1 s2.0 S111001682300368X Mainext

i An update to this article is included at the end
Alexandria Engineering Journal (2023) 73, 665–694
H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University
Alexandria Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/aej
www.sciencedirect.com
REVIEW
Self-healing concrete: Fabrication, advancement,

and effectiveness for long-term integrity of concrete
infrastructures
Md Montaseer Meraz a,*, Nusrat Jahan Mim a, Md Tanjid Mehedi a,
Badhon Bhattacharya a, Md. Reduan Aftab a, Md. Mustakim Billah a,
Md. Musfike Meraz b
a
Department of Building Engineering & Construction Management, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
(KUET), Khulna 9203, Bangladesh
b
Department of Environmental Science, Khulna University, Bangladesh
Received 2 June 2022; revised 12 March 2023; accepted 3 May 2023
KEYWORDS Abstract In this study, several aspects of autogenous and autonomous healing concrete are dis-
Self-healing; cussed, including their characterization, processes, and performances. Mineral admixtures, fibers,
Healing agent; and autonomous methods like shape memory alloys, capsules, and microbial technologies have
Autogenous; been found effective in repairing cracks. Based on this review, autonomous approaches heal cracks
Autonomous; better than autogenous methods also geometry and size of cracks have an important role in select-
Micro-crack; ing self-healing techniques and agents. The effectiveness of biomimetic materials such as shape
Durability memory alloys, capsules, and bacteria-based self-healing concrete is also being carefully considered.
Lastly, future research scope and present gaps are recognized and discussed.
2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
1.1. Significance of this study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
2. Implemented approaches for the development of self-healing concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
2.1. Autogenous self-healing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
2.1.1. Shapes and sizes of the cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
2.2. Autonomous Self-Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
2.2.1. Shapes and sizes of the cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: merazkuet36@gmail.com, meraz1623050@stud.kuet.ac.bd (M.M. Meraz).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.05.008
1110-0168 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
666 M.M. Meraz et al.
3. Materials and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

4. Evaluation of self-healing efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
4.1. Visualization & determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
4.1.1. Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
4.1.2. Imaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
4.1.3. Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
4.2. Improvements in durability and mechanical qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
4.3. Mineral admixtures in self-healing concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
4.4. Incorporated curing agents in SHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
4.5. Self-healing concrete based on shape memory alloy (SMA) technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
4.6. Microencapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
4.7. Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
4.8. Bacterial precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
4.9. SHC based on fiber technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
1. Introduction world. In addition to concrete production costs ($60–80 per

cubic meter), an estimated $147 per cubic meter is needed for
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the maintenance and repair, and according to a survey presented
world due to its exceptional compressive strength (CS), afford- by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the Uni-
ability, cost-effectiveness, abundance of raw materials, and ted States and Asian countries will require around $22,
durability [1,2]. However, concrete is extremely prone to crack- 000,000,000,00 and $20, 000,000,000,00 in structural repair
ing as well as other types of damage (such as degradation and over the next five years, respectively [5]. In contrast to the
deterioration), allowing highly toxic chemicals (acid rain, salts, money spent, most repair instances have little effect on extend-
and other corrosive elements) to permeate into the structure [3]. ing the life of a structure. The deterioration of structures has a
Because cracking is one of the most frequently reported causes negative impact on the economy, as well as a country’s social
of structural damage and degradation, it is critical to under- fabric and natural environment.
stand its impact. Fig. 1 displays the original findings of the mar- In response to the cracking and the increasing structural
ket research conducted by Gardner et al. [4] regarding the most damage, researchers developed a method known as self-
common issues with structures (both old and new construction) healing to prevent concrete structure deterioration. Many
in projects on which respondents had worked for more than five researchers have been finding new ways to functionalize self-
years. As illustrated in Fig. 1(a), one of the most common healing in concrete since 1836, when the phenomenon was first
causes of structure damage/deterioration is cracking, which is observed [9,10]. The popularity of the strategy is demonstrated
considered by designers, contractors, and clients. Also summa- by the increasing number of articles published each year, as
rized in Fig. 1(b), bridges, regardless of age, were reported to be indicated in Fig. 2. The data was collected from known avail-
particularly vulnerable and were described as a structure type able sources (like Google Scholar, Web of Science, Web of
that frequently required maintenance. Older structures, such Knowledge, ScienceDirect and Website of Institutes) since
as those constructed in the 1960s and 1970s, were also vulnera- 1974. The primary concern was not just to find and collect
ble to damage, perhaps due to shortcomings in design codes the most influential published work on the mentioned topic
and workmanship at the time of design and construction. but to identify prospects for future development. Additionally,
Underground structures were likewise thought to be particu- quantitative content analysis was implemented on the frag-
larly vulnerable as well. These outcomes may have been influ- mented data related to the efficiency and performance of
enced by the fact that damage is often hidden in buried self-healing techniques.
structures. Also, other structure types considered to be vulner- Conventional repair and maintenance are significant means
able to damage included car parks, tunnels, other underground to extend the service life of concrete structures. However, the
structures and water retaining structures [4]. cost of manual maintenance can be prohibitively high for large
According to Danish et al. [5], plastic shrinkage, formwork infrastructures. In addition, it might be difficult or even impos-
movement, and plastic settlements are the most frequent sible to repair cracked buildings, considering the crack loca-
causes of cracking in the Plastic state, whereas detailing errors, tion, crack size and ongoing service requirement for
chemical reaction external overloading, and thermal stress are infrastructures such as highways and tunnels. It is in these sit-
the most likely causes of cracking in the Hardened state. uations where self-healing concrete is likely to play a very use-
Concrete cracks may not have an immediate influence on ful role as it can repair cracks automatically and timely
concrete structures, but they can have long-term consequences without any external intervention [11]. Since concrete is an
[8]. Every year, a substantial sum of money is set aside for the open composite system, a lot of modifying materials such as
rehabilitation of pre-existing concrete structures all over the polymer, fiber filler, powder filler, etc. can be easily integrated
Self-healing concrete: Fabrication, advancement, and effectiveness for long-term integrity of concrete infrastructures 667
Fig. 1 (a) A variety of variables contribute to the deterioration of concrete structures (b) concrete structures that are prone to damage
[4].
into concrete, many of which have been proven effective in 1836. This ability results from the further hydration of unhy-
making concrete ‘heal’ or ‘repair’ itself [12]. drated cement particles and the carbonation of dissolved cal-
Self-healing or autogenous healing of cracks in cement con- cium hydroxide [13]. In 1974, Ivanov and Polyakov [14]
crete was first noticed by the French Academy of Science in observed the self-healing performance of hydraulic concrete.
in the laboratory and mainly focuses on static loading. This

article discusses key parameters such as the compatibility of
healing materials with cementitious materials, self-healing
effectiveness, and reliability. The latest available approaches
for developing self-healing concrete take into account various
tests and methods adopted to evaluate the self-healing effi-
ciency. The definition and classification, fabrication, character-
ization, mechanisms and properties (mainly self-healing
efficiency) of the self-healing concrete based on the above
methods are introduced systematically in this paper.
2. Implemented approaches for the development of self-healing

