness: nerve or absolute deafness and conductive
deafness.
Defect and Description Correction

Cause
otitis media - painful inflammation of the • antibiotic
respiratory middle ear
infection e.g.
cold
Tinnitus – too ringing, whirring, or buzzing in
much aspirin, the ears
genetic factors
Absolute/nerve This is a condition where the • Does not have

deafness – sound treatment but
heredity, inner impulses are not able to reach people can
ear infections the brain. communicate
This may be due to damages to with the patient
the following: auditory nerve, via visual signs
cochlea, brain cells for sound or lip reading.
reception.
Conductive Difficulties in hearing because • Treatment of ear
deafness – wax the eardrum fails to vibrate or infections
accumulation, because the ossicles fail to • Using hearing
ear infections, amplify and pass sound waves to aids
drugs such as inner ear. • Visual signs and
chloroquine lip reding

Care for the ear
1. Wash the outer ear with warm water and soap

2. Do not insert sharp objects into the ear
3. Avoid noise pollution
4. Avoid using loud sound when listening via headphones
The skin
Your skin is the largest organ in your body. It stops you drying out, repels
invading microbes, protects you from physical damage, tells you about
your environment, helps to regulate your body temperature and acts as an
excretory organ. The skin has a complex structure because it has so many
functions. The skin is made up of two layers, the epidermis and the dermis
(Fig. 5.x)

Figure 5.x: skin
Epidermis
The epidermis is the dead outer surface of your skin. You are losing the
dead cells of the epidermis all the time. Clearly, if the outer surface is
being worn away, new cells are needed to replace those lost.

Germinative layer - The germinative layer is characterized by:
• cells are constantly dividing

• older cells are pushed towards the surface of the skin
• melanocytes produce a pigment melanin. Melanin ranges in colour
from yellow to black. It protects the skin from the damaging effects
of ultra-violet radiation in the Sun's rays. Sunlight stimulates the
production of melanin.
granular layer - the germinative layer surrounds the hair follicles and
sweat glands and gives rise to the granular layer. The granular layer is
characterized by the following:
• their nuclei are breaking down, which in time leads to the death of
the cells
• the tough, strong protein keratin is formed in the cells of this layer
• the cells become flatter
• melanin is destroyed.
horny layer- The granular layer gives rise to the horny layer. This
keratinised layer makes the skin strong and waterproof, thereby protecting
the body against water loss, injury and infection. The horny layer is
characterized by
• dead cells
• Contain a high proportion of keratin
• Cells are gradually shed.
The efficiency of the horny layer is helped by an oily secretion from the
sebaceous glands. secretion is called sebum. Sebum has the following
functions:
• makes the skin waterproof

• keeps the epidermis supple
• prevents dryness of the skin
• prevents growth of fungi and bacteria on the surface of the skin.
Dermis
The dermis is the jelly-like layer lying below the epidermis. It has strong
inelastic and elastic fibres running through it. The elastic fibres give the
skin flexibility. The dermis contains adipose cells (fat cells), hair follicles,
sweat glands, blood capillaries, nerve endings, lymph vessels, hair erector,
muscle sensory organs and sebaceous glands. The dermis has two
important functions: temperature control and sensitivity.
How the skin works
Temperature control
Body temperature is increased by:
• illness (fever)
• exercise (muscle contraction produces heat)
• wearing too many clothes
• high air temperature.
When temperature of the body changes, the changes are passed to the
blood. When this blood passes through the hypothalamus of the brain, the
temperature regulation mechanism of the body is stimulated. When
temperature is high, the regulation mechanisms of the skin that are
stimulated are sweating and vasodilation. When temperature is low,
vasoconstriction is stimulated. Figure x.x, shows vasoconstriction and
vasodilation

Figure 5.x: (a) Vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels near the surface of
the skin); (b) vasoconstriction (narrowing of the same blood vessels)
Sensitivity
There are thousands of sensory receptors in your skin, providing

information about touch, pressure, cold, warmth, and pain. Places with the
most sensory receptors, such as the fingertips are the most sensitive. Less
sensitive areas, such as the back of the hand, have many fewer receptors.
Receptors for general senses are of two types: open (or free) nerve
ending, or encapsulated nerve ending.
free nerve endings

Several types of free nerve endings in the epidermis and many
connective tissues detect touch, pressure, heat, cold, or pain. The body
perceives two basic types of pain: somatic and visceral, Somatic pain is
external pain that results from injuries in the skin, joints, muscles, and
tendons. Visceral pain is internal pain. It results from the stimulation of

naked nerve endings inside the body, the organs of the body. Organs are
also referred to as the viscera. Somatic will come directly from the affected
area. Somatic pain is easily pinpointed. visceral pain, however, is often
difficult to localize is often felt on the body surface at a site some distance
from its origin. Visceral pain that appears on the body surface away from
the location of the source of the pain is called referred pain. For
example, pain caused by a lack of oxygen to the heart muscle appears in
the neck and jaw, and along the inside of the left arm. See figure x.x:
Figure x.x: sensory receptors in the skin
Light touch is perceived by two distinct mechanoreceptors the first type

consists of naked nerve endings (dendrites) that wrap around the base of
the hair follicles. When a hair is moved—for example, when you brush the
hair on the back of your arm or an insect move on your arm —these nerve
fibers are stimulated. The second light-touch mechanoreceptor, Merkel’s
disc. Located in the outer layer of the epidermis of the skin, these
receptors are activated by gentle pressure applied to the skin
Encapsulated nerve endings

Encapsulated receptors are found mainly in hairless skin like the palms of
the hands and feet. Meissner’s corpuscles are sensitive to light touching
and are found in the lips, fingertips, eyelids, nipples, and
Genitals. Ruffini endings (Ruffini’s corpuscles) are found Deep in the
dermis and in joint and are sensitive to steady touching and pressure. The
Pacinian corpuscles widely scattered in the skin’s dermis are sensitive to
deep pressure and vibrations. They also are located near freely movable
joints (like shoulder and hip joints) and in some soft internal organs.
Care for the skin
1. Bath every day using clean water and soap to open the pores of
the skin.
2. Protect the skin from the sun by wearing protective clothing,
seeking shade, using sun screen
3. Moisturize dry skin. If your skin is dry, use a moisturizer that fits
your skin type.
4. Drinking plenty of water helps keep your skin hydrated.
5. Eat a healthy diet – eat food that is rich in vitamin C for a soft skin.
6. Avoid smoking - Smoking makes your skin look older and
contributes to wrinkles.

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 6
LOCOMOTION IN HUMANS

LOCOMOTION IN HUMANS
Objectives
1 describe locomotory structures in the human body
2 describe injuries to bones and joints
Contents
• Parts of the skeleton
• Bone structure and functions
• muscles
o Types of muscles and their functions
▪ Voluntary
▪ Involuntary
▪ Cardiac (heart muscle)
o Antagonistic muscles
• joints
o Types of joints
▪ movable joints (eg, hinge, ball and socket, gliding)
▪ immovable joints (eg, satures)
• Injuries to bones and joints
o Injuries to bones: fractures - simple and compound
o Injuries to joints - sprains, strains, dislocations
o First aid for injuries to bones and joints

LOCOMOTION
Locomotion is the movement of an organism from one place to another. In

a human being, location is supported by two main systems – the skeletal
system and the muscular system. The bones of the skeletal system protect
the body’s internal organs and support the weight of the body. The
muscles of the muscular system contract and pull on the bones, allowing
for movements as diverse as standing, walking, running, and grasping
items.
Human endoskeleton
The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the
adult. It has following main functions:
• providing support to the body

• giving the body its shape
• storing minerals and lipids – bones store fats, calcium and other
minerals
• producing blood cells – bones have cells that produce blood cells
• protecting internal organs - for instance, rib cage protects the lungs
and heart, the skull protects the brain
• allowing for movement
• muscle attachment - Bones provide surfaces for attachment of
muscles.
Parts of the human skeleton
The skeleton in humans is made up of two main parts. These are:
• Axial skeleton.
• Appendicular skeleton.
The bones in the human skeleton is shown in figure x.x:

Figure x.x: the human skeleton
Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton forms the long axis of the body. It consists of the
skull, the vertebral column, and the rib cage. It also includes a small bone
in the neck known as the hyoid bone where the tongue is attached.

Figure x.x: parts of the axial skeleton in red-brown color.
The Skull - The skull consists of 22 bones. some of the bones make up the
face. Others form the cranium, which houses the brain. The lower jaw and
upper jaw contain the teeth that allow us to tear apart and grind food we
eat.
The Spine or vertebrae or backbone - flexible collection of bones. The top

seven vertebrae form the skeleton of the neck and are known as cervical
vertebrae. The next 12 vertebrae form
the skeleton of the chest or thorax. They’re known as thoracic vertebrae.
The next five form the skeleton of the lower back, or lumbar region.
They’re called lumbar vertebrae. The next five form the tailbone or sacrum.
They’re called sacral vertebrae.

Between the vertebrae are intervertebral disks composed of
fibrocartilage that act as padding. The disks prevent the vertebrae from
grinding against one another. They also absorb shock caused by
movements such as running, jumping, and even walking. The presence of
the disks allows the vertebrae to move as we bend forward, backward, and
from side to side. Unfortunately, these disks become weakened with age
and can herniate and rupture. Pain results if a disk presses against the
spinal cord and/or spinal nerves. If that occurs, surgical removal of the disk
may relieve the pain.
Ribs and Ribcage –There are 12 pairs of ribs. ribs are connected to the
vertebrae in back. all ribs except the bottom two are connected to the
breastbone or sternum in front via cartilage.
Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones within the pectoral and
pelvic girdles and their attached limbs. A pectoral (shoulder) girdle and
upper limb are specialized for flexibility. The pelvic
(hip) girdle and lower limbs are specialized for strength.
upper limb (Arms) - the bones of the upper limbs consist of the humerus
(in the upper arm), radius and ulna (in the lower arm), bones of the wrist
(carpal bones), and bones of the hand (metacarpals) and fingers
(phalanges).
Figure x.x: a upper limb and pectoral girdle b. pectoral girdle in khaki color
Pectoral girdle - The humerus is connected to the axial skeleton via the
scapula (shoulder blade). Scapula is connected to the clavicle or
collarbone. The scapula and clavicle form the pectoral girdle.
Lower limb (leg)- the lower limb contains one large long bone in its
upper section, the femur, which is found in the thigh. Two smaller long
bones form the lower portion of the lower limb, known as the tibia and
fibula. They form the skeleton of the lower portion of the lower limb,
technically referred to as the leg.
The ankle contains small bones just like the wrist, known as the tarsals.
These bones articulate with metatarsals. They are equivalent to bones of

the palm. The metatarsals are connected to the toes, which like the
fingers, consist of many small long bones, known as phalanges.
Figure x.x: The ilium, ischium, and pubis join at the acetabulum (hip
socket) to form a coxal bone. The pelvis is completed by the addition of the
sacrum and coccyx. The femur (thighbone) and tibia and fibula (shinbones)
form the leg. Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges construct the foot.
Pelvic Girdle – the lower limb is attached to the hip bone ( coxal
bone). The pelvic girdle (hip girdle) consists of two heavy, large coxal
bones (hip bones). Each coxal bone has three parts (or bones): the ilium,
the ischium, and the pubis, which are fused in the adult (and appear as
one bone). The hip socket, called the acetabulum, occurs where these
three bones meet. The ilium is the largest part of the coxal bones, and our
hips form where it flares out. We sit on the ischium, which has a posterior
spine, called the ischial spine, for muscle attachment. The pubis, from
which the term pubic hair is derived, is the anterior part of a coxal bone.
The two pubic bones are joined by a fibrocartilaginous joint called the
pubic symphysis .

Pelvis - The pelvis is a basin composed of the pelvic girdle, sacrum, and
coccyx. The pelvis bears the weight of the body, protects the organs within
the pelvic cavity, and serves as the place of attachment for the legs.
The following tables gives a summary of the parts of the human skeleton.
Main part Parts Bones General function

axial skull Facial bones, It protects the brain, nasal
cranium organs, eyes, middle and
bones inner ears
vertebrae cervical It protects the spinal cord,
vertebra, supports the head and
thoracic provides points of attachment
vertebrae, for the pelvis and the ribcage.
Lumbar
vertebrae,
sacral
vertebrae,
coccyx
Rib cage Ribs, It protects the lungs,
sternum heart,liver and other internal
organs.
hyoid bone Attachment of tongue
appendicular Upper limb Humerus, enables locomotion to take
radius and place and
ulna, Hand provides an attachment for
(carpals, the muscle tissue.
metacarpals,
and
phalanges)
Pectoral Scapula and It gives attachment to the
girdle clavicle forelimbs. It also absorbs
stress from limbs.

Lower limb Femur, tibia enables locomotion to take
and fibula, place and
Foot( tarsals, provides an attachment for
metatarsals, the
and muscle tissue.
phalanges)
Pelvic girdle ilium, It gives attachment to the
ischium, and hindlimbs. It also absorbs
pubis stress from limbs.
Tissues and organs of the human skeleton
The human skeleton ha the following tissues and organs: the bones,
cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
Bones are hard due to the calcium salts (mainly calcium sulphate) which
form part of a matrix (70% of bone). The matrix is secreted by bone cells
and perforated by Haversian canals. The canals contain blood vessels.
Bone-secreting cells form concentric circles around the canals. Bone
marrow lies in the central cavity of the bone and continues into the bone,
giving a spongy appearance.
Cartilage (or gristle) is present at the ends of long bones and has a clear
smooth structure. It is elastic in nature, owing to protein fibres secreted by
its cells. It acts as a shock absorber and reduces friction at the joints.
Ligaments consist of tough, fibrous, elastic tissue that connect end of

bones at joints. Most ligaments limit dislocation, or prevent certain
movements that may cause breaks, thereby protecting joints.
Tendons consist of tough, fibrous, inelastic tissue attaching muscle to

bone or to other muscles. They must be inelastic to enable the muscle

contraction to be conveyed to bone. The connection of muscles to bones
is summarized in figure x.x below:
Bone Tissue
Bones are considered organs because they contain various types of tissue,
such as blood, connective tissue, nerves, and bone tissue. There are two
types of bone tissue: compact and spongy.
Compact bone forms the hard-external layer of all bones and surrounds
the medullary cavity, or bone marrow. It provides protection and strength
to bones.
spongy bone forms the inner layer of all bones. The red bone marrow of
the femur and the interior of other large bones, such as the ileum, forms
blood cells. Spongy bone reduces the density of bone and allows the ends
of long bones to compress as the result of stresses applied to the bone.
Spongy bone is prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily stressed
or where stresses arrive from many directions.

Cartilage
Cartilage is not as strong as bone, but it is more flexible. Its matrix is gel-
like and contains many collagenous and elastic fibers. Cartilage has no
nerves. Cartilage also has no blood vessels and relies on neighboring
tissues for nutrient and waste exchange. This makes it slow to heal. There
are three types of cartilage which differ according to the type and
arrangement of fibers in the matrix: Hyaline cartilage, Fibrocartilage,
Elastic cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage is firm and somewhat flexible. The matrix appears

uniform and glassy, but
actually it contains a generous supply of collagen fibers. Hyaline cartilage is
found at the ends of long bones, in the nose, at the ends of the ribs, and in
the larynx and trachea.

Fibrocartilage is stronger than hyaline cartilage, because the matrix
contains wide rows of thick, collagenous fibers. Fibrocartilage is able to
withstand both tension and pressure and is found where support is of
prime importance—in the disks between the vertebrae and in the cartilage
of the knee.
Elastic cartilage is more flexible than hyaline cartilage, because the matrix
contains mostly elastin fibers. This type of cartilage is found in the ear flaps
and the epiglottis.
Muscles
Muscle cells are specialized for contraction. Muscles allow for motions such
as walking, and they also facilitate bodily processes such as respiration and
digestion. The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle,
cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
Skeletal muscle tissue forms skeletal muscles, which attach to bones or

skin and control locomotion and any movement that can be consciously
controlled. Because it can be controlled by thought, skeletal muscle is also
called voluntary muscle. Skeletal muscles are long and cylindrical in
appearance; when viewed under a microscope, skeletal muscle tissue has a
striped or striated appearance. Skeletal muscle also has multiple nuclei
present in a single cell.
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle tissue occurs in the walls of hollow organs such as the
intestines, stomach, and urinary bladder, and around passages such as the
respiratory tract and blood vessels. Smooth muscle has no striations, is not
under voluntary control, has only one nucleus per cell, is tapered at both
ends, and is called involuntary muscle.
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart, and cardiac

contractions pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood
pressure. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, but unlike
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle cannot be consciously controlled
and is called involuntary muscle. It has one nucleus per cell, is
branched, and is distinguished by the presence of intercalated disks.
Cardiac muscle
Antagonistic muscles and muscles movement

Muscles can only contract and relax (they are unable to increase in length)
hence they must work in pairs. When the skeletal muscle contracts, it pulls
the bone towards it. However, it cannot push the bone since a skeletal
muscle does not relax on its own. Another muscle is needed on the other
side of the bone to return it to the original position through its contraction.
While one skeletal muscle or a set of skeletal muscles on one side of the bo
ne. The other skeletal muscle or set is relaxed or stretched on the other si
de of the bone. the skeletal muscle that contracts on one side of the bone
while causing relaxation of another muscle on the other side of the bone is
called agonistic muscle. the skeletal muscle that is relaxed on one side of t
he bone due to the contraction of another skeletal muscle on the other side
of the bone is called an antagonistic muscle
In skeletal muscles, we have an agonistic muscle on one side of a bone an

d antagonistic muscle on the other side of the same bone. these muscles f
orm a pair and act alternately in such a way that one is agonistic muscle w
hile the other is antagonistic muscle at one point and vice versa. as a resul
t, we normally refer to these muscles as a pair of antagonistic muscles. th
e biceps and the triceps are an example of antagonistic muscles
When the biceps muscle contracts, it causes relaxation of triceps muscles; i

n this case the biceps muscle is the agonistic muscle and triceps muscle is t
he antagonistic muscle. When triceps muscle contracts it causes relaxation
of biceps muscle; in this case, the triceps muscle is the agonistic muscle w
hile the biceps muscle is the antagonistic muscle
This action of skeletal muscles causes joints either bend or straighten. mu

scles that bend or flex a joint when they contract are called flexor muscles
e.g, biceps muscle. Muscles that straighten or extend a joint when they con
tract are called extensor muscles e.g, triceps muscles. Therefore, a flexor
muscle and an extensor muscle form a pair of antagonistic muscles at a joi
nt. Figure 7.18 illustrates how extensor and flexor muscles work at a joint
Joints
The point at which two or more bones meet is called a joint, or

articulation. Joints are responsible for movement, such as the movement
of limbs, and stability, such as the stability found in the bones of the skull.
Types of Joints
Joints can be grouped into movable and immovable. Movable joints allow
free movement of bones to occur. Examples of movable joints are hinge
joint, ball and socket joint, gliding joint and peg and socket joint.
Immovable joints do not allow movement of bones to occur. They are also
called fixed joints. Example of a fixed joints are sutures
Movable joints
Ball-and-socket joints
Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone

fitting into a cuplike socket of another bone. This organization allows the
greatest range of motion, as all movement types are possible in all
directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip
joints
Figure x.x: The shoulder joint is an example of a ball-and-socket joint.
Hinge joint -
In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly
hollow end of the other bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other
remains stationary, like the hinge of a door. The elbow is an example of a
hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge joint