concrete
Fig. 2 Number of publications on self-healing concrete from The literature clearly revealed that self-healing in cement-
1973 to the present [6,7]. based materials can be obtained by natural phenomena or arti-
ficial. Research into the creation of biomimetic self-healing
cementitious materials has drawn scientists and engineers from
all over the world and has the potential to change the way con-
In 1984, Gray [15] found that under the condition of continu- crete structures are designed and built. Natural (autogenic) or
ous water curing, the autogenous healing degree of the interfa- man-made (engineered) self-healing is possible in cementitious
cial zone between steel fibers and cement mortar matrix was materials. Fig. 3 provides an overview of the taxonomy of var-
higher than that of fractured plain mortar or concrete. In ious technologies.
1995, silica fume was added to non-air entrained concrete by
Jacobsen et al. [16] to fabricate self-healing concrete. The fea- 2.1. Autogenous self-healing
sibility of using hollow fibers carrying healing agents [17], elec-
trodeposition method [18] and microbial technology [19] to
realize the self-healing behavior of concrete were investigated In conventional concrete, 20 to 30 percent of the cement
in the late 20th century. Since then, tremendous amounts of remains unhydrated. Unhydrated cement particles react with
research on self-healing concrete have emerged in the 21st cen- ingressing water if concrete begins to crack. This reaction
tury. Self-healing techniques for concrete proposed in the liter- starts the hydration process again and makes hydration prod-
ature can be classified in two different categories, namely ucts fill the cracks. This inherited self-healing process is known
material mixing (mineral admixtures, fibers, nanofillers and as autogenous healing. One or more of the following four
curing agents) and self-healing technologies (electrodeposition, mechanisms is primarily responsible for this process [22]
shape memory alloy, capsule, vascular and bacteria). (Fig. 4). As shown in Fig. 4, In natural processes, four follow-
Although a lot of research has been conducted on the prop- ing processes can block a crack (1) the formation of calcium
erties and applicability of self-healing agents, there is no article carbonate or calcium hydroxide is another process to block
available that provides an extensive study on the efficiency/ crack (Fig. 4-A). (2) crack is blocked by impurities in the pres-
performance of past and present self-healing techniques in ence of water, as shown in (Fig. 4-B). (3) Crack is further
cementitious materials. Therefore, this article discusses past blocked by hydration of the unreacted cement or cementitious
and present techniques of self-healing in cementitious materi- material (Fig. 4-C). (4) Crack is blocked by the expansion of
als by highlighting their types, properties, efficiency and trig- hydrated cementitious matrix in the crack flanks (swelling of
gering mechanisms. Calcite-precipitating bacteria, calcium silicate hydrate gel) as shown in (Fig. 4-D). In many
microcapsules, and vascular networks holding healing agents cases, more than one of these process or mechanisms can hap-
and shape memory materials are some of the novel self- pen simultaneously. In fact, most of these mechanisms can
healing technologies that constitute the basis of this work. only partially fill the entrance of some cracks and cannot com-
First, many techniques for self-healing are discussed. Follow- pletely fill the cracks. This will be useful to prevent the
ing that, the materials employed in modern studies, their per- development.
formances, and the benefits and drawbacks of various types Among the proposed self-healing mechanisms in the natu-
of healing agents, encapsulation, or microbiological ral process, the formation of calcium carbonate and calcium
approaches are examined. This is followed by a recommenda- hydroxide (Fig. 4-A) are the most effective methods to heal
tion of the multiple trigger systems that can be used to induce concrete naturally [23]. This view is supported by the fact that
self-healing. some white residue can be found on the outer surface of the
concrete cracks. This white residue is found to be calcium car-
1.1. Significance of this study bonate and has been widely reported, including Wu et al. [11].
The fundamental mechanisms for the formation of calcium
carbonate and calcium hydroxide are represented in Equations
This review investigated the current knowledge pertinent to the (1)–(3). In the first step, carbon dioxide is dissolved in water
development of self-healing concrete reporting on the progress [24].
and future prospects of various healing pathways. Currently,
most research on self-healing cement concrete is accomplished H2 O þ CO2 $ H2 CO3 $ Hþ þ HCO þ
3 $ 2H þ CO3
2
ð1Þ
Fig. 3 Self-healing procedures are arranged hierarchically [20,21].
Fig. 4 Methods for autogenous self-healing [11].

Fig. 5 Concrete’s autonomous self-healing: (a) spherical capsules; (b) cylindrical capsules; (c) a single-channel tubular network; and (d) a
multi-channel tubular network [44].
Free calcium ions are released as a result of cement hydra- 2.2.1. Shapes and sizes of the cracks
tion and dissipation through concrete and along the cracking For autonomous healing, it has been demonstrated that the

surfaces, reacting with CO2
3 and HCO3 . As a result, calcium breadth of the fracture that can be mended may be signifi-
carbonate crystals are formed. Reactions (2) and (3) can only cantly larger than that of autogenous healing. Bio-hydrogels,
happen at pH above 8 or between 7.5 and 8. The crystals grow for example, can mend cracks up to 500 mm wide. Microencap-
both at the cracks’ surface and finally fill the gap. sulated bacteria-based concrete, on the other hand, has been
shown to mend cracks of up to 970 mm [45]. Effective self-
Ca2þ þ CO2
3 $ CaCO3 ð2Þ healing depends on a variety of parameters, including the effi-
cacy of the healing agent itself, that of the encapsulation
method, and the mechanism that initiates self- Healing [46].
Ca2 þ HCO þ
3 $ CaCO3 þ H : ð3Þ
Neville (2002) claimed that further hydration of anhydrate 3. Materials and mixing
cementations components is mainly due to the natural self-
healing properties in concrete. However, this process only Self-healing concrete mix proportions are typically set using
applies to very young concrete, and calcium carbonate forma- the normal concrete mix design process. Due to their water
tion most likely causes self-healing at later ages [25]. This type absorption, geo-materials with swelling properties or other
of natural self-healing can be useful for cracks with widths up materials with small particle sizes (such as nano materials)
to 0.1–0.2 mm [26]. might impair the rheological performance and workability of
freshly poured concrete [47]. In most cases, mineral admixtures
2.1.1. Shapes and sizes of the cracks are used to partially substitute cement in concrete, allowing for
Concrete’s self-healing ability for autogenous healing is limited a reduction in cement usage while improving or degrading the
to smaller crack widths[27–30]. Autogenous healing has been material’s mechanical qualities [48–50]. It is possible that the
observed to have a maximal crack width of between 200 and presence of capsules will have a detrimental impact on strength
300 lm [27–29]. Limiting crack widths with compressive forces to some degree [51]. A suitable mixture percentage for each
or incorporating fiber reinforcements into engineered cementi- healing substance should be found using scientific experimen-
tious composites (ECC) [31,32], providing water for ongoing tal design methods such as uniform design [52] and orthogonal
hydration through the use of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) design [53] in combination with the mix design [54] and disper-
or other internal water reservoirs, and promoting the ongoing sion methods outlined in the following section.
hydration process are all ways to improve autogenous crack Previous studies have demonstrated that the mixing
healing in concrete (PMC) [33,34]. method, speed, and time/duration all have a substantial impact
on the characteristics of freshly formed and cured cementitious
composites [55,56]. Mixing cementitious composites at faster
2.2. Autonomous Self-Healing speeds and for longer periods reduces fluidity and strength
but increases matrix pores [56]. As a result, it is critical to
Artificially triggering self-healing processes in concrete’s use appropriate mixing and dispersion techniques. Typically,
cementitious matrix, autonomous crack healing refers to self- raw materials are placed in a mechanical mixer and mixed in
healing mechanisms introduced into the cementitious matrix batches until they achieve the appropriate homogeneity
through the introduction of chemicals or biological agents. [57,58]. The healing concrete mixing process can be split into
Single-/multi-channel tubular networks and spherical/cylindri- three categories: wet mixing, dry mixing, as well as later mix-
cal capsules can be used to deliver external agents (Fig. 5) [35]. ing, depending on the conditions under which the healing
Autonomous healing is based on the premise that healing sub- agent is mixed. To avoid breakage during the manufacturing
stances are released from containers when damage occurs process, fragile self-healing elements can be introduced into
(cracks) and react to particular stimuli, causing the self- the cementitious composites during the final mixing stage
healing process to be activated. The healing agent may react [59,60].
when it is exposed to air, moisture, or heat [36–38] or when To minimize early failure of brittle self-healing materials,
it comes into contact with the cementitious matrix [39–43]. reinforcing steel bars, metallic wires, or fibers may be applied
to the material during fracture formation [61,62]. Hollow tubu- and his colleagues investigated two different ways of safe-
lar polymeric capsules were constructed by Hilloulin et al. [63] guarding fragile encapsulating materials at the time of casting
to remain intact during the mixing process but to rupture when and perhaps the concrete mixing process. The first strategy
cracks appear in the concrete. The capsules are made in three involved enveloping the ceramic and glass capsules containing
steps, according to one report [64]. In order to make capsules, the healing ingredient in a thin layer of mortar and then adding
the researchers first extruded three low-temperature polymers a thin layer of mortar on top of that. In order to provide a sec-
into a solution before adding other materials to the mix. As ond layer of protection for these capsules, a cement paste bar
the temperature climbed, the capsules began to soften, allow- was applied. Experiments have shown that the first technique
ing more capsules to survive and allowing more capsules to appears to be more effective [65]. Similarly, Thao’s two-layer
be harvested. As a result of this, they became brittle when protection method (in which an inner layer is wrapped in spiral
exposed to room temperature [63]. Both Van Tittelboom [65] wire and an outer layer is covered in a thin mortar layer) was
Table 1 Healing elements for autogenous SHC.