Pivot joint - first cervical (atlas) pivots around the second cervical (axis)
and allows side-to-side movement.
Gliding joint
These are joints that experience gliding movement. Gliding movements

occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. Gliding
movements produce very little rotation or angular movement of the bones.
Examples of gliding joins are ankles ang wrist joints

Immovable joints or Fixed joint
Sutures are found only in the skull and possess short fibers of connective
tissue that hold the skull bones tightly in place. They have no movement.
Sutures are found between bones of the skull or pelvic girdle.
Figure x.x: Sutures in skull
Injuries to bones and joints

Injuries to bones: fractures - simple and compound
Bone fracture is a complete or partial break in a bone.
There are two primary types of Fractures. They can be a simple fracture
or compound fracture.
A simple fracture, or closed fracture, cracks the bone but does not
break the skin. A compound fracture, or open fracture, breaks the bone,
and then the broken pieces of bone pierce the skin.
Compound fractures are more serious than simple fractures. They can
be more painful, require additional treatments, and take longer to heal.
Most compound fractures require surgical intervention during treatment,
where the doctors will repair the fracture in the bone. A simple fracture, on
the other hand, may only need a splint or cast to heal.
Injuries to joints - sprains, strains, dislocations
Sprains
Sprains occur when a ligament, the connective tissue that holds our joints
together, is stretched or torn. Sprains are usually the result of an acute
injury, such as a sudden twist of the limb or a fall onto your outstretched
arm. Sprains most often occur in the ankles, knees, and wrists. Sprains are
graded based on the severity of the injury.
• Grade 1 sprains are the most mild type of sprain. The ligament fibers
are stretched and may be slightly damaged, but there is no tearing.
• Grade 2 sprains are moderate. The ligament is partially torn, and
there may be a feeling of looseness in the joint when moving it in
certain directions.
• Grade 3 sprains are the most severe. In this case, the ligament is
completely torn, resulting in loss of joint stability and function.

Symptoms may vary based on the severity of the sprain, but commonly
include pain, swelling, bruising, and inflammation at the site of the sprain.
Mild sprains can generally be treated with rest, ice, compression, and
elevation, while Grade 2 sprains may heal with bracing. Physical therapy
may also be involved in the recovery process. Severe sprains may require
surgery to repair the torn ligament.
Strains
A strain is the stretching or tearing of the tendons, otherwise known as the

fibrous tissues that connect your muscles to your bones. Strains are similar
to sprains, but occur in the muscles and/or tendons, which attach your
muscles to your bones. Muscles or tendons may be overstretched, and may
partially or completely tear. Strains can occur in different areas of the
body, but are most common in the feet, legs, and back. Athletes who play
contact sports like soccer, football, hockey, or wrestling are more
susceptible to strains. Quick-start sports like hurdling, long jump, and
running races also have a higher occurrence of strains.
Some sports put athletes at a higher risk for a particular type of strain. For
instance, racquet and throwing sports tend to cause elbow strains, while
hand sprains are common in sports that require extensive gripping,
including gymnastics, tennis, rowing, and golf.
Symptoms can vary depending on the severity of the strain, but may
include pain, muscle spasm, muscle weakness, swelling, inflammations,
and muscle cramps. Many strains can be treated with rest, ice,
compression, and elevation, but serious tears may require surgical repair.
Dislocation
A dislocation is when bones in a joint are moved relative to one another

and don't return to their original position. While breaks can happen at the
end of a bone, on a joint or somewhere in between, dislocations can occur
only at joints. A dislocation is an injury that causes the ends of your bones
out of position within a joint. Common dislocations include ankles, knees,
shoulders, hips, elbows, fingers and even your jaw.
First aid for injuries to bones and joints
First aid for sprain and strain
• Make sure your child stops activity right away.

• Think R.I.C.E. for the first 48 hours after the injury:
o Rest: Rest the injured part until it's less painful.
o Ice: Wrap an icepack or cold compress in a towel and place
over the injured part immediately. Continue for no more than
20 minutes at a time, four to eight times a day.
o Compression: Support the injured part with an elastic
compression bandage for at least 2 days.
o Elevation: Raise the injured part above heart level to decrease
swelling.
• Give your child ibuprofen or acetaminophen for pain and to reduce
swelling.
• Seek medical help
First aid for fractures
1. SEEK MEDICAL ATTENTION IMMEDIATELY.

2. DO NOT move victim unless necessary to save victim's life.
3. Immobilize and support affected bone in position found. DO NOT try
to push protruding bone back into body or let victim move or use
affected area.
4. Control any bleeding through direct pressure, but DO NOT elevate
affected area.
5. If bone is protruding, cover with clean cloth once bleeding is
controlled.
6. Observe for shock. DO NOT give victim anything to eat or drink.

7. Immobilize injured area (create splints), and, if no open wound
present, apply ice pack wrapped in clean cloth.
a. Check for sensation, warmth, and color of toes or fingers below
suspected break.
b. Place padded splint under area of suspected break:

i. Use board, rolled newspaper or magazines, broomstick,
or rolled blanket for splint.
ii. Wrap splint in cloth or towels for padding.
iii. Bind splint to limb using neckties, cloth, belts, or rope.
DO NOT bind directly over break.
c. Recheck often for sensation, warmth, and coloring. If fingers or
toes turn blue or swell, loosen binding.
d. For arm or shoulder injury, place splinted arm in sling, with
hand above elbow level. Bind arm to victim's body by wrapping
towel or cloth over sling and around upper arm and chest; tie
towel or cloth under victim's opposite arm

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 7
DIARRHOEAL DISEASES

DIARRHOEAL DISEASES
Objectives
1 describe main diarrhoeal diseases
Contents
• Diarrhoea and diarrhoeal diseases
o cholera, dysentery, typhoid
• Cholera
o Causative agents
o Mode of transmission
o Signs and symptoms
o effects in the body
o Prevention and control
o Treatment
▪ ORS e.g. home ORS
▪ Antibiotics
• Dysentery
o Causative agents
o Treatment
• Typhoid
o Causative agents
o Treatment
Diarrhoea and Diarrhoeal diseases
Diarrhoea is condition whereby an individual passes out loose watery stool
frequently due to an infection of the alimentary canal. The colon fails to
hold food to allow digestion to take place. Subsequently food and water
are continuously passed out of the alimentary canal. The intestines do not
get time to digest the food or even to absorb the water. Diarrhoea is a
symptom of diseases that affect the alimentary canal. Examples of
diarrhoeal diseases include:
1. Cholera
2. Dysentery
3. Typhoid
Cholera
Cholera is an acute enteric infection caused by the ingestion of bacterium
Vibrio cholerae. Vibrio cholerae can live in the water for sometime until
they find host.
Transmission
Cholera Spread is transmitted via faecal contaminated water of food. The
possibility of transmission increases with insufficient access to safe water
and poor sanitation. Poor sanitation includes – poor faecal matter
disposal, poor sewage treatment. House flies may transfer the bacteria
from faeces to food. Food may also be contaminated if washed in
contaminated water. Vegetables and fruits may be contaminated if they
are watered with contaminated water from rivers and streams.
Effects in body

When ingested, the bacteria undergo incubation period of almost six days.
The bacteria settle in the small intestines and multiply rapidly. The bacteria
release toxins that lead to symptoms of cholera. The body loses body fluids
due to excessive diarhhoeal. If a lot of water is lost (dehydration) it may
lead to shock and death.
Signs and symptom
• smelly diarrhea that resembles rice water
• dehydration that causes the following
o wrinkled skin, low blood pressure, dry mouth, rapid heart rate
• vomiting
• Muscle cramps
• Loss of body weight
• Abdominal pain
Prevention and control
• good hygiene
o proper disposal of faecal matter – people should not use flying
toilets or dispose faeces in water bodies
o construction of proper toilets
o proper use of toilets like washing hands after visiting the toilet
• Using Treated water. Water from waterboard is treated. Water from
streams and boreholes can be treated with water guard or chlorine
tablets. Water can also be treated by boiling.
• eating thoroughly cooked food
• immunization by cholera vaccine to those under threat of possible
infection
• isolation of infected persons
Treatment
• giving oral rehydration solution (ORS).
o ORS has the following mixture:

▪ 3.5 g of sodium chloride
▪ 1.5 g of potassium chloride
▪ 20 g of glucose
▪ 40 g of sucrose
▪ 1 liter of boiled and cooled water
o ORS should be taken at frequent intervals to avoid dehydration
o ORS should be freshly prepared to avoid microbial growth
o Home made ORS has the following mixture
▪ 10 level full bottle tops of sugar
▪ 1 level bottle top table salt
▪ 1 litre of water
• Antibiotics usually are used in severe infections in which dehydration
has occurred.
Dysentery
Dysentery is most easily defined as bloody diarrhoea. Dysentery is caused

by two organisms:
• Shigella dysenteriae – this is a Bacteria of the genus Shigella.
• Entamoeba histolytica – this is a protozoan of genus amoeba.
Shigella dysenteriae causes Bacillary dysentery (also called shigellosis).
Entamoeba histolytica causes Amoebic dysentery (also called Amoebiasis).
Amoebiasis occurs worldwide but is particularly common in tropical areas of
Central and South America, western and southern Africa, and South Asia.
.
Effects in the body
The disease results from growth of shigella or amoeba in the epithelial cells
of the intestines. Invaded cells die and the infection spreads to adjacent
cells. The result is ulceration, inflammation and bleeding.

The incubation period of Amoebiasis (time from infection to symptoms
developing) is variable, and may range from a few days to several months.
It is usually 2 – 4 weeks.
Transmission
Dysentery is spread via contaminated food or water. Shigella and amoeba
are associated with poor sanitation. Some people may not have symptoms
but may still transmit the parasites. The cycst of shigella can reside in
fingernails as such can be passed through person to person contact.
signs and symptoms of shigellosis
• severe diarrhoea
• A bloody stool
• Abdominal pain
• Cramping of the abdomen
• tenesmus (feeling that you need to have a bowel movement, even if
you've already had one)
• Fever
• Nausea
• vomiting
• Mucus in stool
• fatulence
signs and symptoms of Amoebiasis

• abdominal pain
• Diarrhoea that can contain blood and mucus – occasionally it can
present with bleeding from the back passage without diarrhoea.
• Fever may be present, but is not common
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite in chronic infections
• weight loss in chronic infections

• liver abscess in severe cases
Prevention and Control

• Separate raw and cooked food
• Eat food that is thoroughly cooked
• Keep food at a safe temperature to prevent food borne diseases
• Drink boiled or treated water
• Wash fruits and vegetables with treated water.
• Proper sewage treatment
Treatment
• taking oral rehydration solution.
• for Amoebiasis appropriate use of antibiotics and anti-protozoal
medication. Some of the the drugs used are metronidazole or
tinidazole.
• For bacillary dysentery antibiotics such as are ciprofloxacin (or similar
fluoroquinolones) and azithromycin may be used.
Typhoid
Cause by bacterium salmonella typhi. It infects the intestines and blood of
patient.
Transmission
Infection occurs when a healthy person consumes contaminated food and
water and Direct person-to-person transmission is also possible.
Contamination can be through faecal matter or urine. Bacteria are shed in
the stools during an acute infection. Flies may contaminate food if they
were in contact with faecal matter of an infected person. Typhoid
epidemics are usually water-borne and caused by contaminated drinking
water. Foods that are favor the spread of salmonella type are milk and its
products, meat, salads and fruits.
Effects in The Body
The typhoid organism entering the body through the alimentary tract. The
bacteria multiply in the intestinal tract and can spread to the bloodstream.
In the sick individual the organisms are usually found in the spleen, bone
marrow, lymphoid tissue associated with the gut (Peyer’s patches), and
almost always in the gall bladder. Much of the pathology and the
symptoms of typhoid are the result of endotoxin which is released upon
lysis of the bacteria. The typical incubation period is 7–14 days. Mortality in
untreated cases is about 10%; 75% of these have intestinal hemorrhage or
perforation. About 3% of clinically recovered patients still excrete the
typhoid organism in the feces after 1 year and are designated as carriers.
Signs and Symptoms

• Headache
• High fever
• Diarrhea
• Vomiting
• Constipation
• Weakness
• Abdominal pain
• fatigue
Prevention and control

• Good sanitary conditions
• vaccination during outbreaks

• Water treatment - water chlorination and sand filtration. Usually done
by the board. If your water is not from the water board, then use
boiled water or factory purified and bottled water.
• Proper Sewage treatment
• Isolation of patients to avoid person to person transmission
Treatment
• antibiotics

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 8
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
DISEASES

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
Objectives
1. describe various STIs
Contents
• meaning of STI
• STIs– gonorrhea, syphilis, candidiasis, warts (genital warts), HIV and
AIDS
o Causes
o Modes of transmission
o Prevention
o Treatment
• Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS
• Effects of STIs including HIV and AIDS
o Individual
o Family
o Nation
• Caring for people with HIV and AIDS

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), also called sexually transmitted
infections (STIs), are transmitted from one person to another sexual
contact.
STDS may be caused by viruses e.g. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
herpes simplex virus (HSV), human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus
(HBV), hepatitis C Virus (HCV). cytomegalovirus (CMV). STD cause by
viruses are preventable but not curable.
STD may be caused by bacteria infections and these include syphilis,
gonorrhea, chlamydia, and chancroid. STDs caused by bacteria are
curable.
STDs can also be caused by yeast e.g. candidiasis. STDs can also be
caused by protozoa e.g. Trichomoniasis. STDs caused by yeast and
protozoan are curable.
Candidiasis
Causes
Candidiasis or "yeast infection" is caused by fungus called Candida
albicans. This organism is found on on our skin, in our mouth, in our
gastrointestinal tract (gut), and in the vagina.
Modes of transmission
For women You don't catch candidiasis. The yeast is already there. The
yeast when in small numbers, you don’t know that it exists. When the
yeast grows, you start having symptoms.
Men do not usually have it, but they may have it when having sex with a
female partner who has a vaginal yeast infection. Yeast infection can

overgrow on the penis resulting into balanitis (inflammation of the head of
the penis). The risk factor in men increases if the men are not
circumcised, use antibiotics for prolonged periods, have diabetes, Have an
impaired immune system, such as with HIV, Are overweight or Practice
poor hygiene
Signs and symptoms

For women
• vaginal itching,
• burning,
• a heavy, curdy, white discharge,
• pain when having sex
for men
• causes balanitis which is characterized by the following
o painful swelling of the tip of the penis
o thick, white substance collecting in skin folds
o Redness, itching or a burning sensation on the penis
o Moist skin on the penis
o Areas of shiny, white skin on the penis
Prevention
• Don't douche (especially with store preparations) unless your doctor

or clinic asks you to and tells you what to use;
• Wipe from front to back after bowel movements. This avoids
spreading germs from the anus to the vagina;
• Wear cotton underwear and loose clothing. This keeps the vaginal
area dry and helps healing;
• Take treatment as directed until it is finished;
• Use condoms to lower the chance of infections in future.
Treatment

With an antifungal cream, tablet or suppositories. Insert these into the
vagina for the number of days stated on the product. Take the treatment
even if you are having your period. Do not douche while you are taking the
treatment.
Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea is a common sexually transmitted disease.
Causes
It’s caused by infection with the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It tends

to infect warm, moist areas of the body, including the:
• urethra (the tube that drains urine from the urinary bladder)
• eyes
• throat
• vagina
• anus
• female reproductive tract (the fallopian tubes, cervix, and uterus)
Gonorrhea is transmitted almost exclusively by sexual contact. Persons
under 25 years of age who have unprotected sexual intercourse with
multiple sexual partners are at highest risk.
Signs and symptoms
• discharge from the vagina (watery, creamy, or slightly green)

• pain or burning sensation while urinating.
• the need to urinate more frequently.
• heavier periods or spotting.
• sore throat.
• pain upon engaging in sexual intercourse.
• sharp pain in the lower abdomen.
• fever.
• Pus-like discharge from the tip of the penis

• Pain or swelling in one testicle
Prevention
• abstain from sexual intercourse
• always use a condom
• Limit your number of sex partners. Being in a monogamous
relationship in which neither partner has sex with anyone else can
lower your risk.
• Be sure you and your partner are tested for sexually
transmitted infections. Before you have sex, get tested and share
your results with each other.
• Don't have sex with someone who appears to have a sexually
transmitted infection. If your partner has signs or symptoms of a
sexually transmitted infection, such as burning during urination or a
genital rash or sore, don't have sex with that person.
Treatment
Antibiotics can relieve symptoms and may cure gonorrhea infections, as
long as they’re taken as prescribed. Treatment will begin as soon as a
diagnosis is made.
Syphilis
Syphilis can be classified into stages: Early syphilis and late syphilis.
classification of syphilis is based on the infectious period; the early stage is
infectious and at the late stage the infection is not transmittable. Early
syphilis can be divided into primary, secondary and early latent infection,
depending on clinical presentation.
Causes
The cause of syphilis is a bacterium called Treponema pallidum

The most common route of transmission is through contact with an
infected person's sore during sexual activity. The bacteria enter your body
through minor cuts or abrasions in your skin or mucous membranes.
Syphilis is transmitted only through human-to-human contact; there is no
animal or environmental reservoir. syphilis is transmissible only during the
early symptomatic stages (primary, secondary, and early latent), so the
period of transmissibility is limited.
Signs and symptoms
Syphilis develops in stages, and symptoms vary with each stage. But the
stages may overlap, and symptoms don't always occur in the same order.
You may be infected with syphilis and not notice any symptoms for years.
Primary syphilis
The first sign of syphilis is a small sore, called a chancre (SHANG-kur). The
sore appears at the spot where the bacteria entered your body. While most
people infected with syphilis develop only one chancre, some people
develop several of them.
The chancre usually develops about three weeks after exposure. Many
people who have syphilis don't notice the chancre because it's usually
painless, and it may be hidden within the vagina or rectum. The chancre
will heal on its own within three to six weeks.
Secondary syphilis
Within a few weeks of the original chancre healing, you may experience a
rash that begins on your trunk but eventually covers your entire body —
even the palms of your hands and the soles of your feet. This rash is
usually not itchy and may be accompanied by wartlike sores in your mouth
or genital area. Some people also experience hair loss, muscle aches, a
fever, a sore throat and swollen lymph nodes. These signs and symptoms
may disappear within a few weeks or repeatedly come and go for as long
as a year.

Latent syphilis
If you aren't treated for syphilis, the disease moves from the secondary
stage to the hidden (latent) stage, when you have no symptoms. The
latent stage can last for years. Signs and symptoms may never return, or
the disease may progress to the third (tertiary) stage.
Tertiary syphilis
About 15% to 30% of people infected with syphilis who don't get
treatment will develop complications known as late (tertiary) syphilis. In
the late stage, the disease may damage your brain, nerves, eyes, heart,
blood vessels, liver, bones and joints. These problems may occur many
years after the original, untreated infection.
Neurosyphilis
At any stage, syphilis can spread and, among other damage, cause
damage to the brain and nervous system (neurosyphilis) and the eye
(ocular syphilis).
Congenital syphilis
Babies born to women who have syphilis can become infected through the
placenta or during birth. Most newborns with congenital syphilis have no
symptoms, although some experience a rash on the palms of their hands
and the soles of their feet. Later signs and symptoms may include
deafness, teeth deformities and saddle nose — where the bridge of the
nose collapses.
However, babies born with syphilis can also be born too early, be born
dead (stillborn) or die after birth.
Prevention
1. always use condoms with water based lubricant during sex.