Process of Healing Components for Healing Additives Reference
Incorporation of Steel Fiber Fly Ash, Superplasticizer, Silica Fume [69]
Fibers Steel Macro fibers and – [70]
Crystalline Admixture
Steel Macro Fibers – [70]
Carbon Fiber High Range Water Reducing [71]
Admixture, PVA fiber, Fly Ash
Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) Fiber Superplasticizer and Silica Fume [72–77]
Steel Cord Fiber, Polyethylene (PE) Fiber (Single/Hybrid) Superplasticizer, Silica Fume [31]
Polypropylene (PP) Fiber Superplasticizer [78]
Incorporation of Curing Superabsorbent Polymer SAP Superplasticizer, Defoamer, Steel fiber, [79]
Agents Silica Fume
Superplasticizer, Silica Fume
Superabsorbent Polymer SAP Superplasticizer, Silica Fume
Superplasticizer [80,81]
Superabsorbent Polymer Superplasticizer, Fly Ash [82]
(Hybrid), PVA Fiber
Eclipse Floor Shrinkage Reducing Admixture (SRA) – [83]
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) – [52,84]
Lightweight Aggregate Water Reducing Admixture [85]
High-Range Water Reducing [85]
Admixture
Incorporation of Mineral Reactive Magnesium Oxide (MgO) –
Additives Chemical Admixtures, Geo-materials (single/Hybrid) Superplasticizer [86]
Crystalline and Swelling [50]
Admixtures, Silica-based Chemical agent (Single/Hybrid)
Fly Ash, Hydrated Lime High Range Water Reducing
Admixture, PVA Fiber
Fly Ash Superplasticizer/High Range Water [11,87,88–
Reducing Admixture, PVA Fiber 92]
Superplasticizer
–
Carbonated Steel Slag – [93]
Blast Furnace Slag – [87,89,92,94]
High Range Water Reducing
Admixture, PVA Fiber
Blast Furnace Slag, Limestone Powder Superplasticizer, PVA Fiber [48]
Incorporation of Carbon Nanotubes High Range Water Reducing [71]
Nanofillers Admixture, Fly Ash, PVA Fiber
Nano-Ti02 Superplasticizer, Silica Fume, Fly Ash [95]
Nano-Si02 [95]
Nano-Zr02 [95]
Ultra-High Performance Steel Fibers, Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer [96]
Self-Healing Concrete Ultra-high Performance Cementitious Material Superplasticizer [97]
(Unhydrated Cement)
silica Microcapsules (Epoxy Sealing Compound (CAP) High efficiency [98]
and Amine Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles) polycarboxylate Superplasticizer
Fly Ash Superplasticizer, Silica Fume [99]
Unhydrated Cement, CaCO3 Silica Fume [100]
672
Table 2 Healing elements for autonomous SHC.
Techniques of Healing Healing conditions and components Size/Concentration Cargo Reference
Vascular Glass tubes Do 5, Di 4 mm Saturated Ca (OH)2 [101]

Polyurethane tube D 4 mm Na₂SiO3, Cyanoacrylate [102]
Heat shrinkable tube D3.2 mm Na₂SiO3, Cyanoacrylate [102]
Glass capillary tubes Do 4, Di 3 mm Cyanoacrylate [103]
Polypropylene tubes D 4 mm Na₂SiO3 [104]
Glass fibers – C5H8O2 [36]
Clay [105]
Do 10, Di 3 mm Polyurethane based resin
Inorganic phosphate cement [105] [105]
Porous concrete core D 35 mm Epoxy [106]

Alumina Do 3, Di 2 mm MEYCO MP355 1 K
Inorganic phosphate cement Do 7, Di 5 mm [107]
Shape Memory Alloy Nitinol (NiTi) SMA fibers with thermal A50 D 0.67/0.93/0.96/1, A44–49 – [108–111]
Embedded technique processing D 1 mm
Nitinol (NiTi) SMA strands with electrical – – [112]

actuating
Nitinol (NiTi) SMA wires/fibers with A30, D 2, D 0.965 mm – [113,114]
electrical actuating
Seven-wire Nitinol (NiTi) SMA bundle with D15.3 mm – [115]
electrical actuating
NiTiNb SMA fiber with thermal processing A50 D 0.67/1.08, A29–35 D 1 mm – [109–111]
Nutrients, Pseudomonas aeruginosa [116,117]
Bacillus pasteurii incubated with a Urea- 5 107, 5 108, 5 109 [118]
CaCl2 medium cells crack1
Bacillus sphaericus with calcium sources Calcium sources: C4H8CaO5, Ca(NO3)2 [119]
Bacillus licheniformis 105 cells/mL [120]
BSKNAU
Bacillus megaterium BSKAU [120]
Bacillus flexus BSKNAU [120]
Bacillus sphaericus 5 106, 5 107, 5 108 109 cells/mL [121,122]
cells/mL
Proteus vulgaris and Proteus mirabilis with Medium culture: [123]
culture medium urea, CaCO3, CaCl2, NH4Cl,
nutrients
Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus sphaericus 250 mg/mL Nutrients: [124]
with nutrients yeast extract, CaCl2, urea,
M.M. Meraz et al.

Nutrients, Non-ureolytic bacteria 10,000,000 cells per cm3 Nutrients: C6H10CaO6, yeast extract, C10H16CaN2O8 [125]
Bacillus cohnii with Nutrient 520,000,000 cells per cm3 Nutrient: C6H10CaO6 [126]
f-
Self-healing concrete: Fabrication, advancement, and effectiveness for long-term integrity of concrete infrastructures
Table 2 (continued)
Techniques of Healing Healing conditions and components Size/Concentration Cargo Reference
Brewers yeast, Bacillus Mucilaginous, 108 cells/mL Nutrients: [127]

Nutrients C12H22O11
109 spores per hydrogel sheet Bio-reagents: yeast extract, Ca(NO3)2, urea
109 cells per mL Nutrients:Ca
(NO3)24H2O
Nutrients, Bacillus mucilaginous 109 cells/mL Nutrient: Ca(NO3)2 [128]
Bacillus sphaericus with deposition medium Deposition medium:urea, Ca [43]
(NO3)24H2O
Substrate, Alkaliphilic spore-forming bacteria [129]
Electrodeposition Electrolyte solutions with pulse current 0.25 mol per liter ZnSO4 [130]
0.25 mol per liter MgSO4
Electrolyte solutions with direct current 0.01 mol/L CuSO4 [131,132]
0.05,0.1,0.25,0.50 MgSO4
mol/L ZnSO4
0.05, 0.1 mol/L Mg(NO3)2
0.1 mol/L Ca(OH)2
AgNO3
MgCl2
NaHCO3
CuCl2
Capsule Silica microcapsules D 4.15 mm Sulfonated Polystyrene particles, C5H8O2 for the healing, [67,133]
C6H15B as a catalyst
D 5–180 mm Epoxy compound
Melamine microcapsule D 5 mm Bacillus sphaericus [134]
LMG 22,557
Polyurethane microcapsules D 40–800 mm Na₂SiO3 [135]
Polymeric microcapsules D 75,150,300,500 mm C10H12 [136]
D 73–309 mm MC120D for hardening, Epoxy resins E-51 as healing [53,137,138]
Urea-formaldehyde D 132,180,230 mm component, C7H14O2 as thinner.
Microcapsule
Phenol-formaldehyde resin microcapsules D 290, 98–632 mm Na₂SiO3 solution [62]
Gelatin/acacia gum microcapsules D 300–700 mm [139]
Microcapsules – C10H12 / [140]
Na₂SiO3
Clay capsules D 2–4 mm Nutrients, C6H10CaO6 [141]
Alumina ceramic A50 Di 2 Do 3 mm MEYCO MP 355 1 K [107]
Starch tube A33 Di 2.5 Do 8 mm [107]
Ceramic tubes A50 Di 2.57 Do 2.99, A15 Di 3.34 [42,142]
Do 3.86 mm
A100 Di 3 mm
A60 Di 3 mm Polyurethane
Sodium [143]
(continued on next page)
673
ound to be more effective at protecting the glass tube in cement
[42,66,144]
matrix when compared to monolayer protection such as mor-
Reference tar strip, steel mesh, and spiral wires [66]. For micro and
[145]
[146]
[147]
[107]
[148]
nanoparticles with large surface areas and fibrous fillers with
a high aspect ratio, uniform dispersion of healing materials
is critical for obtaining excellent self-healing capability [67].
In addition to mechanical mixing, additional physical methods
such as ultrasonic treatment and chemical methods such as
adding superplasticizers and high-range water-reducing admix-
tures (HRWR) [68] are frequently used to improve material
dispersion and fluidity during the fabrication process.
As previously indicated, the ability of concrete to heal itself
can be enhanced by incorporating healing elements into the
mix or by incorporating self-healing technology into the mix.
Dodecyl benzeneSulfonate, C5H8O2
Tables 1 and Table 2 list several well-known healing materials

for autogenous and autonomous SHC and their applications
in various studies.
Isocyanate Prepolymer
MEYCO MP 355 1 K
4. Evaluation of self-healing efficiency

Polymer precursors
Polyurethane
Polyurethane
One critical aspect of research on self-healing concrete technol-

Epoxy resins
ogy is determining the effectiveness of different approaches.