2. always use dental dams for oral sex.
3. limit the number of people you have sex with, or just have sex with
one partner who isn't already infected.
4. avoid sex with someone infected with syphilis or who has symptoms
of syphilis until they have finished treatment.
Treatment
When diagnosed and treated in its early stages, syphilis is easy to cure.
The preferred treatment at all stages is penicillin, an antibiotic medication
that can kill the organism that causes syphilis. If you're allergic to
penicillin, your doctor may suggest another antibiotic or recommend
penicillin desensitization. Both the patient and their partner should be
treated.
genital warts
Genital warts are soft growths that appear on the genitals . It is also called
condyloma acuminatum cause by human papillomavirus (HPV)
Causes
Genital warts a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by human
papillomavirus (HPV)
• By sexual contact - having unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex.
• By skin-to-skin contact (handshakes or hugs).
Signs and symptoms
The signs and symptoms of genital warts include:

• small bump on the genitals – there is Small, flesh-colored, brown or
pink swellings in your genital area
• A cauliflower-like shape caused by several warts close together
• Itching or discomfort in your genital area
• Bleeding with intercourse
• skin burning sensation
• itchy anus
Genital warts can be so small and flat as to be invisible. Rarely, however,

genital warts can multiply into large clusters, in someone with a supressed
immune system.
Prevention
• Vaccines can protect against many genital-wart-causing strains of
HPV.
• avoid sex with someone if you see warts on their genitals or anus
• Using protection like condoms – only lowers the risk of getting it
• Always tell your sexual partners that you have genital warts before
you have sex
Treatment
• prescription medication applied directly to the warts
• surgically removal of warts
AIDS
AIDS has resulted in over 20 million deaths worldwide. AIDS is a complex

illness involving multiple body systems and is complicated by psychological
and social issues. Patients have a need for personal and family education,
support groups, telephone follow-up, and individual counseling sessions
with nurses, counselors, or chaplains. Significant numbers suffer from
anxiety or depression and risks for neurologic symptoms remain high if not
treated. Stigma remains a problem.
Causes
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic condition caused

by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) is a human retrovirus belonging to the lentivirus family. It is
responsible for the progressive immune dysfunction (interferes with the
body's ability to fight infections) that leads to acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS). HIV-positive patients may present with lower white
blood cell counts than their HIV-uninfected counterparts
The virus can be transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen
or vaginal fluids.
Signs and symptoms
Within a few weeks of HIV infection,
• flu-like symptoms such as fever,
• sore throat and
• fatigue can occur.
Then the disease is usually asymptomatic until it progresses to AIDS. AIDS
symptoms include
• weight loss,
• fever or night sweats,
• fatigue and
• recurrent infections.
Prevention
• abstinence (not having sex),

• Practice safer sex.Use a condom every time you have sex
(including oral sex) until you are sure that you and your partner
aren't infected with HIV or other sexually transmitted infection (STI).
The condom has to be used the right way.
• Don't have more than one sex partner at a time. The safest sex
is with one partner who has sex only with you.
• Talk to your partner before you have sex the first time. Find out if
he or she is at risk for HIV. Get tested together. Use condoms in the
meantime.
• Don't drink a lot of alcohol or use illegal drugs before sex.
You might let down your guard and not practice safer sex.
• Don't share personal items, such as toothbrushes or razors.
• Never share needles or syringes with anyone.
Treatment
No cure exists for AIDS, but strict adherence to antiretroviral regimens

(ARVs) can dramatically slow the disease's progress as well as prevent
secondary infections and complications. Antiretroviral medicines slow the
rate at which the virus multiplies. After you start treatment, it's important
to take your medicines exactly as directed by your doctor. When treatment
doesn't work, it is often because HIV has become resistant to the medicine.
This can happen if you don't take your medicines correctly.
Effects of STIs to an Individual

Infants
• Eye infection
• Blindness
• Death
Women
• Infertility
• Chronic pelvic pain
• Ectopic pregnancy

• Cervical cancer
• Adverse pregnancy outcomes – they transfer some STIs e.g. syphllis
to unborn baby.
Men
• Infertility
• Narrowing of the urethra
other effects
• anxiety, frustration, depression and hopelessness
• stigma and discrimination
o Many nations have regulations that control the travel, entry and
residence of persons living with HIV/AIDS e.g denial of entry
into a country or stay for less than 3 months only
Effects of STIs to the Family

• infect other family members with the disease
• Loss of income due to weakness
• Lead to quarrels, violence, and divorce
• Psychologically affect other family members and children
• causes social exclusion
Effects of STIs to the Nation
• Reduced labour supply – loss of key skills due to mortality and

morbidity
• Reduced labour productivity – loss of work time due to sickness
• Reduced exports and increased imports – due to incease importation
of drugs and equipment t improve health care to provide treatment
• Reduces life expectancy at birth

Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS
HIV misconceptions constitute those ideas and beliefs about the
transmission of HIV that are proven to be factually inaccurate Individuals
holding these misconceptions may be emboldened to engage in risky
sexual behaviours as they attribute their risk of HIV infection to non-clinical
factors and may also be discouraged from testing for HIV
• HIV can be spread through witchcraft and other supernatural means

- HIV is spread via sexual contact.
• AIDS is a death sentence – with the aid of ARvs AIDS becomes a
chronic illness
• You can’t get HIV from oral sex - Oral sex has a low risk of
transmitting HIV but the risk increases if there are sores, abrasions or
cuts in the mouth
• You can tell by looking if someone has HIV – this is not true, some
people who are on treatment look like HIV negative people.
• If I am HIV positive I shouldn’t start treatment until I get very sick –
the effective time to begin treatment is when you are diagnosed with
AIDS.
• I can get HIV by being around people who are HIV-positive - HIV
isn't spread through touch, tears, sweat, saliva, or pee. You can't
catch it by: eating the same food, Breathing the same air or using
the same utensils, drinking the same water.
• Mosquitoes spread HIV – firstly the HIV virus dies in the mosquito
and secondly mosquitoes don't inject the blood of the person they bit
before you.
• HIV can only be transmitted through sexual infidelity or is a
punishment for sexual impropriety.

CARING FOR PEOPLE WITH HIV AND AIDS
TAKING CARE OF YOURSELF - ADVICE FOR THE PERSON WITH

HIV/AIDS
Nutrition education has a place alongside other advice and support directed
at promoting well-being and positive living. General recommendations for
taking care of yourself are given below.
• The body needs extra rest. Try to sleep for eight hours every night.
Rest whenever you are tired.
• Try not to worry too much. Stress can harm the immune system.
Relax more. Relax with people you love, your family, your children
and your friends. Do things you enjoy, e.g. listen to music or read a
newspaper or a book.
• Be kind to yourself. Try to keep a positive attitude. Feeling good is
part of being healthy.
• Take light exercise. Choose a form of exercise that you enjoy.
• Find support and get good advice. Ask for advice from health
workers. Many medical problems can be treated.
• Ask for help and accept help when it is offered.
• Stop smoking. It damages the lungs and many other parts of the
body and makes it easier for infections to attack your body.
• Alcohol is harmful to the body, especially the liver. It increases
vulnerability to infection and destroys vitamins in the body; under the
influence of alcohol you may forget to practise safe sex.
• Avoid unnecessary medicines. They often have unwanted side-effects
and can interfere with food and nutrition. If you do take medicines,
read the instructions carefully.
CARING FOR A PERSON WITH HIV/AIDS

The carer looking after a person with HIV/AIDS may be a member of the
family or, if the person lives alone, a neighbour, relative or friend. It is not
easy to care for a person with HIV/AIDS and whoever grows, prepares,
cooks food and serves it to a person with HIV/AIDS needs support. The
task involves meeting the needs of the sick person and balancing these
with the needs of other members of the family. Too much help may be
overprotective and take away the dignity, independence and self-respect of
the person with HIV/AIDS while too little help may not provide the support
that is needed to ensure that the person eats well and has the strength to
resist infection.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CARERS
• Spend time with the person living with HIV/AIDS. Discuss the foods
they need to maintain and gain weight and manage their illness. Get
to know what kind of foods they like and do not like. Involve them in
planning their meals.
• Keep an eye on their weight. If possible, weigh them regularly and
keep a record. Look out for any unexpected weight loss and take
action.
• Check the medicines they are taking. Read the instructions to find
out when they need to be taken, what foods to be avoided and any
side-effects.
• Be encouraging and loving. If people want to have food of their
choice at any time of the day, try to get it for them. They may
suddenly stop liking a food, refuse what has been prepared and want
something different. They are not trying to be difficult. These sudden
changes in taste are a result of their illness.
• Be firm about the importance of eating and encourage them to eat
frequently, but do not force them to eat. Giving them too much food
at one time may cause them to refuse.
• If they are too sick to leave their beds, make sure that they have
something to drink and a snack nearby.
• Keep a watchful eye. Look around to see if the house is clean, that
there are no hygiene problems and there is enough food.

• If the sick person lives alone, invite them to join your family for a
meal. Encourage others in the community to visit them and invite
them out.
Reference
http://www.fao.org/3/y4168e/y4168e09.htm

Biology
Form 2
Chapter 9
MICRO-ORGANISMS

MICRO-ORGANISMS
OBJECTIVES
1 list the main groups of micro-organisms
2 describe the structure of 5 main groups of micro-organisms
3 explain the conditions for growth of micro-organisms
4 describe the role of micro-organisms
CONTENTS
• Micro-organisms
o Groups - bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae
• Bacteria
o distribution in nature
o structure diagram and description
▪ coccus, bacillus, spiral
o conditions for growth
• Fungi
▪ moulds
▪ yeast
• Protozoa
• Algae
• Viruses
• culturing microorganisms
• Role (importance) of micro-organisms
o Parasites
o Decomposers
o Symbionts
o Biotechnology
o Preservation and storage of food and other substances
▪ Methods of food preservation - drying, salting,
refrigeration

MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms, also called microbes, are extremely tiny organisms that
can only be seen under a microscope. This is an unusual definition since
the overall grouping of microorganisms includes some members e.g viruses
that are not true organism or some algae that can be seen with an empty
eye. To cater for such variation some people prefer using the term
microbe.
It is notable that despite the prefix “micro”, there are some members of
these groups which are in fact macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.
So, for example, while many fungi (e.g. yeasts) are microscopic for their
entire life cycle, others have large macroscopic fruiting bodies (mushrooms
and toadstools); it is paradoxical that the largest living organism (certainly
in terms of its area) is probably a fungus, Armillaria ostoyae, which is
known to grow to over 1,500 acres in size. Similarly, many algae are
relatively large (e.g. some of the seaweeds such as kelp), and although
most protozoa are microscopic, some are visible to the naked eye (e.g.
Amoeba proteus which can reach 0.75–1mm in length).
The term microorganism has no real taxonomic significance as the overall

grouping contains many entities with no taxonomic relationships. Within
the group of microorganisms, there exists great diversity not only of
microbial size but also of structure, nutrition, ecology and genetics. In
many ways, what unifies the microorganisms is that they are studied by a
range of similar laboratory techniques encompassed by the science of
microbiology; these include microscopic observation, artificial cultivation
(often in pure culture) and a range of biochemical and genetic/molecular
biological techniques.
Groups of microorganisms

Microorganisms are one of the most diverse organisms and they fall into
some of the following groups bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, fungi and
viruses.
Bacteria
Bacteria are the simplest of creatures that are considered alive. Most
bacteria are named after their shape. Figure x.x shows common shapes of
bacteria
Figure x.x: common shape of bacteria. Source-internet
Structure
They are very simple cells that fall under the heading prokaryotic.
prokaryotic means that bacteria do not have an organized nucleus. Bacteria
are small single cells whose whole purpose in life is to replicate.
Bacteria consist of a mass of cytoplasm enclosed by a cell membrane which

is again covered by a hard cell wall. There is no distinct nucleus. The

nuclear material (DNA) is present in the form of strand called nucleoid. if
bacteria is motile, then they have a flagellum present.
Figure x.x: structure of bacteria
Types of bacteria
Bacteria are often described in terms of their general shape. There are
three basic shapes of bacteria:
• Spherical shape, called coccus (cocci plural, coccus singular) -

bacteria of this type looks like a sphere or a ball. They usually form
chains of cells like a row of circles. Examples include staphylococci,
diplococcus
• Rod shaped, called bacilli (bacilli plura, bacillus singular)- bacteria of
this type looks like a a rod. They can make chains like a set of linked
sausages. Examples include E. coli living in your intestine or
slamonella typhi.

• Curved shape - some might have a simple curve called vibrios, some
maybe twisted forming a spiral and are called spirillum or spirochete.
Examples include vibrio cholerae, treponema pallidum
Note: you can also have a combination of shapes - coccobacillus is a

combination of spherical (coccus) and rod-shaped (bacillus)
Figures x.x shows examples of bacteria shapes and some examples
Reproduction in bacteria
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission (Figure x.x). Sometimes, under
unfavourable conditions, they produce spores. They also reproduce by a
sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer
from one bacterium to the other.

Figure x.x: dividing bacteria
Distribution in nature and importance
Bacteria are everywhere. They are in the bread you eat, the soil that plants
grow in, and even on humans. They have a wide range of metabolic
capabilities and can grow in a variety of environments, using different
combinations of nutrients.
Some bacteria are photosynthetic (photosynthetic autotrophs). Examples of

such bacteria are cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae), green
sulfur bacteria and green non-sulfur bacteria. Cyanobacteria are
unicellular, colonial or filamentous, freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They often
form blooms in polluted water bodies. Some Cyanobacteria e.g. Nostoc
and Anabaena fix nitrogen.
Some bacteria are Chemosynthetic autotrophic. Chemosynthetic

autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as
nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP
production. They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
Some bacteria are Heterotrophic. These are the most abundant group of
bacteria in nature.
• Some heterotrophs are decomposers.
• Some heterotrophs are helpful in making curd from milk.
• Some heterotrophs are helpful in production of antibiotics.
• Some heterotrophs fixing nitrogen in legume roots, etc.
• Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm
animals and pets. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well
known diseases caused by different bacteria.
• Some bacteria even live inside the stomachs of cows to help them
break down cellulose. Cows on their own can digest grass and plants
about as well as we do. They don't get many nutrients out of the
plants and can't break down the cellulose. With those super bacteria,
the cellulose can be broken down into sugars and then release all of
the energy they need.
Conditions for the growth of bacteria

A moist warm environment is good for growth of bacteria. The growth rate
slows down when the environment is dry and temperature are either too
high or too low.
Culturing bacteria
Fungi
A fungus is neither a plant nor an animal. It is similar to a plant, but it has
no chlorophyll and cannot make its own food like a plant can through
photosynthesis. They get their food by absorbing nutrients from their
surroundings. They are multicellular organisms.

Figure x.x: bread mould- rhizopus
Structure
Fungi are chemoheterotrophs and classically comprise a mass of

protoplasm contained within a filamentous structure called a hypha. The
cell walls of fungi is largely chitin. Most fungi grow as a network of
branching hyphae known as a mycelium.
Types of fungus
• Club fungi: example of club fungi are mushrooms and puff balls. In
the early stages club fungi are strands living underground called
hyphae. Hyphae grows by decomposing leaves, or rotting bark on the
ground. When it's time to reproduce, they develop a stalk and cap.
The mushroom that you see popping out of the ground. It's only one
part of the fungus. On the bottom of that cap are a set of gills that
have little clubs with fungus spores.
• Zygote fungi: examples of zygote fungi are moulds. moulds have

hyphae-like mushrooms but they reproduce in a different way. When
it's time to make more fungi, they create a stalk and release
something called zygospores (thus the name zygote). When your
bread gets old and green or black, you are seeing a type of zygote
fungus in action. If you wait long enough, you will see the stalks
develop and the zygotes released.
• Sac fungi: this is a single-celled fungus. An example of sac fungi is
yeast. Yeast is used to make several types of food for humans. We
need yeast to make breads. We also use them to make alcohol. It's a
whole process called fermentation. Sugars are broken down in an
environment without oxygen. It's called anaerobic fermentation. And
voila, alcohol. Even though they are single celled, you may find them
in colonies. They reproduce very quickly and hang out together. It
takes a lot of them (because they are so small) to get a lot of work
done.
Reproduction
Fungi generally reproduce by production of spores, which may be a sexual

or asexual process. A ripe fungus releases a large number of tiny spores in
the air. The spores are so light that they are easily blown out by the wind.
When an airborne spore lands on a suitable food material, it germinates to
produce new fungus. Some fungi, known as yeasts, grow as single cells
rather than hyphae and generally reproduce by budding rather than binary
fission.
Most fungi are aerobes, although there are some strict anaerobes. A
number of anaerobic fungi play an important role in digestion of herbage in
the rumen and caecum of herbivores.
Most fungi are saprophytic, absorbing dissolved nutrients, or secreting

enzymes which decay, and solubilise macromolecules which can then be
used as nutrients. In this regard, fungi play a major role in the
decomposition of dead tissues particularly plant matter. In short, fungi
decompose plant materials and return nutrients to the soil.
Fungi is also used in medicine to produce antibiotics such as penicillin

(Penicillium chrysogenum) and cephalosporins (Cephalosporium
acremonium). Fungi is used in industry and food preparation. Yeast is
used in the production of alcoholic beverages and bread.
A number of fungi are pathogenic, particularly towards plants, but there

are also a wide range of human and animal pathogens. Some cause
superficial infections of the skin (e.g. Trichophyton spp.) or in the mouth
and vagina (e.g. Candida spp.). Other species cause systemic infections
(e.g. of the lungs, Cryptococcus, Pneumocystis and Coccidioides).
Conditions for the growth of fungi

Growth for fungi are similar as to the growth of bacteria, favourable
conditions involve warmth and moisture. As the temperature lowers, fungal
activity also lowers. However, spores are very resistant to cold
temperatures for long periods of time. At high temperatures, fungi are
easily killed.
PROTOZOA
Protozoa is a phylum within the Protista kingdom. protozoa are
unicellular organisms. The group includes members of the Kingdom
Protista that do not have chloroplasts and therefore have no color.
Protozoa is diverse largely because it is based on non-taxonomic
classification. Protozoa do not have a cell wall.
Structure
A typical protozoan contains membrane bound protoplasm and cell

organelle such as nucleus and mitochondria. The single cell carries all life
process like feeding, excretion, respiration, reproduction, and locomotion.

Figure x.x: amoeba
Within the protozoa cytoplasm, vacuoles serve a variety of functions.

Phagocytic vacuoles participate in the digestion of food; contractile
vacuoles maintain osmolarity for protozoa living in hypotonic environments;
and secretory vacuoles contain enzymes for various cell functions. Also
apparent in the cytoplasm are multiple nuclei. In some protozoa, the nuclei
are identical, while in others, such as the Ciliophora, there is a
macronucleus and a micronucleus. The larger macronucleus is associated
with cell growth and metabolism. The smaller micronucleus is diploid and is
involved in genetic recombination during reproduction and
regeneration of the macronucleus. Many genetically identical copies of each
nucleus can exist in a cell
Types of protozoa
Protozoa are divided based on their mechanism of motility into Sarcodina, Mastigophora,
Ciliophora and Sporozoa.
Sarcodina (amoebae) – they are motile vie pseudopods. These are unicellular. They gather food by
surrounding it with the cell membrane through the use of pseudopods. Therefore, pseudopods are used
for both locomotion and acquiring of food. Examples include Amoeba, Entamoeba (e.g. E histolytica, E.
hartmanni, E. coli, E. polecki ), Radiolaria; Naegleria.
.