C6H7NO2
(oil core)
Minerals
Na₂SiO3
Various researchers have evaluated self-healing performance

Cargo
in various ways, depending on the mechanism of the proposed

self-healing approach and specific properties of the healed con-
crete that have been of interest in various studies, such as com-
A250 Di 4 Do 6, A310 Di 5 Do
position, durability, strength, and so on. Numerous attempts

A18.4/36.7 Di 3 Do 3.35 mm
have also been made to quantify concrete’s healing efficiency

A41.3/82.6 Di 2 Do 2.2,
A50/100 Di 3 Do 5 mm
rather than simply qualify it.

Di 3 Do 3.35 A50 mm
A50 Di 3 Do 3.35 mm
Commonly, various test methods, many of which are

Size/Concentration
A75 Di 5 Do 7 mm
A60/400 Di 3 mm
D4 A200/400 mm
among the standard testing methods for concrete, have been

A50 Di 6.15 mm
D 2.4,2.5 mm
utilized to evaluate the efficiency of healing. In their exhaustive

D 4–8 mm
review of approaches to self-healing in cementitious materials,

Note: A, Di, and Do represent the length, inner diameter, and outer diameter, respectively.
Nodehi [149] and Van Tittelboom [150] proposed a general

7 mm
classification of assessment methods for self-healing concrete

based on the evaluated properties of the healed concrete. Visu-
alization and determination, assessment of regained resistance,
and assessment of regained mechanical properties are thus
three distinct groups of assessment techniques. In the subse-
Healing conditions and components
quent sub-sections, the test methods included in each of these

groups of assessment categories are briefly discussed, along
with citations to pertinent literature. Table 3 summarizes the
Polymethylmethacrylate tube
applicability of the various assessment methods for self-

Borosilicate glass tubes
healing approaches described in the literature.

Ag-alginate capsules
4.1. Visualization & determination

Soda glass tubes
Polymeric tubes
Glass tube/fiber
Analyses in this category focus on qualitative approaches such

as crystal deposition and an encapsulating healing agent
LWA
release. Crack closure is also included in this category. The

methods included in this category do allow for the execution
of a few quantitative analyses. Three major groups can be
drawn to classify the methods for visualizing and assessing
the self-healing potential of cementitious materials: imaging,
Table 2 (continued)
Techniques of Healing
microscopy, and spectroscopy. There are a few lesser-known

techniques for characterizing post-healing goods, such as ther-
mal gravimetric analysis (TGA) [82,179,180].
4.1.1. Microscopy
In this set of approaches, the most commonly used testing
methods are mainly Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM),
Table 3 An overview of methods for assessing the effectiveness of self-healing systems.

Approaches Assessments References
Mechanical Compression test Capsule fragmentation with the [135,137,151–154]
properties Impact loading test effect of a crack [155]
improvement Fatigue test New crack generation vs [133,156,157]
Nanoscale mechanical reopening of previous cracks [125]
measurements Increase in strength, modulus,
Tensile test stiffness, fracture energy, and [31,73–75,77,118,158–160]
Three-point bending test toughness. (In healed specimen [42,43,106,114,135,142,147,161–163]
Dynamic mechanical analysis reloaded condition) [162]
Four-point bending assessment [57,125,153,164]
Cyclic four-point bending test [165,166]
Visual appearance X-ray diffraction (XRD) Chemical composition of healing [68,130,167,168]
substances
Energy dispersive spectrometer Element assessment of [68,117,137,169]
components used as a healer
X-ray computed tomography 3D visualization of crack healing [42,106,122,160,170]
(XCT)
Environmental scanning Surface morphologies [171]
electronmicroscopy Microstructure of healing
(ESEM) material
Field emission scanning electron [31,133]
microscope
Scanning electron microscope [31,77,130,153,168,169,172]
(SEM)
Backscattered electron image [31]
analysis
Thermo gravimetric-differential Degree of hydration [119,164,168,170]
thermal analysis
Image analysis and camera/ Rate of healing [153,160,161,164,168,171–174]
optical microscope Characterization of cracks
Isothermal calorimetry The procedure of hydration [161,167]
Transmission electron Healing material’s morphology. [68]
microscopy
Durability Sorptivity test Water tightness [61,74,119,147,148,151]
Enhancement Water permeability test [13,16,20,23,31,48,50,59,60]
Gas permeability Gas tightness [133,148,174]
Electrochemical measurements Electrodeposition re-passivity of [175]
steel bar
Electrical impedance test Microstructural characteristics. [168]
Corrosion test Resistance to chloride incursion [146]
Rapid chloride permeability test [58,137,151,168,173,176]
Chloride diffusion test [146]
Chloride ion concentration Chloride removal by [175]
observations electrodeposition
Acoustic emission location Damage magnitude [107,142,177]
analysis
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test [74,125,137,151,178]
Accelerated carbonation test Resistance to carbonation [132]
Mercury intrusion testing Porosity [131,152,169]
Optical Microscopy (OM), and Environmental Scanning Elec- Autogenous and autonomous self-healing systems have
tron Microscopy (ESEM). Respectively. been widely studied using microscopic technologies. In a
It is possible to utilize a digital microscope in optical micro- microscopic investigation, Nijland et al. examined whether
scopy to examine the crack surface [181,182], create crack sur- the dissolution and carbonation of calcium hydroxide may
face contour maps [183], calculate crack width [40,184], and cause concrete to self-heal on its own [185]. Microscopic
calculate the crystalline products [183,184]. In addition to research on ECC by several authors has evaluated the efficacy
SEM and ESEM, backscattered electron imaging (BSEI) is a of the enhanced autogenous crack healing mechanism
common technique. Images are created by scanning a sample [17,183,184]. Microscopic assessment methods were also used
with an electron beam focused on a specific area. It is possible to explore the usage of SAP to enhance autogenous healing
to obtain information regarding the crystallographic structure [82,186]. In addition, optical and SEM studies have been
of the specimen and the morphology, shape, and size of the re- examined on the influence of autogenous self-healing due to
hydrated products using these approaches [92]. continuous crystallization caused by the application of
Fig. 6 Microscopy techniques used in bacteria-based self-healing concrete, (a) Stereomicroscopic overview image of crack sealing, (b)
Stereomicroscopic close-up image, (c–e) ESEM images of the top part of massive columnar precipitate indicated in the image by dotted
square [188].
expanding additives, geo materials, and chemical agents [187]. Concrete’s self-healing mechanisms have largely been stud-
The impact of compressive stresses on the enhancement of the ied using imaging techniques. X-ray radiography was used by
self-healing mechanism in hydrating concrete was also studied Mihashi et al. [190] to explore the self-healing properties of so-
by Ter Heide [22] using petrographic studies. Fig. 6 provides called intelligent concrete, including encapsulated two-
an overview of the microscopy techniques used in bacteria- component epoxy with urea formaldehyde formalin (UFF).
based self-healing concrete microscopic outputs. Two-component healing agent capsules were examined using
X-ray tomography by Van Tittelboom et al. [60]. As a result
4.1.2. Imaging of a capsule-based autonomous healing process [191,192] sci-
Cementitious materials can be examined using imaging, which entists used neutron tomography to visualize and measure
is well-established as a technique. There have been several the capillary water uptake in mended fissures. Finally, digital
advancements in imaging technology and equipment over image correlation analysis was used by Johannesson et al.
time, which have resulted in enhanced image quality. Major [11] to quantify the closure of cracks due to better autogenous
test methods which are classified as imaging techniques include healing in concrete using shrinkable polymers.
BSEI, Neutron tomography, X-ray tomography and Digital
imaging correlation. 4.1.3. Spectroscopy
Scanning electron microscopy, which is briefly discussed Analysis of a healed specimen’s crystalline components, chem-
above, is frequently used in conjunction with BSEI. Electrons ical composition, and precipitated products is often done using
from elements with larger atomic numbers are reflected more spectroscopic tests. X-ray spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy,
intensely, resulting in a brighter colouration in the final image. XRD analysis and Raman spectroscopy are the most widely
Radiography, on the other hand, is solely to visualize. It offers used spectroscopic evaluation techniques.
two-dimensional pictures of the specimen’s structure. X-rays Light beams in the infrared section of the electromagnetic
and neutrons are two possible sources of electromagnetic radi- spectrum are used in infrared spectroscopy, whereas the X-
ation (Fig. 7). ray spectrum is used in X-ray spectroscopy. These approaches
Digital geometry processing can be used to create 3D can be used to identify and quantify precipitated products in a
images from 2D photographs. This technique, known as healed specimen. It’s also worth noting that the Raman spec-
tomography, is depicted in Fig. 8. Through tracking and image trometer works by scattering monochromatic light from a laser
registration algorithms, digital image correlation is an optical source. The findings aid in determining the chemical composi-
approach for correctly identifying changes in 2D and 3D pho- tion of crystallization products. Finally, XRD analysis pro-
tographs. It aids in the close examination of crack develop- vides 3D representations of the crystalline specimen’s
ment and closing process [11], displacement measurements, structure by measuring the properties of X-ray photons dif-
and optical flow [189]. fracted by the atomic structure of the specimen. This method
Fig. 7 Figure adapted from Ref. [193]. The top row presents the similar horizontal slices of the sample studied coming from the
reconstruction of (a) X-ray Radiograph and (b) Neutron Radiograph. The field of X-ray attenuation is called fx, and the neutrons fn. They
are both defined over a Cartesian coordinate system x. The bottom row (c) and (d) presents the corresponding natural logarithm
histogram ln(p) of the two fields calculated inside the specimen.
can be used to identify the rehydrated product in the self- ning nuclear magnetic resonance (MASNMR) spectroscopy
healing zone. [86]. [195] and quasi-elastic and inelastic neutron scattering spec-
X-ray spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy [196] techniques have been used to monitor the struc-
troscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis are the most common ture and properties of the concrete specimen before and after
spectroscopic testing techniques. X-ray spectroscopy (Fig. 9-a) the healing process at the micro- and nano-scale levels.
is concerned with the X-ray spectrum, whereas infrared analy-
sis (Fig. 9-b) utilizes light beams in the infrared region of the 4.2. Improvements in durability and mechanical qualities
electromagnetic spectrum. These methods aid in the detection
and identification of precipitated materials in a healed speci- Concrete cracks allow water and harsh chemicals to seep in,
men. In addition, Raman spectroscopy (Fig. 9-c) relies on deteriorating steel rebars and the concrete itself. Repairing or
the scattering of monochromatic light, which is typically gen- sealing cracks is important because it increases the water and
erated by a laser. The results offer insight into the chemical gas tightness of concrete composite, hence increasing its dura-
composition of crystallization products. X-ray diffraction bility [151,197]. A study by Van Tittelboom and coworkers [42]
analysis (Fig. 9-d) generates three-dimensional images of the showed the water permeability of preloaded concrete contain-
structure of crystalline specimens by measuring the properties ing healing agent tubular capsules decreased after a time of
of X-ray beams diffracted due to the atomic structure of the healing, while it was still slightly higher than that of undam-
specimen. On this basis, it is possible to determine the compo- aged control samples. Concrete with a high volume of fly ash
sition of the rehydrated product in the self-healing zone. In the had a quick chloride permeability, while concrete with glass-
context of self-healing concrete technology, magic-angle spin- encapsulated minerals had a gas tightness [148,151,198].
some studies have shown that by employing organic microcap-