Ciliophora (ciliates) are motile through the use of hair-like projections of the cell membrane called cilia.
The organisms are all heterotrophic and have specialized organelles in their cytoplasm. examples include
Paramecium, vorticella, balatidium.
Figure x.x: paramecium
Mastigophora are motile through the use flagella. Since mastigophore is a geeral term for all types of
flagellates, the flagellates that belong to protozoa phyla are called Zoomastigophora. They are
unicellular, and can use one or more flagella for movement. Example include Trypanosomes that cause
sleeping sickness, Leishmania, Giardia, and Trichonympha
Sporozoa ( Apicomplexa) these are nonmotile. They are called sporozoites

because they produce spores in one of the stages of their life cycle. They
are called ampicomplexa because they possess structures known collectively as an apical
complex . These are exclusively parasites. Examples include Plasmodium species, which are the
agents of malaria, oxoplasma gondii, which causes toxoplasmosis, a disease of the white blood cells,
Cryptosporidium coccidi and Pneumocystis carinii
Reproduction in protozoa
Some protozoa form cysts or oocysts as part of a complex life cycle.
Giardia, for example, produces cysts that persist under environmental
conditions until transmission to an animal host occurs, at which point the

cyst will undergo excystation to produce a vegetative cell resulting in
giardiasis, a diarrheal disease.
Conditions for the growth of protozoa

The nutrition of all protozoa is holozoic; that is, they require organic
materials, which may be particulate or in solution. Amebas engulf
particulate food or droplets through a sort of temporary mouth, perform
digestion and absorption in a food vacuole, and eject the waste
substances. Many protozoa have a permanent mouth, the cytosome or
micropore, through which ingested food passes to become enclosed in food
vacuoles. Pinocytosis is a method of ingesting nutrient materials whereby
fluid is drawn through small, temporary openings in the body wall. The
ingested material becomes enclosed within a membrane to form a food
vacuole.
Some protozoa are free-living, and some are involved in symbioses (e.g.
some anaerobic ciliates are symbionts in the rumen, while cellulose-
degrading flagellates are important symbionts in the guts of wood-eating
termites). Parasitic protozoa cause diseases. Some of the diseases are
given below:
Organism Disease
Entamoeba histolytica Amoeboid dysentery
Trypanosoma brucei African sleeping sickness
Plasmodium Malaria
Trichomonas vaginalis Vaginitis
Eimeria Coccidiosis (in birds)
ALGAE
Algae is a phylum within the Protista kingdom. Algae are photosynthetic
eukaryotes with the cells containing chloroplasts. Algae are autotrophic

primary producers and do not cause infections. Algae range from single-
celled organisms to complex multicellular organisms like seaweeds
Structure
Algae can be unicellular, colonial (occurring as cell aggregates) or

filamentous, resulting in great diversity in overall.
cell morphology - Algal cell walls surround cytoplasmic membranes and are
thin and rigid but vary in their composition. They generally contain
cellulose with a variety of other polysaccharides including pectin, xylans
and alginic acid. Some walls are calcareous containing calcium carbonate
deposits. Chitin may also be present in some algae.
Figure x.x: euglena and Chlamydomonas
All algae also contain membrane-bound chloroplasts containing chlorophyll

a and other chlorophylls, such as chlorophyll b, c or d. Some contain
differently colored pigments called xanthophylls, which can give rise to
differently colored algae.
Types of algae

Classification of algae is complex involving numerous cellular properties.
For example, algae can be grouped based on cell wall chemistry, cell
morphology, chlorophyll molecules and accessory pigments, flagella
number and type of insertion in the cell wall, reproductive structures, life
cycle and habitat. Based on cell properties we have the following divisions:
• Euglenophyta (euglenoids) - unicellular, protozoan-like algae, most of which occur in

fresh waters. The euglenoids lack a true cell wall, and are bounded by a proteinaceous cell
covering known as a pellicle. Examples include includes Colacium, Euglena, Eutreptiella, and
Phacus. Examples include
• Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates) or Pyrrophyta (fire algae). Most of these species
occur in marine ecosystems, but some are in fresh waters. The dinoflagellates have cell walls
constructed of cellulose, and have two flagellae. These algae store energy as starch. The
photosynthetic pigments of the Pyrrophyta are chlorophylls a and c. exxamples include
Alexandrium, Ceratium, Dinophysis, Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium, Noctiluca, Peridinium, and
Polykrikos.
• Chlorophyta (green algae)- The cell walls of green algae are mostly constructed of
cellulose. The food reserves of green algae are starch. They can have two or more flagella.
Examples include Chlamydomonas and Chlorella, Gonium, Volvox, Spirogyra, desmids,
Monostroma, and sea lettuce (Ulva).
• Rhodophyta (red algae)- Species of red algae range from microscopic to macroscopic
in size. The larger species typically grow attached to a hard substrate, or they occur as epiphytes
on other algae. The cell walls of red algae are constructed of cellulose . These algae lack
flagellae. and they store energy as floridean starch. Examples include Bangia, Chondrus,
Corallina, Gelidium, Gracilaria, Kappaphycus, Palmaria, Polysiphonia, Porphyra, and Rhodymenia
• Chromphyta - has many other divisions that includes diatoms,
Chrysophyta (golden-brown algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae).
o Diatoms have silica in their cell walls in addition to the cellulose and pectic materials.
Examples include
o Chrysophyta (golden-brown algae)- have cell walls made of cellulose and pectic
materials. Examples include
o Phaeophyta (brown algae)- These seaweeds are especially abundant in cool
waters. Brown algae have cell walls constructed of cellulose and polysaccharides known
as alginic acids. Examples include
• Cryptophyta- Unicellular flagellates. cell covered with periplast. Examples include Chilomonas,
Cryptomonas, Falcomonas, Plagioselmis, Rhinomonas, and Teleaulax.

Reproduction in algae
Algae can reproduce sexually and asexually with sexual reproduction
involving the formation of eggs within structures called oogonia and sperm
within antheridia. The egg and sperm fuse forming a diploid zygote
resulting in a vegetative algal cell. Asexually, algae reproduce through
binary fission or fragmentation, where fragments of filamentous algae
break off and continue to grow. Binary fission is especially prevalent among
the single-celled algae. Finally, some algae can produce spores (e.g.,
zoospores or aplanospores) that can germinate into fully functioning
vegetative cells.

Inhabiting a wide range of habitats from aquatic environments (freshwater,
marine and brackish) to soils and rocks, only inadequate light or water
seems to limit the presence of algae. Algae are most commonly found in
saturated environments either suspended (planktonic), attached to
surfaces or at the air-water interface (neustonic). Endolithic algae can be
found in porous rock or as surface crusts on desert soils. Algae are often
the predominant microorganisms in acidic (<pH 4) habitats, as seen with
the red alga Cyanidium that can grow at <pH 2. Generally free-living, some
algae have symbiotic relationships with fungi (lichens), mollusks, corals and
plants, and some algae can be parasitic.
Conditions for the growth of algae

Algae will need sunlight, water, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, the correct
environment and nutrients to grow and make their own energy.
VIRUSES
Viruses are infectious particles which lack a cellular structure. Since viruses
do not possess the mechanisms needed to produce energy and the
ribosomes required to synthesize proteins, they are incapable of
independent metabolism, replication or movement. As a result, viruses are
completely dependent on the host cells, which they effectively hijack, to
produce new virus particles. Some scientists do not classify viruses as true
organisms due to the following reasons:
• They can't reproduce on their own. They need to infect or invade a

host cell. That host cell will do all the work to duplicate the virus.
• The don’t has a cellular structure
• They don't respond to anything. You can poke them or set up
barriers, it doesn't matter. They either function or they are
destroyed.
• They don't really have any working parts.
Structure
Viruses consist of nucleic acid encapsulated within a protein coat known as

the capsid of variable size and morphology. Viral nucleic acids can consist
of single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA.

Figure x.x: Simple forms of viruses and their components: (A) Naked
icosahedral viruses resemble small crystals; (B) the enveloped icosahedral
viruses are made up of icosahedral nucleocapsids surrounded by the
envelope; (C) naked helical viruses resemble rods with a fine regular helical
pattern in their surface; (D) enveloped helical viruses are helical
nucleocapsids surrounded by the envelope; and (E) complex viruses are
mixtures of helical, icosahedral and other structural shapes.
Examples of viruses
viruses are known to parasitize all forms of life including animals, plants,
fungi, protozoa and bacteria and even other viruses. Viruses that attack
bacteria are called bacteriophages. Viruses that attack other virus are
called virophages.
Reproduction in viruses
The replication of a virus can be described in five steps:
1. adsorption
2. penetration
3. replication
4. maturation
5. release
All viruses begin infection by adsorption to the host via specific receptors
and injection of the nucleic acid or uptake of the total virus particle into the
cell. The cycle then goes into what is known as the eclipse phase, a period
of time during which no virus particles can be detected because of release
and incorporation of the nucleic acid in the host cell machinery. Finally,
new viral components are produced, assembled and released from the host
by disruption of the cell or budding at the cell membrane surface. The
latter release mechanism is less destructive to the host cell and may
support a symbiotic condition between the virus and the host. The
replication cycle is shown in figure x.x:

FIGURE x.x The basic steps of virus multiplication. Representation of an
icosahedral DNA virus showing the main steps including adsorption,
penetration, replication, maturation and release
All viruses share a common mechanism of replication at the molecular

level, but different viruses replicate at varying rates. For example,
prokaryotic viruses known as bacteriophage or phage infect bacteria and
often replicate rapidly, in minutes, whereas a typical animal virus replicates
in hours to days.

viruses are known to parasitize all forms of life including animals, plants,
fungi, protozoa and bacteria and even other viruses. Viruses that attack
bacteria are called bacteriophages. Viruses that attack other virus are
called virophages.

Outside the host cell, viruses exist as tiny particles called virions. Outside
their hosts, viruses are inert objects, incapable of movement. Thus, these
tiny infectious agents require a vehicle, such as air or water, for transport.
Once in contact with a potential host, viruses find their way into target
cells using specific receptor sites on their capsid or envelope surfaces. This
is why viruses of bacteria or plants do not normally infect humans and vice
versa. Once viruses invade host cells and replicate, they can invade
neighboring cells to continue the infection process.
when the virus invade host cells their components are separated and
become interspersed within the host cytoplasm. The infecting virus remains
devoid of a defined structure until the point when new virus components
are constructed and assembled by the host cell. These new viruses can
then be released by the host cell and will serve to infect other host cells.
As parasites, viruses damage the host cells generally causing diseases,

although some are well tolerated by their normal hosts within which they
coexist, causing little apparent damage. Some such viruses can, on
occasion, spread to new hosts which have not evolved tolerance often with
disastrous results. Although generally adverse in their effects, viruses can
have a positive role in causing genetic variation and this has been exploited
through the use of viruses as biological control agents for insect pests.
CULTURING MICROORGANISMS
Culturing microorganisms involves five steps:
1. Inoculation
2. Incubation
3. Isolation
4. Inspection
5. Identification
Inoculation

Inoculation is the process of introducing a microorganism into an
environment in which they can grow. The environment in which the
microorganism is put is called a medium or media. The most common
mediums used are the agar plate or broth tube. Usually a sample of
microorganisms called an inoculum is selected and introduced in the
medium. Inoculum, may be obtained from the following specimen– faeces,
saliva, blood, or other human materials.
Incubation
This is where microorganisms are allowed to grow. Incubation is the
process of allowing microorganisms to grow at a constant, optimal
conditions over a period of time. Most grow between 20-40 degrees
Celsius. Some incubators allow for the control of gases like O2 and CO2.
The growth in or on the medium that you see in the plate or broth is called
a culture. Culture are classified by number and type of species present.
We have the following types of cultures:
• Pure culture – this is a culture which has one type of microbe from a
known origin.
• Mixed culture – this is a culture which has two or more species of
microbes.
• Contaminated culture – this is a culture that has unkown or
unwanted microbes.
Inspection
After incubating you inspect your culture. Inspection is done in two ways:
1. macroscopically, using our eyes or
2. microscopically, using the microscope.
Microscopical inspection - microscopically we can view – colony
morphology and color. This helps us determine if the culture is pure or
not. If the culture is not pure, then we can perform one of the isolation
methods. If the culture is pure, then we use microscopic inspection.

Microscopic inspection – we fix a sample of specimen into a glass slide and
stain it for better viewing. we distinguish cell shape, size, motility and other
morphological characteristics which help determine both purity and identify
species of specimen.
Isolation
As the microbes grow, they will form visible masses or groups of cells
called colonies. Isolation is the separation of different microorganisms (or
colonies of microorganism) from each other.
Figure x.x: Illustration of isolation

Isolation is an important step when you usually used a human specimen as
a medium. The main methods of isolation are the following:
• Streak-plate method
• Pour-plate method
• Spread plate method
The purpose of these methods is to dilute the sample.
Streak-plate method

An inoculum is spread across the plate in 3 to 4 sectors. if it is a bacteria
culture, bacteria are obtained from the previous sector and streaked across
the agar, thus diluting the sample.
Figure x.x: illustration of streak-plate method

Pour-plate method
A serial dilution method is used by diluting the specimen with each
subsequent tube of broth. These tubes are then poured into a petri dish
and allowed to cool so that the agar will solidify. Colonies will grow through
out and on top of the medium.
Figure x.x: illustration of pour plate method

Spread plate method
A known amount of broth containing the specimen is distributed across an
agar plate using a spreader. This dilutes the specimen across the surface
of the plate.
Figure x.x: illustration of the spread plate method
Identification
The purpose of culturing is to identify microorganisms that have been
isolated. To identify the organism, we use data from inspection and other
chemical tests which enable us conclude about metabolic functions of
organisms, genetics, and many more that enable us identify the organism.
IMPORTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms are either pathogenic (disease causing) or non-pathogenic
(don’t cause any disease). The non-pathogenic microorganisms can be
used for several things.
• Disease and treatment

o Antibiotics and vitamins can be made from microorganisms and
be used in treatment
o cause diseases in plants and animals e.g. HIV causes AIDS
tobacco mosaic is caused by a virus
o cause food poisoning
• Biotechnology - Biotechnology is the use of living organisms, their
parts or by-products in industrial applications.

o Manufacture of chemicals – some microorganisms are used in
the manufacture of citric acid, acetone, organic solvents
o Manufacture of drugs
o Food production
▪ Making alcohol - microorganisms are used in the
fermentation of beer, wine, and cider
▪ Baking- yeast is used in baking.
• sewage treatment – some microorganisms are used in sewage
treatment.
• Useful is waste disposal – some microorganisms are used to dispose
undesirable effluents like detergents and cyanide liquors from steel
works
• some microorganisms are in a symbiosis relationship with other
organisms
o Fixing nitrogen in the soil e.g. rhizobium bacteria stay in root
nodules.
o Live inside colon of animals breaking down matter and
releasing vitamins
• decomposition of organic matter -some microorganisms are
decomposers as such they break down dead organic matter in the
soil to release nutrients.
FOOD PRESERVATION
Food poisoning – food poisoning is a food borne illness that occurs
suddenly after you consume a contaminated food or drink. Food may be
contaminated by microorganisms or by toxins of microorganisms. Food will
likely be contaminated due to poor hygiene like contact with contaminated
water, utensils, hands or leaving food in the open.

Food preservation – food preservation is the process of protecting food
from spoilage by microorganisms. Methods of food preservation will
either kill microorganisms or inhibit their growth.
Advantages of food preservation
• it avoids wastage of food
• improves the shelf life
o enables food distribution to far places which may not be able to
produce such food
o enables availability throughout the year
• maintains the nutritional value, texture, and flavour of food
Food preservation methods
The common food preservation methods include - heating, cooling,
chemical preservatives (salt, sugar, acids) , drying, cannning.
Heating
Heating food at high temperatures kills microbes. Water and milk can be
preserved in this way.
Cooling
Food is stored at very low temperatures. Cooling makes the
microorganisms inactive. Once food is taken out and then warmed the
microbes start growing again.
Pasteurization is a technique that combines both heating and cooling. Milk
is one of the products that is pasteurized. In this process the milk is made
sterile by heating it at 700C for 15 to 30 seconds. The milk is suddenly
cooled and then stored in sealed packages.
Chemical preservation
Some chemicals e.g. sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphate are
used to preserve food but are not readily available. Readily available
chemicals that can be used for preservations are salts, sugars, and acids.

• Salting – salting interferes with the growth of microorganisms. Salt
causes microorganisms to lose water through osmosis. Salting is
common in preservation of fish, meat, and chips.
• Sugaring- make microorganisms lose water by osmosis. Sugar is
used as a preservative in jams, jellies, and squashes.
• Acidification- All microorganisms have a pH at which they grow
best, and range of pH above or below which they will not grow. In
this method an acid is added to lower the pH to inhibit growth of
microorganisms.
• Pickling- Pickling is the process of preserving edible products in an
acid solution, usually vinegar, or in salt solution (brine). The process
of pickling is also known as brining and the resulting foods as pickles.
Drying
This involves removing all the moisture from the food as a results
microorganism cannot grow on them. This is a common method of
preserving cereals, spices, and fruits.
canning
in this method food is boiled to kill microorganism and they stored in a
sealed can. Once the can is opened, the preserved food should be
consumed.

Biology Learn Malawi Form 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology Learn Malawi Form 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology Learn Malawi Form 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology

Compiled By: Malazi Mkandawire

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Identifying aim of the investigation

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

An observation is anything that is detected through human senses or

A hypothesis is a possible answer to a scientific question. For instance,

A scientifically useful hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. A

To test a hypothesis, you first need to make a prediction based on the

An experiment generally tests how one variable is affected by another.

i. The affected variable is called the dependent variable, or outcome

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Designing investigations (Testing hypothesis)

The test of a hypothesis may include experimentation (investigation),

• Aim: A brief sentence describing the purpose of the experiment.

Here is a sample design:

Testing for Starch

1. Dip the leaf in the boiling water for

Figure x.x: sample experiment design

Aim of the experiment

The aim has been explained in a previous section.

• Sizes of beakers, test tubes and measuring cylinders

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

• Write down the scientific method in bullet format for your

CARRYING OUT INVESTIGATIONS

carrying out investigations systematically

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

• Qualitative results (qualitative/categorical data) - These results are

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Ratios compare values. You can compare the number of brown-haired

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Ratios can be written as proper or improper fractions. They can also be

for some constant k , called the constant of proportionality . a direct

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Two quantities a and b are said to be in Inverse proportion if - Increase in

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Compiled By: Malazi Mkandawire

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Figure x.x: main parts of a plant

Internal structure of the leaf

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

• Helps the surface of the leaf to prevent excessive evaporation

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

The mesophyll main function is to make food by photosynthesis. Their

The water needed for making sugar by photosynthesis is brought to the

Stomata opening and closing

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

In the light, the potassium concentration in the guard cell vacuoles

Distribution of stomata varies between monocots and dicots, between plant

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Internal structure of the stem

Figure x.x: internal structure of the sterm

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Vascular bundles in dicots and monocots

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Internal structure of the roots

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

The endodermis is lined with Casparian strips, distinctive bands made of a