sules (urea formaldehyde as the shell and epoxy resin as the
encapsulating healing agent), the recovery rate can approach
more than 100% in terms of impermeability and strength
[53,163].
4.3. Mineral admixtures in self-healing concrete
Some chemical and mineral admixtures, such as fly ash, blast-

furnace-slag, carbonated steel-slag, and expansive materials, as
well as crystals and geomaterials, aid in the self-healing of con-
crete when used in high concentrations [48,50,86,91–93].
Table 4 summarizes previous studies on self-healing concrete
with mineral admixtures. The self-healing effectiveness of a
material is heavily influenced by its composition and propor-
tions, its fracture structure, and the conditions under which
it is cured. Because Class-F fly ash might worsen the degrada-
tion of unloaded concrete or self-healing concrete during
freeze–thaw cycles, it is better to use Class-C fly ash instead
[87]. Because of the higher pH value of the pore solution and
Fig. 8 3D tomography (Copyright @ Fraunhofer ITWM). the greater Calcium Oxide content of blast furnace slag that
favours the precipitation of calcite, it outperforms fly ash in
increasing concrete self-healing performance [87–92]. Strain-
Although SAP can directly plug cracks following water hardening cementitious composites with a better self-healing
absorption and swelling, this ability is highly influenced by rate can be made by combining fly ash and ground granulated
the acidity and anionic content of the solution, according to blast furnace slag [201]. Despite this, several researches have
reports. The absorbed liquid is released, and SAP shrinks, cre- come to the opposite conclusion [89,90]. Chemical expansive
ating large voids in the cement paste throughout the drying additives are a superior alternative to employing solely silica-
process [199]. When SAP is not swelled, it is no longer capable based, swelling, or crystalline components. While crystalliza-
of forming a barrier. Water entering the cracks will fill the tion takes a long time to develop healing products, chemical
voids and result in SAP swelling, thereby resulting in expan- expansion can close gaps faster.
sion and preventing further ingress of any harmful particles, Several studies suggest that at 7 days, there was a greater
as schematically described in Fig. 10. Self-healing concrete’s reduction in the surface crack width of the pre-cracked mor-
mechanical properties (primarily static) can be improved or tars than there was at 28 days [202,203]. In line with the find-
recovered following crack healing, and many researchers ings regarding permeability, the crack width in the samples
[151,174] are interested in this potential as well. However, that were cured in still water exhibited a greater reduction than
Fig. 9 Spectroscopy techniques (a) X-ray spectroscopy; (b) infrared spectroscopy; (c) Raman spectroscopy; (d) X-ray diffraction
analysis [194].
Fig. 10 Simplified diagram of a self-sealing crack mechanism employing SAP [200].
in the samples that were cured in flowing water [203]. Cracks tion degree of 0.73 indicated in Fig. 11. (a) and shown in
that were treated with mortars that contained multiple mineral Fig. 11 (b) and (c), when additional internal curing water is
admixtures to varying percentages healed more quickly than added to the system, the hydration degree rises to 0.77 and
those that were treated with mortars that contained only one 0.83 percent, respectively. The chemical shrinkage is reduced
mineral [59,204]. The proliferation of healing goods that fill or even completely eliminated. It is shown in Fig. 11 (d) that
fractures with crystals is responsible for the narrowing of the theoretical hydration degree increases as the volume of
cracks, which may be traced back to this phenomenon [78]. internal curing water grow, but it remains at 0.83 when the
In comparison, expansive chemical agents used on their own internal curing water reaches the limit value of 7.36 percent
were more effective at healing the fissures, whereas swelling since there is no pore space [210]. As a result, the content of
minerals and crystalline materials functioned better when internal curing water is critical for concrete self-healing. The
mixed with other materials [202,205]. In the case of upgrading effects of curing chemicals on the self-healing performance of
the design, which aimed to improve both the chemical stability concrete are summarized in Table 5.
and the self-healing velocity of the product, it was discovered Conventional external curing methods have been widely
that the presence of chemical and mineral additives had a sig- used to prevent early-age cracking in concrete due to autoge-
nificant impact on the formation of re-hydration products that nous shrinkage. However, in the case of self-healing concrete
possessed both a high level of chemical stability and a high rate featuring with lower water to cement (W/C) ratio, the conven-
of self-healing [9,50,60,78]. From these ideas, a long-term plan tional curing methods are not effective when further hydration
is to comprehend specific mix proportions for cementitious takes place leading to impermeable pastes and internal self-
composite materials with self-healing capability. This plan desiccation [80,83]. Accordingly, different curing strategies
should also acknowledge the utilization of appropriate mineral have been developed to overcome the concern of autogenous
admixtures. shrinkage in such cement-based materials. Saturated aggre-
gates were used (such as lightweight fine aggregates) as an
4.4. Incorporated curing agents in SHC internal curing agent to compensate for the shrinkage beha-
viour of Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECCs) [223].
Another way to enhance concrete’s self-healing properties is by Also, the use of Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs) as concrete
internal curing, which is made possible through curing chemi- additives is one of the promising strategies that can induce
cals. In an internal reservoir, curing agents capture and retain internal curing to reduce autogenous shrinkage and self-
moisture when it is available and gradually release it to unhy- desiccation of HPC [224,225]. Recently, SAPs were added to
drated cement as the humidity gradient develops, allowing ECC mixtures to stimulate their self-healing phenomenon
continuous hydration to take place. As a result, autogenous due to their ability to store large amounts of water and serve
and plastic shrinkage caused by a low water-to-binder ratio as a water reservoir for internal curing [226]. Moreover, expan-
(W/B) can be greatly minimized. LWA, such as ceramsite sive agents such as sulfo-aluminate (ettringite) and periclase,
and pumice, as well as chemical admixtures, such as SAP the cubic form of Magnesium Oxide (MgO), additives have
and SRA, are common curing agents. been used to compensate the shrinkage of cement-based mate-
Fig. 10 illustrates how the swelling of SAP during water rials. However, larger water demand to form ettringite (which
ingress can cover cracks and prevent liquid from leaking into is hard to be found in SHC featured with impermeable matri-
a structure [211]. SAP and SRA, which have ultra-high water ces and lower W/C ratios) made it difficult to use ettringite as
adsorption properties and can absorb water more than 1,000 expansive material. Different to ettringite, lower water demand
times their own weight, have water storage capacities of 5 to is needed in MgO concrete to form a chemically stable pro-
25 percent by weight of LWA [212]. Only partial binder hydra- duct, namely Magnesium Hydroxide ‘Mg(OH)02 , a dominant
tion may be performed when the binder’s W/B ratio falls below compound that produces autogenous expansion to compensate
0.36, according to Powers’ model [213]. When using a W/B of concrete autogenous shrinkage [227].
0.30 for the sealed curing cement paste, this theory suggests Autoclave curing should be maintained for future aspects,
that the absence of water prevents it from reaching the hydra- and variations in curing agents, both hydrophilic and
680
Table 4 Overview about SHC incorporating the mineral admixtures.
Matrix types Mineral admixtures name Components used for healing Outcomes References
Concrete Carbonated steel slag Ca(OH)2, C18H6Br9Cl2O3P, - Formation of fresh narrower crackHealing crack width to length [206]
C-S-H, Amorphous silica, CaCO3 ratio: 20 m/5 mm
Self-consolidating concrete – - Reduction in compressive strength ranges from 20% to 14% when [207]
90% of the preloading is applied.
Fly ash (35%, 55%) – - Improvement in permeation qualities at a slower rate.Reduction in [151]
compressive strength loss from 27% to 7% when 90% of the preload-
ing is applied.
Cement paste Expansive agent, Chemical Ca(OH)2, Calcium silicate hydrates - Reduction of Crack area approximately 74%-99%.Healing cracks up [208]
additives, Geo-materials (total of (C-S-H), CaCO3, Ettringite to 500 mm.
10%) Fibrous phases formed as a result of - Healing 0.2 mm crack
chemical additives, Hydrogarnet,
CaCO3
Fly ash (15%, 25%, 50%) – - Increment in compressive strength greatly.A decline in effective coef- [152]
ficient of chloride diffusionReduction in total capillary pores
Blast furnace slag (66%) Ettringite, Hydrogarnet, C-S-H, OH - Filling a 10 mm width gap (approximately 60%) [209]
– hydrotalcite
Silica-based materials CaCO3, a little of C-S-H - Gives the highest rate of crack self-healing. [209]
Cement paste/Concrete Fly ash (30% 50%) / GBBS CaCO3 - Healing of microcracks ranges up to 200 mm [161]
(50% 85%)
Pre-cracked fiber-reinforced Limestone powder (ratios: 1.5, 2, - Deflection recovery varies from 65 to 105%.Repairing cracks ranging [57]
strain-hardening cementitious 3), Blast furnace slag (ratio:1.2) in size from 10 to 60 mm.
composites
Engineered cementitious Fly ash (ratio: 1.2) C-A-S-H, CaCO3, Little C-S-H - Healed microcracks range up to 458 mm100% healing rate of cracks [9]
composites GGBS (ratio: 2.2) CaCO3 - Healed microcracks ranges up to 100 mm [58]
Fly ash Class-F (ratio: 2.2)/ (Fly CaCO3, C-S-H - Healing cracks up to 30 /50 mm [58]
ash Class-F) (ratio: 2.2)
GGBS (ratio: 1.2) CaCO3 - Healed microcracks range up to 386 mm.68% healing rate of cracks. [173]
Calcium-sulfo-aluminate-based CaCO3, Ettringite, C-S-H - The optimal mechanical recovery is attained by combining [172]
expansive additive, Crystalline admixtures.
additive
M.M. Meraz et al.

Fig. 11 Distributions of phases (a) Water binder ratio = 0.30 paste, (b) 3.20 percent internal curing water, and (c) 7.36 percent internal
curing water, as shown by Powers’ model. (d) Theoretical maximum hydration as a function of internal curing water [210].
hydrophobic, are highly recommended. Furthermore, the and diameter) when activated by heat energy (often electrical
efficiency of self-healing still needs to be further proven under currents) [224]. NiTi SMA is the most commonly utilized
real environmental conditions; this means at nonideal curing SMA composite system in concrete.
temperatures, at high salt concentrations (like in marine envi- As shown in Table 6, combining theoretical and computa-
ronment), at later ages of the concrete, under sustained stres- tional data reveal that the SMA simulation aids in fracture
ses, repeated cracking and healing cycles, etc. The design of mending. Cracks in concrete buildings can be repaired quickly
appropriate monitoring techniques to follow up the self- with heated SMA wires, showing that emergency damage
healing efficiency over a concrete element’s lifetime and repro- restoration is possible [228,229]. Repairing a smart beam with
ducible standard test methods to evaluate the healing efficiency brittle fibers and adhesives is more effective than using SMA
is of utmost importance. wires alone [229]. SMA improves the deflection recovery bond
strength and ductility in addition to fracture recovery
4.5. Self-healing concrete based on shape memory alloy (SMA) [225,228,230–232].
technology A concrete beam’s mid-span deflection was reduced by 74.3
percent with a minimum deflection of 1.27 mm when heated to
When heated, SMA changes phase from martensite into roughly 110 degrees Celsius, as shown, for example, by Li et al.
austenite, demonstrating its shape memory property. Self- [228]. The influence of shape memory, as discovered by Li et al.
healing properties can be demonstrated by the ability of pre- [231], SMA bundles on the smart concrete beams exert a recov-
stressed SMA in concrete to return to its original shape (length ery force that is nearly proportional to the SMA bundle’s tem-
Table 5 Self-healing concrete, including curing agent in detail.

Matrix type Curing agents Performances References
LWA (3.8%,6%,7.3%, Increment in [214]
10%,11%,14.3%, hydration degree
16%,18.3%,25.3%, Reduction in
29.3%,33%) Plastic shrinkage cracking.
autogenous shrinkage (even elimination)
Fewer prone towards early-age cracking.
PEG400 (polyethene glycol) Increment in (for M20)Compressive strength [215–217]
(0.5%-2%) (7.23%)modulus of rupture
(8.57%)split tensile strength
(11.60%)
Almost little modification for the M25 and M40.
Self-healing on High-performance LWA, Eclipse Floor SRA, Increment inReduction of weight upon drying [218]
concrete. SAP (single and hybrid) (LWA, SAP)
Reduced amount of
Creep capacity
free shrinkage
early strength (LWA, SRA)
SAP Reduction in (after 144 h)modulus of elasticity [219]
(24.9%)compressive strength
(27.6%)autogenous shrinkage
(57%)tensile strength
(33.2%)
Self-healing of high-performance Fine LWA Increment in [220]
blended cement mortar compressive strength
Reduction in
autogenous deformation
Self-healing of microfiber- SAP (1%) Increment in [221]
reinforced cementitious material healing degree
The cracks ranging in depth from 0 to 800–1000 mm were
fully healed in case of wet/dry cycles
Self-healing of Ultra-high- SAP (0.206%, Increment in [222]
performance concrete (UHPC) 0.313%, 0.5%) hydration
Reduction in
self-desiccation and mechanical propertiesautogenous
shrinkage
(600–120 mm/m) at 30 d;
Table 6 Overview of the Cracks of beams before and after heating.

SMA Temperature (Degree) Cracks (mm) Magnitude of crack References
recovery (w0-w1)/wo
Before heating wo After heating
w
SMA wires (2 mm) 110 °C 0.2769 0.2656 4.1% [233]
SMA wires (3 mm) 0.2769 0.2534 8.5% [233]
SMA wires (4 mm) 0.2769 0.23 12 16.5% [233]
Straight NiTi fiber (number: 2) 125 °C 0.56 0.15 73.2% [234]
Straight NiTi fiber (number: 3) 0.53 0.04 92.4% [234]
Straight NiTi fiber (number: 4) 0.57 0.00 100% [234]
Dog-bone NiTi fiber 0.49 0.27 44.9% [234]
perature. Each beam’s overall overloaded resistance was deter- 4.6. Microencapsulation
mined to be 2.98 kN, with a deflection of 0.44 mm caused by
the SMA bundles mostly in the beam’s centre. However, the From macro to nanoscale instances in nature, materials encap-
impact on the environment was enormous. sulation has evolved. On a macroscopic scale, a bird’s egg or
Fig. 12 (Ⅰ) The microcapsule approach’s basic method is as follows: (a) matrix cracks appear; (b) a capillary action causes the
microcapsules to break open, releasing a healing ingredient into the crack. (c) Polymerization is triggered when the healing agent comes
into touch with the catalyst. This ensures that the nearby cracks are closed, and (Ⅱ) A ruptured microcapsule is depicted in this ESEM
image [235].
seed is the simplest example, whereas the clearest illustration is water-filled microcapsules and cement was developed by Oka-
a cell and its components [236]. Microencapsulation starts with moto et al. [43]. The Moisture was contained in an acrylate
the introduction of the dye-filled capsule, which has been inte- superabsorbent polymer and discharged from the superab-
grated into paper for duplication and eventually superseded sorbent for improving the cement hydration in the creation
carbon paper [237]. In an array of sectors, numerous new tech- of concrete or mortar. Furthermore, they talked about several
nologies have evolved and keep evolving throughout history. uses for microencapsulation in construction materials, such as
In order to classify microencapsulation, it must be viewed as hydration combustion temperature minimization, freeze and
both a discrete product and a part of a larger product. When thaw resistance, fire resistance, expansion and deterioration
it comes to encasing micron-sized particles of solids, fluids, resistance and so on.
and gases inside an inert shell, the procedure is referred to as
‘‘isolation and protection from external reactions [238]. White 4.7. Encapsulation
et al. [235] demonstrated the use of a microencapsulation tech-
nique containing a healing ingredient for self-healing materi- Composite materials such as concrete can be healed via encap-
als. In Fig. 12(i), the concept of self-healing is depicted; sulation, which is one of the most popular and effective proce-
capillary action causes the healing agent to be released from dures. Depending on the intended efficacy, numerous materials
microcapsules whenever the fractures rupture them. When are available for the capsules and healing agents’ production.
the healing agent is mixed with the implanted catalyst, poly- Only if the capsules’ mechanical resistance is sufficient to coun-
merization is triggered, and the nearby cracks are sealed. teract the mixture’s internal forces, then the encapsulation pro-
Fig. 12(ii) shows a typical picture of a ruptured microcapsule. cess be considered a success [242]. Shell thickness, diameter,
The utilization of microencapsulated additives in construc- Capsule viscosity, and surface area all play a role in encapsu-
tion materials was examined by Boh and Šumiga [239]. Vari- lation healing treatments [54]. With this method, chemical and
ous additives are wrapped inside the microcapsules but then biological healing agents in concrete can be kept active for
inserted into the matrix to facilitate the subsequent hydration longer periods of time and released in a more controlled man-
of the matrix. According to Tomiuchi and Nishihama [240], ner. A summary of employed encapsulation strategies is pro-
microencapsulated water was used in the fabrication of uni- vided in Table 7.
formly strong cement-based building boards. Cement was Several studies have shown that the encapsulation process
blended with fibers like synthetic fibers, water-filled microcap- is adaptable as well as productive due to its capacity for restor-
sules, and asbestos for strengthening. ing the concrete’s mechanical and durability attributes. The
Compression-molding was used to produce uniformly concrete buildings are damaged over and over again, and cap-
strong building boards on a belt conveyer, culminating for sules can only transfer a limited number of healing ingredients
cement stiffening. Moreover, another concept used a blend into the crack; thus, long-term use is not viable with encapsu-
of fibrous material, hydraulic material, gelatin microcapsules lation procedures. Research is currently focusing on the devel-
comprising water glass as a setting accelerator, and additives opment of capsules that can be used to administer many
to make high strength cement-based boards. In cartridges of healing cycles [243]. However, the tube-based healing material
quick-setting cement, microencapsulated or gelled water was was found to be less effective in regaining durability qualities
employed [241]. A premixed mortar combination including after the healing process began [60,66]. Dispersion of capsules
Table 7 A summary of employed encapsulation strategies.

Shell material Materials included Replacement percentage based Performance References
in capsules on the weight of cement (%)
Urea formaldehyde (C2H6N2O2) Epoxy 1–4 - Flexural strength is improved. [202]
Poly-urea Na2SiO3 0.8 - Capillary absorption is reduced. [244]
Divinylbenzene (C10H10) Epoxy 0–2 - Enhances fracture strength [244]
Melamine Epoxy 1–4 - Increases flexural strength [163]
urea–formaldehyde Microcapsules Bacterial spores 1–5 - Enhances crack healing power [134]
Silica Epoxy 5–10 - Reduces water permeability [98]
- Reduces sorptivity coefficient
Table 8 Self-healing bacteria encapsulated in concrete.

Bacteria Formation of self-healing Summary References
Bacillus Calcium sources to - Bacteria remain functional for up to [246]
carbonate transformation 4 months.Calcium sources influences the
healing ratio
Bacillus subtilis Decomposition of Improvement in [247]
C6H10CaO6 Healing activity
Bacillus cohnii Conversion of C6H10CaO6 - Bacteria remain functional for up to [40]
metabolically 6 months.Improvement inRepairing wider
cracks
Bacillus sphaericus precipitation of calcium Improvement in [134]
nitrate by ureolysis. Healing ratio
Strength
Self-healing phenomenon
Reduction in [24861]
Water absorption
Permeability
can be accomplished using tabular glass or microcapsules. The also include different sorts of microbial species, depending on
two available types of encapsulation techniques are a disper- parameters such as the crack diameter, concrete type, and tem-
sion of capsules in the matrix uniformly and dispersion at pre- perature. Bacillus sphaericus, Pseudo firmus, and Pseudomonas
dicted failure places. Enveloped self-healing has two basic aeruginosa are among the more common types. Tables 8 and 9
categories: chemical agents and bacteria that precipitate. show the results of encapsulating the aforementioned bacteria
Encapsulation-based self-healing has the potential to pro- in concrete to accompany self-healing and the many attributes
vide higher quality self-healing due to the wider range of crack affected by this encapsulation. The main advantage of using
width that can be healed and faster response to matrix crack- this technique is that it is environmentally friendly and com-
ing. The main challenge with the capsule-based approach, patible with cement matrix, while its main disadvantages
however, is its long-term repeatability. Because concrete struc- include repeatability issues, performance-dependent (mainly
tures are subjected to multiple damage cycles throughout their on moisture) and costly. The stages to be followed to incorpo-
service life, a capsule-based system is expected to provide mul- rate encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete are shown
tiple instances of quality healing. There is insufficient informa- in Fig. 13.
tion on the repeatability of the self-healing process under The effectiveness of a healing agent’s consolidation capac-
multiple loading. As a result, future research on the repeatability in the field under various environmental conditions is crit-
ity of capsule-based systems is required. Furthermore, there is ical for the successful development of bacterial self-healing
still insufficient data on the effect of capsule shape and size on concrete. However, the true survival rate of bacteria after
self-healing effectiveness. So, before deciding on a method of introduction into concrete is still unknown, and most studies
self-healing by encapsulation for a specific purpose, consider of embedded bacteria lack information on bacterial lifestyles
crack width, crack type, nature of the crack formation process within the concrete matrix. New approaches should be devel-
(whether it is stabilized or dynamic), and application locations. oped to evaluate the likelihood of specific bacteria surviving
the manufacturing process and exhibiting biological activity
4.8. Bacterial precipitation when embedded in concrete. To better predict a system’s over-
all outcome, concrete treatments should be evaluated using
Generally, melamine-based and diatomaceous earth-based metrics other than compressive strength, water permeability,
materials are employed in the manufacture of capsules for water absorption, and flow rate. When designing self-healing
the encapsulation of microbial species [47,245]. These capsules concrete, bacteria encapsulation, capsule type, and nutrient
Table 9 The effect of utilizing bacteria as a self-healing agent on different aspects of concrete.
Bacteria name Sample age (days) Permeability Water absorption Compressive strength References
Bacillus cohnii 7 – – Rise [249]
28
56
Bacillus pseudofirmus 3 – – Decline [250]
7
28
Bacillus sphaericus 7 Decline – Rise [122]
28
3 – Decline – [121]
7
21
28 Decline – Decline [134]
90
Sporosarcina pasteurii 7 – – Rise [251]
28
28 Decline [176]
Diaphorobacter nitroreducens 7 – – Rise [252]
28
Fig. 13 Various stages incorporate encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete.
provision should all be taken into account. To ensure accurate share. Other materials resulted in a relatively small number
measurement of the performance of bacterial healing agents, of cases. Several researchers have studied various healing of
analysis tools beyond existing standards for assessing the common FRCCs; the most important studies are listed in
mechanical properties of concrete should be rigorously vali- Table 10.
dated. Furthermore, improved production methodologies, par- It is possible that Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites
ticularly in terms of mass culture of bacteria, nutrients, and (FRCCs), as well as High-Performance Fiber Reinforced
labour intensity, will be required to meet economic constraints. Cement Composites (HPFRCCs) and Engineered Cement
Composites (ECCs), combine the qualities of high-
4.9. SHC based on fiber technology performance concrete with crack width control and energy
absorption capacity [273,274]. When these characteristics are
Concrete has been reinforced with fibers composed of various combined with self-healing, a very durable material is pro-
materials, according to a literature review on self-healing, duced, which bodes well for the future. The duration of con-
including regular FRCC and high-performance FRCC crete is a major concern in the construction industry;
(HPFRCC). Fig. 14 shows that Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) is therefore, its enhancement is a subject of great interest to
the most commonly used fiber material, followed by steel, researchers. In addition, more research should be conducted
polypropylene, and natural fibers each having a 12 percent into the use of natural fibers as self-healing facilitators, which
Fig. 14 Fiber materials distribution in Self-healing technologies [253–256].
encapsulation/immobilization of bacteria proved to be more

Table 10 List of Fiber Materials that are utilized in previous effective in sealing millimeter-size cracks up to 0.97 mm wide
self-healing studies. and 32 mm depth. Among the alkaliphile bacteria strains,
Fiber Materials References the use of Bacillus Sphaericus, Bacillus Pasteurii and Bacillus
Natural [257–261]
Subtilis in the production of bacterial concrete is the most suit-
Alumina (Al2O3) [262] able for self-healing applications.
Glass [32,263] The majority of the authors used the recovery of mechani-
Spectra [32] cal properties to evaluate self-healing efficiency. Other authors
Steel [160,263–266] have conducted additional tests at the macro and microstruc-
Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer [72,267] ture scales to increase the reliability of the results. However,
(EVOH) none of the authors has reported having conducted durability,
Polyacetal [267] micromechanical, microstructure, or nanoscale level tests in
Polyethylene (PE) [31,72,263] the same experiment.
Polypropilene (PP) [31,32,72,267,268]
It has been demonstrated that self-healing concrete plays an
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [68,72,75,164,173,221,267,269–
272]
important role in structure durability. As a result, additional
research is required in some areas, such as healing capacity
under sustained stress, the effects of self-healing reactions on
the fiber matrix-bond, and the role of self-healing in corrosion.
The effects of self-healing on material engineering properties
(physical and mechanical) must be incorporated into a
can also function as a low-cost alternative to steel and syn- durability-based design framework. A ‘‘healable crack width”
thetic fibers. Furthermore, additional research is required in concept that is defined as a function of the material composi-
some areas, such as fiber healing capacity under sustained tion, environmental exposure, and service conditions can
stress, the effects of self-healing reactions on the fiber replace the fixed ‘‘allowable crack width” concept that is cur-
matrix-bond, and the role of fibers in self-healing under extre- rently formulated in design codes. On the other hand, standard
mely corrosive environments. test methods would be extremely useful for comparing the effi-
cacy of each test self-healing method.
5. Conclusion Furthermore, the efficiency of self-healing must be demon-
strated under real-world environmental conditions, such as
nonideal curing temperatures, high salt concentrations (as in
This review examined the current knowledge relevant to the
the marine environment), later ages of the concrete, sustained
development of self-healing concrete reporting on the progress
stresses, repeated cracking and healing cycles, and so on. The
and future perspectives of different healing pathways. Autoge-
development of appropriate monitoring techniques to track
nous healing of concrete and mortar is not reliable and limited
the self-healing efficiency of a concrete element over its life-
to crack widths of around 100 lm. It can be significantly
time, as well as reproducible standard test methods to assess
enhanced when the concrete mix is engineered by the addition
healing efficiency, is therefore critical.
of certain minerals, crystalline admixtures, fibers, hydrogels,
polymers, or bacteria, which may be added as such or after
encapsulation. CRediT authorship contribution statement
Self-healing was measured in terms of a decrease in the
crack width and depth via visual observation using a micro- Md Montaseer Meraz: Conceptualization, Methodology,
scope and digital imaging, camera photograph and X-ray com- Investigation, Writing – original draft, Visualization. Nusrat
puted tomography. Also, among the available approaches, Jahan Mim: Investigation, Writing – original draft. Md Tanjid
Mehedi: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – review & edit- [13] M. De Rooij, K. Van Tittelboom, N. De Belie, E. Schlangen,
ing. Badhon Bhattacharya: Methodology, Writing – review & Self-healing Phenomena in Cement-based Materials: State-of-
editing, Visualization. Md. Reduan Aftab: Methodology, Writ- the-Art Report of RILEM Technical Committee 221-SHC:
ing – review & editing. Md. Mustakim Billah: Methodology, Self-healing Phenomena in Cement-Based Materials, Springer,
2013.
Writing – review & editing. Md. Musfike Meraz: Writing –
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Update
Volume 79, Issue , 15 September 2023, Page 180
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.08.031
Alexandria Engineering Journal 79 (2023) 180–180
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aej
Corrigendum
Corrigendum to “Self-healing concrete: Fabrication, advancement, and

effectiveness for long-term integrity of concrete infrastructures” [Alex. Eng.
J. 73 (2023) 655–694]
Md. Montaseer Meraz a, *, Nusrat Jahan Mim a, Md. Habibur Rahman Sobuz a,
Md. Tanjid Mehedi a, Badhon Bhattacharya a, Md. Reduan Aftab a, Md. Mustakim Billah a,
Md. Musfike Meraz b
a
Department of Building Engineering & Construction Management, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna 9203, Bangladesh
b
Department of Environmental Science, Khulna University, Bangladesh
The corresponding author regrets that due to a miscommunication, The revised order of author names is updated as above.
Dr. Md. Habibur Rahman Sobuz was omitted from the list of authors. All co-authors are agreed with this correction. The corresponding
Dr. Sobuz was a contributor and significant investigator of this research author apologises for this oversight.
work. The authors would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused.
DOI of original article: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.05.008.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: merazkuet36@gmail.com, meraz1623050@stud.kuet.ac.bd (Md.M. Meraz).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.08.031
Available online 11 August 2023

1110-0168/© 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. All rights reserved.

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i An update to this article is included at the end

Alexandria Engineering Journal (2023) 73, 665–694

Alexandria Engineering Journal

Self-healing concrete: Fabrication, advancement,

Received 2 June 2022; revised 12 March 2023; accepted 3 May 2023

3. Materials and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

1. Introduction world. In addition to concrete production costs ($60–80 per

in the laboratory and mainly focuses on static loading. This

2. Implemented approaches for the development of self-healing

Fig. 3 Self-healing procedures are arranged hierarchically [20,21].

Fig. 4 Methods for autogenous self-healing [11].

Table 1 Healing elements for autogenous SHC.

Vascular Glass tubes Do 5, Di 4 mm Saturated Ca (OH)2 [101]

Porous concrete core D 35 mm Epoxy [106]

Nitinol (NiTi) SMA strands with electrical – – [112]

M.M. Meraz et al.

Brewers yeast, Bacillus Mucilaginous, 108 cells/mL Nutrients: [127]

ound to be more effective at protecting the glass tube in cement

Tables 1 and Table 2 list several well-known healing materials

4. Evaluation of self-healing efﬁciency

One critical aspect of research on self-healing concrete technol-

ogy is determining the effectiveness of different approaches.

Various researchers have evaluated self-healing performance

in various ways, depending on the mechanism of the proposed

position, durability, strength, and so on. Numerous attempts

have also been made to quantify concrete’s healing efﬁciency

rather than simply qualify it.

Commonly, various test methods, many of which are

among the standard testing methods for concrete, have been

utilized to evaluate the efﬁciency of healing. In their exhaustive

review of approaches to self-healing in cementitious materials,

Nodehi [149] and Van Tittelboom [150] proposed a general

classiﬁcation of assessment methods for self-healing concrete

quent sub-sections, the test methods included in each of these

applicability of the various assessment methods for self-

healing approaches described in the literature.

4.1. Visualization & determination

Analyses in this category focus on qualitative approaches such

release. Crack closure is also included in this category. The

microscopy, and spectroscopy. There are a few lesser-known

Table 3 An overview of methods for assessing the effectiveness of self-healing systems.

some studies have shown that by employing organic microcap-

4.3. Mineral admixtures in self-healing concrete

Some chemical and mineral admixtures, such as ﬂy ash, blast-

Fig. 10 Simpliﬁed diagram of a self-sealing crack mechanism employing SAP [200].

M.M. Meraz et al.

Table 5 Self-healing concrete, including curing agent in detail.

Table 6 Overview of the Cracks of beams before and after heating.

Table 7 A summary of employed encapsulation strategies.

Table 8 Self-healing bacteria encapsulated in concrete.

Fig. 13 Various stages incorporate encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete.

Fig. 14 Fiber materials distribution in Self-healing technologies [253–256].

encapsulation/immobilization of bacteria proved to be more

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Alexandria Engineering Journal

Corrigendum to “Self-healing concrete: Fabrication, advancement, and

DOI of original article: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.05.008.

Available online 11 August 2023

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